Basic Electricity Guide (021014)

I5 = OUT
Basic Electricity
Electrically Neutral I" = IN
-+
I = OUT
+--
Positive Ion
Negative Ion
I! = OUT Fig. 4-1 Kircho !s current la" 1 Figure 1-9 Free Electron
Basic Electricity
Published by Chonan Technical Service Training Center
Chonan Technical Service Training Center
Basic Electricity
#$T%&'(CT#&$
Basic Electricity
To#ay$s auto%o&iles are &eco%ing even %ore #e'en#ent on electrical an# electronic technology to %anage syste%s that control 'o(er train) 'assenger co%'art%ent) an# sa*ety #evices+ Because o* this) it is very i%'ortant that auto%otive technicians have a goo# un#erstan#ing o* ho( electricity (or,s) &oth in theory an# 'ractical a''lication+ K#) *otors Technical Service Training 'e+art,ent is a(are o* the #aily challenge technicians *ace (hen #iagnosing a vehicle (ith electrical or electronic 'ro&le%s+ -e also un#erstan# the s'eciali.e# ,no(le#ge re/uire# to e**ectively isolate) trou&leshoot an# re'air electrical 'ro&le%s (hich %ay occur in a vehicle+ In consi#eration o* this) (e have #evelo'e# this ne( course title#) -Basic Electrical Training. as 'art o* our training 'rogra%+ This course is #esigne# to &e instructe# in t(o seg%ents0 *irst a 1re*resher2 revie(ing &asic electrical 'rinci'les 3such as circuit ty'es) Oh%$s 4a() an# sche%atic #iagra% rea#ing50 an# secon# 3an# %ost i%'ortant5) learning ho( to a''ly the theory to #iagnose actual on-vehicle circuitry+ Through care*ully 're'are# (or,sheets) stu#ents (ill learn ho( to 'in'oint circuit locations) con#uct %easure%ents) an# #eter%ine ho( voltage) current or resistance values contri&ute to(ar# #eter%ining the necessary re'air+ This course has &een #esign to &e instructe# %ainly in a (or,sho' environ%ent (ith the intent o* #e%onstrating the 'ractical 1on-vehicle2 a''lication o* the course content+ It is our ho'e that use o* this training techni/ue (ill o'ti%i.e the in#ivi#ual learning e6'erience an# technicians (ill relate the ,no(le#ge gaine# #irectly to vehicle re'airs at the #ealershi'+ -e at K#) ,otors ho'e that the in*or%ation receive# #uring this course i%'roves technician$s ,no(le#ge o* electricity an# electronics+ -e also encourage that the 'roce#ures sho(n &eco%e 'art o* each technician$s regular #iagnostic routine an# are a''lie# (henever 'ossi&le to hel' ensure custo%ers receive the &est 'ossi&le service+
Basic Electricity
"
Basic Electricity
Contents
1. Electricity /eneral
1.1 Funda,ental 1.0 &ccurrence o Electricity
0
0 4
1. *agnetic Force
1.1 &ccurrence o *agnetic Force 1.0 *agnetic and *agnetic Force 1.4 Electro *agnetic #nduction 1.4 Solenoid 1.3 Electro,agnets 1.2 %elay 1.8 Trans or,ers
23
23 23 21 29 89 81 84
0. Current5 6oltage 7 %esistance

0.1 Current 0.0 Potential di erence 6S Current 0.4 6oltage 0.4 Potential di erence 6S 6oltage 0.3 %esistance 0.2 Conductor5 #nsulator and resistor 0.8 Current5 6oltage and %esistance %elation 0.1 'irect 7 Parallel Current Circuit
14
14 14 12 12 19 09 01 03
9. Ca+acitor
9.1 Ca+acitance and the Ca+acitor 9.0 Calculating Ca+acitor 9.4 Ty+es o Ca+acitor 9.4 Transient %es+onse o Ca+acitor 9.3 %C Ti,e Constant 9.2 Ca+acitors in Series and Parallel
11
11 14 14 12 11 19
4. &h,!s :a"
4.1 'eter,ining Current 4.0 'eter,ining %esistance 4.4 'eter,ining 6oltage 4.4 6oltage dro+
44
44 43 42 42
19. /enerator
19.1 *agnetic #nduction 19.0 Construction o a /eneration 19.4 Ty+es o /enerator 19.4 6oltage and Current %egulation 19.3 )lternating Current 19.2 The )lternator
91
91 94 98 191 190 194
4. Kircho !s :a"
4.1 Kircho !s Current :a" 4.0 Kircho !s 6oltage :a"
49
49 49
3. Electric Po"er and ;att

3.1 Electric Po"er 3.0 ) ,ount o Electric Po"er
44
44 44
11. 'C *otor

11.1 *otor &+eration Princi+les 11.0 Counter Electro,otive Force 11.4 'C *otors 11.4 Ty+es o *otors 11.3 Start *otor
198
198 119 111 114 114
2. Su,,ery or basic Electrical

2.1 To understand easily or,ula o electrical 2.0 Troubleshooting ,ethods in Circuit
2.4 Chec< or /round condition in Parallel circuit
43
43 42 42
8. *ulti *eter
8.1 *easure,ent #te,s =)nalog *ulti *eter> 8.0 6olt ,eter 8.4 &h, *eter 8.4 'igital *eter
31
31 34 32 39
)++endi?
118
Basic Electricity
Basic Electricity
1. Electricity /eneral
1.1 Funda,ental
Everything in the universe is %a#e u' o* %atter+ 8atter can &e #e*ine# as anything that occu'ies s'ace or has %ass+ 8atter can &e *oun# in the *or% o* soli#s) li/ui#s) an# gases+ 9o(ever) these states are su&:ect to relative te%'erature+ -ater is usually *oun# in li/ui# *or%+ ;et (ater can &e rea#ily change# to soli# or a va'or *or% &y changing its te%'erature+ 8atter can also &e #escri&e# &y color) taste) an# ari#ness) &ut these are only o&serva&le characteristics+ They %ay not truly i#enti*y a su&stance+ To truly i#enti*y a su&stance) the su&stance %ust &e &ro,en #o(n into its s%allest 'arts+ The su&stance %ust &e #escri&e# in ter% o* its ato%ic structure+ Only then can it truly &e #e*ine# an# it$s &ehavioral characteristic i#enti*ie#+ < substance has &een &ro,en #o(n to its 'urest *or% (hen &rea,ing it #o(n *urther it #o(n *urther (ill change its ato%ic characteristics+ This *or% is calle# an ele,ent+ There are over 1== ele%ents+ 8ost o* these ele%ents occur naturally in our universe+ So%e o* the ele%ents #o not occur naturally) &ut have &een create# in la&oratories+ So%e co%%on e6a%'les o* naturally occurring ele%ents are iron) co''er) gol#) alu%inu%) car&on) an# o6ygen+ I* t(o or %ore o* these ele%ents are %i6e# together) a co%'oun# is create#+ < co%'oun# can &e re#uce# to its in#ivi#ual ele%ents+ <n ele%ent can &e re#uce# to its ato%ic structure
1.0 &ccurrence o electricity Su&stance

1.0.1 "hat is electricity@
Ele%ent
<to%
>irst) nee# to un#erstan# a&out structure o* %aterial &e*ore un#erstan# electricity+ Figure 1-1 Structure o* %aterial is co%'ose# as *ollo(ing+
8aterial
8olecule
<to%
<to%ic nucleus
Nucleus
Proton
? Chonan Technical Service Training Center
Electron
Basic Electricity
8aterial
8olecule
<to%
Figure 1-0 Structure o ,aterial Characteristic o* %olecule an# ato% 8elecul @ <to% has 'ro'ensity o* %aterial &eing %ini%u% unit that can no longer s'lit+ <to% @ It is %aterial that can no longer s'lit+ no nature o* %aterial + <to% %a,es o* *ollo(ing ele%ent again) an# the structure is (ith *igure+ Electrons Electron Nucleus
+ + + $eutron
Protons
Shell Structure o* <to% + Aetail structure o* <to%
Figure 1-4 Structure o )to,
Protons locate# in the nucleus o* an ato%) are the 'ositive 3+5 charge# 'articles+ $eutrons also in the nucleus) have no electric charge an# are electrically neutral Electrons are the 'articles that or&it the nucleus an# have a negative 3-5 charge+ Electrons %ove or flow *ro% ato% to ato% &ecause it is 'ossi&le *or an ato% to gain or lose electrons in certain circu%stances+ Electrons that have &een #riven *ro% an ato% are calle# free electrons. The loss o* one electron %eans the ato% has an e6tra 'roton) (hich results in a %ore 'ositive charge B Chonan Technical Service Training Center
Basic Electricity
than negative+ Positively charge# ato%s attract *ree electrons to re'lace the ones that (ere lost+ I* an ato% gains an e6tra electron) it (ill have a %ore negative charge+ The ato% (ill re'el other Negatively charge# 'articles an# (ill easily give u' this e6tra electron i* it is attracte# a(ay &y a 'ositively charge# ato%+ To un#erstan# this &etter) thin, o* a line o* cars in tra**ic on a high(ay+ -hen one car turns o**) an o'ening is availa&le+ -hen an o'ening is availa&le) another car) (anting in) sees it an# is attracte# to it an# *ills it in+ This %ove%ent or *lo( o* *ree electrons *ro% one ato% to another is electrical current or electricity+ 1.0.0 #oniAation The nu%&er o* electrons an# 'rotons that %a,e a 'articular ato% are usually e/ual in nu%&er+ This e/ual nu%&er creates a canceling e**ect &et(een the negative an# 'ositive charge+ The ato%ic structure o* each ele%ent can &e #escri&e# as having a *i6e# nu%&er o* electrons in or&it+ Usually) an ato% re%ains in its nor%al state unless energy is a##e# &y so%e e6terior *orce such as heat) *riction) or &o%&ar#%ent &y other electrons+ -hen energy is a##e# to an ato%) the ato% &eco%es e6cite#+ I* the e6terior *orce is o* su**icient strength) electrons in the ato%s outer rings or or&its can leave their or&it+ 9o( tightly &oun# these outer electrons are to an ato% #e'en#s on the ele%ent an# the nu%&er o* electrons in the outer or&it+ I* electrons leave the outer or&it) the ato% &eco%es out o* &alance electrically+ Shells 3D) 4) 8) NE+5 $ucleus D 4 B Protons 3+5 B Neutrons B Electrons 3-5
O6ygen <to% Figure 1.4 )to, ioniAation
-hen the electron leaves the outer or&it+ The ato% &eco%es ioni.e#+ <n ato% that loses an electron *ro% its outer or&it has %ore 'rotons+ The ato% &eco%es a +ositive ion an# #is'lays 'ositive charge# characteristics+ -hen an ato% gains an e6tra electron) it &eco%es a negative ion+ Negative ions #is'lay negatively C Chonan Technical Service Training Center
Basic Electricity
charge# characteristics+
Figure 1-3 )to, ion 1.0.4 Electrostatic Field The *iel# or *orce surroun#ing a charge# &o#y is calle# the electrostatic *iel# or #ielectric *iel#+ The *iel# can e6hi&it a 'ositive or negative charge #e'en#ing on a gain or loss o* electrons+ T(o charge# %asses are sho(n in Figure 1-2+ 4ines re'resent the electrostatic *iel#s o* o''osite 'olarity an# the attractive *orce e6isting &et(een the %asses+ In Figure 1-85 t(o charge# %asses are sho(n (ith li,e 'olarities+ < re'ulsive *orce e6ists the charge# %asses #ue to the electrostatic *iel#s+ The *iel# strongest very close to charge# &o#y+ The *iel# strength #i%inishes at a #istance inversely 'ro'ortional to the s/uare o* the #istance+
>igure 1-? >igure -hen t(o electrostatic *iel#s are 1-7 :oine# together) the electrons *lo( *ro% the %ass (ith an e6cess o* electrons to the %ass that has a nee# o* electrons *lo( *ro% the %ass (ith e6cess o* electrons. Figure 1-1 illustrates this 'rinci'le+ The e6cess electrons *lo( *ro% the &o#y that is negatively charge# to the 'ositively charge# &o#y that has electron #e*iciency+ This trans*er o* electrons can &e acco%'lishe# &y touching the t(o &o#ies together or &y connecting the% (ith a %aterial that su''orts the *lo( o* electrons &et(een the t(o &o#ies+ This connecting %aterial is ,no(n as a con#uctor &ecause it con#ucts electricity+
Con#uctor 'ath
Figure 1-1 -hen t(o charge# &o#ies are connecte# (ith a con#uctor) E6cess electrons (ill *lo( through the con#uctor *ro% he %ass having a sur'lus o* 1= Chonan Technical Service Training Center
Basic Electricity
electrons to the %ass having a #e*icit o* electrons 1.0.4 Electron *ove,ent The actual *lo( o* current through the circuit is &ase# on the 'rinci'les you have :ust learne#+ <s you sa( earlier) nor%al ato%s have an e/ual nu%&er o* 'rotons an# electrons+ This %a,es the ato% electrically neutral+ 9o(ever) it is 'ossi&le *or an ato% to gain or lose electrons+ I* nor%al ato% loses one electron that %eans the ato% has an e6tra 'roton+ Since there are %ore 'ositive charges than negative ones) the ato% has a 'ositive charge+ In case an ato% gains an e6tra 'roton) the ato% (ill have a negative charge+ The outer%ost or&ital electrons are so%eti%es hel# very loosely to the nucleus li,e a #istant 'lanet %ay &e to the Sun+ Collisions %ay occur) (hich result in so%e electrons &eing #riven *ro% their nor%al 'ath an# #ri*ting through the %aterial lattice+ These are calle# ree electrons+
So%e ato%s gain or lose electrons %ore easily than others+ The ones that #o are the con#uctors+ Co''er ato%s) *or e6a%'le) give u' electrons very easily+ The ato%s in %aterials such as 'lastic or ru&&er #o not give u' electrons at all) (hich %a,es the% e6cellent insulators+
Funda,ental Buestion
F1 -rite correct ans(er to &lan,
8aterial
8olecule
<to%ic nucleus
11
Basic Electricity
F <ll ato%s %a#e u' o* three 'articles+ -hat are theyG
F! -hich 'articles in the ato%s gives rise to electric current
F"+ I* (e co%'are a thin con#uctor to a thic, on) (hich is the &etter con#uctorG
F5 I* (e co%'are t(o si%ilarly thic, con#uctors) &ut one is (ar% an# others is col#) (hich o* the% is the &etter con#uctor i* currentG
F5 Select incorrect ans(er ------ 3
15 Current o* electricity is &egun *ro% %ove%ent *ree electron 5 I* trans*er o* *ree electron is %uch) trans*er o* electricity is %any 3high current5+ !5 I* *ree electron is sece#e#) electricity occurs "5 <to% has nature o* %aterial
0. Current5 6oltage5 %esistance

0.1 Current
Since *ree electrons are all negatively charge#) they (ill all re'el one another+ I* there is a sur'lus o* electrons in one area an# a shortage in another) electrons (ill *lo( to(ar# the shortage - then try to get a(ay *ro% each other+ -hen this %ove%ent ha''ens) a *lo( or current o* electrons is create#+ The current continues until the electrons have s'rea# the%selves out evenly+ 1 Chonan Technical Service Training Center
Basic Electricity
Current can &e #escri&e# as the rate o* electron *lo(+ < %easure o* the a%ount o* electron *lo() li,e a (ater 'i'e+ The larger 'i'e is greater ca'acity to carry *lo(+ This %eaning is that current *lo( %uch i* electronHs nu%&er %oves %uch) so that (ater (heelHs %oving &eco%es lively in 'icture &elo(+ Conclusively) electronHs trans*er is *lo(ing o* current) an# can s'ea, current intensity &y electrons the trans*er a%ount+ -ater tan, < 3Positive ter%inal5 -ater tan, B 3Negative ter%inal5 Tan, < Tan, B
-ater level #i**erence 3Potential #i**erence5 Current *lo( -ater (heel rotate 4a%' ON Figure 0-1 No current *lo(
Sa%e (ater level No 'otential Ai**erence
No (ater (heel Lotate
4a%' O>>
Current re+resentC The a%'ere is e6'resse# using the letter #. The a%'ere #escri&es the rate o* *lo( o* electrons 'ast any given 'oint in a circuit+ Current unit@ ) =),+ere> 1 ),+ere@ One a%'ere is e/ual to one coulo%& o* charge *lo(ing 'art a 'oint in one secon# I = F I T 3F@ Coulo%&) T@ Secon#5 1 coulo%& @ = 1 I 1+7=1 CJ1=-C = 7+ 5J1=1B Thus) The electric charge a%ount that 'ass 'er ti%e 1 <@ 1)=== %< 1 %<@ =+==1 < 1 ,<@ 1)=== <
0.0 Potential and +otential di erence 6S. Current

4et$s tal, a&out %ore #etail through (ater *or the current+ -hen a &attery is connecte# to a la%') it$s light u'+ The current *lo( %ean is &ecause #e*erence o* 'otential &et(een + an# -+ This is &ecause current *lo(s through the la%') this %eaning is electron %oving 1K1 to 1+2 so) that la%' 1On2+ Then ho( an# (hy current *lo(sG 4et$s tal,ing a (ater (heel in the (ater tan, as e6a%'le+ 1! Chonan Technical Service Training Center
Basic Electricity
I* no electronic current *lo(s) the la%' (ill not light u' an# i* there is no (ater *lo() the (ater (heel #oes not turn either+ Then) (hen (ill (ater *lo( in the e6a%'le sho(n &elo(G -hen the (ater tan, < an# B are at the sa%e (ater level (ater #oes not *lo( an# the (ater (heel #oes not turn -hen there is (ater level #i**erence &et(een the t(o tan,s) (ater *lo( *ro% tan, at higher level to the tan, at lo(er level since (ater is to *lo( *ro% high to lo( level &y nature+ <s result) the (ater (heel turns+ The sa%e is turn (ith electricity . ;hen is no +otential di erence current "ill not lo". # there is +otential di erence5 current lo"s ro, higher +otential to lo" one <s a result The current is electric +o"er. I* trans*er o* *ree electron is %uch) it is %eaning that electric 'o(er is &ig there*ore heat generator a lot.
-ater tan, <
9igh (ater level
-ater tan, B
-ater tan, <
-ater tan, B
-ater level Ai**erence 3Potential Ai**erence5

4o( (ater level -ater (heel (or,
No (ater level Ai**erence 3Potential sa%e5
-ater (heel #oes not (or, $o ;ater Flo" -ater (heel
-ater current
;ater Flo"
No (ater current
-ater (heel
;ater lo" =Current lo"> Figure 0-0
$o "ater lo"=$o current lo">
-hen connect &y (ire &et(een charge &o#y an# - charge &o#y) electrons are %oving an# neutrali.e#+ <t this ti%e) heat generate &y electron$s trans er.
This heat occurrence unction says that is 4 unction o current. Deat unction I* current 'asses) heat ha''ens. E?> cigar lighter5 electric stove etc *agnetis, unction 1" Chonan Technical Service Training Center
Basic Electricity
I* current 'asses) sel*-#isci'line ha''ens aroun# (ire+ E65 solenoi# Che,istry unction@ EM5 &attery+ 4et$s tal< about in the vehicle battery or current lo". The source o* the electrical energy) the &attery) contains t(o ter%inals) 'ositive an# negative+ >ro% our e6'lanation o* 'ositive an# negative charges) (e can say that the ato%s at the 'ositive ter%inal contain %ore 'rotons than electrons+ This gives the 'ositive ter%inal a 'ositive charge+ On the other si#e) ato%s at the negative ter%inal have %ore electrons than 'rotons+ <s a result) that ter%inal has a negative charge+ The negative ter%inal has a tre%en#ous su''ly o* *ree electrons+ <ll these electrons) con*ine# to a s%all area) are re'elling each other trying to get a(ay+
Su,,ary or current
Flo"ing o current is trans er o electron. # trans er o electron is ,uch5 ,ean that current +asses ,uch. Though there is +otential di erence5 current +asses "hen connected bet"een high and lo" +otential. # trans er o ree electron is ,uch5 heats generate5 There ore5 electric "ire bunt out that is done because so ,uch current +assed. Euantity o current can e?+lain by Buantity o "ater that +asses a +i+e. Current +asses ,uch to so,e actuator ,eans that a,ount o electric +o"er is strong +
0.4 6oltage
I* #i**erent electrical nature connects other t"o charged bodies by "ire5 current +asses5 because it is di erence o electric +otential bet"een t"o charged bodies that current +assage. It is ,no(n that this electrical #i**erence is electric 'otential 15 Chonan Technical Service Training Center
Basic Electricity
It is ,no(n that a#vance guar#Hs #i**erence is voltage. Because there is electric 'otential #i**erence) occur electro,otive orce. The volt =6> is the electrical unit use# to e6'ress the a%ount o* electrical 'ressure 'resent) or the a%ount o* electrical *orce 'ro#uce# &y che%ical action insi#e the &attery+ Sy,bol E 6oltage unit@ 6 1 volt@ ;hen 1 coulo,bsF electric charge ,oves to charged body and "or< 1Goule5 or t"o +oint charged bodies bet"een +otential di erences. E = ; =Goule> H E=coulo,bs> 6olt ;C Electric +o"er EC Electric charge a,ount 1 volt@ =+==1 1 volt @ 1)=== 1 @ 1)=== v
0.4 Potential 7 Potential 'i erence 6S. 6oltage

