HY2229/SSA2204: Nation-building in Singapore AY 2010/11, Semester I Summary for Lectures 7/8/9/10 Lecture 7 - Economy Building as Nation - Building: Survival

and Challenges.
1959 1965: Shift towards Import Substitution Industrialisation. (ISI)
Trend of Interventionist and Paternalistic policies by the PAP PAP legitimacy based on generating societal wealth instead of the personal wealth and elite affluence that was so important to the traditional Chinese family businesses. o Hence, with self government. PAP was led by a small group of ruling English educated middle class who formed an alliance of convenience with the leaderships of the labour and student movements. Marginalisation with the domestic bourgeoisie which proved necessary as there was no political necessity for a domestic program instead of an international one to attract private investment. This would then mean that the PAP would have to take on the critical role of industrialisation in Singapore in place of the domestic bourgeoisie.

Problems faced directly after the war. Colonial home front mired by recession and fiscal deficits. Colonies like Singapore were not a priority for development and were expected instead to do their part for the colonial front. High population growth which led to high unemployment. Low wages and uncertainty resulted in continued labour unrest in the 1950s.

Background of the Import Substitution strategy Singapore realised that entrepot trade on its own would not produce sufficient economic growth. o The Korean War boosted demand but the end of the War caused a slump in the economy. o Singapore was the world largest rubber exporter but it struggled with uncertain suppliers in the forms of Indonesia and Malaya. Volatile markets. o In the long run, there was every indication that Malaya and Indonesia would develop their own ports thereby providing stiff competition with Singapore. Recommended by the report made by the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development in 1955. Halt the stagnant entrepot sector by injecting foreign capital and expertise into a quick-fix import substitution industrialisation strategy. o Even when other developing countries were disdainful of foreign investment and its various connotations of neo-colonialism. Foreign investment offered capital, expertise, technology and markets, none of which Singapore had at that time. o With its young workforce along and the surge of immigrants from China and India, Singapore could poise itself as a country with a lower labour cost to attract foreigners.

Start of Industrialisation 1960 United Nations Industrial Survey Mission headed by Dutch economist, Albert Winsemius. o Program of ISI led by private capital investment but, involving an extensive role for the state in attracting and supporting that investment. o Control over labour and the holding down of wages, provision of various industrial estates, upgrading of technical training, tax incentives and free remittance of profits.

Proposed Economic Development Board which was entrusted with the responsibilities of this industrialisation.

Merger with the Federation of Malaysia Singapores small economy limited the success of ISI. o The Malayan peninsula could be Singapores hinterland. Merger appeared to be an economic necessity. Led to the political confrontation with the various groups and parties in Singapore. o Barisan Socialis formed with support from the labour and student movements. Had the support of elements from the domestic Chinese elite who saw merger as a danger to Chinese culture and language. Engendered further suspicions from the PAP. Contention by the PAP that a party which sat above the pressures of particular interest groups or classes was the only one that could represent the national interest. o Ideological case for elitist technocratic government in the years ahead. Realised that only through real and substantive social and economic improvements for the working could it survive electorally. o ISI strategy being ever more critical hence a further push for merger.

Change in Strategy from Import Substitution to Export Oriented Industrialisation. Separation in 1963. Unemployment of 9% in 1965. Political opportunity for PAPs opponents. Modest growth in this period due to political uncertainties and industrial unrest.

1965 1979: Industrial Revolution via Export Orientated Industrialisation. (EOI)

Initial Problems. Withdrawal of the British Bases from Singapore which contributed to 20% of GDP and employment in the 1960s. o However, it left behind an entire ship-repairing industry for Singapore to thrive on. Confrontation between Malaysia and Indonesia which led to further loss of trade. The necessity to build up its defence force and diplomatic network from scratch. Singapore was in a worst off position compared to before merger. Singapore then looked towards Hong Kong and Taiwan who have successfully embarked on EOI in the mid 1960s. International capital required as the domestic bourgeoisie lacked capital and expertise to give serious effect to the program. o Fiscal and financial legislation to woo foreign investors. Open and competitive attitude of Singapore compared to bumiputra policies of Malaysia brought in more direct foreign investment and MNCs.

Institutional Changes EOI necessitated close attention to the labour force due to it being significant in giving Singapore a comparative advantage. o PAP-affiliated National Trades Union Congress (NTUC) marshalled by the government. o Employment Act 1968 and Industrial Relations Act 1969 introduced. Reducing wages, increasing work hours and severely curtailing union bargaining powers.

Adoption of the National Wages Council (NWC) in 1972. To further ensure a low cost and stable workforce that was attractive to investors.

Rise of public enterprises and statutory boards to take care of every aspect of industrial restructuring. o Gave the state legitimacy and reason to form more public enterprises. Which was an effective countervailing force to the MNCs Conscious effort to influence the cost of different factors of production in addition to labour by the government. o EDB assumed a greatly enhanced role in centralising and coordinating the governments investment drive. 1968. Jurong Town Corporation to ease EDBs responsibility of the rapidly expanding industrial estates. o Developmental Bank of Singapore (DBS) to provide below market rate finance and equity participation to stimulate industrial ventures. o Government established Neptune Orient Lines (NOL) to expedite foreign trade and ensure lower freight charges for Singapore manufactured goods. o Central Provident Fund and Post Office Savings Bank provided the domestic savings that were channelled into physical and social infrastructure.

