University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore, Pakistan

University of engineering and technology, Lahore, Pakistan
INTRODUCTION:
Steam generators, or boilers as they are often called, form an essential part of any power plant
or cogeneration system. The steam-based Rankine cycle has been synonymous with power generation
for centuries. Though steam parameters such as pressure and temperature have been steadily
ncreasing during the last several decades, the function of the boiler remains the same, namely, to
generate steam at the desired conditions efficiently and with low operating costs. Low pressure steam is
used in cogeneration plants for heating or process applications, and high pressure superheated steam
are used for generating power via steam turbines. Steam is used in a variety of ways in process
industries, so boilers form an important part of the plant utilities. In addition to efficiency and operating
costs, another factor that has introduced several changes in the design of boilers and associated systems
is the stringent emission regulations in various parts of the world.
Though pulverized coal–fired boilers form the backbone of utility plants, fluidized bed boilers
are finding increasing application when it comes to handling solid fuels with varying moisture, ash, and
heating values; they also generate lower emissions of NOx and SOx. Oil- and gas-fired fire tube boilers
are widely used in small process plants for generating low pressure saturated steam.
Main uses of these systems are found in:
 Generation of power
 Process industry like paper, textile etc.
 Centrally heating offices/homes.
i. BOILER CLASSIFICATION:
The terms boiler and steam generator are often used in the same context. Boilers may be
classified into several categories as follows:
A) Application:
 Utility
 Marine or
 Industrial boiler.
Utility boilers are the large steam generators used in power plants generating 500–1000MW of
electricity. They are generally fired with pulverized coal, though fluidized bed boilers are popping up in
some plants. Utility boilers generate high pressure, high temperature superheated and reheat steam;
typical parameters are 2400 psig, 1000 F. A few utility boilers generate supercritical steam at pressures
in excess of 3500 psig, 1100 F. Double reheat cycles are also in operation. Industrial boilers used in
cogeneration plants generate low pressure steam at 150 psig to superheated steam at 1500 psig at
temperatures ranging from 700 to 1000 F.
B) Pressure:
 Low to medium pressure
 High pressure, and
 Supercritical pressure.
Muhammad Uzair Barry +92-333-4425262

Process plants need low to medium pressure steam in the range of 150–1500 psig, which is
generated by field-erected or packaged boilers, whereas large utility boilers generate high pressure
(above 2000psig) and supercritical pressure steam.
C) Circulation method:
 Natural,
 Controlled,
 Once-through, or
 Combined circulation
Natural circulation is widely used for up to 2400psig steam pressure. There is no operating cost
incurred for ensuring circulation through the furnace tubes, because gravity aids the circulation process.
Controlled and combined circulation boilers use pumps to ensure circulation of a steam–water mixture
through the evaporator tubes. Supercritical boilers are of the once-through type. It may be noted that
once-through designs can be employed at any pressure, whereas supercritical pressure boilers must be
of a once-through design.
D) Firing Methods:
 Stoker
 cyclone furnace
 fluidized bed
 register burner
 fixed or moving grate
E) Construction:
 Field-erected
 Shop-assembled
Large industrial and utility boilers are field-erected, whereas small packaged fire tube boilers up
to 90,000 lb/h capacity and water tube boilers up to 250,000 lb/h are generally assembled in the shop.
Depending on shipping dimensions, these capacities could vary slightly.
F) Heat Source and Fuel:

 Solid gaseous or liquid fuels
 Waste fuel
 Waste heat
The type of fuel used has a significant impact on boiler size. For example, coal-fired boiler
furnaces are large, because a long residence time is required for coal combustion, whereas oil- and gas-
fired boilers can be smaller as shown:
G) Steam is Generated Inside or Outside the Boiler Tubes:

 Fire tube boilers, in which steam is generated outside the tubes, are used in small plants
up to a capacity of about 60,000 lb/h of saturated steam at 300 psig or less; they typically
fire oil or gaseous fuels.
 Water tube boilers, in which steam is generated inside the tubes, can burn any fuel, be
of any size, and operate at any pressure but are
generally economical above 50,000 lb/h capacity
Fire-Tube Boilers:
The firetube boiler requires a “shell” to enclose the
water and steam to complete the pressure vessel portion of the
boiler and that shell is the principal limit on the size of a firetube
boiler.
To understand why the shell is the limiting factor we
have to understand some basics about strength of materials and
how we determine the required thickness of the shell, tubes,