Noltage can &e e6'resse# &y +otential and +otential di erence. Figure 0-4 e6'lains ho( these are relate# to each other) re*erring to (ater tan,+ -hen the t(o (ater tan,s are connecte# &y 'i'e) (ater (ill *lo( *ro% the tan, o* higher (ater level to the tan, o* lo(er level+ The (ater level has &een %easure# (ith re*erence to groun#+ Si%ilarly) 'otential is %easure# relate# to certain stan#ar# level) (hich is calle# earth or groun#) an# the 'otential o* earth 3groun#5 is ta,en as = 3N5+ Usually the 'hysical earth is ta,en as the groun# &ut in the case o* auto%o&iles the negative 3 5 ter%inal o* &attery is ta,en as the groun#+ The (ater level o* the lo(er tan, is ta,en as the re*erence 3(ater level 1=25+ In case o* the &attery) 1 volts %eans the 'otential #i**erence &et(een the t(o ter%inals o* the -ater tan, < -ater tan, B &attery+ 3Positive ter%inal5 3Negative ter%inal5
-ater level #i**erence 3Potential #i**erence5 -ater level 11 23Potential5 -ater level 1=2 3Oroun#5 -ater current 3Electrical current5 Figure 0-4 Potential 7 +otential di erence I* o'en valve in a&ove Fig.0-4) &ecause 'osition o* (ater is #i**erent) (ater is *lo(e# (ater tan, -). to "ater tan< -B.. But) i* it is no #i**erence 'osition 3or 'ressure5) (ater #oes not *lo( even i* o'ene# valve+ That is5 i di erence o +ressure beco,es sa,e5 current ,eans stagnant. 17 Chonan Technical Service Training Center
Basic Electricity
There*ore) &ecause it is no *lo(ing o* current) actuator is not (or,ing) an# there is no heat occurrence &y current+ I*) so #i**erence 'ressure o* the &et(een tan, 1<2 an# 1B2) 'i'e is &urst an# heat occurrence+ 8eaning 'ositive is 1 volts an# negative %eans that is =volt in Battery o* 'assenger car. Thus5 di erence o electrical +otential is 10 in battery o +assenger car. This %eaning 'ositive 3+5 is 1 volts an# negative 3-5 %eans =volt+ # close s"itch in belo" igure 0-45 because current is +assed5 la,+ ,ay beco,e -&$. Noltage o* each 'osition accor#ing to O$ or &FF s"itch5 beco,e di erent in belo" ig. 0-4 It is sa%e (ith as *ollo(+ A C B +3Positive5 D 4a%' E 1 Nolt B<TTEL; S(itch F Figure 0-4 Potential 7 +otential di erence Noltage o* each 'osition Noltage %easure 'osition <PB BPC CPA APE EP> >P< CPE CP> AP> S(itch O>> condition 3:a,+ &FF> 1 volt Nothing volt Nothing volt Nothing volt 1 volt Nothing volt Nothing volt 1 volt 1 volt S"itch &$ condition 34a%' ON5 1 volt = volt 1 volt = volt = volt = volt 1 volt 1 volt = volt
-3Negative5
<lthough voltage &et(een E an# > are 1 volts &ecause resistance is in*inity &e*ore s(itch close#) s(itch i* #o close# resistance &ecause to = oh%$s &eco%e = volt+ )nd5 current +asses "hen s"itch closed5 at this ti,e5 voltage bet"een ' and ) beco,e 9 volts
1?
Basic Electricity
because resistance is 9. )lso5 "hile current is lo"ing5 voltage bet"een C and ' are 10volt5 ho"ever5 s"itch o done beco,e nothing volt. <s a result) i%'ortant is thing (hile *lo(ing current) voltage &et(een 1B2 and -C. are 10volt5 and voltage bet"een -'. and -). are beco,e 9 volts. i is
9o( %any voltage each other 'osition at &elo( circuitG

Condition 1 C be ore roo, la,+ s"itch on.=:a,+ &FF> F1+ Noltage %easure 'osition &et(een 1C"=-12 an# 1Battery earth2 ----3 F + Noltage %easure 'osition &et(een 1C"=- 2 an# 1OC2 ----3 F!+ Noltage %easure 'osition &et(een 1L 52 an# 1L 72 ----= Condition 1 C a ter roo, la,+ s"itch on.=:a,+ &$> F1+ Noltage %easure 'osition &et(een 1Battery 'ositive2 an# 1L 52 ----3 F + Noltage %easure 'osition &et(een 1L 52 an# 1Battery earth2 ----3 F!+ Noltage %easure 'osition &et(een 1L 72 an# 1Battery earth2 ----= 5 volt+ 5 volt+ > volt. 5 volt+ > volt. 5 volt+
>USE >B 5<

Battery Battery +
B<TTEL; CO8P<LT8ENT >USE BOM Q1
"
=+5LI4
C C"=-1 CL=
LOO8 4<8P S-ITC9
10 6olt Battery
=+5LI4 L 5 LOO8 4<8P
C"==+5LI4 Battery earth O=C L 7 =+5 B
0.3 %esistance
I* *ree electron %oves on interior o* so%e %aterial) &ecause electrons have electrical nature) &eco%e 1B Chonan Technical Service Training Center
Basic Electricity
*lo(ing o* current+ That is current stu#ie# alrea#y that 1 a%'ere 'asses i* 7+ BR1=E+1BHs electron %ove #uring 1 secon# *ollo( in nu%&er o* electron to %ove 'er unit ti%e+ By the (ay) all ,in#s o* %aterials are co%'ose# o* ato%s an# a*ter all) these are an o&stacle *or *ree electrons to %ove insi#e a%ong the%+ It is calle# Electric Lesistance to 'revent the %ove%ent o* electron+ So) the electric resistance in a %aterial is change# accor#ing to the *ollo(ing varia&les@ - Din# o* %aterial - Sectional area o* (ire - 4ength o* (ire - Te%'erature <lso) all %aterials have #i**erent ,in# o* structure o* ato%s+ There*ore) the environ%ent *or *ree electrons to %ove in the %aterials is various in any ,in# o* %aterial+ Thus) even i* the electrons o* sa%e /uantity are engage#) the a%ount o* electrons) (hich can 'ass through the narro( s'ace 'er unit ti%e) can &e change+ <n#) (hen the thic,ness &eco%e &ig in sa%e %aterial) the 'assage(ay) that electrons can %ove is getting (i#er+ In a##ition) i* trans*er #istance o* electron is long) it ta,es %uch ti%e *or electron to %ove in the 'assage(ay+ There*ore) the a%ount o* electron that %oves (ithin unit ti%e can &e #ecrease#+ This %eans that there are %any electric resistances+ No() the *or%ula that e6'resses the electric resistance is as *ollo(s@ %IJ:KS %C %esistance o ,aterial @ an invariable by <ind o ,aterial=L ,> :C :ength o "ire =,> S C Sectional area=> <lso) i* te%'erature o* %ost %aterial rises) %otions o* ato% liveliness get (orn out+ There*ore) these ato%s can &e o&stacle to *ree electrons o* their %ove%ent+ So) electric resistance o* %aterial increases te%'erature rises on the (hole+ E?+ression o resistance@ L (nit o resistance @ L3oh%5 Sy,bol o resistance@
1 oh%@ Lesistance value o* (hen su''lie# 1volt to con#uctor an# current o* 1 a%'ere *lo(ing+ 1C Chonan Technical Service Training Center
Basic Electricity
1 <%'ere 1 <%'ere
1L 1 volt 1 @1)=== S 1S @ =+==1 1 @ 1)===)=== S 1 volt
0.2 Conductor5 insulator and resistor

I* electrical current *lo(s easily through a %aterial) that %aterial is calle# a conductor. 8etals such as co''er) silver) gol#) alu%inu%) an# steel are use# as 'aths in auto%o&iles &ecause they are goo# con#uctors+ Co''er is use# al%ost e6clusively in (ires &ecause o* its #ura&ility an# cost+ The o''osite o* a con#uctor is an insulator. Insulators #o not allo( current to *lo( through the%+ Olass) 'lastic) ru&&er) an# cera%ics are goo# insulating %aterials+ The 'lastic coating on the outsi#e o* a (ire is an e6a%'le o* an insulator+ -hen *ree electron %oves on con#uctor interior) So%e electrons colli#e (ith ato%s an# 'art o* ,inetic energy e%its as light or heat+ There&y) generator heat calle# Toule heat+ The generator heat is 'ro'ortional (ith s/uare o* current an# in si.e o* resistance+ Moule heat I SBuare o currentJ%esistance Utensils that to use Toule heat+ - Electric stove - Electric iron - 4a%'s - Etc+ Conductors Co''er Iron Steel <lu%inu% Silver Tin Aa%' earth Salt -ater #nsulators Olass <ir Ary (oo# San# Aistille# (ater So%e 'lastics Pa'er Lu&&er Oil
Basic Electricity
0.8 Current5 6oltage5 and %esistance relation
Current) voltage) an# resistance #eter%ine ho( electricity (ill &ehave in a circuit+ These three characteristics are closely relate#+ -hen one changes) it i%%e#iately causes one or &oth o* the others to change as (ell+ The relationshi's &et(een current) voltage) an# resistance can &e e6'resse# (ith a set o* %athe%atical *or%ulas+ The *or%ulas are 'art o* a set o* rules calle# Ohms Law. These rules can &e use# to e6'lain or 're#ict the &ehavior o* electricity in all ty'es o* circuits+ Current@ < %easure o* the a%ount o* electron *lo(+ 4i,e a (ater 'i'e) the larger the 'i'e the greater the ca'acity to carry *lo(+ 8easure# in 1<%'eres2) or 1<%'s2 3<5+ Noltage@ < %easure o* the 'otential o* a source to su''ly electro%otive *orce 3E8>5) or electrical 'ressure+ 8easure# in Nolts 3N5+ Lesistance@ < %easure o* the o''osition to current *lo( in a circuit+ 8easure# in Oh%s 3S5. E?+lain ,ore through igure belo"+ - I* 'u%' o'erates) (ater circulates *or cloc,(ise #irection+ - O'eration 'ressure o* %otor is 1 ,gIc% + - <t this ti%e) actuator (or,ing 1==U %oving+ Condition 1 ;hen there is no resistance in circuit5 +ressure o each +osition. P1 P1) P = P actuator =1 ,gIc% + Pa) P& = =,gIc% + P1 = P Pa = P& 3P1) P 5 K 3Pa) P&5 = 1 Pressure - Bet(een 'u%' an# actuator@ 1 ,gIc% - Bet(een actuator an# 'u%'@ =,gIc% Fuantity o* (ater Even i* 'ressure o* (ater is #i**erent) /uantity o* *lo(ing (ater is sa%e in any 'lace+ P2 P Pa
actuator
Pb
Actuator
P
Pump
Basic Electricity
Condition 0 ;hen there is resistance bet"een P1 and P0 in circuit5 +ressure o each +osition. P1 = 1 ,gIc% + P = P1 K L1 3Fuantity (hich 'ressure o* (ater is &een &loc,e# &y L15+ L1 3Fuantity (hich 'ressure o* (ater is &een &loc,e# &y L15+ = Pu%' 3or P15 K P P =P P
actuator actuator actuator
3<''ly 'ressure to the actuator5
= P K Pa
Pa = P& = =,gIc% + Pressure - Bet(een 'u%' an# actuator@ 1 ,gIc% 3'u%' 'ressure5 - L1 - Bet(een P1 an# P @ Pressure is #ro' as %uch as /uantity) (hich is &een &loc,e# &y L1+ - Bet(een actuator an# 'u%'@ =,gIc% <s a result 'ressure is tre%&le# as /uantity) (hich is &een &loc,e# &y resistance+ Fuantity o* (ater <s %uch as L1 #istur&s) that (ater o* *lo(ing /uantity is #ecrease+ P1 P2 Pa Pb
R1
P actuator Actuator
Pump Condition 4 ;hen there is resistance bet"een Pa and Pb in circuit5 +ressure o each +osition. P1 = 1 ,gIc% + P1 = Pu%' = P = 1 ,gIc% L 3Fuantity (hich 'ressure o* (ater is &een &loc,e# &y L 5 = Pa - P& P P
actuator actuator
= 3Pu%' or P1 or P 5 K Pa a''ly 'ressure is #ecrease as %uch as L 'ressure+
Pa = L K P& P& = =,gIc% Pressure Chonan Technical Service Training Center
Basic Electricity
Bet(een 'u%' an# actuator@ 1 ,gIc% 3'u%' 'ressure5
- Bet(een actuator an# 'u%'@ Pressure is #ro' as %uch as /uantity) (hich is &een &loc,e# &y L + - Bet(een P& an# 'u%'@ =,gIc% + -hen is nor%ally) 'ressure &et(een actuator an# B is 'u%'+ By the (ay) i* there is resistance &et(een actuator an# 'u%') 'ressure #oes not #ro' to .ero as the resistance+ Fuantity o* (ater <s %uch as L #istur&s) that (ater o* *lo(ing /uantity is #ecrease+ P1 P2 Pa Pb
P actuator Actuator
R2
P
Pump
Basic Electricity
Current5 6oltage and %esistance su,,ary.
%esistance
6oltage
Current
6oltage - I* there is electric 'otential) electronHs trans*er is &egun+ - Thus) *lo(ing o* current is &egun+ - I* voltage is high) electrons trans*er %uch have+ -Thus) The *lo(ing o* current &eco%es %uch+ Current - Current is trans*er a%ount o* *ree electron+ - Current o'erates electric actuators - I* voltage is high) current *lo( %uch+ But) overheat i* *lo(ing o* current e6cee#s+ - Lesistance #istur&s *lo(ing o* current+ Thus) i* resistance is high) *lo(ing o* current is #ecrease#+ - I* current 'asses e6cessively) heat occurrence+ - < %agnetic *iel# occurs aroun# (iring that (hen current 'asses+ %esistance - Lesistance #istur&s o* *ree electron *lo(ing+ Thus) #istur& *lo(ing o* current+ - I* there is %uch resistances) electricity actuator o* 1==U #oes not o'erate+ Because) It is current 1==U #oes not 'ass+ - Lesistance is starte# aging or #egra#ation o* (iring in (ire harness+ - Electricity 'ro&le% is &egun *ro% resistance in a car+ They are contact resistance o* connector) #isconnect o* connector) 'oor groun#+
"
Basic Electricity
0.1 'irect 7 Parallel current Circuit

Basically, an automobile uses DC (Direct Current) electric source, but electric circuit is consist of series current circuit, parallel current circuit, and series parallel current circuit! "#erefore, t#e ma$or electric circuit of automobile is series parallel circuit! 0.1.1 'irect current circuit =Series circuit> < ty'ical co%'lete circuit contains an energy su''ly) circuit 'rotection) a loa#) so%e ,in# o* control) an# a 'ath+ -hen a con#uctor connects all o* these co%'onents en#-to-en#) the result is calle# a series circuit. -hen &atteries are connecte# in series 3en#-to-en#5) the total out'ut voltage e/uals the su% o* all the in#ivi#ual &attery voltages+ <lthough this set-u' 'rovi#es a higher out'ut voltage) their co%&ine# ca'acity to su''ly current is the sa%e as that o* a single cell.
Fig. 0-3 Series connect in batteries %amely, resistance or po&er source is connectin' met#od is lin(ed by series, and circuit composition t#at is lin(ed to resistance is same &it# Fig. 2-6 belo&! L1 I E 1 Nolt I1 L I E I 4a%'1 L1 L 4a%'
I1
1 Nolt
Airect circuit o* e/uivalence 5
Airect circuit o*
la%'s
Basic Electricity
Fig. 0-2 'irect current circuit Several resistances o* connection o* resistance co%'ose &y series) &eco%e in one resistance *or%+ E = I L = I 3L1 + L 5 In this *or%ula) 3L1 + L 5 says that is e/uivalence resistance or co%&ine# resistance an# co%&ine# resistance increases is %any i* there is %uch resistances+ 9o(ever) value o* current is #ecrease relatively+ ) To calculation total resistance in series circuit Total resistance -%. I Su, o all resistances o circuit =%1 N %0 ------ %9> There are co,,on characteristics to all direct current circuitsC Su,,ary or direct current There is a single 'ath *or current+ The sa%e a%ount o* current *lo(s through every co%'onent+ <n o'en at any 'oint 'revents current *lo(+ <t series connection o* resistance) total resistance increases connect resistance+ Total resistance increases) *lo(ing current #ecreases in circuit+ >lo(ing current is al(ays sa%e in series circuit even i* %easure in any 'lace+
Series connect in circuit Series connect in la%' Fig. 0-8 'irect current circuit 15 Circuit (ith loa# in #irect-current circuit N = 3L1 + L=5 J I L total = L1 + L= L1@ 4oa# 3Lesistance5 L= @ -ire line resistance I = N V 3L1 + L=5 7 N Chonan Technical Service Training Center # L1 L=
Basic Electricity
Fig. 0-1 'irect current circuit 5 To calculate &oth en# voltage o* resistance in A+C circuit+ --- 1 -hat is the total resistance in &elo( circuitG
- -hat is the current in &elo( circuitG - -hat are the in#ivi#ual voltages o* E1) E ) E! in 'icture &elo(G Total resistance L is L=1+ E1 I # J %1 106 I 0) J 1 I 0 volt E0 I # J %1 106 I 0) J 0 I 4 volt E4 I # J %4 106 I 0) J 4 I 2 volt E I E1 N E0 N E4 1 Nolt Fig. 0-9 'irect current circuit + ! = 7 Oh%s < E1=Gv <= N E =Gv E!=Gv <="N <=7N L1=1 L = L!= Current I = 1 Nolt V 7 =
E I 0volt N 4volt N 2volt I 10 6olt

!5 To yiel# &oth en# voltage o* resistance in A+C circuit+ --- 1 Su% o* varia&le resistance is = , &et(een 6 an# . in &elo( circuit+ In case resistance o* &et(een 6 an# y is 5 , !-15 9o( %uch N= voltG !- 5 9o( %uch volt &et(een 6 an# yG !-!5 E = 36 P y volt5 + N= volt = W 'irect current X Nolt 1 Nolt Lv
y M
N==G
Fig. 0-19 'irect current circuit
8oving charges give rise to a current 1I2 (hose strength is %easure# in a%'ere+ The #irection o* *lo( an# %agnitu#e o* #irect current are in#e'en#ent o* ti%e+ 'irection o current lo" and ,easure,ent Current *lo(ing *ro% 'ositive 'ole to negative 'ole outsi#e current source is #esignate# as 'ositive3in reality) the electronic travel *ro% the negative to the 'ositive 'ole5+ <n a%'ere %eter in the current 'ath %easures current *lo(+ @ Noltage is %easure# &y a volt%eter connecte# in shunt+ Noltage %easure%ent in #irect current circuit+ @ Parallel connecte# voltage %eter+
6olt ,eter ? Chonan Technical Service Training Center
Basic Electricity
Current %easure%ent in #irect current circuit+ @ Series connecte# voltage %eter+
),+ere ,eter
0.1.0 Parallel current circuit =Parallel circuit>

In a 'arallel circuit) there is %ore than one 'ath *or current to *lo(+ Each current 'ath is calle# a &ranch+ Branches are connecte# to one co%%on 'ositive an# one co%%on negative ter%inal0 there*ore) the voltage a''lie# to each &ranch is the sa%e+ -hen &atteries o* the sa%e voltage are connecte# in 'arallel) the total out'ut voltage is the sa%e as *or any single &attery+ 9o(ever) since current *lo(s *ro% all the &atteries si%ultaneously) this arrange%ent (ill su''ly a larger current+ The illu%ination syste% in an instru%ent cluster is a goo# e6a%'le o* a 'arallel circuit+ I* one la%' &urns out or is re%ove# the others (ill still (or,.
Parallel connect in circuit
Parallel connect in &atteries B circuit Chonan Technical Service Training Center Fig. 0-11 Parallel
Basic Electricity
15 >irst) %ust ,no( resistance *alue to ,no( *lo(ing current in 'arallel circuit+ There*ore &elo( *or%ula is *or%e#+ E = E1 = E! E=IL Ltotal = 1 V 31IL1 + 1IL 5 = 1 V 3L + L15 I L1 J L To calculate easily total resistance %total I *ulti+lication o resistance V Su, o resistance %total I =%1 J %0> K =%1 N %0> I*) in this circuit E=1 volt) L1=") L =7+ Total resistanceG Ltotal = 3"J75 V 3"+75 = " V 1= = +" I total = E V L = 1 volt V +" oh% =5< <lso) I 1 = 1 volt V " oh% = ! < I = 1 volt V 7 oh% = = 5 <%'ere E1 = I 1 J L1 =!<J"=1 N E =I JL = <J7=1 N 5 -hen i%'resse# electro%otive *orce in &elo( circuit that *or%ula o* 1I1 = EIL1) I = EIL ) I! = EIL!2 is *or%e#+ !5 <lso) (hole current I is sa%e (ith su% o* current that each ! la%' consu%es in circuit "5 -hen each s(itch #i# 1ON2) to each light &ul& *lo(ing current I1 = EIL1 I = EIL C Chonan Technical Service Training Center < <%'ere I total = I 1 + I = ! <%'ere + Fig. 0-10 Parallel circuit E L1 I1 E1 I E
Basic Electricity
I! = EIL! I = I1 + I + I! = EIL1 + EIL + EIL! = E 31IL1 + 1IL +1IL!5 3<5
I1 # E I I!
L1 C L L!
I1 I I!
s(1 s( s(!
I
E
<
A E
Parallel e/uivalence circuit
! la%'Hs 'arallel circuits Fig. 0-14 Parallel circuit
55 There are t(o co%%on characteristics to all 'arallel circuits@ + The total current in the circuit e/uals the su% o* the &ranch currents+ There*ore) resistance values o* current accor#ing to a##ition or #elete change+ + <n o'en in one &ranch a**ects only the loa# in that &ranch0 other &ranches continue to o'erate nor%ally+ Current in 'arallel circuit is #i**erent accor#ing to 'oint that %easure+ That is) (hen %easure current in a&ove circuit o* right han# si#e+ + ) +oint current I =# 1N# 0N# 4> I B +oint current I = 7=%< I* connect &atteries &y 'arallel circuit) voltage are *i6e#) &ut current consu%es &eco%es %ore 'er I E I1 E1 ti%e+ E=1 N
L1=7= 1I2 an# L voltage =C= 75 >in# total resistance3L5 value in &elo( circuit an# calculate value o* each current 1E2+ Total resistance L = L1 L I L1 + L = 3 E=IL=W E = E1 = E In *or%ula E1 = L1 I ) I1 = EIL1 = W In *or%ula E = L I ) I = EIL = W I = I1 + I = W L =W X Oh% != Chonan Technical Service Training Center Fig. 0-14 Parallel circuit X< Total resistance L = L1 L I L1 + L = W X< X< L1 = 1== X Oh% E=1 N L = = X Nolt I1 I 5
Basic Electricity
I1=3 I =3 5< 5<
0.1.4 Series - Parallel Circuit