Results of EOI Foreign investment o Rose from $157million in 1965 to $995million in 1970 to $3040million in 1974. Direct manufactured exports o Rose from $349m to $1523m to $7812m o Contribution to GDP from 15% to 22.6% o Singapore became the export base for US and European consumer markets. Market for Singapore was the developed countries compared to the domestic markets in ISI. Unemployment rate o Brought down to 4% by 1974 with some areas experiencing labour shortages. Oil Induced crisis of 1973 and the subsequent recession of 1974-1975 Resulted in sizeable investment cutbacks and job losses. o Singapore then held back economic restructuring and gave less sustainable industries some reprieve. o Focus went back to the policy of wage control to maintain international competiveness. Resulted in an influx of foreign workers which caused of a loss of productivity increase. Perpetuated low value-added activities and attained only horizontal expansion. Government then saw a need to restructure the economy. o Scare labour should not be hoarded by low value-added, labour-intensive industries in which Singapore would be unable to maintain international competitiveness in the longer term. o Corrective wage policy. Skills Development Fund. Foreign Workers Levy. At the same time, tax incentives and subsidised training schemes were made available to investors in high value added production. Refinements in the role of direct government investment. o Strategically used to promote higher value-added production. 1983. Singapore Technologies Corporation set up to promote advanced technology. o Joint venture for the first fully integrated petrochemical complex in Southeast Asia. o Government of Singapore Investment which invested in high tech MNCs overseas. Social and Political measures to ease the society into high value industries. o Two of the largest trade unions in Singapore broken up into 9 industry based unions.

Added functionality and reduced potential of organised labour opposing restructuring.

1980-1990s: Beyond Export Oriented Industrialisation.

Restructuring and diversifying the economy. As Singapore graduates to a higher level of economies, labour costs become less of a factor. o NWC allowed wages to rise. Industrial base changed from a labour-intensive low value to higher value industries. o By making labour costs more expensive to induce efficiency and effectiveness of labour. o Extensive programme on human capital via formal education and on job training. Driven by slow growth in productivity and loss of comparative advantage. Emphasis on labour policy was to balance cost competiveness with a tight labour market in the 1980s. o Employment growth in manufacturing 1.6% services 5.2%. Reflect declining trends in population and labour force growth and the labour saving pressures in manufacturing.

Changes in the late 1980s Other regional economies on their own take off paths. o China economic reforms produced growth that peaked in 1988. o Malaysia and Thailand were the next newly industrialised economies. Intensifying competition with American and European economies facing fiscal deficits. Restructuring was needed in the form of reconsolidating the strengths and weaknesses of Singapore. With the aim to play a more complementary role in the region. o Emphasis towards the service sectors were prescribed and promoted. In order to make Singapore the operational headquarters for MNCs. Labour shortage replaced unemployment and population explosion. o Decline of population replacement rate. o Requirement of high skilled workers in Singapores transition. This will get increasingly scarce as regional countries will stop their outflow of the highly skilled for their own development. Greater role of the domestic bourgeoisie. o Trend of TNCs looking for a more comprehensive range of higher value-added processes and services in Asia as opposed to a single global division of labour. Requirement of such high value added services like accounting law and management services provided increased competition and opportunity. Increased privatisation and divestment in the economy.

1990s and After: Globalisation and its challenges.

Opting for a policy of regionalisation in 1993 for sustainable long-term growth. Encouraging labour-intensive industries to relocate. o Involved Singapore government-owned companies in enormous direct investments to establish the necessary infrastructure in Indonesias Batam & Bin tan and Riau Islands. Limitations of Singapores size affected both supply (factors of production) and demand (markets). Allowed Singapore to export capital from its accumulated balance of payments surpluses to cool the appreciating dollar.

Initialising regionalisation. Open doors and avenues to developing economies with common Asian culture. o Objective of generating a larger pool of local entrepreneurs and build up an external wing of the economy. Strategy of complementation which combines Singapores strengths as an urban industrial city-state with the regions supply and demand factors in a new partnership with MNCs. o Foreign manufacturers were opening new plants throughout the region where labour costs were lower. o Instead of competing head on with them, Singapore would involve itself in integrated project and establish industrial enclaves in China, India, Indonesia, Burma and Vietnam. Redefinition of direct foreign investment and MNCs. o Investment from Singapore into the region as well as inward direct foreign investment involving higher quality and technology. Singapore Unlimited o Induce MNCs outside the region wishing to tap Asia Pacific to use Singapore as the base and conduit.