and other parts of a boiler. We know that the required thickness of the shell of a boiler or a boiler tube
is a function of the radius. As the tubes get larger the thickness has to increase to hold the same
pressure.
Since the outer shell of a firetube boiler is very large it has to be quite thick. Thicker materials
require more elaborate construction practices in addition to more weight so the price of a boiler
increases proportional to its diameter with sudden large steps in price associated with different
construction rules depending on the thickness and temperature.
A big break point for high pressure boilers come at 1/2 inch thick and 650°F. The increasing
thickness has imposed a normal limit on firetube boilers of 250 psig MAWP (maximum allowable
working pressure). It’s possible to get a firetube boiler for a higher pressure but it’s not a common one.
The other practical limit on the size of a firetube boiler is its diameter. Anything larger than 8 feet 6
inches in diameter will require special permits for transporting it.
Types of Fire-Tube Boilers:

Firetube boilers come in several configurations and arrangements. Basically they are cylindrical
in shape and are further defined by position and modifications to the general form. Most commonly
used fire tube boilers are:
 Horizontal Return Tubular (HRT) boiler
 Locomotive boiler
 Firebox boiler
 Scotch Marine boiler
1. Horizontal Return Tubular (HRT) boiler:
HRT boiler is an early design of boiler that has survived to modern times. Return in the label
indicates the flue gasses flow down some of the boiler tubes from one end to the other then return
through the remaining tubes.

A cross section is shown in the middle of the figure that shows the tubes, how they’re arranged
to permit the baffle at the rear and location of an access door for scraping off the bottom. Typically the
shell of the boiler is extended at the end where the gas makes the turn to form a “turning box” which is
closed by large cast iron doors. The doors could be at the front or rear of the boiler depending on how
it’s constructed relative to the furnace.
2. Locomotive boiler:
A locomotive boiler is a good example of a firetube boiler modified to provide some water
cooling of the furnace. The increased cost of the boiler to create a water jacket around the furnace was
justified for locomotive service because the steel and water were considerably lighter than the
refractory that would be required while providing more heating surface to make the locomotive more
powerful. Stay bolts are used to hold the flat surfaces against the internal pressure and their failure was
one reason many of these boilers are no longer around.
3. Firebox Boiler:
The firebox boiler was the first potential “package” boiler because it only required construction of
an insulated base in the field with all other parts assembled in the factory. A partial form of the boiler was
also built to provide comparable performance at lower construction and shipping costs by requiring
construction of part of the furnace as a brickwork base then setting the boiler on top of that base
4. Scotch Marine Boiler:

This type of boiler incorporates the insertion of a large furnace tube in the boiler (Figure 9-10)
eliminating the requirements for an external furnace and providing a furnace that is almost completely
water cooled.
Many of the original boilers of this design, the ones that were used on ships, were coal fired and
required multiple furnaces to provide enough furnace volume and grate surface. The furnace tube
diameters range from two feet to four feet and are welded to the tube sheets. The tube sheet to shell joint
is also welded. The scotch marine design comes in two general arrangements;
 Dry-back design
 Wet-back design
the most common is a dry back design where the turning chambers at either end of the boiler are formed
by an extension of the shell and/or a door that forms the turning chambers. In either case both ends of the
boiler are fitted with doors to gain access to the tube ends. The doors can be full size, covering the entire
end of the boiler or they can be multiple with separate doors providing access to various portions of the

tube ends and furnace. In almost every case the door covering the end of the boiler and furnace tube is
refractory lined because the temperatures of flue gas leaving the furnace can be over 1200°F. Some
doors contain integral baffles to divert the flow of flue gas back into other tubes in the boilers. The
baffle arrangement varies with the boiler design principally to separate the passes.
The wet back arrangement is a more efficient boiler with less refractory to maintain but the
higher cost and limited tube removal (front only) has resulted in a decline of its use.
The locomotive boiler is a basic single pass design. The flue gases enter the boiler proper and
flow through all the tubes to the outlet of the boiler. The HRT design provided improved heat transfer by
providing two passes, the flue gases are turned and return down a portion of the tubes on their way to
the stack.
Note that a pass consists of a path for flue gas to travel from one extreme end of the flue gas
containing parts of the boiler to another. Neither of these designs required a baffle to direct the flow of
flue gas. Scotch marine designs can have two, three, or four passes. A two pass scotch marine boiler
requires no baffles other than means to separate the burner from the returning flue gas. Three pass
scotch marine construction requires one baffle in the rear of the boiler to separate the first and second
pass turning box from the third pass outlet while four pass boilers require a baffle there plus one at the
front to separate the second and third pass turning box from the fourth pass outlet