< series-'arallel circuit co%&ines &oth series an# 'arallel circuits) along (ith their res'ective characteristics+ The *irst ste' in analy.ing a series-'arallel is to &rea, the circuit #o(n to its si%'lest *or%+ Then analy.e only the 'articular series or 'arallel circuit characteristics that a''ly to that co%'onent+ That is) co%'osition o* car circuit &elongs to series-'arallel circuit as circuit that series an# 'arallel are %i6e#+ I I1 E E1 a I I a E1 L1 L E
L1) 3L1+L 5 &
& E L! c >igure < Fig. 0-13 Series-Parallel circuit
L!
c >igure B
15 E/uivalent circuit o* *igure 1<2 is circuit that series an# 'arallel are %i6e#) an# *igure 1B2 L1+ is co%&ine# resistance value o* L1+L series 5 Because current I is increase# accor#ing as 'arallel resistance increases in this circuit) can be re'resent &y total resistance o* I=IL1) + L!+ !5 -hole co%&ine# resistance 1L2 o* this circuit - Co%&ine# resistance o* &et(een a an# & = 3L1JL 5 I 3L1+L 5 oh% ---- L1) - Co%&ine# resistance o* &et(een a an# c= L1) + L! oh% ------- L 3Co%&ine# resistance5 "5 -hole circuit current I - I = E I L3Co%&ine# resistance 5 = E I 3 L1 L I L1 + L 5 + L! 55 Current o* circuit !1 Chonan Technical Service Training Center o* *igure 1<2 that *igure 1B2 circuit #iagra% co%'utation co%&ine# resistance o* 'arallel resistance L1 L o* *igure 1<2 an# re'resent &y e/uivalent circuit o*
Basic Electricity
- I1 = L I L1 + L M I 3<5 - I = L I L1 + L M I 3<5 - I! = I = I1 + I 3<5 75 Noltage - E! = L! I! = L! I - E1 = E so E = E1 + E! = E + E! 3Nolt5 ?5 Current *lo(ing (hen s(itch ON In &elo( circuit+ <t this ti%e 1+9o( %uch resistance o* each la%'G +9o( %uch co%&ine# resistance &et(een 1a2 an# 1&2G ! <ll current IG "+9o( %uch voltage &et(een 1a2 an# 1&2G 5+9o( %uch voltage &et(een 1&2 an# 1c2G 9ere) (hen la%' ON te%'erature ignores o* la%' 41 = <
I
E
4 = !<
S&
4! = "< Fig. 0-12 Series-Parallel circuit c
Basic Electricity
4.&h,!s :a"
<ny o'erating electrical circuits %ust have three *actors) voltage) current) an# resistance+ Their relationshi' can &e #escri&e# &y Oh%$s 4a( state%ent@ The amount of current that will flow in any circuit is directly proportional to voltage and inversely proportional to resistance. In other (or#s) as voltage goes u') current goes u') &ut as resistance goes u' current goes #o(n+ 6&:T)/E 3V5 UP S<8E S<8E C(%%E$T 3A5 UP UP AO-N %ES#ST)$CE 35 S<8E AO-N UP
Oh%$s 4a( is the &asis *or electrical trou&leshooting+ Ta,en as a state%ent) Oh%$s 4a( e6'resses the characteristics that govern electrical &ehaviors in a circuit+ 9o(ever) Oh%$s 4a( can also &e e6'resse# as an e/uation+ Using this e/uation) calculating a s'eci*ic value *or any three electrical *actors is 'ossi&le@ + 9o( %uch current) i* voltage an# resistance are ,no(n+ + 9o( %uch voltage) i* current an# resistance are ,no(n+ + 9o( %uch resistance) i* voltage an# current are ,no(n+ -hen you ,no( any t(o values) you can use Oh%$s 4a( e/uation to calculate the thir# value+ <s) 'reviously #iscusse#) single letters o* the al'ha&et are use# to re'resent current) voltage) an# resistance0 current &y the letter I *or intensity0 voltage &y either N or an resistance &y the letter !+
E *or electro%otive *orce0 an#
EI#J%
#
!!
Chonan Technical Service Training Center Fig. 4-1 &h,s la" or,ula
Basic Electricity
E C 6oltage # C Current % C %esistance
Ohms Law circle < han#y %e%ory tool is the Oh%$s 4a( circle+ I* you hol# your *inger over the letter o* the un,no(n value) the correct *or%ula stan#s out+ >or e6a%'le) to solve *or I) 'lace your *inger over that letter an# the correct *or%ula is seen to &e@ # I E H % or I = E R Cover (ith your *inger to see that the *or%ula is@ E=IR Cover ! (ith your *inger to see that the *or%ula is@ % I E H# or R = E I is al(ays on to'+ The or#er o* the other t(o letters %a,es It$s only necessary to re%e%&er that the no #i**erence+
4.1 'eter,ining Current

The circuit on the right sho(s the values o* the voltage an# the resistance+ To #eter%ine the current) (e %erely su&stitute the un,no(n value into the *or%ula@ #I@ I=EIL I = 1 volt I 7 oh%s I= <%'eres
+ Y E I 10 volt
%I2
Fig. 4-0 &h,s la" current 1
# I current+ @ <ccor#ing to the Oh%$s la() (hen the voltage increases) so #oes the To 'rove this) let$s loo, at the sa%e circuit (e :ust #i#) &ut only this ti%e (e$ll #ou&le the voltage+ -e still use the sa%e *or%ula as &e*ore+ I=EIL !" Chonan Technical Service Training Center Fig. 4-4 &h,s la" current 0
+ Y E I 04 volt
%I2
Basic Electricity
I = " volt I 7 oh%s I = " <%'eres
Notice that (hen the voltage #ou&les) the current also #ou&les+ -e e6'ect this &ecause current is AILECT4; PLOPOLTION<4 to voltage as Oh%$s 4a( states+ That state%ent also says that current is INNELSE4; PLOPOLTION<4 to resistance+ So) let$s *in# out+ <gain) using the sa%e circuit) only this ti%e (e$ll #ou&le the resistance+ I=G I=EIL I = 1 volts I 1 oh%s I = 1 <%'eres E = 1 volt B Fig. 4-4 &h,s la" current 4 Thus) (hen the resistance is #ou&le#) the current is re#uce# to hal* its *or%er value 4.0 'eter,ining %esistance Using the Oh%$s 4a( circle) 'lace your *inger over the ! an# (e can see the *or%ula is@ L = E I I or L = E V I There*ore) to *in# the resistance in the circuit on the right) (e a''ly the values (e ,no(+ I = !< < E = 1 volt I = ! a%'ere L=G E = 1 volt L = G B Fig. 4-3 &h,s la" resistance < L=1
!5
Basic Electricity
To calculate) #ivi#e ! into 1 an# the ans(er is "+
4.4 'eter,ining 6oltage The *or%ula to #eter%ine voltage is the easiest o* the three+ Noltage = current ti%es the resistance+ The circuit on the right sho(s us there is "I#! "$#% " &' volts 4.4.1 6oltage 'ro+ 1 The voltage re%ove# *ro% the circuit &y the loa# 3light &ul&) %otor) incorrect (ire si.e) etc+5 is calle# the voltage drop. The total voltage lost %ust e/ual the voltage a''lie#+ The a%ount o* this loss can &e calculate# &y using the *or%ula (e stu#ie#) V = I R. In 'ractical ter%s) i* you have a si%'le circuit that consists o* a source 3the &attery5 an# a loa# 3a la%'5) the voltage #ro' across the la%' is #eter%ine# &y the a%ount o* current ti%es the resistance o* the la%'. Euestion Esti%ates the resistance L1) L an# N1Hs voltage in &elo( circuit #iagra%G -2.12 Current 0.1A
,amp
a%'s o* current an# ! oh%s o* resistance+ There*ore@ I = "< < L = ! B Fig. 4-2 &h,s la" voltage
E = G volt
R1 12 *olt R2 !7 -2./ Chonan Technical Service Training Center
Basic Electricity
1+ L134a%' resistance5 = 3 + L Lesistance = 3 ! +N voltage = 3 5 5 volt
4.4.0 6oltage dro+ 0 I* current *lo(s in the loa# 3resistance5 o* circuit) voltage #ro's as %uch as i%'resse# electro%otive *orce in the loa# 3resistance5+ In other (or#) e6hauste# voltage is sa%e (ith i%'resse# voltage in resistance+ -hen s(itch turne# 1ON2 in &elo( circuit+ <s 1 voltHs voltage are su''lie# to this circuit an# la%' is o'erate#) current that consu%e in la%' 'asse#+ <t this ti%e) the voltage #ro' as %uch i%'resse# volt in &oth si#e o* the la%' &et(een 1+2 an# 1-1+ This is voltage #ro'+ By the (ay) i* there is so%e contact resistance in SI- contact 'oint) *lo(ing current an# la%' voltage #ro' as %uch SI- contact 'oint resistance to la%'+ Thus) it %eans that the current an# voltage #ro' cause# &y the contact resistance o* SI- are %ove# *ro% la%' to SI- contact 'oint+ I* su%%ari.e) (hen actuator 3la%') %otor) solenoi#) etc5 o'erates) %ust &e ha''en to actuator+
#,+ressed voltage I 6oltage dro+ ro, actuator

This is a ,in# o* very i%'ortant theory to re'air the vehicle+ S-ITC9 4<8P
1 NO4T Earth B<TT+ N N1 NoltageNoltage -hen s(itch 1 = Nolt in nor%ality+ (hen 1ON2 S- O** 1 Nolt I* lo(er (hen than 1 Nolt) the SON ==la%' Nolt #oes not (or, nor%ality &ecause it %eans that resistance e6ists so%e(here+ SL L1 I 1 4-8 6oltage N Fig. dro+ 1 NO4T N N1 4.3 To understand voltage dro+ in eBuivalent circuit "volt Bvolt O11 N" 1 volt !? N! S- ON @ =volt S- O** @ 1 Nolt
Chonan Technical Service Training Center Fig. 4-1 6oltage dro+ 0
Basic Electricity
15 In a&ove circuit) (hen s(itch turne# 1ON2) the current *lo(ing through L1 an# L + <t this ti%e) N! is1 volts &e*ore s(itch turne# 1ON2+ 9o(ever) N! is = volt) (hen s(itch turne# 1ON2+ 5 I* N1Hs voltage is B volt) it is voltage #ro' B volt in L1+ <t this ti%e) N Hs voltage &eco%e 11 - B = " volt2) &ecause &attery voltage is 1 Nolt+ <lso) &ecause e6'resse# as ZN13voltage #ro' o* L15 = I 3Total current o* circuit5 J L13L1 resistance5Z L1Hs voltage #ro' an# L Hs voltage #ro' are inverse 'ro'ortion each other+ !5 I* L1Hs voltage #ro' rise) L Hs voltage #ro' re#uce# relatively+ "5 Su% o* voltage #ro' o* L1 an# L is sa%e (ith Battery a''lie# voltage+ 55 -hen current 'asses) i* resistance #oes not e6ist) voltage is = volt+
!B
Basic Electricity
4. Kircho !s :a"
Electric circuits are #ivi#e# into series circuit) 'arallel circuit an# seriesI'arallel circuit accor#ing to connecting %etho#+ The su% o* in'ut current an# out'ut current are e/ual in this circuit+ <lso) i%'resse# voltage an# su% o* voltage #ro' is sa%e) this is Dircho**$s la(+ There are t(o la(s in Dircho**Hs la(+
4.1 Kircho !s current la" =Kircho !s irst la">

In circuit in*lo( currentHs su% an# out*lo( su% o* #one current sa%e+ #n lo" current O out lo" current = 9 In this current *lo( &elo( *or%ula is *or%e# in &elo( circuit+ -ritten as a *or%ula@ #1N#4 =#$P(T C(%%E$T> I #0N#4N#3 =&(TP(T C(%%E$T>
L1 I I1
L I1 I I I I! I"
4a( o* E Dircho**$s current in circuit #iagra%+
#n series circuit I = I1 = I I = Total current) I1 = consu%'tion current o* L1 I = consu%'tion current o* L
#n +arallel circuit I = I1 + I + I! = I" I)I" = Total current in circuit I1 = consu%'tion current o* la%'1 I = consu%'tion current o* la%' I! = consu%'tion current o* la%'
!C !s current Chonan Service Training Center Fig. 4-0 Kircho la"Technical 0
Basic Electricity
4.0 Kircho !s voltage la" =Kircho !s second la">

The source voltage o* a series circuit is e/ual to the total value o* each in#ivi#ual voltage #ro') an# su% o* voltage #ro' an# su% o* a''lie# voltage &ig nu%&er are = 3[ero5+ #n+ut source voltage O Su, o voltage dro+ I 9 15 -hen *lo( current in &elo( circuit) voltage #ro' occurrence in resistance L1 an# L + 5 This voltage #ro' is 'ro'ortional in resistance value o* each resistance !5 Su% o* voltage #ro' that is occurrence in each resistance is sa%e (ith a''lie# voltage+ L1 L I1 E1 I I E
E1 I %1 J # =6olt>
E0 I %0 J #=6olt>
Fig. 4-4 Kircho !s voltage la" 1 E I E1 N E0 =Kircho !s voltage la"> E I E1 N E0 I %1 # N %0 # I =%1 N %0> # "5 Dircho**$s voltage la( %aterial *or e6ercise+ -alue o* resistance L1 an# L is #i**erent in this 'icture Current is "< an# value o* voltage #ro' is BNolt in resistance L1+ Do" ,any voltage dro+s ro, %0@ 106olt=+o"er source> - 16olt=%1 voltage dro+> I 46olt or 60=%0 voltage dro+> I 4)=total current>J%0 resistance N1 = 3L15 J "3current I5 = BNolt N = 13L 5 J "3current I5 = "Nolt BNolt "Nolt = 1 Nolt3'o(er source voltage5 "= E I 1 Nolt L1= L =1 I1 I
Chonan Technical Service Training Center Fig. 4-4 Kircho !s voltage la" 0
Basic Electricity
Su,,ary or Kircho !s la" I* there is electric 'otential in a circuit) current 'asses an# energy o* electricity is converte# &y %achine energy or energy o* light &y this+ <t this ti%e) it is a (ind of &ig resistance that 'ro#uces energy an# a''lie# voltage or current consu%e# all in resistance this o'eration resistance that energy o* 1==U e%anates &e+ But) *or e6a%'le) i* there is another &ig or s%all resistance &ehin# or *ront o* e**ector$s) e**ectors #oes not get energy as %uch this resistance consu%es current Because voltage an# current #oes not 'ass in e**ector$s as %uch consu%e in this resistance #oes not get energy 1==U+
"1
Basic Electricity
"
Basic Electricity
3. Electrical +o"er and ;att.

3.1 Electric +o"er =P>
<%ount o* (or, that electricity #uring 1 secon#+ <%ount o* electrical energy) that consu%e #uring per ti%e+ E?+ression o electric +o"erC P (nit o electric +o"er@ " ="att> The *or%ula *or electric 'o(er is@ P="att> I E=volt> J #=current> I EJEH% I E0H% E I PH# # I PHE >or e6a%'le Current that *uel 'u%' %otor consu%es is !<+ 9o( %uch is electric energyG P I# 6 P= < J 1 volt = " (att
Euestion < starter %otor) rate# at 1+ ,() is o'erate# to 1 -volt &attery+ 9o( %uch current (ill this a''liance useG P=EI I = PII I = 1+ ,( V 1 = 1) ==( V 1 volt = 1==<%'are
3.0 ),ount o electric +o"er

8ulti'ly ti%e that use to electric 'o(er+ ),ount o electric +o"er =;> I E # t I P t=Goules> <n electrical current 'ro#uces heat (hen it 'asses through a resistance+ 9eaters an# resistors (ill re%ain hot *or so%e ti%e a*ter the 'o(er is re%ove#+ This is #ue to heat o* :oules+ "! Chonan Technical Service Training Center
Basic Electricity
Deat o Goules 1 :oule = =+ " cal 9eat = =+ " E I t = =+ " L I t = =+ " E IL t 3cal or , cal5
2. Su,,ary or basic electrical
E#
EH % PH E
2.1 To understand easily 0 or,ula o electrical
# %
E0 H %
P %
# E
PP H E
EH # E0 H P
#% PP%
P H #0
PH #
"" Chonan Technical Service Training Center
Basic Electricity
P C Electric +o"er="att>5 E C 6oltage=volt>5 % C %esistance=%>5 # C Current=),+> 2.0 Troubleshooting ,ethod in circuit

-hen s(itch on %otorHs o'eration is not s%ooth in &elo( circuit) it e6'lains chec,ing %etho# an# ins'ection or#er+ B A E E
C D 3&itc#
Chec< +rocedure 1st+ 8easure the voltage o* &attery+

n#
) 1st+ 8easure the voltage o* &et(een 1B2 an# 1C2+
<t this ti%e) voltage %ust &e 1 volts) an# ins'ect *ollo(ing &elo( or#er i* is lo( than a''lie# voltage+ <n#) i* voltage are 1 volts) it is %otor itsel* #e*ect+ !r#) 8easure the voltage &et(een 1<2 an# 1B2 <t this ti%e) voltage &ust &e = volt) i* higher than = volt) there is resistance &et(een 1<2 an# 1B2+ "th) 8easure the voltage &et(een 1C2 an# 1E2 <t this ti%e) voltage &ust &e = volt) i* higher than = volt) there is resistance &et(een 1C2 an# 1E2+ Su&stantially) Cannot %easure = volt correctly in circuit o* the vehicles+ Because groun# connection state or itsel* resistance rate o* (iring e6ists+ There*ore) voltage in &o#y electrical regar# as nor%alcy i* is lo( than 1 volt usually
2.4 Chec< or ground condition in Parallel circuit

"5 Chonan Technical Service Training Center
Basic Electricity
S(itch1 I1 I I I! S(itch S(itch!
I"
Current I" is #i**erent accor#ing to s(itch ON in a&ove circuit #iagra%+ <n# voltage 1N2 is #i**erent accor#ing to groun# connection con#ition+ I* it is nor%ally) voltage 1N2 &eco%e =volt+ I* is high than = Nolts) 1==U is not o'erate# &ecause is lo( than a''lie# voltage to la%'+ I%'ortant thing is that voltage 1N2 is #i**erent) accor#ing to current ZI"Z+ It is) &ecause voltage an# current are 'ro'ortional+ There*ore) it is i%'ortant that %easure in con#ition that all currents 'ass to ,no( correctly groun# connection state+
Troubleshooting a series circuit 1. *easure voltage 1
There is nothing volt (hen the s(itch o'ene# -ith the s(itch o'en) The volt%eter (ill rea# a *ull 1 -volt) the sa%e as the source+
I 1 NO4T N
L1 N1
S-
<n o'en s(itch in a series circuit 'ro#uces a rea#ing on a volt%eter e/ual to the source volt+ O11 O "7 Chonan Technical Service Training Center
Basic Electricity
0. *easure voltage 0
The volt%eter (ill no( rea# the a%ount o*the voltage #ro' across the L1+volt%eter (ill in#icate .ero volts across the s(itch+ -hen s(itch is close#)
I 1 NO4T N
L1
S-
-hen the series circuit is co%'lete) there (ill &e voltage #ro' across each loa# co%'onent in the circ O11 O
Troubleshooting a +arallel circuit 1. *easure resistance
8easure resistance 1= Calculate# resistance 5 can 'rovi#e a /uic, i#ea a&out the con#ition o* the circuit+ <n oh%%eter <n in*inity rea#ing (oul# in#icate# an o'en) an# a .ero resistance rea#ing (oul# in#icate a short circu
I 1 NO4T N S(itch o'en O'en L1=1= L =1=
Caution
The s(itch %ust &e o'en or the 'o(er source #isconnecte# (hen &yTraining oh%%eter+ "? %easuring Chonanresistance Technical using Service Center
Basic Electricity
0. *easure current
<n a%%eter can &e connecte# across the o'en s(itch) It can %easure the *ull loa# current o* the circuit
I N 1 NO4T S(itch L1 L
The s(itch location o* a circuit is an i#eal location to connect an a%%eter to the circuit+
Troubleshooting series-+arallel circuit 1. *easure voltage in series-+arallel circuit 8easure voltage@ 1 volt
I 1 NO4T O11 N S(itch
L1 O'en L L!
"B
Basic Electricity
8easure voltage to e/ual to L in series (ith L1
I 1 NO4T O11 <n o'en in the 'arallel &ranch o* a series-'arallel circuit can &e %isrea#ing (hen %easuring *or continuity+ <l(ays ,no( the e6'ecte# values to &e %easure#+ N S(itch L1 L L! O'en
0. *easure current in series-+arallel circuit
-hen %easuring *or current values in a series-'arallel circuit) each resistance connecte# in 'arallel %ust have one en# #
I 1 NO4T O11 N S(itch
L1 O'en L
L!
<n a%%eter %ust have one en# o* the co%'onents #isconnecte# &e*ore a rea#ing c 4. *easure resistance in series-+arallel circuit
The oh%%eter (oul# rea# the L resistor+
I 1 NO4T O11 <s (hen using the a%%eter) one en# o* the co%'onent &eing teste# %ust &e #isconnecte# (hen using the oh%%eter+ "C Chonan Technical Service Training Center N S(itch L1 L L! O'en
Basic Electricity
8. *ulti ,eter =)nalog ,ulti ,eter section %e erenceIElectricity 7 Electronic>