Local Industries Upgrading Programme MNCs and GLCs transfer technology and know-how to local firms which are their subcontractors. o Would help local firms move out with them. o Locks MNCs logistics with Singapore making Singapore the overseas headquarters (OHQ). Companies which set regional office in Singapore enjoy a 10% tax rate concession. Renewed interest in SMEs PAP saw that it was time to de-emphasise links with the West and to re-establish economic ties with PRC. o Change in stance by developing ties with the SCCCI, which was made up of small Chinese Businesses and entrepreneurs that have been pushing for closer ties with China since 1950s Singapore would then become a gateway to China for Europeans and Americans. Government to Government Committees. Regional network for Singapore businessmen through tripartite economic cooperation and business clubs. o Bilateral Councils with Western Nations. Committees with regional nations. Asian Crisis of 1997-1998 and what it meant to Singapore and its GLCs. Provided opportunity for GLCs to invest. o Thailand: DBS and GIC as well as UOB all made significant investments. Plans made to elevate into an International financial centre. To become the regional provider of high value-added services. o Needed to liberalise the financial and telecommunications sectors in response to WTO pressure. o GLC and their affiliates avoided ordinary regulation and financial scrutiny. International finance interests demanded greater transparency and privatization of these enterprises in order for Singapore to operate in the global economy. Would have major implications for the political regime of the PAP for these GLCs provided channels for political reward and retribution.

Lecture 8 - Housing the Heartland

Rationalising different strategies of land acquisition Compulsory acquisition of land in the interest of national development o If the state had to pay market price, the success of the HDB policy would be low. Land Acquisition Act for public housing development. o Favoured large development capital at the expense of small landlords who were unable to either redevelop their land or sell to or amalgamate with adjacent property owners for economically viable commercial development. Newly elected government was financially unable to redevelop the city on its own. o Undertaking in 1970 to ensure that the govt would not nationalise any of the commercial properties developed by corporate capital thereby safeguarding foreign investment. Ideologically effective. British Colonial govt neglected such issues and indirectly caused overcrowding in the city area and proliferation of squatters on the urban fringe. o Compulsory land acquisition for public housing could then take place with no apologies. Allowed govt to occupy the moral high ground in its commitment to the people

Incorporating the Population. In pre-industrial Singapore, housing was in the forms for congested rental housing and squatters. o Such low cost of living and underemployment spawned a population that had a high degree of freedom from work. Such workforce had to be disciplined into one needed by industrialisation. Resettlement into 99-year leasehold flats immediately raises the cost of living of a household. o Monthly payments of mortgage required could only be met by a pooled income of the household. Females included. Spurred workforce bringing down employment and hence improving material living conditions like the government promised. Resale flats held potential gains in real estate. o With the low income group being the first to qualify for flats, they were first to benefit both ideologically and materially. Reinforced the popular support base of the government.

Avoiding Claims of Rights. Care is taken to avoid any possibility that housing provision should become a legal entitlement of citizenship. Causing a decline in work commitment as seen in welfare states. o HDB thus became an independent statutory board. HDB being an independent corporation is able to impose sales or rental conditions on interested parties in a strict business sense. o HDB is also formally removed for the political arena which allows the PAP to distance itself from any criticism that the HDB might face. Eliminating class-based politics. PAP commitment to equality of opportunity for all households to purchase up to their capability as housing consumers. Housing inequalities thus are the result of each households own financial ability rather than the governments. o Removes a source of moral and legal appeals by the lower income group. State subsidies will still exist for households earning less than a certain amount to purchase a smaller 3-room flat. But this is stated as an act of benevolence rather than a state responsibility. o Source of contention as these families are limited to smaller flats which have smaller capital gains in the financial markets compared to those who have larger flats. PAPs response was to no longer build subsidised flats that are larger than the norm.

Potential class enclaves eliminated by the planned mixed in rental flats for the lowest income group amongst the various classes of purchased flats. o Different sized flats catering to different incomes are designed in the same block. Ideological belief that the lower income may be benefit from the higher income and better educated who volunteer as community leaders.

Rationalising Exclusions. Presence of an income ceiling excludes those whose incomes are above it. o Of ideological significance as it preserves the social status of this group displayed through their private housing. Acts as a social status attainment which potentially keeps up the work ethic of those at the top end of public housing eligibility. Symbols of Success. Extensive public housing program is symbolically and hence ideologically a powerful sign and constant reminder to the population of the existing regimes ability to fulfil its promise to improve the living conditions of the entire nation. o Grants the government substantial legitimacy among the people and also abroad. From Housing to other Social Policies. Strong social agreement around state housing provision has enabled the PAP to use it to underwrite other social policies. o Through the conditions of sale or rent. The universal provision of housing has generated an overall ideological surplus that will unlikely be damaged by unpopular policies. o Even if citizens are dissatisfied, they will be coerced into accepting the conditions forced upon them for the lack of alternative housing. Reinforcing the Normal family. Public housing is only available to households and as of the early 1990s, single people above 35 years of age. o However, the latter group is only allowed to purchase 3 room flats outside the central area. Young singles are completely excluded. On the grounds that by doing so will break up traditional family units. Married children are encouraged to be neighbours with their parents or other married siblings. o Raised income ceiling and priority of allocation for such applicants and cash grants. HDB has also made available refurbished 3-room rental flats available to young married couples at below market price. o Encourages early marriage and childbirth which is needed for the scarce workforce. From part of a voluntary, family based welfare arrangement which is likely to reduce the governments share of social welfare costs and responsibilities to the elderly as the population ages.