Sometimes furnace tubes are called Morrison tubes, and it’s done without distinction. Some
furnace tubes are not Morrison tubes; they’re the ones that are basically a simple cylinder. Morrison is
the guy that realized the furnace tube could be made thinner and still withstands the external pressure
without collapsing if it was corrugated. If the tube is corrugated it’s a Morrison tube and if it’s not it’s
just a furnace tube.
The section through a firetube boiler in figure also

reveals another important element of their construction,
staybolts. The tube sheet isn’t supported by the boiler
tubes in the top of the boiler (what we call the steam
space) so staybolts are required to keep that portion of
the tube sheet from buckling out. Part of a boiler
internal inspection is checking the fillet welds attaching
the staybolts to the top of the boiler shell, and the
staybolts themselves, for corrosion. The staybolts
normally penetrate the tube sheet and their welds
should be checked on the outside as well as the inside.
There’s another classification of firetube boiler

that you may encounter. They’re called “oil field boilers”
and they’re designed for that application. Boilers used in
oil fields get little care, normally run on raw water with little condensate return and don’t get the quality
treatment provided by a wise boiler operator so they’re designed for the abuse. They have thicker hells,
thicker tubes, and lower heat transfer rates.
There are many advantages to a scotch marine firetube boiler which includes simplicity in
design. They’re relatively easy to clean completely on the fire side, once you get those heavy doors off.
They can be packaged in most of the sizes, they contain minimal refractory. Tube replacement is less
expensive because all the tubes are straight. They also hold a larger volume of water compared to a
watertube boiler so they absorb load swings a little better.
Water-Tube Boilers:
Water tube boilers just like firetube boilers need a shell to contain the water and steam most
watertube boilers require drums or headers to close off the ends of the tubes, provide a path for the
water and steam to flow into and out of the tubes, and provide a place for steam and water to separate.
The difference between the header and drum is that drums are big and headers are small. That rule
doesn’t always work when it comes to what we call a mud drum which is the lowest drum in a boiler and
has connecting piping for blowoff so the mud can be removed from the boiler.
Waterwalls consist of tubes that may be bent to connect to a steam or mud drum or connect to
a header that is connected to one of the drums with more tubes.
Types of water tube boilers:

Most common designs of water tube boilers are:
 Cross-drum boiler
 Bent tube boiler
1. Cross Drum Boiler:

This is a three pass boiler. The flue gases traverse the furnace from the burners to the rear but
that’s not counted as a pass. The gases turn up at the back of the boiler and pass up through the
superheater and boiler tubes until they reach the top (first pass) then drop down through the middle of
the tubes (second pass) and finally up through the tubes at the front of the boiler and out the stack. The
baffles are made out of refractory and include tile laid on top of the screen tubes to form the bottom of
the second and third passes.
The bottom two rows of tubes are called screen tubes because they form a screen that blocks
the radiant energy from the superheater. They also protect the baffle. The sectional header part of this
boiler involved the forged square headers shown in the detail which were connected to the steam drum
and bottom header by tube nipples (short lengths of tube) and contained hand holes on the side to gain
access to the tube ends so they could be rolled. The headers were forged in a semi-square shape to
provide a uniform surface for rolling the tubes. Drums are normally of sufficient diameter that there is
no problem rolling a tube in them. To gain access to the tube ends to roll them and for other parts the
drums have manholes, usually a 12-inch by 16-inch oval opening.
Water separated from the steam and boiler feedwater mixes in the steam drum (a common
arrangement) then drops down the front header s (which are exposed to the coolest flue gas) and rises
up the sloped tubes going from the front of the boiler to the rear. In those tubes the water is heated to
the point of saturation and starts boiling, changing from water to steam. The steam forms small bubbles
in the water, displacing the heavier water and reducing the density of the steam and water mixture as it
travels along the tube.