8.1 *easure,ent ite,
AC current 3A<C5 <C current 3<C<5 AC volt 3ACN5 <C volt 3<CN5 Oh% 3Lesistance5
8.1.1 )nalog *ulti *eterFs o+eration +rinci+le

< co%%on ty'e o* %eter %ove%ent %easures current an# voltage+ It$s the A$<rsonval %ove%ent) or stationary %agnet) %oving coil galvano%eter+ The %ove%ent consists o* a 'er%anent-ty'e %agnet an# a rotating coil in the %agnetic *iel#+ 5= Chonan Technical Service Training Center
Basic Electricity
<n in#icating nee#le is attache# to the rotating coil+3>ig -15 -hen a current 'asses through the %oving coil) a %agnetic *iel# is 'ro#uce#+ This *iel# reacts (ith the stationary *iel# an# causes rotation o* the nee#le+ This #e*lection *orce is 'ro'ortional to the strength o* the current *lo(ing in the %oving coil+ -hen the current ceases to *lo() the %oving coil is returne# to its 1at reset2 'osition &y hair s'rings+ These s'rings are also connecte# coil against the restraining *orce these s'rings+ See >igure -1
3cale
-ery t#in &ire 0ndicated needle 3prin' 4ould on 5eter
%ort# field pole Positi*e lead &ire
3out# field pole
%e'ati*e lead &ire
Figure 8-1 )nalog ,ulti-,eter
8.1.0 )n a,,eter ,easures electrical current in a circuit +

<n a%%eter (ill usually %easure in a%'eres) %illi a%'eres) or %icroa%'eres) #e'en#ing on the scale or #esign o* the instru%ent+ The coil %eter %ove%ent o* an a%%eter is (oun# (ith %any turn o* *ine (ire+ I* a large current is allo(e# to *lo( through this coil) the a%%eter (ill /uic,ly &urn out+ In or#er to %easure larger current) a shunt) or alternate 'ath) is 'rovi#e *or current+ 8ost o* the current *lo(s through the shunt) leaving only enough current to sa*ety (or, the %eter %ove%ent coil+ The shunt is a 'recision resistor connecte# in 'arallel (ith %eter coil+ The use o* shunts is illustrate# in >igure ?-
Current %angeC 9 Q 1,)=Fig. 8-0>

>irst calculate the voltage re/uire# *or *ull-scale #e*lection on the lo(est setting) (hich is = P 1%< 51 Chonan Technical Service Training Center
Basic Electricity
N = I3>ull scale current5 J L3Lesistance o* %eter coil5 N = 1%< J 1==
- . 2!1-olt 5 Ran'e6 281mA Coil resistance 122
The %eter (ill rea# *ro% = P 1 %< (ithout shunt) *or *ull scale #e*lection =+1 volt is re/uire#+
Figure 7-2. Meter measure 0 ~1mA
%ange 9 Q 19 ,)=Figure. 8-4>

To convert this sa%e %eter to rea# *ro% = P 1= %<) a shunt %ust &e connecte# that (ill carry CI1= o* the current+ Thus) C %< o* current (ill travel through the shunt) leveling one %illia%'ere to o'erate the %eter+ The *irst ste' in the calculation #eter%ine# that =+1 volt is re/uire# *or *ull scale #e*lection+ The shunt connecte# in 'arallel (ith the coil) so it (ill &e also have =+1 volt a''lie# to it+ Since =+1 volt %ust &e a''lie# across the shunt) an# shunt %ust &e also account *or CI1= o* the current) you can a''ly O98$S la( to cau#ate the shunt$s resistance+ L=NII L = =+1 volt I =+==C < L = 11+1 The %eter (ill re/uire a shunt (ith a resistance value o* 11+1 *or the = P 1C %< scale+
R 6 11!1 Rs.11!1 Figure 7-3. Meter measure 0 ~10mA 12 mA 5 R.122 7 mA 1 mA
%ange 9 Q 39 ,)=Fig.8-4>
To convert this %eter *or the = P 5= %< scale) a shunt %ust &e use# that (ill carry "CI5= o* the current or "C %<+ The co%'utation is the sa%e as in 1Lange = P 1= %<2 L = =+1 volt I =+="C < = +="
92 mA 1 mA
5 R.122
77 mA R 6 2!21 Rs.11!1 Figure 7-4 Meter measure 0 ~ 50mA
Basic Electricity
%ange 9 Q 199 ,)=Fig.8-3>
To converter the %eter *or the = P 1==%< scale) a shunt %ust &e use that (ill carry CCI1== o* the current) or CC%<+
122 mA 5 R.122 77 mA R 6 1!21 Rs.11!1 Figure 7-5 Meter measure 0 ~100mA 1 mA
L= =+1N I =+=CC<
< shunt (ith an oh%ic value o* 1=+1 is re/uire# *or the %eter to sa*ety use a 1 P 1== %< range+ 4oc, again at >igure +7+ Notice the s(itch #evice use to change the range o* the %eter+ The correct scale on the range #ial %ust &e use# to corres'on# to the selecte# range+
281
5 R.122 2812 R.11!1 R.1!21 R.1!21
2892 28122
Figure 7-6 Analog urrent meter ir uits
8.1.4 Caution5 "hen ,easure current using analog ,ulti-,eter.

There are t(o i%'ortant things to re%e%&er *or the %ulti-%eter sa*ety+ 1+ <n a%%eter %ust al(ays &e connecte# in series (ith circuit #evice or the 'o(er su''ly+ Never connect an a%%eter in 'arallel (ith the 'o(er su''ly or circuit #evice+ I* connecting (ith 'arallel) (ill &e a%%eter &ro,en+ + The secon# thing to re%e%&er) is (hen the current value %easure is un,no(n) start at the highest %eter range+ This (ay you (ill not e6cee# the highest value on the %eter scale #uring the rea#ing o* a circuit+ <%%eter 5! M Chonan Technical Service Training Center
Basic Electricity
Figure 7-7.
Connecting a%%eter to %easure current --- incorrect (ay
M <%%eter
Figure 7-!.
Connecting a%%eter to %easure current -- correct (ay+
8.0 6olt,eter
The sa%e &asic %eter %ove%ent that is use# in an a%%eter is also use# %easure voltage This 'rovi#ing that the i%'resse# voltage across the coil never e6cee#s =+1volt) as co%'ute#) *or *ullscale #e*lection+ To arrange the %eter to %easure higher voltages) %ulti'lier resistors are 'lace# in series (ith the %eter %ove%ent coil using a select s(itch+
Nolt%eters are al(ays connecte# in 'arallel (ith the #evice &eing %easure#
281 R.722 2812 2892 28122 28922 R.7!7 ( R.77!7 ( R.177!7 (
5 R.122
Figure 7-" Analog #oltmeter5" ir uit
Basic Electricity
8.0.1 Caution5 "hen ,easure voltage using analog ,ulti-,eter.

< volt%eter al(ays connecte# in 'arallel or across the circuit+ To %easure a voltage) the circuit #oes not have to &e &ro,en+ <s (ith the a%%eter) (hen %easuring un,no(n voltage) al(ays start %easuring (ith %eter set it on it$s highest range+ <#:uste# #o(n(ar# to the 'ro'er range to avoi# #a%aging the %eter in a##ition) &e sure that the lea#s are connecte# (ith the correct 'olarity+ The &ra,e lea# is negative an# the re# lea# is 'ositive+ M <%%eter N Nolt%eter
Figure 7-10 A #olt meter is onne te$ in %arallel &it' t'e $e#i e &'en ta(ing a #oltage
8 12
Resistance scale 4 0
8.4 &h,,eter
< %erter use# to %easure the value o* an un,no(n resistance is calle# oh%%eter+ The sa%e %eter ;ero Ad$uster : *olt Battery < voltage source an# %ove%ent that (as use# in the volt an# a%%eter can &e use# *or the ohnneter+ a varia&le resistor are a##e# to the oh%%eter$s circuit+ < serise ty'e oh%%eter is sho(n in &elo( 'icture+
Red lead &ire
55 Resistor
Chonan Technical Service Training Center Blac( lead &ire
Basic Electricity
<#m 5eter
Figure 7-11 S 'emati $iagram o) o'mmeter insi$e.
! an# C volt are use# as the source *or the oh%%eter+ The &attery &uilt into the %eter case+
8.4.1 Characteristics o analog ,ulti ,eter in resistance ,easuring ,ode

- -hen %easure voltage or current) 'o(er is su''lie# *ro% outsi#e) an# is %easure# accor#ing to *lo(ing o* current to %illi%eter+ - -hen %easure resistances (ith %easure%ent %o#e o* oh%%eter voltage su''lie# in resistance that these &atteries+ <t this ti%e) accor#ing to *lo(ing o* current) in#icator nee#le %ove+ Noltage that i%'ortant thing is %easuring in resistance %o#e voltage out'ut through lea# (ire are !volt an# 1 volt accor#ing to oh% %o#e s(itch 'osition+
range J15 J195 J1< C 4-volt out+ut rangeJ19< C 10 volt=4voltN9volt> out+ut
<lso) voltage out'ut *ro% rea# lea# (ire 12) an# *ro% &lac, lea# (ire 1-1 volt+ There*ore) #io#e or con#enser chec,ing %etho# sa%e as &elo( 'icture in resistance %o#e+
025
Polarity6=
Polarity6>
57 Polarity6= Chonan Technical Service Training Center Polarity6>
Basic Electricity
Figure 7-12
>igure Chec, *or con#enser@ correct (ay Figure 7-13 Chec, *or #io#e@ correct (ay i%'ortant thing (hen %easures Battery :*olt ;ero settin'
<n#)
another
resistance) state that current is 'assing in resistance that %easure cannot %easure resistance+ 8ulti'ly that select in %easure# value (hen rea# resistance value that %easure+
J12? J1, J1= J1 Ran'e mode 3 4
<#m 5eter
Blac( lead &ire
Resistor
Figure 7-14 Analog o'mmeter ir uit
Red lead &ire
8.4.0 Caution5 "hen ,easure resistance using analog ,ulti-,eter.

Be*ore connecting an oh%%eter to any electrical circuit to rea# an un,no(n value) &e sure that the circuit is not energi.e#+ <n energi.e# circuit (ill #a%age the %eter an# can &e har%*ul to you+ The electrical energy in a circuit is not nee#e# to o'erate the %eter %ove%ent coil as it is (hen using a volt%eter or an a%%eter+ The &atteries insi#e the case 'rovi#e the source o* 'o(er *or the oh%%eter+ 5? Chonan Technical Service Training Center
Basic Electricity
Connecting the oh%%eter to an energi.e# circuit (ill a''ly the circuit voltage #irectly to the coil an# &attery) (hich can result in #a%age to the %eter an# 'ossi&le har% to you+ Su,,ary or )nalog ,ulti ,eter -hen %easure voltage) connect &y 'arallel+ -hen %easure current) connect &y series connection+ I* #oes not ,no( range o* voltage that (ish to %easure) %oving range selection *ro% highest &y lo( ran'e! S'ecially) (hen %easure current) select 'ro&e 'osition accor#ing to si.e o* %easure%ent current+ I* current %easuring is not &een) con*ir% *use in interior o* %ulti-%eter+ -hen there is selective s(itch to resistance %o#e) voltage is output through 'ro&e+ - -hen selecte# J1) J1=) J1, %o#e) out'ut voltage are !volt+ - -hen selecte# J1=, %o#e) out'ut voltage are Cvolt+ <t this ti%e) voltage out'ut *ro% rea# lea# (ire 1-2) an# *ro% &lac, lea# (ire 1+1 volt+ 3pecially, &#en measure resistance bet&een EC5 in out &ire and 'round t#at s#ould be careful for because multi-%eterHs voltage %ust o&serve &ecause is a''rove# to EC8 Be*ore %easure resistance) en*orce .ero setting+
8.4 'igital ,ulti-,eters

This ty'e o* %eter is o*ten re*erre# to as a %ulti-%eter &ecause it can &e use as a volt%eter) a%%eter) an# oh%%eter all rolle# into one+
8.4.1 *easure current use o digital volt,eter.

Aigital volt%eter are versatile %eter) ho(ever) they %ust &e setu' correctly to ensure accurate 5B Chonan Technical Service Training Center
Basic Electricity
%easure%ents an# avoi# #a%age to the %eter or the circuit &eing teste# Connecte# the test lea#s to the correct in'ut ter%inals on the #igital %ulti %eter+ Set the #igital %ulti %eter to the 'ro'er *unction an# range+ Be care*ul (hen attaching your %eter to an o'erating circuit avoi# electrical shoc, or #a%age to the circuit &eing teste#+
8.4.0 'igital ,ulti ,eter range and unction

Aigital %ulti %eter have a s(itch that allo(s selecting the *unction range *or an electrical %easure%ent+ Test *unction are usually a&&reviate# or re'resente# &y sy%&ols+ The sy%&ols sho(n on the screen are ty'ical) ho(ever) your %eter %ay use slightly #i**erent sy%&ols+
8.4.4 'igital volt,eter range and unctions

Noltage availa&le is the voltage at any 'oint in a circuit co%'are# to groun# or the negative ter%inal o* the &attery+ To %easure voltage availa&le) hoo, u' the lea#s to the correct ter%inals) set the %o#e selector s(itch to the AC volt 'osition) touch the ti' o* the &lac, 'ro&e to groun# or the negative ter%inal o* the 5C Chonan Technical Service Training Center
Basic Electricity
&attery an# %easure the voltage availa&le at the 'oint you select+
8.4.4 Do" to read voltage on a digital volt,eter screen

In auto%otive a''lications) (e generally see voltage rea#ing as volt an# %ill volts+ 8illi is a&&reviate# as a lo(er case 1%2 1 volt = 1)=== %illivolt = 1)=== %N 1 %illivolt = 1 %N = =+==1 volt The #is'lay sho(n on the screen can &e rea# in t(o (ays+ In volts it is rea# as =+! 5 volts an# in %illivolts it is rea# as !5 %illivolts+
8.4.3 *easuring voltage used "ith a digital volt,eter

Noltage use# is the a%ount o* voltage use# &y an electrical co%'onent or the section o* the circuit &eing %easure#+ To %easure voltage use#) hoo, u' lea#s to the correct ter%inals) set the %o#e selector s(itch to the 7= Chonan Technical Service Training Center
Basic Electricity
AC volt 'osition an# 'ro&e the electrical co%'onent or section o* the circuit as sho(n on the screen+
8.4.2 *easuring current lo" "ith a digital ,ulti ,eter

To %easure current *lo( in circuit) the #igital %ulti %eter %ust &e connecte# in series (ith the circuit+ <n# (e reco%%en# starting (ith the highest current circuit on %eter to re#uce the 'ossi&ility o* #a%aging the %eter+ >or circuit %ore current than the highest a%'ere range o* %eter) use a current cla%'+ I* the rea#ing is lo(est current range) turn circuit 1O>>2) %ove the re# lea# to the lo(er current range connection) turn the circuit &ac, 1ON2 an# note the rea#ing on the #igital #is'lay+ >or rea#ing &elo( lo(est current range) this range (ill 'ro&a&ly 'rovi#e a %ore accurate rea#ing+
8.4.8 Do" to read voltage on a digital volt,eter screen

In auto%otive a''lications) (e generally see a%'erage rea#ing as a%'ere an# %illi a%'ere++ < %illi a%'ere is one thousan#th o* an la%'+ 71 Chonan Technical Service Training Center
Basic Electricity
8illi is usually a&&reviate# as a lo(er case 1%2 1 a%' = 1)=== %illia%'s = 1)=== %< 1 %illia%' = 1 %< = =+==1 <%' The #is'lay sho(n on the screen can &e rea# in t(o (ays+ In a%'s it is rea# as =+ B= a%'s an# in %illia%'s It is rea# as B= %illia%'s+
8.4.1 *easuring resistance "ith digital ,ulti ,eter

Every electrical co%'onent has so%e resistance that o''oses current *lo( in a circuit+ To %easure the resistance o* a co%'onent or a 'ortion o* a circuit) isolate the 'ortion o* the circuit &eing teste# *ro% any other co%'onents connecte# in a 'arallel+ Turn the 'o(er 1O>>2 an# #ischarge any ca'acitors in the circuit+ Connect one test lea# to each en# o* the 'ortion o* a circuit &eing teste# an# note the rea#ing on the #igital #is'lay+
Aigital %ulti %eter #is'lay resistance rea#ings in oh%s ,ilo-oh%s an# %ega-oh%s+ Dilo is a&&reviate# as a lo(er case 1D2 8ega is a&&reviate# as an u''er case 182 7 Chonan Technical Service Training Center
Basic Electricity
1 ,ilo-oh% = 1)=== Oh% = 1)=== 1 8ega-oh% = 1)===)=== Oh%s = 1)=== , The #is'lay sho(n on the screen can &e rea# t(o (ay @ in oh%s it is rea# as + == oh%s an# ,ilo-oh%s it is rea# as + ,ilo-oh%s+
Characteristics o digital ,ulti ,eter in resistance ,easuring ,ode Polarity o* voltage that is #is'laye# through lea# (ire in resistance %o#e o* #igital %ulti %eter is o''osite Le# lea# (ire @ + Blac, lea# (ire @ - <t this ti%e) out'ut voltage is =+ 5volt+ - There*ore) chec,ing o* #io#e cannot &e &een in resistance %o#e+
8.4.9 Caution5 "hen ,easure resistance using digital ,ulti-,eter.

-hen using a %ulti %eter or #igital %ulti %eter) it is to connect the %eter to a voltage source i%%e#iately a*ter ta,ing a resistance or current rea#ing+ This is the %ost co%%on %ista,e %a#e (hen using a %ulti %eter or #igital %ulti %eter+ Thus) action (ill result in #a%age to the %eter+
Su,,ary or )nalog ,ulti ,eter -hen %easure voltage) connect &y 'arallel+ 7! Chonan Technical Service Training Center
Basic Electricity
-hen %easure current) connect &y series connection+ Even i* #o not ,no( %easure%ent value) range esta&lish%ent is no necessity+ -hen there is selective s(itch to resistance %o#e) voltage is output through 'ro&e+ - Out'ut voltage@ =+ 5 volt <t this ti%e) voltage out'ut *ro% rea# lea# (ire 12) an# *ro% &lac, lea# (ire 1-1 volt+
1. *agnetic Force
1.1 &ccurrence o *agnetic Force
The ancient Chinese navigators #iscovere# that a s%all 'iece o* o## stone) attache# to a string) (oul# al(ays turn in a northerly #irection+ These s%all stones (ere iron ore+ The Oree,s calle# the% %agnetite &ecause they (ere *oun# near 8agnesia in <sia 8inor+ Since %ariners use# these stones in the navigation o* their shi's) the stones &eca%e ,no(n as 1lea#ing stones2+ These (ere the *irst *or%s o* nature %agnets+ To#ay) a %agnet can &e #e*ine# as a %aterial or su&stance that has the 'o(er to attract iron) steel) an# %agnetic %aterials+
1.0 *agnetic and *agnetic Forces

The greatest attractive *orce a''eare# at the en#s o* a %agnetic+ These concentrations o* %agnetic *orce are calle# %agnetic 'oles+ Each %agnet has a north 'ole an# a south 'ole+ It (as also #iscovere# that %any invisi&le lines o* %agnetic *orce e6iste# &et(een 'oles+ Each line o* *orce (as an in#e'en#ent line+ None o* the lines cross or touch a &or#ering line+ Notice the 'attern o* lines e6isting &et(een the 'oles+ These lines o* *ilings re*lect the lines o* *orce+ Note 7"
Figure 1-1+ These *igure sho( the %agnetic *iel# o* attracting an# re'elling %agnets+
Basic Electricity
the concentration o* lines at each en# o* the %agnet) or its 'oles+ The lines o* *orce are %ore concentrate# at the 'oles+ Each %agnetic line o* *orce travels *or% the North Pole to the South Pole through s'ace+ The line returns to the North Pole through the %agnet itsel*+ These close# loo's o* the %agnetic *iel# can &e #escri&e# %agnetic as %agnetic to the circuits+ electrical Co%'are circuit+ the The circuit
%agneti.ing *orce can &e co%'are# to voltage) an# the %agnetic lines o* *orce can &e co%'are# to current+ -hen the North Pole o* one %agnet is close to the South Pole o* the other) an attractive *orce &rings the t(o %agnets together+ I* the %agnets are turne# so that t(o N 'oles or t(o S 'oles are close to each other there is a re'ulsive *orce &et(een the t(o %agnets+
>urther scienti*ic investigation sho(e# that the earth acts as one enor%ous %agnet+ The earth$s %agnetic 'oles are close to the north an# south geogra'hic 'oles+ Le*er to Figure 1-0+ ;ou can o&serve that %agnetic north an# the north geogra'hic 'ole #o not coinci#e+ < co%'ass (oul# not necessarily 'oint to(ar# true north+ This angle &et(een true north an# %agnetic north is calle# the angle o* #eclination or #eclination or the angle o* variation+ There is) ho(ever) a line aroun# the earth (here the angle o* #eclination is .ero+ + -hen stan#ing on this line) your co%'ass (oul# 'oint to true north as (ell as %agnetic north+ <t all other locations on the
Figure 1-4+ To'-8olecules are not aligne#+ Botto%-8olecules have &een aligne# Figure 1-0+ The earth is a large %agnetic) surroun#e# &y a %agnetic *iel#+
75
Basic Electricity
sur*ace o* the earth) the co%'ass rea#ing %ust &e correcte# to *in# true north+ -hat causes a su&stance to &eco%e %agneti.e#G The %olecules in an# iron &ar act as tiny %agnets+ I* theses tiny %agnets are in a ran#o% or#er) Figure 1-4 =to+>) the &ar #oes not act as a %agnet+ 9o(ever) (hen these tiny %agnets are arrange# so that their north an# south 'oles are in line) Figure 14 =botto,>) the iron is %agneti.e#+ This can &e #e%onstrate# &y &rea,ing a 'iece o* %agneti.e# iron into several 'ieces+ Each o* the &ro,en 'ieces acts as a se'arate %agnet+ Figure 1-4 sho(s a &ro,en %agnet+ -hen the iron is #e%agneti.e#) these %olecules are 'lace# &ac, in ran#o% 'ositions+ This %olecular action is *urther #e%onstrate# &y the (ay a %agnet is %a#e+ >or e6a%'le) ta,e an un%agni*ie# iron &ar+ Lu& it a *e( ti%es in the sa%e #irection (ith a 'er%anent %agnet+ < test 3&ring the &ar near so%e iron *ilings5 (ill sho( that the &ar is no( %agneti.e#+ Lu&&ing the iron &ar (ith the %agnet lines u' the %olecules %agneti.e#+ Per%anent %agnets are %a#e &y 'lacing the %aterial to &e %agneti.e# in a very strong %agnetic *iel# 9eat (ill #estroy a %agnet+ 9eat energy causes an increase in %olecular activity an# e6'ansion+ This 'er%its the %olecules to return to their ran#o% 'ositions on the un%agni*ie# 'iece o* iron+ 1.0.1 *agnetic Flu?
Figure 1-2+ 9eat (ill #estroy a %agnet+ Figure 1-3+ The nail is no( %agneti.e#+ Figure 1-4. < long %agnet %ay &e &ro,en into several s%aller %agnets+
an#
causes
the
iron
to
&eco%e
77
Basic Electricity
The %any invisi&le lines o* %agnetic *orce surroun#ing a %agnet are calle# the ,agnetic lu?+ I* a %agnet is strong) these lines o* *lu6 (ill &e #enser+ So) the *iel#$s *lu6 #ensity) or the nu%&er o* lines 'er s/uare inch or 'er s/uare centi%eter can #eter%ine the strength o* a %agnetic *iel#+ 8agnetic >lu6 #ensity = %agnetic *lu6 I area BIRH) (here B e/uals *lu6 #ensity) \ 3the Oree, letter 'hi5 e/uals the nu%&er o* lines) an# < e/uals the cross sectional area+ The cross-sectional area can &e %easure# in s/uare centi%eters+ I* the crosssectional area is %easure# in s/uare centi%eter) then the *lu6 #ensity is given in the unit gauss+ < gauss is the nu%&er o* lines 'er s/uare centi%eter+ The *lu6) B) is usually given in -e&er$s 'er s/uare %eter+
1.4 Electro *agnetic #nduction