Management of ethnicity Public housing programme is used to break up ethnically exclusive communities. o Necessary step to pre-empt any possibility of race riots. o Mixing of the ethnic groups residentially will also lead to national integration and promote a shared culture thereby promoting nation building. Higher degree of friendship and greater tolerance of races. Negative reactions in response to the quota restrictions in neighbourhoods and individual blocks. o With the Chinese being the majority, the effects of this system is felt unequally across races. o The importance of choosing a location based of non-ethnic criteria. Against Asian culture as citizens may be unable to stay with their families. o Reinforces negative thinking along racial lines and discriminates against minorities.

Lecture 9 - Becoming Singaporean: Education

1946 - 1965
Educational reforms reflect a societys unresolved conflicts and problems of the past. MCP exploited the dissatisfaction of the people danger of a communist /extreme left-wing takeover. o Student agitation and industrial unrests in the 1950s. A need to move Singapore society and its education system to a new and higher level.

Chinese Schools were easy targets for communist infiltration. Established and maintained by the local Chinese Community o Highly politicised and a strong orientation towards China. British seen as setting out to destroy the culture and language of the Chinese o Subsidising only English medium schools. o Policy of allocating one third of curriculum time to English for non-English medium schools. o Building of more English schools and the freedom of choice for parents which drew away more Chinese students. Economically High unemployment due to the failings of the entrepot industry. o Limited private sector jobs whilst the public sector required a minimum proficiency in English. Acute housing shortage. High birth rate. High level of poverty. Failure to achieve the recommendations of the All-Party Committee of 1956 Integrative approach to education through parity of treatment for all streams and the provision of a common and nationally oriented curriculum for all schools. o Socio-political and economic unrest coupled with financial constraints of the post war years. o Lack of real political will and strong leadership. Aims of the PAP in 1959 Turn out a better educated and suitably equipped workforce to meet the new manpower needs of an industrialising and modernising economy. A society that contributes actively to the realisation of the Nation socio-economic and political goals. The Five Year Plan Equal treatment for the four streams of education o Common syllabus in four language media. o Training of teachers in four different languages. o Aligning of the old Chinese educational structure to the English system. o Loan of free textbooks to all four streams Establishment of Malay as the national language of the new state. Emphasis on the study of mathematics, science and technical subjects. o Accelerated school and facilities building programme Huge Increase in student enrolment over the 1959-1965 period. o 1966 Goal of universal free primary education accomplished. o Large scale recruitment of teachers. 10000 to 17000

National Cohesion Institution of the flag-raising and pledge taking. Integrated schools where two or more language streams merge. Inter-school activities of different language stream schools. Study of civics.

Technical Bias Secondary vocational. Secondary Technical. Secondary commercial. Vocational institutes. o Meet the needs of the changing economy.

1965 1978: Quantitative and Systematic Improvement

Statehood to nationhood requires new national values and the capacity to survive as a nation. Maintain communal harmony and to build a well integrated and socially-disciplined society o The threat of communism was replaced by the violent race races that may happen again. Shift in emphasis from import substitution to export-oriented industries. o Emphasis to make the nation and its workforce attractive to foreign investments and MNCs.

Academic to Technical Education Provide a manpower base for industrialisation that was reflected in the National Industrial Council. o Academic and technical subjects in secondary one and two. Singapore Technical institute and upgrading of Ngee Ann College into a Technical College. Industrial Training board in 1973. Vocational and Industrial Training Board 1979 National Cohesion and Bilingualism Widen ones employment prospects but also help break communication and racial barriers o Thus contributing to a more harmonious and better integrated Singapore society. Increased Language Exposure Time for the second language. o Primary one students in non-English medium streams be taught science and maths in English. Learning of a second language for all students in secondary one. o Pass in second language for pre-university admission. SAP schools. o Drift of students from Chinese medium to English medium schools Need to preserve the best features of Chinese Stream schools. English and Chinese at first level. Supplementary English Language Programme 1979. Where top non-English stream students would go to top English schools for immersion classes. Pre-Primary programme to provide dialect speaking students with help in learning languages. o To arrest the dramatic decline in enrolment of Chinese medium schools. Post Primary Education. Population bulge steadily moving up to secondary school level. o More secondary schools and greater emphasis on pre-university and tertiary education. Educational Research and curriculum development The formation of academic bodies for research functions in education to the future quality and direction of education. o Library committee for the better equipping of schools with facilities and audio visual aids. Institute of Education Training of teachers and school administrators and further professional training.

1979 1984
Ineffective bilingual policy Low literacy levels in the country High education wastage. Low morale of teacher and ineffective leadership and procedures of the Ministry of Education.

Ability based streaming introduced in 1980s Current system meant that student irrespective of ability and rate of learning were required to follow the same syllabus at the same pace and sit for the same public examinations. o Failed to take into account the variation in learning of children. Streaming will ensure basic literacy and numeracy as well as preparation in training. o Students streamed into Normal ( 3 year ) or Extended ( 5 year ) bilingual courses or a Monolingual course ( English and Maths with Second language as oral examination ) o Test items from the MOE, with common achievement test for Mono. Parents having final say. o Choice of lateral transfer from one course to another.

Curriculum Reform Moral Education Programme. o Common set of desirable moral values encompassing personal behaviour, social responsibility and loyalty to the country. Religious Knowledge o Reinforce what has been taught n Moral Education and provide a viewpoint from the tradition of religions. Gifted Education Programme. o Enhanced version with the option to withdraw and return to mainstream schools. Arts and Music elective programmes along with Computer Appreciation. Provide the opportunity of developing to the limits of his ability but also a balance curriculum.