By the time the mixture reaches the rear headers it is significantly lighter than the water so the
weight of the water in the front header is just like a piston pushing down to force the water and steam
mixture up the rear headers and back the return tubes to the steam drum. There’s only a little
difference in pressure between the water in the front header and the mixture at the rear header,
perhaps half the height of the boiler (inches water column) but that’s enough to force the water and
steam to flow around with the flow rate of the steam and water mixture through the top tubes at least
five times the rate of the steam going out the nozzle, perhaps more. In the case of this boiler all tubes
are risers, the front headers are downcomers.
2. Bent tube boilers:

Bent tube boilers come in various designs, the most common are the A, D, and O-designs. These
designs provide the current optimum in cost and performance, some better than others, and represent
the heart of the packaged watertube boiler industry.
 A Type boiler:
The A shape is attributed to the single steam drum at the center top and the two mud drums,
commonly called headers, at the bottom. They require a second blow down line and more soot blowers
but provided features like a water cooled furnace from one end to the other and balanced construction
which makes them easy to transport as package boilers.
The tubes inside that form the furnace have alternating

shapes. One will drop from the steam drum around the furnace
and down into the bottom header while the next tube turns
above the bottom header and crosses the bottom of the furnace
to enter the side of the opposite bottom header. Shifting the tube
arrangement by one sets up the crossing pattern with a tangent
tube wall construction (Figure 9-19) in most of the roof and sides
of the furnace. The furnace floor (the tubes at the bottom) has a
maximum spacing of one tube width.
 O Type boiler:
The O type boiler (Figure 9-20) is similar to the A while
eliminating one header by providing a drum in the bottom center
just like the top. The headers required many handholes for rolling
the tubes in an A type boiler so the single drum eliminated that
expense but produced a boiler with a smaller furnace cross
section.
 D Type boiler:
The predominant design is the D type (Figure 9-21) which has only one drawback and that’s the
problem with transporting and supporting something with most of the weight on one side. The D tubes
extend out of the drum to form the roof of the furnace, drop to form the furnace side wall, and return under
the furnace to the mud drum. It has one convection bank of tubes centered between the drums to limit
sootblower requirements. This construction makes it possible for the flue gas to leave the boiler via the
front or side.

A more
detailed diagram shows some of the standard features of this construction:

WATER TUBE VERSUS FIRE TUBE BOILERS:
Generally water tube boilers are suitable for large gas flows exceeding millions of pounds per
hour and can handle high steam pressures and temperatures. Fire tubeboilers are suitable for low steam
pressures, generally below 500psig. Table shows the effect of pressure on tube thickness in both types
of boilers, and one can see why fire tube boilers are not suggested for high steam pressure applications.
In water tube boilers, extended surfaces can be used to make them compact if the gas stream is
clean. Flue gas pressure drop will also be lower than for an equivalent fire tube boiler owing to the
compactness of the design. Water tube boilers can be smaller and weigh less, particularly if the gas flow
is large, exceeding 100,000 lb/h. Superheaters can be used in both types. In a water tube boiler they can
be located in an optimum gas temperature zone. A shield screen section or a large convection section
precedes the superheater. In a fire tube boiler, the superheater has to be located at either the gas inlet
or exit, making the design less flexible and vulnerable to slagging or corrosion. If the waste gas is
slagging in nature, a water tube boiler is desired because the surfaces can be cleaned by using
retractable soot blowers.
ii. Drum:
The purpose of the drum is to separate water from steam. Its lower part is full of water. It comes
from the economizer through tubes external to the boiler or if it is missing, directly from the feed
pumps. The upper part is filled with steam instead taken from the main valve. If the superheater is
included, the steam passes through the entry header of the latter instead.
In big radiation units, downcomers are inserted into the lower part of the drum feeding the
steam-generating tubes of the bank (if there is one), as well as the screens of the furnace. Return tubes
coming from the upper headers are inserted laterally into the drum.

In small units, the downcomers

can also be coupled to the lower part of the drum while the return tubes are connected to the sides.
Otherwise, the tubes making up the screens of the furnace and those making up the steam-generating
tubes of the bank can be coupled directly to the drum.
iii. Superheaters:
Superheaters may be of
 convection type superheater or
 radiation type superheater
1. Radiation-type superheaters:
Radiation-type superheaters are those placed along the walls of the furnace. In small
generators, this solution is used at times for superheaters that push up the steam temperature by a few
dozen degrees above the temperature of the saturated steam. The goal is to dry the steam taken from
the drum and to bring it to such a temperature that it reaches the machines it is meant for, still
saturated and dry, regardless of the heat loss occurring in the external piping between generator and
usage. These superheaters are done by substituting some of the steam-generating tubes on the walls of
the furnace with the tubes of the superheater. The location is in the terminal part of the furnace. This
way, the tubes will not see the flame from the front.
Superheaters placed along the walls of the furnace are used even in very large units. In that
case, they represent the first stage of the superheater (primary superheater). This prevents the
temperature of the fluid inside the tubes to increase too much.
Hanging superheaters of radiation-type are called SH platen, if they are placed at the exit of the
furnace and consist of far apart coils (see Fig. 3.35). In fact, in this case, the heat transferred directly
from the flame, or through radiation by the flue gas at high temperature, is greater than the heat
transferred by convection, given the low velocity of the gas and the value of the so-called mean beam
length.
2. Convection type superheater:

Convection superheaters are those consisting of a coil bank with the coils placed very close to
one another in an area of the generator not radiated by the flame. In this case, there is still a quota of
heat transferred by radiation by the gas (due to its high temperature), but the heat transferred by
convection is greater.
The functional characteristics of superheaters by convection or radiation with regard to load

variations are completely different. In fact, in convection superheaters, the temperature of the steam at
the exit increases with the load, whereas it decreases in radiation superheaters. This behavior depends
on the following causes. In convection superheaters, a load increase (it will increase the burned fuel) is
matched by an increase in temperature of the flue gas that hit it. In addition, the velocity of flue gas and,
by default, the overall heat transfer coefficient goes up. Therefore, the transferred heat increases
considerably, prevailing on the simultaneous increase in steam to be superheated. Thus, the
temperature goes up.
In radiation superheaters, the load increase will increase the temperature of both flame and flue
gas. Consequently, the radiated heat goes up, but this increase does not compensate for the increase in
steam to be superheated. For this reason, the temperature decreases.
By combining a convection superheater with a radiation superheater, it is possible to achieve a

temperature of the superheated steam that will remain constant, regardless of load variations or that
will at least reduce temperature variations. Note that radiation superheaters carry smaller costs. In fact,
given equal heat absorption, the radiation superheater has a much smaller surface and is much easier to
build compared to the convection superheater.

Steam Temperature Control:
The steam temperature in packaged boilers is often controlled from 60%to 100% load
by using a two-stage superheater design with interstage attemperation as shown in Fig. 3.18. Steam
temperature can also be maintained from 10% to 100%; however, this calls for a much larger
superheater surface area. Demineralized water should be used for attemperation, because it does not
add solids to the steam. The solids in the feedwater used for attemperation should be in the 30–100
ppb. If solids are deposited inside the superheater, the tubes can become overheated, particularly if
operated at high loads and high heat flux conditions. The convective superheaters are generally
oversized at 100% load as explained earlier. The quantity of water spray is larger at higher load. In the
radiant design, the steam temperature remains nearly flat over the load range because the radiant
component of energy increases at lower loads and decreases at higher loads. Thus many radiant
superheaters do not use a two-stage design.

The steam temperature in packaged boilers is often controlled from 60%to 100% load by using a
two-stage superheater design with interstage attemperation as shown in Fig. 3.18. Steam temperature
can also be maintained from 10% to 100%; however, this calls for a much larger superheater surface
area. Demineralized water should be used for attemperation, because it does not add solids to the
steam. The solids in the feedwater used for attemperation should be in the 30–100 ppb. If solids are
deposited inside the superheater, the tubes can become overheated, particularly if operated at high
loads and high heat flux conditions. The convective superheaters are generally oversized at 100% load as
explained earlier. The quantity of water spray is larger at higher load. In the radiant design, the steam
temperature remains nearly flat over the load range because the radiant component of energy increases
at lower loads and decreases at higher loads. Thus many radiant superheaters do not use a two-stage
design.
However, reviewing other concerns such as possible overheating of tubes and higher tube wall
temperatures, the choice is left to the user. When demineralized water is not available, a portion of the
saturated steam from the drum is taken and cooled in a heat exchanger, preheating the feedwater as
shown in Fig. 3.18. The condensed water is then sprayed into the attemperator between the two stages
of the superheater. Often, in order to balance the pressure drops in the two parallel paths, a resistance
is introduced into each path or the exchanger is located vertically up, say 30–40 ft above the boiler, to
provide additional head for the spray water control valve operation.
Spraying downstream of the superheater for steam temperature control is not recommended,
because the steam temperature at the superheater exit increases with load, thus increasing the
superheater tube wall temperature, which can lead to tube failures. For example, if 800_F is the final
steam temperature desired, the steam temperature at the superheater exit may run as high as 875–
925_F, which will diminish the life of the tubes over a period of time. Also, the water droplets may not
evaporate completely in the piping and the steam turbine could end up with water droplets and the
solids present in the water, leading to deposits on turbine blades.
To prevent problems with water depositing in them many superheaters are designed to drain
completely by installing the headers at the bottom with the tubes extending up from the headers. We
call them “drainable” superheaters. Boilers in most utility plants are of a construction that doesn’t drain,
the tubes hang down from the headers into the furnace or flue gas passages and they’re called
“pendant” type superheaters.