Auring the eighteenth an# nineteenth centuries) a great #eal o* research (as #irecte# to(ar# #iscovering the lin, &et(een electricity an# %agnetis%+ < Aanish 'hysicist) 9ans Christian Oerste#) #iscovere# that a %agnetic *iel# e6iste# aroun# a con#uctor carrying an electric current+ ;ou can 'er*or% an e6'eri%ent that sho(s the %agnetic *iel# aroun# the current carrying con#uctor+ Pass a current carrying con#uctor through a sheet o* car#&oar#+ Place# s%all co%'asses close to the con#uctor+ The co%'asses (ill 'oint in the #irection o* the %agnetic lines o* *orce) Figure 1-8+ Leversing the current (ill also reverse the #irection o* the 7?
Figure 1-8+ Co%'asses line u' to sho( Figure + Ae%onstration o* the right han# circular 1-1 'attern o* %agnetic *iel# aroun# rule *or con#uctors+ current carrying con#uctor+
Basic Electricity
co%'asses &y 1B= #egrees+ This sho(s that the #irection o* the %agnetic *iel# #e'en#s u'on the #irection o* the current+ 8agnetic *iel# e6ists aroun# a current-carrying con#uctor+ In the conventional theory o* current #irection) current is sai# to &e *ro% 'ositive to negative+ Using the right han# as sho(n igure 1-1) (ith the thu%& 'ointing in the #irection o* current) the *ingers in#icate the #irection o* the %agnetic *iel#+ In Figure 1-9) the #ot in the center o* the con#uctor on the le*t as the 'oint o* an arro(+ This sho(s that current is *lo(ing to(ar# you+ Circular arro(s sho( the #irection o* the %agnetic *iel#+ This 'rinci'le is very i%'ortant (hen electrical (ires carry alternating currents+ This is &ecause the 'lace%ent o* (ires) or lea# #ress) has an in*luence on the (or,ings o* a circuit+ Con#uctors are grou'e# in 'airs (henever 'ossi&le to eli%inate heating e**ects an# ra#io inter*erence cause# &y the %agnetic *iel# create# &y the current *lo(+
Figure 1-9+ These conventions are use# to sho( the lin, &et(een current *lo( an# the %agnetic *iel#+ The #ot re'resents a current arro( hea#ing to(ar# you+ The cross on the right re'resents the tail en# o* the current arro( hea#ing a(ay *ro% you+
1.4 Solenoid
-hen a current-carrying con#uctor is (oul# in the *or% o* a coil) or solenoid) the %agnetic lines o* *orce (ill &e insi#e the coilN an# (ill &e concentrate#) %a,ing a stronger %agnetic *iel#+ < solenoi# (ill a''ear as a %agnetic *iel# (ith a North Pole at one en#) an# a South Pole at the o''osite en#+ This solenoi# is sho(n in Figure 1-19+
Current in
Current out
Figure 1-19+ < (ire (oun# into a coil is a solenoi# an# has 'olarity set &y the #irection o* current *lo(+
7B
Basic Electricity
Figure 1-11+ 8agnetic *iel# aroun# coil
Figure 1-10. Light han# rule *or a coil
The 'olarity 3#irection5 o* these %agnetic lines o* *orce can &e esta&lishe# &y using the right hand (ith the *ingers 'ointing in the #irection o* current in the coil (in#ing+ The thu%& then 'oints to the North Pole) Figure 1-10+ The strength o* the %agnetic *iel# o* a solenoi# #e'en#s u'on the nu%&er o* turns o* (ire in the coil an# the si.e o* the current in a%'eres *lo(ing through the coil+ The 'ro#uct o* the a%'eres an# turns is calle# the a,+ere-turns 3<t or NI5 o* a coil+ This is the unit o* %easure%ent o* *iel# strength+ I*) *or e6a%'le) a coil o* 5== a%'ere-turns (ill 'ro#uce the *iel# strength re/uire# *or so%e situation) any co%&ination o* turns an# a%'eres totaling 5== (ill (or,+ E?a,+lesC 5= turns J 1= a%'s = 5==<t 1== turns J 5 a%'s = 5==<t
1.3 Electro,agnets
In the solenoi#) air is the con#uctor o* the %agnetic *iel#+ Other su&stances con#uct %agnetic lines o* *orce &etter than air+ These %aterials (oul# &e #escri&e# as having greater 'er%ea&ility+ To #e%onstrate this) a so*t iron core can &e inserte# in the solenoi# coil) Figure 1-14. The strength o* the %agnetic *iel# is &eing greatly increase#+ There are t(o reasons *or this increase+ >irst) the %agnetic lines have &een concentrate# into the s%aller cross7C
Figure 1-14. The coil (ith an iron core is #escri&e# as an electro%agnet+
Basic Electricity
sectional area o* the core+ Secon#ly) the iron 'rovi#es a *ar &etter 'ath 3greater 'er%ea&ility5 *or the %agnetic lines+ This #evice 3solenoi# (ith an iron core5 is ,no(n as an electro,agnet+ The rules use# to learn the 'olarity o* an electro%agnet+ The rules use# to learn the 'olarity o* an electro%agnet are the sa%e as those *or the solenoi#+ -hen an electro%agnet is energi.e# it is a 'o(er*ul %agnet+ -hen the electrical energy is #isconnecte# the electro%agnet loses %ost o* its %agnetis%) &ut not all o* it+ I* the #e-'o(ere# %agnet is &rought near so%e iron *iling) the *ilings (ill &e attracte# to the core &ecause the iron core has retaine# a s%all a%ount o* its %agnetis%+ This %agnetis% is calle# residual ,agnetis,+ I* very little %agnetis% re%ains) the core (oul# &e consi#ere#) as having lo( retentivity is the a&ility o* a %aterial to retain %agnetis% a*ter the %agneti.ing *iel# has &een re%ove#+ I* a core retains a goo# #eal o* %agnetis%) it is sai# to have high retentivity+ < so*t iron core sho(s lo( retentivity+ < steel core has high retentivity+
1.2 %elay
The relay is a #evice use# to control a large *lo( o* current &y %eans o* a lo( voltage) lo( current circuit+ < relay is a %agnetic s(itch+ -hen a relay$s coil is %agneti.e#) its attractive *orce 'ulls the lever ar%) calle# an# ar%ature) to(ar# the coil+ The contact 'oints on the ar%ature (ill o'en or close #e'en#ing on their nor%ally at rest 'osition+ The 'hrase nor%ally at rest 'osition re*ers to the 'osition o* the contacts &e*ore the solenoi# is energi.e#+ I* the nor%ally at rest 'osition o* the contacts is touching) the large current (ill *lo( until the relay is activate#+ <ctivating the relay o'ens the circuit+ I* the nor%ally at rest 'osition o* the contacts is o'en) then activating the relay (ill close the circuit+ Current (ill then *lo( until the relay turns o**+ ?= Chonan Technical Service Training Center
Basic Electricity
Figure 1-14+ Sy%&ol o* relay
E6a%ine the sche%atic in Figure 1-13. In this circuit a %otor is connecte# to a &attery 'o(er source+ This setu' is an e6a%'le o* controlling a heavy current circuit (ith a lo( current+ The t(o #i**erent currents are %echanically connecte# &y the relay+ They are not consi#ere# electrically connecte#+
106 B)TT
Figure 1-13+ Setu' o* a si%'le circuit (ith relay
The a#vantages o* this #evice are clear+ >ro% a sa*ety 'oint o* vie() the o'erator touches only a har%less) lo(-voltage circuit) yet controls 'erha's several hun#re# volts &y %eans o* the relay+ 9eavy current %achines can &e controlle# *ro% a re%ote location (ithout any nee# to run heavy (ires to the controlling s(itch+ S(itching action &y %eans o* relays can &e very ra'i#+
?1
Basic Electricity
So%e relay a''lications inclu#e@ large lighting loa#s) heavy currents in auto%o&iles 3such as hea#lights5) an# the control o* electric %otors+ Lelays are use# to control the starting an# sto''ing o* electrical syste%+ -hen choosing a relay *or a s'ecial 'ur'ose) there are several things to &e consi#ere#+ Three i%'ortant consi#erations are the nu%&er o* contacts an# the a%ount o* current the relay %ust carry) an# their #e-energi.e# 'osition+ -ell-#esigne# relays have 'oints %a#e o* silver) alloys) tungsten or other alloys+ < relay even can have &oth nor,ally closed 3close# in the #e-energi.e# 'osition5 an# nor,ally o+en 3o'en in the #e-energi.e# 'osition5 contacts+ The terns nor%ally o'en an# nor%ally close# are usually a&&reviate# as $o an# $C+ The nu%&er o* contacts an# their #e-energi.e# 'osition shoul# &e s'eci*ie#+ The coil is the %ost vital s'eci*ication+ The coil chosen nee#s to 'ro#uce a large enough %agnetic *iel#s at its rate# voltage to ensure 'ositive contact o* s(itch 'oints at all ti%es+ 9o(ever) so%e relays are so sensitive they re/uire only a %ille a%'ere or less to energi.e) so care %ust &e ta,en+
1.8 Trans or,ers

< trans*or%er is a #evice use# to trans*er energy *ro% one circuit to another using electro%agnetic in#uction+ < trans*or%er consists o* t(o or %ore coils o* (ire (oun# aroun# a co%%on la%inate# iron core+ Trans*or%ers are si%'le) rugge#) an# e**icient #evices)
Figure 1-12+ Ty'ical trans*or%er+
Basic Electricity
The construction o* a si%'le trans*or%er is sho(n in igure 1-18) along (ith its sche%atic sy%&ol+ The *irst (in#ing) (hich is the in'ut (in#ing) is calle# the 'ri%ary+ This (in#ing receives the energy *ro% the source+ The secon# (in#ing) (hich is out'ut (in#ing) is calle# the secon#ary+ The out'ut loa# is attache# to the secon#ary+
Pri%ary
Secon#ary
Figure 1-18+ < si%'le trans*or%er is constructe# *ro% so*t iron la%inations an# t(o coils+
The energy in the secon#ary is the result o* the changing %agnetic *iel# generate# &y the 'ri%ary (in#ings+ In a trans *or%er) the varying %agnetic *iel# o* the 'ri%ary cuts across the (in#ings o* the secon#ary+ < changing %agnetic *iel# cutting across a con#uctor in#uces a voltage+ Conse/uently) the changing 'ri%ary voltage in#uces a voltage in the secon#ary+ There*ore) the trans*or%er is #evice that %ust (or, on an alternating current o* a 'ulsating #irect current+ The 'ri%ary *iel# %ust &e a %oving %agnetic *iel# in or#er *or the trans*er o* energy to ta,e 'lace+
1.8.1 #nduction The a&ility to 'ro#uce electrical energy in a con#uctor (ithout %a,ing 'hysical contact (ith the con#uctor is re*erre# to as induction+ < voltage can &e in#uce# on a con#uctor &y using a %agnetic *iel# an# %otion+ In cha'ter C) Oenerators) you learne# that (hen a coil is %ove# 'ast a %agnetic *iel#) voltage is in#uce# on the coil+ ;ou also learne# that a %agnetic *iel# %ove# 'ast a coil 'ro#uce ?! Chonan Technical Service Training Center
Basic Electricity
the sa%e result+ Basically) i* there is a %agnetic *iel# a coil an# %otion) an e%* is 'ro#uce#+ E6a%ine igure 1-11+ -hen coil < is energi.e# &y an ac voltage source) a current is esta&lishe# in the coil+ The alternating current *lo(ing through coil < 'ro#uces a rising an# colla'sing %agnetic *iel#) the %agnetic *iel# rises an# colla'ses at the sa%e rate as the *re/uency o* the ac voltage source+ I* the ac voltage source *re/uency is e/ual to 7= 9.) then the %agnetic *iel# rises an# colla'ses 1 = ti%es a secon#+
Pri%ary Coil <
Secon#ary Coil B
Pri%ary Coil
Figure 1-11+ <n e6a%'le o* %utual in#uction
Figure 1-19. The %agnetic *iel# rising an# colla'sing aroun# 'ri%ary coil a is an e6a%'le o* sel* in#uction
< trans*or%er a''lies the sa%e 'rinci'le as generating e%*) the #i**erence is that there is no 'hysical %otion in the trans*or%er+ Instea#) the %agnetic *iel# rising an# colla'sing 'rovi#es the nee#e# %otion+ Coil < 'ro#uces a rising an# colla'sing %agnetic *iel# that cuts across the con#uctors in coil B+ Coil B has a voltage in#uce# &y the electrical action o* coil <+ This is the 'rinci'le &ehin# all trans*or%ers0 this 'rinci'le is calle# ,utual induction+ <nother electrical 'heno%ena occur at the sa%e ti%e) this 'heno%enon is calle# sel*-in#uction+ Sel induction occurs (hen the %agnetic *iel# surroun#ing one con#uctor cuts across the con#uctors le*t an# right o* it+ In igure 1-19) you can see that (hen a coil is energi.e# it 'ro#uce# a %agnetic *iel#+ Each (in#ing 'ro#uces a se'arate %agnetic *iel#+ These se'arate *iel#s co%&ine to *or% an overall %agnetic *iel#+ This action in#uces an e%* in the #irection o''osite to the *orce generating the %agnetic *iel#+ Sel*-in#uction (ill occur any ti%e a con#uctor is (oun# into a loo' an# 'asses an ac current+
1.8.0 Turns %atio Princi+le One ,ey use o* trans*or%ers is to increase or #ecrease a voltage+ Increasing or #ecreasing the nu%&er o* turns on the secon#ary (in#ing #oes this+ The a%ount the voltage is raise# or lo(ere# &y is &ase# u'on the ratio o* the nu%&er o* turns o* (ire use# in the trans*or%ers 'ri%ary versus its ?" Chonan Technical Service Training Center
Basic Electricity
secon#ary (in#ings+ <s #escri&e# earlier the 'ri%ary (in#ing is the (in#ing closest to the source) the 'ri%ary (in#ing in#uces an e%* into the secon#ary (in#ing+ The secon#ary (in#ing is connecte# to the loa#+ See igure 1-09+
Pri%ary connects to the source+ Secon#ary connects to the loa#
4oa#
Figure 1-09. It is i%'ortant to re%e%&er that the 'ri%ary o* a trans*or%er is the si#e that connects to the source an# that the secon#ary si#e o* the trans*or%er is the si#e that connects to the loa#+
4et$s loo, at the *or%ulas *or the trans*or%er turns ratio an# e6'ecte# voltage) current an# 'o(er+ The ratio &et(een the nu%&er o* turns in the 'ri%ary an# secon#ary is calle# the turn$s ratio+ The turn$s ratio is si%'ly the nu%&er o* turns in the 'ri%ary #ivi#e# &y the nu%&er o* turns in the secon#ary+ -ritten as a *or%ula@ Turns ratio I $+ H $s -here N e/uals the nu%&er o* turns in the 'ri%ary 3P5 or the secon#ary 3S5+ Using the trans*or%er in igure 3-01) the turn$s ratio can &e calculate# as@ Turns ratio I $+ H $sI 19H1 or 19 to 1
1= to 1 ratio 1== turns 1)=== turns 1 =N 1 N A ! a%'s != a%' loa# 1)=== turns 1== turns
Noltage is ste' #o(n+
Current is ste' u'+
Figure 1-01+ Turns ratio e6'lains the relationshi' &et(een the 'ri%ary an# secon#ary voltages an# current values+
There are 1)===turns o* con#uctor in the 'ri%ary o* the trans*or%er) an# secon#ary has 1== turns o* (ire+ The ratio is 1= to 1+
The voltage ratio is the ratio &et(een the voltages o* the 'ri%ary an# secon#ary+ It is in the sa%e 'ro'ortion as the turn$s ratio@ 6oltage ratio I E+ H Es I $+ H $s ?5 Chonan Technical Service Training Center
Basic Electricity
The current ratio is the ratio &et(een the currents in the 'ri%ary an# secon#ary+ It is in inverse 'ro'ortion to the turn$s ratio@ Current ratio I #s H #+ I $+ H $s Co%&ining the three ratios@ E+ H Es I $+ H $s I #s H #+ In the igure 1-01) there are ten turns in the 'ri%ary (in#ing *or every one turn is the secon#ary (in#ing+ In a 1= to 1 ratio) the voltage on the secon#ary si#e (ill &e ten ti%es lo(er than the 'ri%ary voltage+ I* the 'ri%ary si#e o* the trans*or%er is connecte# to a 1 =volt su''ly) there (ill &e 1 volts 'resent on the secon#ary+ E6a%ining the ratios) you can see that the current ratio is the o''osite o* voltage ratio+ I* the voltage ratio is 1= to 1) the current ratio (ill &e 1 to 1=+ The current value o* the 'ri%ary is &ase# on the current in the secon#ary+ The loa# connecte# to the secon#ary #eter%ines the current in the secon#ary+ The current value *or the 'ri%ary in igure 1-01 (ill &e 1I1=th that o* the current *lo(ing in the secon#ary+ Trans*or%ers that are use# to raise or lo(er a voltage are ,no(n as ste' u' trans*or%ers an# ste' #o(n trans*or%ers+ See igure 1-00+ Ste' u' trans*or%ers have %ore turns in the secon#ary than the 'ri%ary+ The voltage is increase#) it ste's u'+ Ste' #o(n trans*or%ers have *e(er turns in the secon#ary than the 'ri%ary+ The voltage is #ecrease#) it ste's #o(n+
Figure 1-00. < ste'-u' or ste'-#o(n trans*or%er is #eter%ine# &y the nu%&er o* turns on the 'ri%ary an# secon#ary+
E6a%'le@ The trans*or%er has
== turns in the 'ri%ary an# 1)=== turns in the secon#ary+ I* the
a''lie# voltage is 11? N) (hat is the secon#ary voltageG ?7 Chonan Technical Service Training Center
Basic Electricity
Figure 1-04. Turns ratio hel's #eter%ine out'ut voltage
E' I Es = N' I Ns 11?N I Es = == I 1)=== Trans'osing the e/uation@ Es =311?N M 1)===5 I == = 1?=)===N I == = 5B5 N This is an e6a%'le o* a ste' u' trans*or%er+ E?a,+leC -hat i* this trans*or%er (as %a#e (ith 1= turns secon#aryG -hat (oul# the secon#ary voltage &eG 11?N IEs = ==I1= Es = 311?N M 1=5 I == = 5+B5 N This is a ste' #o(n trans*or%er+
1.8.4 Trans or,er Po"er ?? Chonan Technical Service Training Center
Basic Electricity
Calculating the 'o(er in the secon#ary o* a trans*or%er shoul# ta,e into account trans*or%ers e**iciency+ 9o(ever) *or no( (e (ill consi#er the trans*or%er an i#eal 'iece o* e/ui'%ent (or,ing at 1== 'ercent e**iciency+ It (e %a,e this assu%'tion) an# then the 'o(er on the 'ri%ary si#e shoul# &e e/ual to the 'o(er on the secon#ary si#e+ In the *or% o* a *or%ula@ P+ I Ps The 'o(er rating *or a trans*or%er is usually e6'resse# as N< 3volt-a%'s5 or ,N< 3,ilovolt-a%'s5 rather than (atts+ The 'o(er use# in the secon#ary circuit %ust &e su''lie# &y the 'ri%ary+ <ssu%ing that the trans*or%er is 1=='ercent e**icient) the 'o(er in the secon#ary) Is M Es) %ust e/ual the 'o(er in the 'ri%ary) I' M E'+ E?a,+le@ < ste' u' trans*or%er 'ro#uces !== volts in the secon#ary (hen 1==volts ac is a''lie# to the 'ri%ary+ < 1==-oh% loa# is a''lie# to the secon#ary+ -hat is the 'o(er in the 'ri%aryG
Es=!==N 1== N Pri%ary
C a%'s
Secon#ary
! a%'s
1== oh%
P' = C M 1== = C==P' = ! M !== = C==Figure 1-04. Lelationshi' &et(een voltage) a%'erage) an# 'o(er in the 'ri%ary an# secon#ary o* a trans*or%er
Using the Oh%$s la(@ I = Es I L = !==NI1== oh% = !< < current o* the three a%'eres *lo(s+ The 'o(er use# in the secon#ary can &e *oun# using@ P = Is M Es P = !< M !==N = C==N< Since the 'ri%ary %ust su''ly this 'o(er@ Is M Es = I' M E' = C==N< <n# I' = P' I E' = C==N< I 1==N = C< The ,ey 'rinci'le o* trans*or%er action is that as voltage increases in the secon#ary) current #ecreases in the secon#ary+
?B
Basic Electricity
1.8.4 )uto,obile #gnition Coil The ignition coil 'ro#uces the high voltage s'ar, in an auto%o&ile electrical syste%+ It uses a high turns ratio to #evelo' !=)=== volts or %ore across the s'ar, 'lug ga'+ ;ou %ay &e (on#ering ho( the trans*or%er 'rinci'le is a''lie# to a #c circuit+ < car uses a 1 volts #c 'o(er su''ly) the &attery+ 4oo, at the igure 1-03 as (e trace the ignition circuit+ The 1 volts &attery is connecte# in series (ith an ignition s(itch+ The circuit connects to the ignition coil an# then on to the #istri&utor+ The #istri&utor turn) 'ro#ucing the o'ening an# closing o* the circuit+ This action 'ro#uces 'ulses o* electrical energy *lo( to the coil circuit) turning the coil on an# o**+ The 'ulses 'ro#uce a rising a *alling %agnetic *iel# across the (in#ing in the coil) an# thus) 'ro#uces trans*or%er action+ The 1 volts on the 'ri%ary si#e o* the autotrans*or%er 'ro#uces over !=)=== volts on the secon#ary si#e o* the autotrans*or%er+ The electrical energy *lo(s through the s'ar, 'lug (ire to the s'ar, 'lug) at the s'ar, 'lug) the circuit has an intentional o'en+ The o'en in the circuit is at the s'ar, 'lug ga' the !=)=== volts easily arcs across the o'en ga') co%'leting the circuit to chassis groun#+ The arc across the s'ar, 'lug ga' ignites the gasoline va'or causing an e6'losion+ The e6'losion *orces the 'osition to %ove) an# thus) the engine runs+
Aistri&utor Ignition s(itch
S'ar, 'lug Battery 1 N
Ignition coil
EC8
Figure 1-03. Ignition coil
?C
Basic Electricity
Su,,ery 1+ Every %agnetic has a north 'ole an# a south 'ole+ + Te%'orary %agnets lose their 'ros'erities /uic,ly+ Per%anent %agnets ,ee' their %agnetic 'ro'erties *or a long 'erio# o* ti%e+ !+ The invisi&le lines aroun# a %agnet are calle# %agnetic *lu6 lines+ "+ Electro%agnets are create# (hen current *lo(s through a coil o* (ire+ 5+ The relay is an electro%agnetic s(itch+ 7+ The in'ut si#e o* a trans*or%er is calle# the 'ri%ary an# the loa# si#e is calle# the secon#ary+ ?+ The o'eration o* the trans*or%er is an a''lication o* in#uction+
B=
Basic Electricity
9. C)P)C#T&%
9.1 Ca+acitance and the Ca+acitor
Ca'acitance is a 'ro'erty that o''oses any change in voltage+ < ca'acitor is a #evice ca'a&le o* storing electrical energy+ < ca'acitor acce'ts or returns this charge in or#er to %aintain a constant voltage+ Sche%atic sy%&ols are use# to re'resent a ca'acitor are sho(n in igure 9-1+ The ca'acitor is %a#e o* t(o 'lates o* con#uctive %aterial) se'arate# &y insulation+ This insulation is calle# a #ielectric5 igure 9-0+ In the *igure the 'lates are connecte# to a #c voltage source+ The circuit a''ears to &e an o'en circuit &ecause the 'lates #o not contact each other+ 9o(ever) the %eter in the circuit (ill sho( so%e current *lo( *or a &rie* a*ter the s(itch is close#+ In igure 9-4) as the s(itch is close#) electrons *ro% the negative ter%inal o* the sources *lo( to one 'late o* the ca'acitor+ These electrons re'el electrons *ro% the secon# 'late 3li,e charges re'el5) (hich are then #ra(n to the 'ositive ter%inal o* the source+ The ca'acitor is no( charge# to the sa%e 'otential as the source an# is o''osing the source voltage+ I* the ca'acitor is %ove# *ro% the circuit) it (ill re%ain charge#+ The energy is store# (ithin the electric *iel# o* the ca'acitor+ Once the ca'acitor is *ully charge#) current ceases to *lo( the circuit+ It is i%'ortant to re%e%&er that in the circuit in igure 9-4) no electrons *lo(e# through the ca'acitor+ This is &ecause a ca'acitor &loc,s #irect current+ 9o(ever) one 'late #i# &eco%e negatively charge# an# the other 'ositively charge#+ < strong electric *iel# e6ists &et(een the%+
+
Aielectric 8 Con#uctive 'lates
Figure 9-1+ ca'acitor
Sche%atic
sy%&ols
*or
the
Figure 9-0+ Basic *or% o* a ca'acitor
Figure 9-4. The ca'acitor charges to the source voltage
B1
Basic Electricity
Insulating or #ielectric %aterials vary in their a&ility to su''ort the electric *iel#+ This a&ility is ,no(n as the #ielectric constant o* the %aterial+ The constants o* various %aterials are sho(n in table 9-1+ These nu%&ers are &ase# on co%'arison (ith the #ielectric constant o* #ry air+ The constant *or #ry air has &een assigne# as 1+ The #ielectric use# *or ca'acitors can only (ithstan# certain voltages+ I* this voltage is e6cee#e#) the #ielectric (ill &rea, #o(n an# arcing (ill result+ This %a6i%u% voltage is ,no(n as the (or,ing voltage 3-N5+
8aterial air oil %ica 'orcelain cera%ic Aielectric constant 1+= + 5+=PB+5 5+=P?+= 5+=PB+= 8aterial glass alu%iniu% o6i#e electrolytic tantalu% o6i#e eletrolytic 'ure (ater Aielectric constant B+= B+" 7 B1
Ta&le C-1+ Aielectric constants+ 4arger nu%&ers are &etter a&le to su''ort electric *iel#s+ E6cee#ing the (or,ing voltage can cause a short circuit an# can ruin other 'arts o* circuit connecte# to the #ielectric+ Increase# voltage ratings re/uire s'ecial %aterials an# thic,er #ielectrics+ -hen a ca'acitor is re'lace#) chec, its ca'acitance value an# #c (or,ing voltage+ -hen a ca'acitor is use# in an ac circuit) the (or,ing voltage shoul# sa*ely e6cee# the 'ea, ac voltage+ >or e6a%'le) a 1 =-volt e**ective ac voltage has a 'ea, voltage o* 1 =N J 1+"1" = 17C+? volts+ <ny ca'acitors use# %ust &e a&le to han#le 17C+? volts+
Basic Electricity
9.0 Calculating Ca+acitance