Organisation of the MOE and its procedures Inadequately defined relationships between various sectors which hampered ground level reactions to the curriculum implemented. o Curriculum Development Institute of Singapore and Singapore Education Media Service. Role to develop teaching materials and produce audio-visual aids for learning. o CDIS as a separate division. Greater bureaucratic freedom which allowed it to concentrate on developing effective materials which are innovate and relevant to teaching. Schools Council 1981 Regular dialogue and free flow of information between policy makers from the MOE and ground level personnel from schools. o Allowed reforms to be implemented by the MOE with greater efficiency o Regular and helpful exchanges between schools. More decentralised system of education management in Singapore. o School principals assume greater autonomy and responsibility in the guidance, supervision and assessment of teachers. Implementation and development of programmes for the schools o Foster initiative, creativity and innovativeness on the part of principals.

System of School Appraisal Greater efficiency in School management. o Develop follow-up activities and action plans for areas requiring improvement. Results of this period Certain degree of sophistication, characterised by a spirit of self-appraisal and greater all round balance in relation to the broader goals of education. More decentralised system fostering initiative, creativity and innovativeness at the school level.

1985 1990: Towards Excellence in Education.

1985. Singapores economy hit by external factors for which it had no control. o Singapore needed to carve itself a niche in the international economic system. Develop a creative, thinking and innovative Singapore society complete with flexible skills at every level of the economy. o Upgrading the median educational level of the Singapore workforce. o Provide continuous training and retraining of the workforce. o Expanding and improving education at the post-secondary and tertiary levels. o Providing board-based education aimed at the development of the whole person . Report by the Committee for Economic Development in the United States. o Main function of a school was to teach students to think critically and analytically, to cooperate and communicate, to compete, to assume responsibility for themselves, to solve problems and to continue to learn throughout their working lives. o Individuals who are flexible and adaptable and that a well-educated workforce with habits of collaboration and cooperation as well as of competition was the most important asset a country could possess.

Principles to guide future education policies (MOE 1986) Education policy must keep pace with the economy and society. Basics-Languages, Science, Mathematics and Humanities will be stressed encourage logical thinking and life-long learning. Creativity in schools must be boosted through a bottom up approach whereby the initiative must come from principals and teachers instead of from the Ministry. o 12 principals sent on a study tour to the USA and UK to identify factors which make for a good and effective school. Led to report of Towards Excellence in Schools Corresponding Reforms At the school level, a variety of measures directed at promoting excellence in schools. o Conversion of double session schools into single session schools. Allowed greater flexibility in time-tabling and program organisation in catering to the specific needs and interests of students. Having access to school facilities all day facilitated better coordination among school staff on student and curriculum matters. Teachers able to stay back in the afternoon for informal activities. Greater sense of belonging to a more enjoyable and meaningful school life. o Establishment of independent schools 1987. Some of the well-established schools in the country to be independent. Provide a means for deciding how far restrictions might be removed on Singapore schools so that they could perform better and respond more sensitively and promptly to the needs and demands of parents and students. Spearhead innovative programmes which would be extended to other schools. o Institution of pastoral care and career guidance programs in schools. Meet students social and emotional needs along with their educational development. Approach from ad hoc, remedial and reactive to developmental and pro-active. At the management level, training programs for principals and heads of departments o Conversion of double session to single session meant the need for more high level staff. o Wide variety of courses at the institute of Education to equip candidates with the skills needed to be department heads. For graduate and non-graduate teachers. In the area of vocational and industrial training, programmes for upgrading the educational and skill level of the workforce o Basic Education for Skills Training (BEST) launched in Jan 1983. o Comprehensive and integrated programme for the training and upgrading of the workforce, which provided opportunities for workers to upgrade or acquire new skills. o Initiation training, retraining and continuous training of the nations workforce was critical in the restoration of the Singapore economy.

In tertiary education, the expansion of facilities and increase in student intake. o Expand both the pool of R&D personnel as well as the existing research facilities. At the same time increasing intake in post graduate and graduate programmes. Develop competencies in the areas of advance technology. o Forging new links with outside organisations in research programmes and established high level joint research committees. o Upgrading of Nanyang Technological Institute to a fully fledged comprehensive university in 1991.

Globalisation Economic Change and Education Globalisation processes do create a need for modern states to alter their governance modes and to institute reforms in the public sector to better manage uncertainty and risk. Pressure to remain economically competitive in the face of massive structural change in the global economy. Forcing states to act in certain ways in economic and social policy, principally with a view to remaining attractive to transnational capital. Not clear how knowledge gained through extended years of content-dominated schooling in Singapore will be of benefit in the service sector of the economy. Schools are sites for the preparation of the countrys labour force, preparation for social participation, for political and social identity formation and for the production of National elites. Vehicle for promoting a cohesive civic identity, based on the ideological tripod of multiculturalism, multilingualism and meritocracy. Global and national economies have changed and as new types of workers are needed, educational reform is an imperative in the race to stay economically competitive. The need for greater attention to process, higher order thinking skills, better utilisation of technology in education, changes to assessment, greater devolution of power to principals... Overcoming Dependency International division of labour was such that low wages and primitive working conditions rather than labour productivity would create surplus. Singapore a fragile state whose sovereignty was under threat and needed legitimacy. o Through high rates of economic growth provided resources for socio-economic development Implementation of policies designed to boost stocks of human capital. o Centrally planned, universally available, standardised and sate driven education systems. Singapores Context Need for economic openness to global economic forces still characterises planning in Singapore. External trade a major component with leaders keen on making international comparisons. Official recognition of the value of English was counterbalanced by the compulsory learning of a second language. Manage skilfully and sensitively Singapores ethnic and linguistic plurality. o Chinese majority population in a Malay Muslim region.