iv. Economizer:
The function of the economizer is to heat the feed water before it enters the drum. Meanwhile
the flue gas is cooled, thus positively impacting generator efficiency, given the reduced sensible heat
loss of the flue gas.
Economizers are used as heat recovery equipment in packaged boilers instead of air heaters
because of NOx concerns. They are also less expensive and have lower gas pressure drops across them.
Economizers for gas firing typically use serrated fins at four to five fins per inch. For distillate fuel, about
4 fins/in, solid fins are preferred. For heavy oil, bare tubes or a maximum of 2–3 fins/in. are used,
depending upon the dirtiness of the flue gas and the ash content of the fuel.
Economizers are generally of vertical gas flow and counterflow configuration with horizontal
tubes as shown in Fig. 3.23. The water-side velocity ranges from 3 to 7 ft/s. Small packaged boilers,
below 40,000 lb=h capacity, use circular economizers that can be fitted into the stack. Another variation
is the horizontal gas flow configuration with vertical headers and horizontal tubes. Generally, steaming
in the economizer is not a concern, as discussed earlier. Feedwater temperatures of 230–320_F are
common, depending on acid dew point concerns. The feedwater is sometimes preheated in a steam–
water exchanger if the deaerator delivers a lower feedwater temperature than that desired to avoid acid
corrosion in the case of oil-fired boilers.
 Economizer with
steel finned tubes
v. Air Heater:
Air heaters are used in a few waste heat boilers for preheating combustion air. Incineration
plants and reformer furnaces also use preheated air. Like the economizer, the air heater is installed to
reduce the temperature of the flue gas entering the chimney and improve the generator efficiency. Note
that a reduction of 20◦C of this temperature roughly corresponds to an increase in efficiency of 1%. The
air heater cools the flue gas, it also heats the combustion air, this way increasing the heat going into the
furnace. This strongly influences the sizing of the furnace, the amount of heat radiated by the flame, as
well as the exit temperature of the flue gas from the furnace.
Fundamentally, there are two types of air h

eaters, the recuperative and the regenerative ones. The
recuperative air heaters are static and keep the two
fluids on both sides of the heat exchange surface. These
can be done with tubes. Generally, in that case, it is
preferable to have the flue gas flow through the tubes
and the bank hit by the air outside. This facilitates
cleaning of the surfaces licked by flue gas that can be
done with a pig.
There are two types of regenerative air eaters,

one in which the heater matrix rotates, and one in which the connecting air and flue gas duct work
rotate. The first type is called the Ljungstrom air heater. The energy from the hot flue gases is
transferred to a slowly rotating matrix made of enamel or alloy=carbon steel material, which absorbs
the heat and then transfers it to the cold air as it rotates. The elements are contained in baskets, which
makes cleaning or replacement easier. Regenerative air heaters are more compact than tubular air
heaters, which are heavy and occupy a lot of space. The gas- and air-side pressure drops are high in both
these types of air heaters, adding to the fan power consumption. Due to the low heat transfer
coefficients of air and flue gases and a low log-mean temperature difference (LMTD), surface area
requirements are large for air heaters. However, a lot of surface area can be packed into each basket of
a regenerative air heater, so they are more compact than the tubular heater.
One of the problems with regenerative air heaters is the leakage of air from the flue gas side
that affects the power consumption and efficiency of the fan. Though the leakage may be low, on the

order of 5–10% depending upon the seal design, it is significant in large plants. In tubular air heaters,
failure of the tubes or expansion joints could result in leakage from the air side to the gas side, but this
is minimal.
vi. HRSGs AND CIRCULATION:

Heat recovery steam generators are generally categorized according to the type of circulation
system used, which could be natural, forced, or once-through as illustrated in Fig. Natural circulation
units have vertical tubes and horizontal gas flow orientation, whereas the forced circulation HRSG uses
horizontal tubes and gases flow in the vertical direction. Once-through units can have either a horizontal
or vertical gas flow path. In natural circulation units, the difference in density between water and steam
drives the steam–water mixture through the evaporator tubes and risers and back to the steam drum.
In forced circulation units, a pump is used to drive the steam–water mixture through the horizontal
evaporator tubes. At the steam drum, steam separates from the steam–water mixture and dry saturated
steam flows through the superheater. In once-through designs, there is no circulation system. Water
enters at one end and leaves as steam at the other end of the tube bundle.
 Once-Through Units:
A once-through HRSG (called an OTSG) does not have a steam drum like a natural or forced
circulation unit (Fig. 2.12). An OTSG is simply made up of serpentine coils like an economizer. Because
water is converted to steam inside the tubes, the water should have nearly zero solids. Otherwise
deposition of solids can occur inside the tubes to the complete evaporation process. This in turn can
lead to overheating of the tubes and consequent tube failure, particularly if the heat flux inside the
tubes is high. Like natural or forced circulation units, these units generate single- or multiple-pressure
saturated or superheated steam. A once-through unit does not have a defined economizer, evaporator,
and superheater section. The location at which boiling starts keeps moving depending upon the gas
flow, inlet gas temperature, and duty. The single-point control for the OTSG is the feedwater control
valve; valve actuation depends on predefined operating conditions that are set through the distributed
control system (DCS). The DCS is connected to a feedforward and feedback control loop, which monitors
the transients in the gas turbine load and steam conditions. If a transient in the gas turbine load is
monitored, the feedforward control sets the feedwater flow to a predicted value based on the turbine
exhaust temperature, producing steady-state superheated steam conditions.
Because there is no steam drum, the water holdup is much less than in drum-type units. Often
Alloy 800 or 825 tubes are used to ensure dry running and also to limit the sensitivity to oxygen in the
water, avoiding the need for active chemical treatment.

 Natural and Forced Circulation HRSGs:

Figures 2.12b and 2.12c show the arrangement of natural and forced circulation HRSGs. In the
natural circulation unit the differential head between the cold water in the downcomer circuit and the
hotter, less dense mixture in the riser tubes drives the steam–water mixture through the evaporator
tubes. The circulation pumps provide the additional differential head to ensure flow through the
evaporator tubes. The following are some of the features of these types of HRSGs.
Natural circulation units do not require a pump for maintaining circulation through the
evaporator tubes. The circulation is ensured through natural gravity principles. The use of circulating
pumps inforced circulation units involves an operational and maintenance cost, and their failure for
some reason such as power outage or pump failure could shut down the HRSG.
SOOT BLOWING
Soot blowing is often resorted to in coal-fired or heavy oil–fired boilers. In packaged boilers,
both steam and air have been used as the blowing media, and both have been effective with heavy oil
firing. Rotary blowers are sometimes used with distillate oil firing. Steam-blowing systems must have a
minimum blowing pressure of 170–200 psig to be effective. The steam system must be warmed up prior
to blowing to minimize condensation. The steam must be dry. Increasing the capacity of a steam system
is easier than increasing that of an air system. With an air system, the additional capacity of the
compressor must be considered. Also, because steam has a higher heat transfer coefficient than air,
more air is required for cooling the lances in high gas temperature regions compared to steam.
Moisture droplets in steam can cause erosion of tubes, and often tube shields are required to
protect the tubes. The intensity of the retractable blower jet is more than that of the rotary blower jet,
and its blowing radius is larger, thus cleaning more surface area. However, one must be concerned
about the erosion or wear on the tubes.
Sonic cleaning has been tried on a few boilers. In this system, low frequency high energy sound
waves are produced when compressed air enters a sound generator and forces a diaphragm to flex. The
resulting sound waves cause particulate deposits to resonate and dislodge from the surfaces. Once
dislodged, they are removed by gravity or by the flowing gases. Typical frequencies range from 75 to 33
Hz. Sticky particles are difficult to clean. The nondirectional nature of the sound waves minimizes
accumulation in blind spots where soot blowers are ineffective. Piping work is minimal. Sonic blowers
operate on plant air at 40–90 psi and sound off for 10 s every 10–20 min.

University of Engineering and Technology, Lahore, Pakistan

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