Ca'acitance is #eter%ine# &y the nu%&er o* electrons that can &e store# in the ca'acitor *or each volt o* a''lie# voltage+ The unit o* Ca'acitance is the *ara# 3>5+ < *ara# re'resents a charge o* one coulo%& that raises the 'otential 1-volt+ This e/uation is (ritten+ (")* -here ( is the ca'acitance in *ara#s) ) is the charge in coulo%&s) are The charge ) store# in a ca'acitor is given &y@ ) " I + t coulom,s -here I is the current in a%'eres an# t the ti%e in secon#s+ The electric *iel# strength) E = P# across #ielectric I thic,ness o* #ielectric) i+e+ E = N I # 3voltsI%5 The ratio o* electric *lu6 #ensity) A) to electric *iel# strength) E) is calle# a&solute 'er%ittivity) ]) o* a #ielectric+ Thus A I E = ] The 'er%ittivity o* *ree s'ace is a constant) given &y ]= = B+B5 M 1=-1 >I%+ The Lelative 'er%ittivity ]r = *lu6 #ensity o* *iel# in the #ielectric I *lu6 #ensity o* the *iel# in vacuu%+ <&solute 'er%ittivity) ] = ]= ]r Thus A I E = ]= ]r Ca'acitors use# in electronic (or, have ca'acities %easure# in %icro*ara#s 31I1)===)===>5 an# Pico *ara#s 31I1)===)=== o* 1I1)===)=== >5+ 8icro*ara# is co%%only (ritten as or so%eti%es (ritten as %*#+ Pico *ara# is (ritten as + Nan *ara# is not a co%%on %easure%ent o* ca'acitance+ Ca'acitance is #eter%ine# &y@ The %aterial use# as a #ielectric+ 3The larger the #ielectric constant) the greater the ca'acitance+5 The area o* the 'lates+ 3The larger the 'late area) the greater the ca'acitance+5 The #istance &et(een the 'lates+ 3The s%aller the #istance) the greater the ca'acitance+5 These *actors are relate# in the %athe%atical *or%ula@ C I S9 Sr )=n-1>Hd =F> -here C is the ca'acitance in *ara#s) < e/uals the area o* one si#e o* one 'late) # e/ual the #istance &et(een 'lates 3or #ielectric thic,ness5) an# n e/uals the nu%&er o* 'lates+ This *or%ula illustrates the *ollo(ing *acts@ B! Chonan Technical Service Training Center is the voltage in volts+
Basic Electricity
1+ Ca'acity increases as the area o* the 'lates increase) or as the #ielectric constant increases+ + Ca'acity #ecreases as the #istance &et(een 'late$s increases+
9.4 Ty+es o Ca+acitors

Ca'acitors are %a#e in hun#re#s o* si.es an# ty'es+ Fi?ed +a+er ca+acitors are %a#e o* layers o* tin*oil+ The #ielectric is %a#e o* (a6e# 'a'er+ -ires e6ten#ing *ro% the en#s connect to the *oil 'lates+ The asse%&ly is tightly rolle# into a cylin#er an# seale# (ith s'ecial co%'oun#s+ So%e ca'acitors are enclose# in 'lastic *or rigi#ity+ These ca'acitors can (ithstan# severs heat) %oisture) an# shoc,+ %ectangular oil illed ca+acitors are her%etically seale# in %etal cans+ They are oil *ille# an# have very high insulation resistance+ This ty'e o* ca'acitor is use# in 'o(er su''lies o* ra#io trans%itters an# other electronic e/ui'%ent+ Can ty+e electrolytic ca+acitors use #i**erent %etho#s o* 'late construction+ Figure 9.4 sho(s the single-en#e# ca'acitors+
Figure 9-4+ Can ty'e electrolytic ca'acitors
So%e ca'acitors have alu%inu% 'lates an# a (et or #ry electrolyte o* &ora6 or car&onate+ < #c voltage is a''lie# #uring %anu*acturing+ Electrolytic action creates a thin layer o* alu%inu% o6i#e that #e'osits on the 'ositive 'late+ This coating insulates the 'late *ro% the electrolyte+ The negative 'late is connecte# to the electrolyte+ The electrolyte an# 'ositive 'lates *or% the ca'acitor+ These ca'acitors are use*ul (hen a large a%ount o* ca'acity is nee#e# in a s%all s'ace+ Tubular electrolytic ca+acitor!s construction is si%ilar to the can ty'e+ The %ain a#vantage o* these tu&ular ca'acitors is their s%aller si.e+ They have a %etal case enclose# in an insulating tu&e+ They are also %a#e (ith t(o) three) or *our units in one cylin#er+ < very 'o'ular s%all ca'acitor use# a great #eal in ra#io an# TN (or, is the cera,ic ca+acitor+ The cera%ic ca'acitor is %a#e o* a s'ecial cera%ic #ielectric+ The silver 'lates o* the ca'acitor are *i6e# on #ielectric+ The entire co%'onent is treate# (ith s'ecial insulation that can (ithstan# heat an# B" Chonan Technical Service Training Center
Basic Electricity
%oisture+
*ica ca+acitors are s%all ca'acitors+ They are %a#e &y stac,ing tin*oil 'lates together (ith thin sheets o* %ica as the #ielectric+ The asse%&ly is then %ol#e# into a 'lastic case+
>igure C-5+ Ty'ical cera%ic ca'acitor
>igure C-7+ 8ica ca'acitor
B5
Basic Electricity
9.4 Transient %es+onse o the Ca+acitor

Lecall that the res'onse o* current an# voltage in a circuit i%%e#iately a*ter a change in a''lie# voltage is calle# the transient res'onse+ Le*er to igure 9-8+ < ca'acitor an# a resistor are connecte# in series across a voltage source+ < circuit that contains resistance an# ca'acitance is calle# an LC circuit+ -hen the s(itch is close# in this LC circuit) the %a6i%u% current (ill *lo(+ The current gra#ually #ecreases until the ca'acitor has reache# its *ull charge+ The ca'acitor (ill charge to the level o* the a''lie# voltage+ L
S(itch Battery
Figure 9-8+ This series LC circuit #e%onstrates the transient res'onse o* a ca'acitor+
Initially) ho(ever) the voltage across the ca'acitor is .ero+ -hen the s(itch is close#) the voltage across the ca'acitor gra#ually &uil#s u' to the value o* the source voltage+ This charging o* the ca'acitor is sho(n in igure 9-1+ The current in the LC circuit is also sho(n in this *igure+ Notice that (hen the s(itch is close#) the current rises to a %a6i%u% al%ost i%%e#iately+ The current *alls as the ca'acitor charges+ -hen the ca'acitor reaches *ull charge) the current is .ero+
+
Figure 9-1. Current an# voltage in the series LC circuit
B7
Basic Electricity
-hen the s(itch is o'ene#) the ca'acitor re%ains charge#+ Theoretically) it (oul# re%ain charge in#e*initely) &ut there is al(ays so%e lea,age through the #ielectric+ <*ter so%e 'erio# o* ti%e) the ca'acitor (ill #ischarge itsel*+ In igure 9-9) the series co%&ination o* charge# ca'acitor an# resistor are short circuite# &y 'rovi#ing a #ischarge 'ath+ Because there is no o''osing voltage) the #ischarge current (ill instantly rise to %a6i%u% an# gra#ually *all o** to .ero+ The co%&ine# gra'h o* the charge an# #ischarge o* the ca'acitor is sho(n in igure 9-19. L I S(itch 1 S(itch C
Battery
Figure 9-9. < short circuit occurs in the LC circuit (hen s(itch close#+ is
* + 0
-'arge
S tea$. state ,ime
/is 'arge
Figure 9-19+ This co%&ination gra'h sho(s the rise an# #ecay o* current an# voltage in the series LC circuit+
B?
Basic Electricity
Noltage a''ears across the resistor an# ca'acitor in this circuit+ The voltage across L is a result o* the current) E = IL+ Thus) the %a6i%u% voltage a''ears across L (hen %a6i%u% current is *lo(ing+ This con#ition e6ists i%%e#iately a*ter the s(itch is close# in igure 9-8 an# a*ter the #ischarge s(itch is close# in >igure C-C+ In &oth cases) the voltage across L #ro's o** or #ecays as the ca'acitor a''roaches *ull charge or #ischarge+ The gra'h o* the voltage across L is #ra(n in Figure 9-11+
9.3 %C Ti,e Constant

Auring the charge an# #ischarge o* the series o* net(or, outline# a&ove) a 'erio# o* ti%e ela'se#+ This ti%e is in#icate# along the &ase) or 6-a6is) o* the gra'hs in Figure 9-19 an# 9-11+
*0
* 0 1 +0
*0
-'arge
S tea$. state ,ime
/is 'arge
Figure 9-11+ This gra'h sho(s the voltage #ro' across L as the ca'acitor is charge# an# #ischarge#+
The a%ount o* ti%e nee#e# *or the ca'acitor to charge or #ischarge 7!+ 'ercent is ,no(n as the ti%e constant o* the circuit+ The *or%ula to #eter%ine the ti%e constant in LC circuit is@ ^=LJC -here ^ is the ti%e constant in secon#s) L is the resistance in oh%s) an# C is the ca'acitance in *ara#s+ >or co%'lete charge or #ischarge) *ive ti%e constant 'erio#s are re/uire#+ <ssu%ing a source voltage e/ual to 1== volts) table 9-0 sho(s the ti%e constant) 'ercentage) an# voltage+
BB
Basic Electricity
Ti%e constant 1 ! " 5 Percentage o* voltage 7!+ U B7+5U C5+=U CB+=U CCU E charging 7!+ N B7+5N C5+=N CB+=N CCN E #ischarging !7+BN 1!+5N 5N N 1N
Ta&le C- + < source voltage o* 1== volts (ill create the ti%e constant) 'ercentage) an# voltage sho(n +
9.2. Ca+acitors in Series and Parallel

-hen t(o ca'acitors are connecte# in series) Figure 9-105 the total ca'acitance is@ CT I =C1 J C0 > H =C1 N C0>
C1 C0
Figure 9-10. T(o ca'acitors in series
-hen t(o or %ore ca'acitors are connecte# in series) Figure 9-145 the total ca'acitance is@ 1HCT I 1HC1 N 1HC0 N 1HC4TN1HC$ C1 C0 C4
Figure 9-14. T(o or %ore ca'acitors in series
-hen ca'acitors are connecte# in 'arallel) Figure 9-145 the total ca'acitance is e/ual to the su% o* the in#ivi#ual ca'acitances+ CT I C1 N C0 N C4TNC$
C1
C0
C4
Figure 9-14. Ca'acitors in 'arallel
BC
Basic Electricity
Su,,ary 1+ Ca'acitance is that 'ro'erty o* a circuit that o''oses any change in voltage+ + < ca'acitor is a #evice that te%'orarily stores an electric charge+ It is %a#e u' o* t(o 'lates o* con#uctive %aterial se'arate# &y insulation) calle# the #ielectric+ !+ Ca'acitance is %easure# in *ara#s+ "+ >actors a**ecting ca'acitance are@ a+ Aistance &et(een 'lates &+ Plate area+ c+ Aielectric %aterial+ 5+ The LC ti%e constant can &e *oun# using the e/uation @ ^ = L J C 7+ The *or%ulas *or ca'acitors in series an# 'arallel are@ Ca'acitors in series@ 1ICT = 1IC1 + 1IC + 1IC!E+1ICN Or a shortcut (hen only t(o ca'acitors are in series@ CT = C1 J C IC1 + C Ca'acitors in 'arallel@ CT = C1 + C + C!E+CN
C=
Basic Electricity
19. /E$E%)T&%S
19.1 *agnetic #nduction
-hen a con#uctor is %ove# across a %agnetic *iel#) an# electro%otive *orce 3e%*5 is 'ro#uce# in the con#uctor+ I* the con#uctor *or%s 'art o* a close# circuit then the e%* 'ro#uce# causes an electric current to *lo( roun# the circuit+ 9ence an e%* 3an# thus current5 is _in#uce#$ in the con#uctor as a result o* its %ove%ent across the %agnetic *iel#+ This e**ect is ,no(n as _ electro%agnetic in#uction$+ <n alternative %etho# to 4ent.$s la( o* #eter%ining relative #irections is given &y >le%ing$s Light9an# rule 3o*ten calle# generator rule5) (hich states@ _4et the thu%&) *irst *inger an# secon# *inger o* the right han# &e e6ten#e# such that they are all at right angles to each other) as sho(n in igure 19-1+ I* the *irst *inger 'oint in the #irection o* the %agnetic *iel#) the thu%& 'oints in the #irection o* %otion o* the con#uctor relative to the %agnetic *iel#) then the secon# *inger (ill 'oint in the #irection o* the in#uce# e%*+$
8agnetic *iel#
First *inger - Fiel# ThuM& - Motion SEcon# - E%*

Figure 19-1. Light-han# rule In#uce# E+8+> 8otion
Three things are re/uire# to in#uce a voltage+ There %ust &e@ < %agnetic *iel#+ < con#uctor+ Lelative %otion &et(een the *iel# an# con#uctor+
Figure 19-0+ 8agnetic in#uction+ Passing a con#uctor through a %agnetic *iel# #is'laces electrons in the con#uctor+ The electrons %ove through the con#uctor+
C1
Basic Electricity
Figure 19-4 sho(s the action o* a coil turning in a %agnetic *iel#+ In 'osition <) the coil to' %oves 'arallel to *iel# o* %agnetis%+ No voltage is 'ro#uce#+ In 'osition B) &oth si#es o* the coil are cutting the *iel# at right angles+ The highest voltage is 'ro#uce# at this right angle+ Position C is li,e 'osition <) the voltage #ro's to .ero+ In 'osition A) the coil is again cutting the *iel# at right angles) (here the highest voltage is 'ro#uce#+ 9o(ever) in 'osition A the voltage is in the o''osite #irection o* that 'ro#uce# at 'osition B+ The curve in >igure 1=-! sho(s the voltage is 'ro#uce# in the one turn o* the coil+
4ines o* %agnetic *orce <ngle o* rotation Figure 19-4+ Ste'-&y-ste' #evelo'%ent o* in#uce# voltage #uring one revolution o* a coil+ E8>
>igure 1=-" sho(s single con#uctors 'assing through a %agnetic *iel#+ <t the to') the con#uctor is 'ushe# #o(n(ar# through the %agnetic *iel#+ On the &otto%) the con#uctor *or%s a %agnetic *iel# aroun# the con#uctor+ The *iel# aroun# the con#uctor o''oses) an# is re'elle# &y) the *i6e# *iel#+ This 'heno%enon is state# in 4en.$s la(+ The 'olarity o* an in#uce# electro%agnetic *orce is such that it 'ro#uces a current+ This %agnetic *iel# o* this current al(ays o''oses the change in the e6isting %agnetic *iel#+ 8ore si%'ly) 4en.$s la( says that@ the e6isting *iel# o''oses the *iel# in#uce# aroun# the con#uctor+ There*ore) in or#er to 'ro#uce electricity) so%e *or% o* %echanical *orce %ust &e a''lie# to overco%e this o''osition an# turn the coils+
Figure 19-4+ The #irection o* the current through a con#uctor is #eter%ine# &y the #irection the con#uctor cuts across a %agnetic *iel#+
Basic Electricity
The strength o* the in#uce# voltage in a rotating coil #e'en#s on@ The nu%&er o* %agnetic lines o* *orce cut &y the coil+ The s'ee# at (hich the con#uctor %oves through the *iel#+ -hen a single con#uctor cuts across 1==)===)=== 31=B5 %agnetic lines in one secon#) one volt o* electrical 'ressure is 'ro#uce#+ This voltage can &e increase# &y (in#ing the ar%ature (ith %any turns o* (ire) &y increasing its s'ee# o* rotation) or &oth+ This lin, can &e e6'resse# &y the %athe%atical e/uation@ E I =U J $> H 191 In#uce# voltage = %agnetic *lu6 lines J revolutions 'er secon# I nu%&er o* *lu6 lines 'er volt -here E e/uals the in#uce# voltage) ` e/uals the lines o* %agnetic *lu6) an# N e/uals revolutions 'er secon#+ >or e6a%'le) i* a *i6e# %agnetic *iel# consists o* 1=7 lines o* %agnetic *lu6 an# a single con#uctor cuts across the *iel# 5= ti%es 'er secon#) the in#uce# voltage (oul# e/ual@ E = 1=7 J 5=I1=B = 5= J 1=- = =+5N One hal* volt is 'ro#uce# &y this generator+
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Basic Electricity
19.0 Construction o a /enerator