1997-2004 Education policy initiatives

Questioning of resilience of the existing educational systems in the context of new demands for economic competitiveness. o Globalisation accelerated by the widespread use of the internet and the sharp recession of 1997 of the East Asian Economies. Lack of entrepreunial flair or risk aversion among school leavers. Emergent new economy meant that Singapore required an entirely new set of skills in school leavers. Growth of the service sector puts a high premium on innovation, flexibility, entrepreneurship, creativity, and a commitment to lifelong learning. Traditional education systems dominated by teacher and syllabuses began to look decidedly inadequate when compared to the potential of computers.

Thinking Schools Learning Nation initiative 1997

Preceded by independent schools initiative in 1987 as an effort to break with conformity in the system, to decentralise and introduce greater choice and school autonomy. Restatement of the need to develop the whole child, and recognition of the wide range of talents, abilities aptitudes and skills that students posses for the knowledge based industry. o To produce a literate, numerate, IT enabled, able to collate, synthesise, analyse and apply knowledge to solve problems, capable of being creative and innovative, not risk averse, be able to work both independently and in groups, and be lifelong learners. Emphasis on critical and creative thinking. o Interdisciplinary project work o University curriculum to make education broader. Use of information technology in education. o Integrating computer into learning and teaching for up to 30% of instruction time. National Education (Citizenship education) o Changing economy will strain the loyalties and attachments of young Singaporeans. Hence the need to strengthen identification with the nation. Exacerbated by the commitment to attracting global talent to Singapore o Sensitise the young to Singapores national needs, concern and possibilities and to make Singapore their Best Home . Administrative excellence. o School cluster system to decentralise administration and promote greater autonomy. o Leadership training and in service training to keep teachers up to date and skilled.

Integrated Programmes Option to skip O levels and move directly to the Junior College curriculum. Offered by independent schools and top junior colleges. Merit based and transparent. And that time saved will be spent in innovative project work, leadership programmes and a range of co-curricular activities and broader learning experience. Specialist Schools Sports school in 2004. NUS science and mathematics school 2005. Additional source of ideas and innovative practices in education. Attract fee paying students from abroad and cater to children of returning Singapore expatriates. Implement MOE policies on bilingual education and natonal education with 50% Singaporean cohort. Future trends and potential problems State funded systems like Singapore depend on economic prosperity for their maintenance and growth. A reduction in government revenue will affect funding levels and create conditions for a user pas philosophy. Making education more of a commodity. Neo-liberal education agenda is evident. Recognition of the need for greater choice hence the recent moves for greater curricular and structural flexibility. Justified school ranking. 2005 Singapore two public universities corporatized to give them more flexibility to enable them to have more leeway to recruit world class talent manage their budgets and build a stronger sense of loyalty and ownership amongst students, staff alumni. Increasing income inequality. Cognitive elite are best placed to benefit from Singapores streamed system of education and will gain further advantage from the integrated programme, private schools and university with opportunities to seek education abroad. Large classes, content dominated curriculum and high stakes examinations have taken on initiatives like thinking skills.

Lecture 10 - Becoming Singaporean: Ethnicity and Language

Background to the Policy Debate
All Party Report On Chinese Education 1956 Adoption of a policy of equal treatment, to treat languages as a resource and to engineer language development to targeted ends. (All Party Report On Chinese Education 1956) o Tied language to culture to race o Unity in Diversity achievable via a common language that would enable racial intermingling and a common Malayan identity over and above the separate ethic identities. Desirable that the mother tongue of the school children should be the main media of education. o Mother Tongue correlated with the language of one racial origin. Revised call of bilingualism and defined mother tongue. o Mandarin only language taught for all Chinese pupils in English schools. Tamil for all Indian Children and Malay for all Malaysian races. Parental choice for Eurasians. Common language of English with Malay as the National language. To develop systematic rationales for language roles in the domain of the home, school, social occasions and the economy. o English was to be learnt for its utilitarian value for employment and access to the science and technology of the west. Major language of administration, commerce, education and consequently, social status in the 1970s. Role as a link language. o Mother tongue would anchor students to their ethnic and cultural traditions thus avoiding excess westernisation and preventing deculturalisation. Clearly interventionist stance. o Detailed guidelines and requirements in school bilingualism. o TV programs in dialect replaced by Mandarin. Along with counter service at govt departments Expansion of educational opportunity led to steady increase in general literacy from 52% in 1957 to 90% in 1990. o Greatest strides in English and Mandarin with respect to household usage.