< generator is a #evice that changes %echanical energy into electrical energy+ ;ou sa( this change in igure 19-4+ The revolution o* the coil 3%echanical energy5 (as change# to in#uce# current 3electrical energy5+ This action is an e6a%'le o* a very si%'le generator+ < stronger %agnetic *iel# can &e create# *or this i%'rove# generator &y re'lacing the 'er%anent %agnets (ith electro%agnets+ >iel# coils can &e 'lace# over 'ole 'ieces or sho(s that are *astene# to the steel *ra%e or generator case+ The revolving coil) or ar%ature) is sus'en#e# in the case resting on the 'ro'er &earings+ The single coil is re'lace# &y (ire coils o* %any turns on the ar%ature+ The rotating ar%ature is connecte# to the outsi#e circuit+ Oenerator &rushes are constructe# %ainly o* si%'le) so*t car&on+ The %a:or #i**erence &et(een an ac generator an# #c generator is the use o* sli' rings in the ac generator an# the use o* a co%%utator 3s'lit ring5 in the #c generator+ Both sli' rings an# slit rings 'rovi#e the electrical current connections *ro% the ar%ature to the generator loa# circuit+ T(o sli' rings are use# on ac generators+ The sli' rings 'rovi#e a %echanical %eans o* %aintaining the connection &et(een the ar%ature circuit an# the outsi#e circuit+ See Figure 19-3. In the ac generator) the sli' rings are in constant contact (ith the &rushes+ Since an alternating current is 'ro#uce# in the ar%ature circuit) the outsi#e circuit is also ac+ Both the #c generator an# ac generator 'ro#uce an ac current in the ar%ature (in#ings+
Figure 19-3. Si%'le ac generator+ < (ire loo' carries the in#uce# current+ Electrons *lo( out one &rush) through the circuit) an# &ac, in through the other &rush+
-hen #c is #esire# in the outsi#e circuit) a set o* co%%utator seg%ents an# a set o* &rushes are C" Chonan Technical Service Training Center
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use#+ < co%%utator) or slit ring) is a #evice that reverses electrical connections an# is use# on #c generators+ See Figure 19-2+ The %echanical connection &et(een the outsi#e circuit an# the ar%ature constantly changes &ecause o* the &rush an# co%%utator connections+ The action o* the co%%utator an# &rushes %aintains a constant *lo( in one #irection to(ar# the outsi#e circuit+
Stu#y Figure 19-8 closely to see ho( the #irection o* the current is %aintaine# in the outsi#e or loa# circuit+ The #ra(ings sho( the action o* the co%%utator an# &rushes+ The 'olarity o* the &rushes is constant+ The 'olarity o* the sli' rings in the ac generator) Figure 19-3) change# as the #irection o* the current change# (ith each hal* revolution+ In the #c generator) the alternating current in the ar%ature is change# to a 'ulsating #irect current+
Figure 19-2+ Si%'le #c generator+ Figure 19-8+ The co%%utor changes the alternating current in the ar%ature to a 'ulsating #irect current in the outsi#e circuit+
Note that the current in the outsi#e circuit o* the #c generator al(ays *lo(s in one #irection+ The out'ut o* the generator is sho(n in igure 19-1+ The voltage rises an# *alls *ro% .ero to a %a6i%u% to .ero) &ut al(ays in the sa%e #irection+
Figure 19-1. Oenerator out'ut in volts+
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Basic Electricity
>ollo( the action in Figure 19-8+ Brush < is in contact (ith co%%utator section <) an# &rush B is in contact (ith co%%utator section B+ The *irst in#uce# (ave o* current *lo(s through the ar%ature out o* &rush B) aroun# the e6ternal circuit an# into &rush <) co%'eting the circuit+ -hen the ar%ature revolves one-hal* turn) the in#uce# current (ill reverse its #irection+ 9o(ever) the co%%utator sections have also turne# (ith the ar%ature+ The in#uce# current *lo(ing out o* co%%utator section < is no( in contact (ith &rush B+ This current *lo(s through the e6ternal circuit to &rush < into co%%utator section B) co%'leting the circuit+ The current *lo(s through the e6ternal circuit in the sa%e #irection &oth ti%es+ The co%%utator has acte# as a s(itch+ It reverse# the connections to the rotating coil (hen the #irection o* the in#uce# current (as reverse#+
Figure 19-9+ < si%'le generator (ith t(o coils rotate# at right angles in %agnetic *iel# to each other+
The current in the outsi#e circuit is 'ulsating #irect is 'ulsating #irect current+ The out'ut o* this generator is not a s%ooth #irect current+ The (ea,ness o* 'ulsating #c can &e i%'rove# t(o (ays+ The nu%&er o* rotating coils on the ar%ature can &e increase# an# co%%utator sections can &e su''lie# *or each set o* coils+ To hel' you un#erstan# ho( the coils are a##e# to the ar%ature) e6a%ine Figure 19-9. Each coil has its o(n in#uce# current+ <s the current starts to *all o** in one coil) it is re'lace# &y an in#uce# current in the ne6t coil+
Figure 19-19+ Out'ut *ro% the generator o* *igure ?-B is sho(n+
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Basic Electricity
The current is create# as the coils cut across the %agnetic *iel#+ < gra'h o* the out'ut *ro% the generator o* igure 19-9 is sho(n in igure 19-19+ It is still a 'ulsating current+ 9o(ever) the 'ulses co%e t(ice as o*ten an# are not as large+ The out'ut o* the t(o-coil generator is %uch s%oother+ By increasing the nu%&er o* coils) the out'ut (ill closely #u'licate a 'ure #irect current (ith only a slight ri''le variation+
19.4 Ty+es o /enerations

There are a nu%&er o* #i**erent ty'es o* generators+ Several o* these generator ty'es (ill &e #iscusse# &rie*ly+ Stu#y their si%ilarities as (ell as their #i**erences+ Oenerators can &e #istinguishe# &y their %etho# o* e6citation+ Sel*-e6cite# generators can &e se'arate# *urther into the categories o* shunt) series) an# co%'oun#+ One *eature that se'arates generators is the e6citation %etho#) the %etho# that is use# to start the generator running+ So%e generators re/uire a se'arate 'o(er source #uring the staring o* the generator+ These are calle# se+arately e?cited generators+ 19.4.1 Se+arately E?cited Field /enerator Oenerator out'ut is #eter%ine# &y the strength o* the %agnetic *iel# an# the s'ee# o* rotation+ >iel# strength is %easure# in a%'ere-turns+ So) an increase in current in the *iel# (in#ings (ill increase the ti%es the s'ee# o* rotation+ There*ore) %ost out'ut regulating #evices #e'en# on varying the current in the *iel#+ The *iel# (in#ings can &e connecte# to a se'arate) or in#e'en#ent) source o* #c voltage) Figure 1911+ This is the se'arately e6cite# *iel# generator+ -ith the s'ee# constant) the out'ut %ay &e varie# &y controlling the e6citing voltage o* the #c source+ This is #one &y inserting resistance in series (ith the source an# *iel# (in#ings+ ield generators+ Other generators use the generators o(n le*tover %agnetis% in 'lace o* that 'o(er source+ These are sel -e?cited
Figure 19-11. < se'arately e6cite# *iel# generator
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Basic Electricity
19.4.0 Sel E?cited /enerator < sel*-e6ite# generator uses no se'arate source o* voltage to e6cite the generator *iel# (in#ing+ The sel*-e6cite# generator 'ro#uces a s%all voltage (hen the ar%ature (in#ings cut across a (ea, %agnetic *iel#+ This (ea, %agnetic *iel# is cause# &y %agnetis% le*t over in the 'ole shoes or *iel# coil cores a*ter the voltage an# current have cease# to *lo(+ The %agnetis% le*t in a %agnet a*ter the %agneti.ing *orce has &een re%ove# is calle# resi#ual %agnetis%+ 4oo, ahea# to the #iagra% o* the shunt generator sho(n in igure 19-10+ < resi#ual %agnetic *iel# (ill cause a s%all voltage to &e 'ro#uce# as the ar%ature con#uctors rotate 'ast the *iel# 'oles+ The s%all voltage 'ro#uce# (ill) in turn) cause the current to increase through the *iel# 'oles+ <n increase in *iel# 'ole %agnetis% (ill cause a *urther increase in out'ut voltage+ The relationshi' o* the current 'ro#uce# &y the ar%ature #irectly increasing the a%ount o* %agnetis% in the *iel# 'oles is ho( the sel*-e6cite# generator (or,s+ The %agnetis% 'ro#uce# &y the ar%ature voltage (ill increase until the *iel# 'oles reach saturation) the 'oint (here the 'oles cannot contain any %ore %agnetic lines o* *orce+
Figure 19-10. < shunt generator
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Basic Electricity
Shunt generator The shunt generator #erives its na%e *ro% the (ay the *iel# 'ole coils are connecte# in 'arallel to the ar%ature) Figure 19-10. <nother (ay o* saying 'arallel is the ter% shunt+ The *iel# (in#ings consist o* %any turns o* s%all (ire+ They use only a s%all 'art o* the generate# current 'ro#uce the %agnetic *iel# in the 'ole$s (in#ings) The total current generate# %ust) o* course) &e the su% o* the *iel# e6citation current an# the current #elivere# to the loa#+ Thus) the out'ut current can &e thought o* as varying accor#ing to the a''lie# loa#+ The *iel# *lu6 #oes not vary to a great e6tent+ There*ore) the ter%inal voltage re%ains constant un#er varying loa# con#itions+ This ty'e o* generator is consi#ere# a constant voltage %achine+
<ll %achines are #esigne# to #o a certain a%ount o* (or,+ I* overloa#e# their lives are shortene#+ <s (ith any %achine) the li*e o* a generator can &e shortene# &y an overloa# con#ition+ -hen overloa#e#) the shunt generator ter%inal voltage #ro's ra'i#ly+ E6cessive current causes the ar%ature (in#ings to heat u'+ The heat can cause the generator to *ail &y #estroying the thin coat o* insulation covering the ar%ature (ires+ Series generator The series generator is so na%e# &ecause its *iel# (in#ings are (ire# in series (ith the ar%ature an# the loa#+ Such a generator is s,etche# in Figure 19-14+ < series (in#ing &y itsel* (ill 'rovi#e a *luctuating voltage to the generator loa#+ <s the current increases or #ecreases through the loa#) the voltage at the generator out'ut ter%inals (ill greatly increase or #ecrease+ Because o* the (i#e #i**erence in out'ut voltage) it is not a very 'ractical generator to use i* the loa# varies+
Figure 19-10. < series (oun# generator
Co,+ound generator The co%'oun# generator uses &oth series an# shunt (in#ings in the *iel#+ The series (in#ings are CC Chonan Technical Service Training Center
Basic Electricity
o*ten a *e( turns o* large (ire+ The (ire si.e o* the series (in#ings is usually the sa%e si.e as the ar%ature con#uctors+ These (in#ings %ust carry the sa%e a%ount o* current as the ar%ature since they are in series (ith each other+ The series (in#ings are %ounte# on the sa%e 'oles (ith the shunt (in#ings+ Both (in#ings a## to the *iel# strength o* the generator *iel# 'oles+ I* &oth act in the sa%e #irection or 'olarity) an increase in loa# causes an increase o* current in the series coils+ This increase in current (oul# increase the %agnetic *iel# an# the ter%inal voltage o* the out'ut+ The *iel# are sai# to &e a##itive+ The resulting *iel# (oul# &e the su% o* &oth coils+ 9o(ever) the current through the series (in#ing can 'ro#uce %agnetic saturation o* the core+ This saturation results in a #ecrease o* voltage as the loa# increases+
The (ay ter%inal voltage &ehaves #e'en#s on the #egree o* co%'oun#ing+ < co%'oun# generator) (hich %aintains the sa%e voltage either at no-loa# or *ull-loa# con#itions) is sai# to &e a *latco%'oun#e# generator+ <n over co%'oun#e# generator) then) (ill increase the out'ut voltage at *ullloa#+ <n un#er co%'oun#e# generator (ill have a #ecrease# voltage at *ull-loa# current+
Shunt "ound < varia&le loa# %ay &e 'lace# in 'arallel (ith the series (in#ing to a#:ust the #egree o* co%'oun#ing+ Shunt Figure 19-14 sho(s sche%atic #iagra%s o* the shunt) the series) an# the co%'oun# generator+ ield Out'ut
Series ield
Series "ound Out'ut
Figure 19-14. Co%'are these (iring #iagra%s o* the shunt) series) an# co%'oun# generator+ Co,+ound "ound Out'ut
Shunt ield Series ield
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Basic Electricity
19.4 6oltage and Current %egulation

The regulation o* a 'o(er source) (hether a generator or a 'o(er su''ly) can &e #e*ine# as the 'ercentage o* voltage #ro' &et(een no-loa# an# *ull-loa#+ 8athe%atically) it can &e e6'resse#@ E=no-load> O E= ull-load> H E= ull-load> J 199 I V regulation To e6'lain this *or%ula) assu%e that the voltage o* a generator (ith no-loa# a''lie# is 1== volts+ Un#er *ull-loa# the voltage #ro's to C? volts+ >illing in the e/uation@ 1==N K C?NIC?N = !NIC?N J 1== = !+1 U 3a''ro6i%ately5 In %ost uses) the out'ut o* the generator shoul# &e %aintaine# at a *i6e# voltage value un#er varying loa# con#itions+ The out'ut voltage o* the generator #e'en#s u'on the *iel# strength+ The *iel# strength #e'en#s u'on the *iel# current+ Current) accor#ing to Oh%$s la() varies inversely (ith resistance+ There*ore) a #evice that (oul# vary the resistance in the *iel# circuit (oul# also vary the voltage out'ut o* the generator+ This regulator is sho(n in igure 19-13+ It (as o*ten use# in auto%o&iles+
Figure 19-13. Circuit *or generator voltage regulator
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Basic Electricity
The generator out'ut at ter%inal O is :oine# to the &attery an# the (in#ing o* a %agnetic relay+ The voltage 'ro#uce# &y the generator causes a current to *lo( in the relay coil+ I* the voltage e6cee#s a 'reset value) the increase# current 'rovi#es enough %agnetis% to o'en the relay contacts+ Notice that the generator *iel# is groun#e# through these contacts+ -hen they o'en) the *iel# current %ust 'ass through resistance L to groun#+ This resistance re#uces the current) (hich re#uces the *iel# strength an# re#uces the ter%inal voltage+ -hen the ter%inal voltage is re#uces) the relay contact closes 'er%itting %a6i%u% *iel# current+ The ter%inal voltage rises+ In o'eration) these contact 'oints vi&rate+ They alternately cut resistance in an# out o* the *iel# circuit an# %aintain a constant voltage out'ut o* the generator+ 8echanical-%agnetic relays have serve# this 'ur'ose *or %any years+ No() ho(ever) electronic #evices are &eing use# on cars+
19.3 )lternating Current

Airect current *lo(s in only one #irection+ <lternating current changes its #irection o* *lo( at ti%es in the circuit+ In #c) the source voltage #oes not change its 'olarity+ In ac) the source voltage changes its 'olarity &et(een 'ositive an# negative+ Figure 19-12 sho(s the %agnitu#e an# 'olarity o* an ac voltage+ Starting at .ero) the voltage rises to %a6i%u% in the 'ositive #irection+ It then *alls &ac, to .ero+ Then it rises to %a6i%u% (ith the o''osite 'olarity an# returns to .ero+
Figure 19-12. Current an# voltage o* alternating current
The current (ave is also 'lotte# on the gra'h+ It sho(s the *lo( o* current an# the #irection o* the *lo(+ <&ove the .ero line) current is *lo(ing in one #irection+ Slo( the .ero line) the current is *lo(ing in the o''osite section+ The gra'h in Figure 19-12 re'resents instantaneous current an# voltage at any 'oint in the cycle+ But 1= Chonan Technical Service Training Center
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(hat is a cycleG < cycle is a se/uence or chain o* events occurring in a 'erio# o* ti%e+ <n ac cycle can &e #escri&e# as a co%'lete set o* 'ositive an# negative values *or ac+ The alternating current in your ho%e changes #irection 1 = ti%es 'er secon#+ It has a *re/uency o* 7= cycles 'er secon# 37= c's5+ >re/uency) %easure# in cycles 'er secon# or hert. 39.5) is the nu%&er o* co%'lete cycles occurring 'er secon#+ I* 7= cycles occur in one secon#) then the ti%e 'erio# *or one cycle is 1I7= o* a secon#) or =+=177 secon#s+ This is the 'erio# o* the cycle) Le*er again to igure 19-12+ The %a6i%u% rise o* the (ave*or% sho(s the a%'litu#e o* the (ave) inclu#ing the 'ea, 3highest 'oint5 voltage an# current+ -e learne# that in#uce# current in a rotating (ire in a %agnetic *iel# lo(e# *irst in one #irection an# then in the other #irection+ This (as #e*ine# as an alternating current+ T(o 'oints to re%e%&er are @ The *re/uency o* this cycle o* events increases as rotation s'ee# increases+ The a%'litu#e o* the in#uce# voltage #e'en#s on the strength o* the %agnetic *iel#+
19.3.1 6ectors -hen solving 'ro&le%s involving alternating currents) vectors are use# to #e'ict the %agnitu#e an# #irection o* a *orce+ < vector is a straight line #ra(n to a scale that re'resents units o* *orce+ <n arro(hea# on the line sho(s the #irection o* the *orce+ The length o* the vector sho(s the %agnitu#e+ The #evelo'%ent o* an ac (ave is sho(n in igure 19-18+ This (ave is *ro% a single coil ar%ature) re'resente# &y the rotating vector) %a,ing one revolution through a %agnetic *iel#+ <ssu%e that the 'ea,-in#uce# voltage is 1= volts+ Using a scale in (hich one inch e/uals *ive volts) the vector is t(o inches) or 1= volts) long+ Nectors o* this nature are assu%e# to rotate in a countercloc,(ise #irection+
Figure 19-18. On the le*t is the rotating 'hase+ On the right is one cycle o* the sine (ave+
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Basic Electricity
The ti%e &ase in igure 19-18 is a line using any convenient scale+ It sho(s the 'erio# o* one cycle or revolution o* the vector+ The ti%e &ase is grou'e# into seg%ents that re'resent the ti%e *or certain #egrees o* rotation #uring the cycle+ >or e6a%'le) at C= #egrees rotation) one /uarter o* the ti%e 'erio# is use#+ <t ?= #egrees rotation) three /uarters o* the ti%e 'erio# is use#+ The (ave is #evelo'e# &y 'lotting voltage a%'litu#e at any instant o* revolution against the ti%e seg%ent+ The #evelo'e# (ave is calle# a sine (ave+ The instantaneous in#uce# voltages are 'ro'ortione# to the sine o* the angle a 3theta5 that the vector %a,es (ith the hori.ontal+ The instantaneous voltage %ay then &e *oun# at any 'oint o* the cycle &y %a,ing use o* the *ollo(ing e/uation@ e I E,a? J sin W To a''ly this e/uation) assu%e that an ac generator is 'ro#ucing a 'ea, voltage o* 1== volts+ -hat is the instantaneous voltage at "5 #egrees o* rotationG e = 1== N J sin "5 e = 1== N J =+?=? = ?=+?N
19.2 The )lternator