Assessing Bilingual Attainment

The Report on the Ministry of Education Led by Deputy Prime Minister, Goh Keng Swee. o Low literacy with respect to the Primary 6 population and early secondary school leavers. o 1975 and 1977 more than 60% of students failed either first or second language. o Students fared badly in examinations, newspaper and book reading. o Various strategies devised to improve language found to be ineffective. Too much was being demanded of too many in terms of language competence. o Led to major structural reforms in education with the creation of the streaming system.

Speak Mandarin Campaign

Late 1970s government was preparing to intervene at the national level to move language policies in a new direction. o Persistence of dialect use explained why Mandarin has failed to become more widespread. o Dialect fragmented the Chinese community and prevented the common language Mandarin from playing its legitimate unifying role. o Mandarin could have economic value as well with respect to Chinas recent commitment to economic liberalisation policies and economic growth rates.

Announced results of studies in 1981 that showed students who spoke English and Mandarin most often at home did very well in languages, Science and Mathematics at school.

Nanyang University, the bastion of Chinese medium education, was facing the prospect of closure. o Campaign was a balancing move to reassure the Chinese community that their cohesiveness, cultural identity and language claims still remained a primary concern for the government. Gradual phasing out of dialect programs over radio and television. With the introduction of conversational Mandarin lessons and publicity campaigns throughout the community. Transactions with government departments if done in Chinese should be conducted in Mandarin.

Criticisms Offended by the suggestion that the dialects could transmit no worthwhile culture and that ignorance of Mandarin made Singapore Chinese rootless. 1990 slogan. If you are Chinese, make a statement in mandarin. Which was felt to imply only Mandarin speakers were considered Chinese. Minority groups felt that the campaign was urging Chinese professionals to speak Mandarin at work and this would affect inter-ethnic harmony. o Led to the campaign changing tack. Target for the year would be English educated Chinese. o Less need to stress Mandarin versus dialect theme with higher % mandarin speaking children. Results of the Campaign While less dialect was spoken, more in that group used English compared to Mandarin. Few regarded Mandarin as a low class and useless language. o However, mandarin use in the community risen from 1% in 1979 to 24% in 1991 Electoral reverses in 1991. Where opposition politicians who won wards were those who were bilingual and who could also use the appropriate dialects to woo dialect speaking voters. o Private level, recognition of the significance of dialects among working class citizens.

Hanyu Pinyinization of Pupils Names

Chinese pupils from pre-primary to pre-university would be listed by their Hanyu Pinyin names and dialect names (in brackets) in the register. o To make it impossible to tell which dialect group a pupil belonged by simply looking at his name. Promote a common Chinese identity. 1985. Arguments that this scheme separated pupils from their ancestral names. No need to insist that the use of dialect names undermined the Speak Mandarin Campaign. Giving in to parental preference more likely to foster support for the use of Mandarin.

National School System Announcement

All pupils would be taught English as their first language by 1987. o No pupil had enrolled in Primary 1 in Malay/Tamil medium classes since 1983 o Less than 1% enrolled in Chinese Medium schools. National school system where all pupils offer English as their First Language. Concerns of the consequences for traditional Chinese cultural and moral values, a further drop in the standard of Chinese taught and learnt, and declining demand for Chinese language teachers. o Chinese Schools Teachers Union and Society wished to maintain the existing number of nd periods allocated for Chinese as a 2 language. o Allay fears by proposing the awarding for scholarships to good bilingual students. o Importing teachers from aboard to ensure that standards were maintained nd o Ensuring no 2 language teacher was retrenched. Realisation that Chinese School system had finally lost its relevance and that English had won out as the dominant political, economic and now educational language.

Asserting that the economic value of Chinese once China undertook economic liberalisation. o However standards of Chinese declined to such a degree those students could neither write a simple essay nor read a Chinese newspaper with comprehension. No demand for the need to restart Chinese stream schools. Start a language Elective Program, initially for the study of Chinese at selected Junior Colleges. o Would not allow the bilingualism curriculum to be overloaded. By demanding higher standards in Chinese from all Chinese students.

Language attainment and University Admission

New language requirements for entry into the National University of Singapore from 1985/86 o Non-English medium students would need a C6 in English as first language at O level and also a pass in General Paper. o English medium students would need to obtain a C6 in their second language. Criticism that the MOE did not appear to be concerned with bright pupils proficient in Chinese but poor in English. nd o 1989 NUS made a concession. Students who failed 2 language at A levels would be nd admitted provisionally, they would get extra coaching but need to pass 2 language to graduate.

Preserving the Schools SAP and Seed Schools

Initiated in 1980. Saw the conversion of 9 top Chinese secondary schools into bilingual institutions. o Offer two languages at first language level. o Preserve the character of traditional Chinese schools and to meet the charge that the MOE was indifferent to the decline in standards in Chinese. SAP schools supported effective bilingualism with the communicative competence to speak, understand, respond and read and write in English and Mandarin at first language level. Seed School scheme to make 10 primary schools offer Chinese at first language level. With additional resources, including good bilingual teachers. o Allowed to enrol pupils at age 5 to benefit from a preparatory language program.

Criticism of SAP and Seed Schools Non-Chinese student who do not offer CL1 would not have access to these good schools with better resources. Bright Chinese pupils will be concentrated in a confined atmosphere preventing them from mixing with pupils of other races at a stage when pupils are impressionable. o Perception that these bright students are destined for future leadership positions in government, industry and other vital sectors and their socialisation in a Chinese environment would limit their understanding of the values and norms of other communities.