The alternator is use# in the charging syste% o* all vehicles+ Figure 19-11 sho(s the insi#e o* the unit) inclu#ing a &uilt-in voltage regulator to control out'ut+ The out'ut is recti*ie# *ro% alternating current to #irect current *or charging the &attery an# other electrical #evices in the vehicle+ The alternator has so%e a#vantages over the #c generator+ These a#vantages inclu#e higher out'ut at lo(er s'ee#s+
Figure 19-11. < ty'ical ac generator 3alternator5 is sho(n in e6ternal an# cuta(ay vie(s+ 1=" Chonan Technical Service Training Center
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19.2.1 Co,+onents The alternator is a &rush ty'e in (hich a current *lo(s *ro% the &rushes through the sli' ring to the *iel# coil in the rotor+ %otor = ield coil>@ generates %agnetic *iel# -hen the rotor is #riven &y the 'ulley rotation) a current *lo(s *ro% the &ushes) through the sli' ring) to the *iel# coil+ The rotor core ta&s then &eco%e %agnetic 'ole+
Figure 19-19+ < ty'ical rotor
StatorC generates electro%otive *orce Together (ith the rotor core) the stator core *or%s the %agnetic *lu6 'ath+ The %agnetic *lu6 lines in the stator core are a**ecte# &y the 'assage o* the rotor core *iel# an# generate electricity+
Figure 19-09+ < ty'ical stator
%ecti ierC recti*iers electro%otive *orce so generate# The recti*ier %ainly consists o* ! #io#e trios) 7 #io#es an# heat sin,s+ It recti*ies the <C stator out'ut to AC 'o(er+ Each heat sin, has the 'lus 3+5 or %inus 3-5 lea#s *ro% ! #io#es attache# to it) 'er*or%ing *ull (ave recti*ication *or !-'hase <C+
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Basic Electricity
Su,,ary 1+ To 'ro#uce an in#uce# current (ith %agnetis%) three *actors %ust e6ist@ a+ There %ust &e a %agnetic *iel#+ &+ There %ust &e a con#uctor 3or coil5 in a close# circuit+ c+ There %ust &e a relative %ove%ent &et(een the *iel# an# the con#uctor+ + < generator is a #evice that converts %echanical energy into electrical energy+ !+ 4en.$s la( states that the 'olarity o* an in#uce# e%* is such that it sets u' a current) the %agnetic *iel# o* (hich al(ays o''oses the change in the e6isting *iel#+ "+ Airect current 3#c5 is current *lo(ing in a single #irection through a con#uctor+ <lternating current 3#c5 is current *lo(ing in %ore than one #irection through a con#uctor+ 5+ Airect current generators have co%%utators (hile ac alternators have sli' rings+ 7+ Oenerator ty'es inclu#e the shunt) series) an# co%'oun#+ They can &e in#e'en#ently e6cite# or sel* e6cite#+ ?+ Legulation o* a 'o(er source) (hether it is a generator or a 'o(er su''ly) can &e #e*ine# as the 'ercentage o* voltage #ro' &et(een no-loa# an# *ull-loa#+ B+ < cycle is a co%'lete set o* 'ositive an# negative values *or alternating current+ C+ >re/uency is the nu%&er o* cycles that occur each secon#+ It is %easure# in hert.+ 1=+ The three-'hase generator consists o* a rotating %agnetic *iel# insi#e three sets o* (in#ings+ 11+ Oenerators generally *ail &ecause o* e6cessive &rush (ear) e6cessive &earing (ear) or electrical overloa#+ 1=7 Chonan Technical Service Training Center
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11. 'C *&T&%

One o* the %ost i%'ortant #evelo'%ents in the *iel# o* electricity is the electric %otor+ The electric ,otor convents electrical 'o(er into rotating %echanical 'o(er+ 8otors are use# *or such ite%s as re*rigeration an# air con#itioning) *oo# %i6ers) vacuu% cleaners) grin#ers) 'u%'s) 'o(er &ench sa(s) lathes) various (oo# an# %etal %achines) as (ell as hun#re#s o* other use*ul %achines+
11.1 *otor &+eration Princi+les

The #c %otor is si%'ly an a''lication o* %agnetic 'rinci'les+ 8otor rotation #e'en#s on the interaction o* %agnetic *iel#s+ The construction o* a si%'le #c %otor is very si%ilar to a #c generator+ In *act) a #c generator an# %otor are o*ten interchangea&le in use+ In these cases) they are re*erre# to as dc ,achines. <s (ith the generators) to %a,e the %otor %ore 'o(er*ul) 'er%anent *iel# %agnets can &e re'lace# &y electro%agnets calle# *iel# (in#ings+ The *iel# (in#ing is 'lace# over a so*t iron 'ole 'iece+ It consists o* %any turns o* ena%el covere# co''er (ire+ 4i,e the generator) the *iel# (in#ings can have an in#e'en#ent source o* voltage connecte# to the%+ Or) the *iel#s (in#ings can &e connecte# in series or 'arallel (ith the ar%ature (in#ings to a single voltage source) e6a%ine igure 11-1.
Figure 11-1+ S,etches an# sche%atic #iagra%s o* *iel# (in#ing connections+ <-Shunt (oun# %otor is connecte# in 'arallel+ B-Series (oun# %otor+ e6cite# *iel# %otor+ 1=? C-Se'arately Chonan Technical Service Training Center
Basic Electricity
Lotational *orce co%es *ro% the interaction &et(een the %agnetic *iel# *oun# aroun# a current carrying con#uctor an# a *i6e# %agnetic *iel#+ < con#uctor carrying a current has a %agnetic *iel# aroun# it+ The #irection o* the *iel# #e'en#s on the #irection o* the current+ -hen this con#uctor is 'lace# in a *i6e# %agnetic *iel#) the interaction &et(een the t(o *iel#s causes %otion+ Stu#y igures 11-0 through 11-2+
Figure 11-0. < 8agnetic *iel# e6ists &et(een the 'oles o* a 'er%anent %agnet+ The arro(s in#icate the #irection o* the *iel#+
Figure 11-4. < current carrying con#uctor has a %agnetic *iel#0 its #irection #e'en#s on the #irection o* the current+
Figure 11-4. The *iel# aroun# the con#uctor *lo(s (ith the 'er%anent *iel# a&ove the con#uctor &ut o''oses the 'er%anent *iel# &elo( the con#uctor+ The con#uctor (ill %ove to(ar# the (ea,ene# *iel#+
Figure 11-3+ The current has &een reverse# in the con#uctor) causing the con#uctor *iel# to reverse+ No( the *iel# is rein*orce# &elo( the con#uctor an# (ea,ene# a&ove the con#uctor+ The con#uctor (ill %ove u'+
1=B
Basic Electricity
Figure 11-2+ The single con#uctor is re'lace# &y a coil o* con#uctors (oun# in the slots o* an ar%ature core+ Notice ho( the interaction o* the t(o *iel#s (ill 'ro#uce rotation+ Coil < %oves u' an# coil B %oves #o(n+ The rotation is cloc,(ise+
<r%ature coils on %otors are connecte# to co%%utator sections) as in the trial %otor+ The theory o* o'eration is si%ilar+ < 'ractical %otor has several ar%ature coils (oun# in se'arate slots aroun# the core+ Each coil has a co%%utator section+ Increasing the nu%&er o* *iel# 'oles gives the %otor greater 'o(er+
The #irection o* the *orce e6erte# on a con#uctor can &e 're#eter%ine# &y using Fle,ing!s le t-hand rule 3o*ten calle# the %otor rule5) (hich sates@ _4et the thu%&) *irst *inger an# secon# *inger o* the le*than# rule &e e6ten#e# such that they are all at right angles to each other) as sho(n in Figure 11-8. I* the *irst *inger 'oints in the #irection o* the %agnetic *iel#) the secon# *inger 'oints in the #irection o* the current) then the thu%& (ill 'oint in the #irection o* the %otion o* the con#uctor+$
8agnetic *iel#
First *inger - Fiel# seCon# O Current thuM& O Motion
8otion Current
Figure 11-8. 4e*t-han# rule
< *our-'ole %otor is s,etche# in igure 11-1+ The current #ivi#es into *our 'arts+ The current *lo(ing in (in#ings un#er each *iel# 'ole 'ro#uces rotation+ This then increases the turning 'o(er) or tor/ue) o* the %otor+
1=C
Basic Electricity
Figure 11-1. <##ing ar%ature coils an# *iel# coils increases the tor/ue o* the %otor+
11.0 Counter Electro,otive Force

-hen a con#uctor cuts through a %agnetic *iel#) voltage is in#uce# in the %oving con#uctor+ <n# (hile a %otor is %eant to convert electrical energy into %echanical energy) (hen the ar%ature &egins to rotate) the %otor also &eco%es a generator+ The generate# electrical *orce that o''oses the a''lie# e%* is calle# counter electro%otive *orce+ Counter electro%otive *orce is o*ten (ritten as counter e%* or ce%*+ It is a result o* the generator action o* the %otor+ I* the %otor (ere connecte# to a 'ri%e %over an# rotate# in the sa%e #irection as the #c %otor) it (oul# 'ro#uce a voltage (ith the o''osite 'olarity+ See igure 11-9+
Ta,e note o* the 'olarity o* the generator out'ut (ith a cloc,(ise rotation+
Figure 11-9. The generator an# the %otor are rotating cloc,(ise+ The #c generator #evelo's a 'olarity o''osite o* the %otor 'olarity *or the sa%e cloc,(ise rotation+ This is the &asis o* counter e%*+
The %otor re/uires the o''osite 'olarity *or a cloc,(ise rotation
11=
Basic Electricity
The counter e%* %agnitu#e increases as the rotational s'ee# an# *iel# strength increase+ There*ore@ Counter e, I S+eed J Field strength J K -here D e/uals so%e constant+ This constant (ill vary in #i**erent %otors+ It is a**ecte# &y things such as the nu%&er o* (in#ings+ The actual e**ective voltage (hen a''lie# to the (in#ings in the ar%ature %ust e/ual@ E source O E counter I E ar,ature The current *lo(ing in the ar%ature (in#ings at any given instant can &e *oun# using Oh%$s la( (hen the oh%ic resistance o* (in#ings is ,no(n@ # ar,ature I E ar,ature H % ar,ature It is i%'ortant to note that) as rotation o* the %otor ar%ature slo(s #o(n) less counter e%* is generate#+ <s a result o* less counter e%* &eing 'ro#uce#) there (ill &e an increase in the current through the ar%ature circuit+ The current (ill continue to increase until the %otor sto's rotating as it #oes (hen 'hysically overloa#e#+ -hen the %otor stalls) only the resistance o* the ar%ature li%its %a6i%u% current through the ar%ature circuit+ This con#ition results in e6tre%ely high current values+ < #c %otor %ust &e 'ro'erly 'rotecte# against overloa# con#itions+
11.4. 'C *otors

The #i**erent ty'es o* #c %otors share the co%%on na%es o* #c generators such as shunt) series) an# co%'oun#+ The construction o* the %otors is si%ilar to the generator counter 'arts+ 11.4.1 Shunt 'C *otor In the shunt %otor) the *iel# (in#ings shunt across) or in 'arallel to) the ar%ature) Figure 11-19+ The shunt %otor is co%%only calle# a constant s'ee# %otor+ It is use# in #riving %achine tools an# other %achines that re/uire relatively constant s'ee# un#er varia&le loa#s+ In the shunt %otor) &oth the *iel# an# the ar%ature are connecte# across the 'o(er line+ Un#er no-loa# con#itions) the counter e%* is al%ost e/ual to the line voltage+ Nery little ar%ature current *lo(s) an# very little tor/ue are #evelo'e#+ 111 Chonan Technical Service Training Center
Figure 11-19. Sche%atic o* shunt %otor
Basic Electricity
-hen a loa# is a''lie# an# the ar%ature #ecreases its s'ee#) the counter e%* also #ecreases+ The #ecrease# counter e%* increases the ar%ature current an# the tor/ue+ -hen the tor/ue %atches the loa#) the %otor re%ains at constant s'ee#) Table 111+ The total current use# &y this %otor is the su% o* the *iel# an# ar%ature currents+ The in'ut 'o(er %ay &e co%'ute# using -att$s la(@ Po"er I )++lied voltage J Total current Note) ho(ever) that the out'ut 'o(er (ill &e so%e(hat #i**erent &ecause the %otor is not one hun#re# 'ercent e**icient+
>ull-loa# No-loa# 9igh counter e%* 4o( ar%ature current 4o( tor/ue Aecrease# counter e%* Increase# ar%ature current Increase# tor/ue
ble 11-1. Shunt %otor loa# con#itions+
Ta
11.4.0 Series 'C *otor In the series (oun# %otor) the *iel# (in#ings are connecte# in series (ith the ar%ature (in#ings) Figure 11-11+ <ll the line current %ust *lo( through &oth the *iel# an# ar%ature (in#ings+ Un#er loa#e# con#itions) the counter e%* o''oses the line voltage an# ,ee's the current at a sa*e level+ I* the loa# (ere su##enly re%ove#) the ar%ature (oul# s'ee# u' an# #evelo' a higher counter e%*+ This higher counter e%* (oul# re#uce the current *lo(ing through the *iel# an# re#uce the *iel# strength+ In turn) the %otor (oul# increase it s'ee# &ecause@ S+eed I Counter e, H Field strength J K 11 Chonan Technical Service Training Center
gure 11-11+ Sche%atic o* series %otor Fi
Basic Electricity
This action &uil#s u'on itsel* an#) eventually) the %otor (oul# reach a s'ee# (here the ar%ature (oul# *ly a'art &ecause o* centri*ugal *orce+ Thus) a series %otor is never o'erate# (ithout a loa#+ >urther%ore) the series %otor shoul# &e connecte# #irectly to a %achine or through gears+ It is not sa*e to use a &elt #rive *ro% a series %otor to a %achine+ I* the &elt shoul# &rea, or sli' o**) the %otor (oul# 1run (il#2 an# li,ely #estroy itsel*+ < ,ey a#vantage o* the series %otor is its a&ility to #evelo' a high tor/ue un#er loa#+ Un#er loa# con#itions) the ar%ature s'ee# is lo() an# the ce%* is lo(+ This con#ition results in a high ar%ature current an# increase# tor/ue+ Series %otors have heavy ar%ature (in#ings to carry these high currents+ <s the %otor increases in s'ee#) the ce%* &uil#s u') the line current #ecreases) an# the tor/ue #ecreases+ Series %otors are use# on electric trains) cranes an# hoists) as (ell as other traction-ty'e e/ui'%ent+ 11.4.4 Co,+ound 'C *otors The co%'oun# %otor has &oth the series (in#ing an# a shunt *iel# (in#ing+ This %otor co%&ines the a#vantages o* each o* the other ty'es o* %otors+ The series (in#ings also carry the ar%ature current+ The (in#ing consists o* a nu%&er o* heavy turns o* (ire+ The shunt *iel# (in#ing consists o* %any turns o* *iner (ire+ Both (in#ings are (oun# on the sa%e *iel# 'oles+ There are t(o %etho#s use# to connect these (in#ings+ I* the %agnetic *iel# on the series (in#ing rein*orces the %agnetic *iel# o* the shunt (in#ing) the %otor is sai# to &e a cu%ulative co%'oun# %otor+ I* the t(o (in#ings are connecte# to o''ose each other %agnetically) the %otor is a #i**erential co%'oun# %otor+ < #etaile# stu#y o* co%'oun# %otors &eyon# the sco'e o* this te6t+ 9o(ever) the characteristics o* the #i**erent ty'es shoul# &e note#+ The cu%ulative co%'oun# %otor #evelo's high starting tor/ue+ It is use# (here heavy loa#s are a''lie# an# so%e variance in s'ee#s can &e tolerate#+ The loa# can &e sa*ety re%ove# *ro% this %otor+ 8ost co%'oun# #c %otors encountere# (ill &e o* the cu%ulative ty'e+ The #i**erential co%'oun# %otor &ehaves %ush li,e the shunt %otor+ The starting tor/ue is lo() an# it has goo# s'ee# regulation i* loa#s #o not vary greatly+ Conse/uently) this %otor is not (i#ely acce'te#+
Figure 11-10+ Sche%atic o* co%'oun# %otor
11.4 Ty+es o *otors

11! Chonan Technical Service Training Center
Basic Electricity
The (niversal *otor The la(s o* %agnetis% (ere use# to e6'lain the o'eration o* the #c %otor+ But) (ill a #c %otor o'erate on alternating currentG The ans(er is yes) to a li%ite# e6tent+ 8otors that o'erate on either ac or #c 'o(er are calle# universal %otors+ -ith an alternating current) the 'oles o* &oth the *iel# an# ar%ature (in#ings (ill 'erio#ically reverse+ 9o(ever) since t(o north 'oles re'el each other) as #o t(o south 'oles) %otor action continues in the #c %otor (hen ac is a''lie#+ >or &est results) a series %otor shoul# &e use#+ -hen the shunt %otor is connecte# to ac) the in#uctance o* the *iel# (in#ings causes a 'hase #is'lace%ent+ This i%'airs %otor action+ -hen a universal ty'e %otor is use# in in#ustry) the series (oul# ty'e is 're*erre#+ These %otors are not use# *or heavy-#uty 'ur'oses &ecause o* the large a%ount o* s'ar,ing at the &rushes+ Co%%ercial %otors o* these ty'es are use# *or s%all *ans) #rills) an# grin#ers+ Per,anent *agnet *otor Per%anent %agnet) #c %otors are use# (i#ely in in#ustry to#ay+ They range in out'ut *ro% 1-5=th horse'o(er to 5 horse'o(er+ These %otors are o* si%'le #esign an# re/uire voltage to the ar%ature circuit only+ The 'er%anent %agnet) #c %otor uses 'er%anent %agnets *or *iel# 'oles in 'lace o* electrical coils+
11.3 Start *otor

The starter is a re#uction start %otor (ith a &uilt-in re#uction gear+ Its %otor has &een #o(nsi.e# (ith even higher s'ee# ca'a&ility+ *agnetic s"itch 8agnetic s(itch section 'uts the 'inion in %esh (ith the ring gear an# *ee#s loa# current into the %otor) the re#uction gear an# trans%itting tor/ue to the 'inion+
>igure 11-1!+ < ty'ical start %otor
11"
Basic Electricity
&verrunning clutch The overrunning clutch is o* roller ty'e+ Each roller is set in the (e#ge-sha'e# groove 'rovi#e# &y the outer an# inner races 3'inion5 an# is 'resse# &y a s'ring+ The roller is 'resse# against the narro(er si#e o* the 'inion &y its (e#ge action+ On the other han#) no tor/ue is trans%itte# *ro% the 'inion as the roller %oves to the (i#er si#e releasing the (e#ge action+
>igure 11-1"+ Le#uction gear Section
Su,,ary 1+ < %otor is a #evice *or changing electrical energy to %echanical energy+ + 4i,e 'oles re'el each other0 unli,e 'oles attract each other+ !+ The rotation o* the %otor 'ro#uces turning or t(isting 'o(er calle# tor/ue+ "+ Percent o* s'ee# regulation can &e calculate# &y@ Percent o* s'ee# regulation = S'ee# no-loa#-S'ee# *ull-loa#IS'ee# *ull-loa# J 1==U 5+ Shunt %otors have their *iel# (in#ings connecte# in 'arallel (ith the ar%ature+ They are sta&le %otors un#er varying loa#s+ 7+ The series %otor has the *iel# (in#ings connecte# in series (ith the ar%ature+ They #evelo' a high tor/ue un#er loa#+ ?+ Co%'oun# %otors have their *iel# (in#ings connecte# in series an# 'arallel (ith the ar%ature+ There are t(o ty'es o* co%'oun# %otor@ the cu%ulative co%'oun# %otor an# the #i**erential co%'oun# %otor+
115
Basic Electricity
%EFE%E$CE Electricity an# Electronics Lichar# 8+ Lo&erts) 9o(ar# 9+ Oerrish) -illian E+ Augger) Tr+ Pu&lisher@ The Ooo#heart--illco6 Co%'any)Inc+ Tinley Par,) Illinois+
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Basic Electricity Guide (021014)

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Chonan Technical Service Training Center

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0. Current5 6oltage 7 %esistance

3. Electric Po"er and ;att

11. 'C *otor

2. Su,,ery or basic Electrical

Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Chonan Technical Service Training Center

1.0 &ccurrence o electricity Su&stance

Shell Structure o* <to% + Aetail structure o* <to%

Figure 1-4 Structure o )to,

O6ygen <to% Figure 1.4 )to, ioniAation

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F <ll ato%s %a#e u' o* three 'articles+ -hat are theyG

F! -hich 'articles in the ato%s gives rise to electric current

F5 Select incorrect ans(er ------ 3

0. Current5 6oltage5 %esistance

Sa%e (ater level No 'otential Ai**erence

No (ater (heel Lotate

0.0 Potential and +otential di erence 6S. Current

-ater tan, <

-ater level Ai**erence 3Potential Ai**erence5

No (ater level Ai**erence 3Potential sa%e5

-ater (heel #oes not (or, $o ;ater Flo" -ater (heel

;ater lo" =Current lo"> Figure 0-0

$o "ater lo"=$o current lo">

0.4 Potential 7 Potential 'i erence 6S. 6oltage

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9o( %any voltage each other 'osition at &elo( circuitG

>USE >B 5<

B<TTEL; CO8P<LT8ENT >USE BOM Q1

=+5LI4 L 5 LOO8 4<8P

C"==+5LI4 Battery earth O=C L 7 =+5 B

1L 1 volt 1 @1)=== S 1S @ =+==1 1 @ 1)===)=== S 1 volt

0.2 Conductor5 insulator and resistor

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Chonan Technical Service Training Center

3<''ly 'ressure to the actuator5

= 3Pu%' or P1 or P 5 K Pa a''ly 'ressure is #ecrease as %uch as L 'ressure+

Pa = L K P& P& = =,gIc% Pressure Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Current5 6oltage and %esistance su,,ary.

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0.1 'irect 7 Parallel current Circuit

Airect circuit o* e/uivalence 5

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E I 0volt N 4volt N 2volt I 10 6olt

Fig. 0-19 'irect current circuit

6olt ,eter ? Chonan Technical Service Training Center

Current %easure%ent in #irect current circuit+ @ Series connecte# voltage %eter+

0.1.0 Parallel current circuit =Parallel circuit>

Parallel connect in circuit

Parallel e/uivalence circuit

! la%'Hs 'arallel circuits Fig. 0-14 Parallel circuit

0.1.4 Series - Parallel Circuit

L1) 3L1+L 5 &

& E L! c >igure < Fig. 0-13 Series-Parallel circuit

4! = "< Fig. 0-12 Series-Parallel circuit c

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-ater level Aierence 3Potential Aierence5

E or electro%otive orce0 an#

8.1.1 )nalog ulti eterFs o+eration +rinci+le