Changes to Double Weighting

1963, 1973 1 and 2 language were allocated double the weightage of marks for Maths and Science. nd o 1985. Scrapping of the scheme. Double weightage was biased against those weak in 2 language resulting in pupils being wrongly placed in the weaker stream.
st nd

Improving Primary School Education Report 1991

Additional time was required for weaker students to master bilingualism o Lack of competence in English resulted in students assigned to weaker streams. Continue high incidence of lateral transfer between streams o Streaming at primary 3 was too early. Monolingual stream students who went on to Vocational and Industrial Training Board institutes were poorly prepared and many dropped out of School early. Reinstate the use of mother tongue (mandarin) as a major medium of instruction in the upper primary classes.

o o

An attempt to accommodate the wishes of the Chinese educated minority. National System of 1987 not realisable.

Improving Chinese Language Teaching

June 1991. 22 Member panel to review and suggest improvements to the teaching of Chinese. o A small number of bright Chinese pupils from English-speaking homes were finding it difficult to cope with Chinese and a continuing concern among the Chinese Educated that the number of students opting to study Chinese was declining. Individual social mobility and economic gain have been significantly influenced by ones proficiency in English. o However, Mandarin is the main conduit through which Chinese Singaporeans learn about their roots, culture and traditional customs. Important to the area of business, commerce and diplomacy in Asia Pacific. Equal exposure time to EL and CL for Chinese students in pre-schools and kindergartens. Preparation of new instructional materials with a committee overseeing these supplementary materials. Language centre to be established for CL teachers and opportunities for their upgrading.

Language and Values

Justification for the retention of the mother tongue was that it was a repository of traditional culture and values. o MOE sought to realise the aims of preserving traditional values, both through the SAP and seed schools program. Major new initiative was the development of teaching of a number of Religious Knowledge subjects. o Confucian Ethics represents the most concrete educational product embodying the key values in Chinese culture. However, there was a tendency towards religious revivalism and polarisation in the general population even though it had clarified that it was content and understanding and not religious practice and conversion that was the aim of religious knowledge. o Furthermore, in only allowing the teaching of 6 R.K options, the government stood accused of giving preferential treatment to certain religions and not being even handed. Subject discontinued in 1990. New Civics syllabus for use at upper secondary levels and eventually for all students with secondary schools deciding the medium of instruction while primary schools will use mother tongue. o Context of shared values concept as a way of getting Singaporeans of all races and cultures to integrate closely. Nation before community and society before self. Family as a basic unit of society. Community support and respect for the individual Consensus not conflict and racial and religious harmony.

More Inclusive Language Learning Provisions

Formulation of 4 official languages and 1 national language ignored the rich diversity of languages available in Singapore. o 1989 Announced that Hindi, Punjabi, Urdu, Guajarati and Bengali would be recognised in secondary school examination subjects. Irony that while unity is sought for the Chinese community via Mandarin, Indians are being encouraged to be multilingual. Increased availability of an Asian and 2 European languages, Japanese, French, and German.

Explaining Policy Concerns and Shifts

Modernisation processes set in motion in the 1960s principally with economic change and the extensive use of English. An urban transformation via housing and transport policies led to rapid and consistent growth which proved the policies value. o Reflected in education via progressive extension of the role in English, the decline in enrolment in first Tamil then Malay and in the 1980s Chinese Medium schools. Groups that mastered economically valuable knowledge and languages benefited disproportionately from economic growth. The Report on Moral Education and subsequent inclusion of Religious knowledge. o Marks an increased use of the school system to inculcate values. Efforts made to keep the dominant Chinese cohesive via policies. o Speak Mandarin Campaign o The SAP schools o Pinyinize Names All to show that the government would not allow Chinese language and culture to be eroded. o Illustrates efforts to keep ethnicity and culture as viable mobilising instruments. Allay the fears of the Chinese educated, that their status, culture and language were being eroded by macro-economic and social changes. o Exacerbated by the merger of Nanyang University with the University of Singapore in 1980 Closed down a distinct achievement and powerful symbol of oppositional Chinese st o 1987. Emergence of national school system with English as the 1 language. Signalled the end of the Chinese school system. o Concerns that the MOE and tertiary institutions were more concerned with the standards in English when it was Chinese that was seen to be in danger. 1991. The world of the Chinese Educated was pictured as a World in Decline Sense of resignation and agony when faced with the prospect of sending their children to a westernised system of education. Error to label them chauvinist since they accept bilingualism and only ask for A Balanced Development of language education. Culminated with the reverses suffered by the governing party in the 1991 General Election o Loss of 4 seats in the wards of older housing estates which were mostly non English educated o Acknowledge the existence of an underclass. o 1991 Lee Kuan Yew. More attention to the views of the Chinese educated even though there nd could be no return to the days of Chinese as first and English as 2 language. 1990s. Language and cultural polices seemed to have arrived at an important crossroad. o 1956 All Party Report has left English dominant. o Mother Tongue (Chinese) being promoted now as an economically valuable language. How the balance will be struck and maintained will determine the future roles of English and M.T