Filter Desing Complete

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Chapter:01
Filter: Filter can be considered can be considered as frequency selective networks. A filter is
required to separate an unwanted signal from a mixture of wanted and unwanted signals.
The filter specification are generally given in terms of cutoff frequencies, pass
band (P.B) and stop band (s.b) regions. P. B is the frequency band of wanted signal and S.B
is the frequency band of unwanted signal. An ideal filter should pass the wanted signal with
no attenuation and provide infinite attenuation.
Depending upon the components used, filters can be classified as:
1. passive filters: Filters which are the compotnet such as R,L,C are the passive filters. The
Gains of such filters are always less than or equal to unity (i.e GS1). It is to be noted the
L and C are filter components, but R is not.
2. Active filters: The filters which use the components such as transistors, op-amp etc are
the active filters. The Gains of such filters are always greater than or equal to unity. ( G
1)
Gain and Attenuation:

i/p
V1(t)
Filter
network
o/p
V2(t)
Let us consider the filters network with i/p V1(t) having power P1 and o/p V2(t) having
power p2 as shown in fig1. Then the transfer function is given by T(s) = V2(s)/V1(s)
Where , V1(s) and V2(s) are the Laplace Transform of V1(t) .
Also, T(s) = T(jw) =
v2 ( jw)
v1 ( jw)
Then the voltage gain in db is given by ,

Av = 20log10 T ( jw) dB .(1)
Or in term of power , the power gain is given by,
Ap = 10 log10 p1
p2
Now, the voltage attenuation is given by ,

= 1/Av
= -20log T ( jw) dB.(2)
From equation 1 and 2 ,we can write,
1
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T ( jw) = 100.05Av..(3)
T ( jw) = 10
-0.05
.(4)
Types of filters: ( According to the function)

Filters are classified according to the functions they are to perform. The pattern
of PB and SB that give rise to the most common filters as defined below:
1. Low pass filters: (LPF): A LPF characteristics is one in which the PB extend from
= 0 to = c where c is know as cut off frequency.
A
PB
SB
w
wc
Fig. 1(a)
2. High pass filter: A high pass filter is a compolement of a low pass filter in that the
frequency range form o to c is the SB and from c to infinity is the PB.
A
SB
PB
wc
Fig. 1(b)
3. Band pass filter ( BPF): A BPF is one in which the frequency extending form L (or
1) to u (2 ) are passed while signals at all other frequencies are stopped.
A
SB
PB
wc
Fig. 1(c)
SB
w
4. Band stop filter(BSF): A BSF is complement of BPF where signal components at

frequencies form 1 to 2 are stopped and all others are passed. These filters are
sometimes known as Notch filters.
A
PB
SB
PB
w
Fig. 1(d)
Notch filter
5. All pass filters (APF): It is a filter which passes all range of frequencies , i.e , PB
2
ranges from o to infinity.

A
PB
w
Fig. 1(e)
Non- ideal Characteristics:

Filter
Gain curve
Attenuation curve
A
1. LPF
TB
0.707
Wp
Wc
WpWc Ws
Ws
2.HPF
Ws WcWp
1. From the attenuation curve it to be noted that in the pass band the attenuation is always
less then a maximum value. Designated as max
2. In the stop band the attenuation is always larger then a minimum value designated as
min
3. Band between PB and SB so defined are known as transition bands. (TB).

Bilinear Transfer function and its poles and zeroes:
We know,
T(s) = P(s)/Q(s) = N(s)/D(s)
m
m1
+ ........... + a1 s + a0
T(s) = am s n + am1 s
b s +b
n
n1
s n 1
+bs+b
1
When , m = n = 1, then the T(s) of equation (i) will be bilinear , i.e
T (s) =
P(s) a s + a
0
= 1
Q(s) b1 s + b0
= a1 (s + ao / a1 )
+
G(s z
b0 / b1 )b1(s
)
1
(s p1 )
or T (s) =
G(s + z )
1
(s + z 2 )
3
If z1< p1
If p1< z1
Here, G = a1/b1 = Gain

Z = -a0/a1 = a zero
P1 = -b0/b1 = a pole
Date:2065/4/22
Realisation of filter with passive elements:
Let us now see how the bilinear transfer function and its various special cases can be
realized with passive elements.
+
v1
+
-
c
-
Fig 1.
Plot the magnitude and phase response of the ckt shown in fig (1) and identify the filter.
Solution:
Applying kirchoffs law for fig 1
V = R + 1 idt.......... ......(i)
1
1
L
1
............
V2 =
(ii)
L idt..........
Taking laplace transform of equation (i) and (ii)

V (s) = RI (s) + 1 I (s)..................(iii)
1
cs
1 I (s)
V2 (s)
cs
V2 (s) =
=
1
V1 (s)
I (s) R +
cs
4

1
cs
1
= Rcs + 1 = RC(s + 1 / RC)
cs
1
RC
=
S + 1 / RC
T (s) = W0
S + W0
Where, W0 = 1/RC
Now , for magnitude plot,
T(s) = T(jw) = W0/(jw+W0)
T ( jw) =
w0
w + wo
2
Now when
W = 0 T ( jw) = 1
W= wo T ( jw) = 0.707
W = , T ( jw) = 0
T(jw)
1
0.707
Wc
Fig. 2. Magnitude plot

For phase plot:
-1
-1
(jw) = tan (o/w0) tan (w/wo)

-1
(jw) = tan (w/w0)
When,
W = 0 , (j0) = 0
W = wo , (jwo) = -45
W = , (j ) = - 90
5

90
45
Wo
W
-45
-90
2.
R1
v1
R1
+
- R1
4
v2
Above figure can be modified as:

1
3
+
v1
From figure the potential of node 2, is V1/2 and the potential at node 3 is Vs R/(1+1/cs)
V2 = V1/2 - Vs R/(1+1/cs)
V1/V2 = - RCS/RCS+1
T(s) = R(S+1- 2RCS)/2(RCS+1) = -{(RCS+1)/2(RCS+1)}
= RC(S+1/RC)/2RC(s+1/RC)
Where Wo = 1/RC
T(jw) = -1/2 {(jw-wo)/(jw+wo)}
For magnitude plot ,
T ( jw) = 1
2
w2 + (w )
0
w2 + w0 2
6

T(jw)
T ( jw) = 1
2
Phase plot:
-1
-1
(jw) = tan (-w/wo) - tan (

-1
w/wo) (jw) = -2tan (w/wo)
when,
w = 0, (jw) = 0
w = 0, (jw) = -90
w= , (jw) = -180
90
45
Wo
W
-45 -90
-135 -180
From the magnitude plot, we see that the networking is all pass filter.
Assignment:
3.
+
+
v1
v2
-
4.
7

c1
R1
v1
+
-
R2
v2
5.
R1
+
v1
R2
v2
C2
-
Date: 2065/4/28
Example :04
c1
R1
v1
+
-
R2
From fig (i)

Y1 = c1s+1/R1 =
v2
R1C1 S + 1
R1
Z1= 1/Y1 =
R1
R1C1 S + 1
Now applying kirchoffs voltage law, for fig (i).

V1 = z1i+R2i
V1(s) = (z1s+R2)I1(s)
And ,
V2(s) = R2I(s)
T(s) = V2 (s) =
V1 (s)
R2
=
Z1 (s) + R2
R2
R1
+ R2
R 1C 1 S + 1
R R C(S +
R2 (R1C1 S + 1)
=
R1 + R2 R1C1 S + R2
1 2
R1 R2 C1 S +
1 )
R 1 C1
R1 + R2
R2 R1C1
8
S+
RC
=
S+
R2 C1 R1C1
Or, T(s) = S + 01 = S (01 )
S + 02 S (02 )
02
And ,
-wo1
wo2
> 01
or, 02 < 01
For Magnitude plot:

T(jw) =
jw + w
01
jw + w02
T(
w2
+ w 01 2
+
w2 w w02 2
01
Now at w= 0, j0) = w =
At w = , T ( j) =
w01
02
R2
R1 + R2
=1
02
T(jw)
1
R2
R1+R2
w=0
For Phase plot,

jw + w
T(jw) =
01
jw + w02
Where, w01= 1/R1C1

W02 = 1/R1C1+1/R2C2
Therefore, (jw) =
tan
w
01
tan
w
02
(jw) = z p
Since direct phase plot of above expression is very complicated, we will go it by indirect
method. First we will plot the zero phase and then the pole phase and finally find the net pole
zero phase.
Zero plot ( z)
9
(z) = tan
= tan
(wR C
1 1
01
Now at w = 0
(z) = (j0) = 0
(z) = (jw0)= 45
Now at w =
(j ) = 90
Pole plot ( p)
-1
(p) = tan (w/w01)
= tan
R1C1
RC
2
Now at, w = 0
p = (j0) =
0 at w = w02
p = (w02) = 45
at w = , p = (j ) = 90
(jw)
zero plot
90
45
pole zero plot

wo2
wo1
w=0
-45
Pole plot
-90
Thus the magnitude response of the above network shown that it is a high pass filter with dc
gain R2/(R1+R2) and phase plot signifies it is leading type.
Insertion Gain and insertion loss:
10

T(jw)
wo
wo
w
wo
Insertion gain
T(jw)
1
1
w
wo
Insertion gain
One of the important factor that should be consider in design is that the minimum value of
should be zero degree. But this is not true in practical case since we are using active element
, this need not be the case because the active element may provided the gain greater than one
(1). If it is necessary to meet the specification exactly then it will be necessary to provide ck t
to reduce the gain. We call this unwanted gain as the insertion gain. On the other hand there
is a loss in the components of passive filter so it provides access attenuation and we call this
loss as insertion loss. To overcome this problem additional compensation circuit is required.
Chapter- 2
Normalization and Renormalization:
In most of the cases we consider the values of R, L S& C to be the order of unity. It is very
difficult to built the capacitor of 1 f and inductor of 1 H . Besides this the practical values of
capacitors available in the electronic circuit is of the order of microfarad or Pico farad. The
circuit considered so for have normalized elemental values but practically these values are
not realizable. So we perform scaling to get the realizable components.
There are mainly two reasons for resorting the normalized design.
1. Numerical computation become simple and it is easier to manipulate the numbers of
the order of unity.
2. If we have the normalized design of
the filter then it is easy to generate the
11
filter of similar characteristics of varying center frequency and impedance level

without redesigning the whole circuit.
The actual or the required elemental values of the
Filter ckt which is obtained after scaling is called demoralized values of the circuit.
Scaling: While designing the ckt sometimes the value of components may not be available
so we change them with the available one, which is called scaling. To obtained the elemental
values of the required filter we amplitude and frequency scale the normalized design.
Types of scaling:
1. Impedance (Magnitude or amplitude) scaling: In this scaling, the magnitude of the
impedance is increased or decreased. To scale in magnitude , z(s) (the impedance) is
multiplied by a constant factor Km .
Z(s)
If Km . 1, then it is called scale up.

If Km< 1, then it is called scale down.
Let, Rold = old value of Resistor.
Lold = old value of inductor
Cold = old value of capacitor.
The new values of R, L and C are given by
Rnew = Km Rold .(i)
Also,
XLKm = Lold S Km = (KmLold)S = LnewS
Lnew = Km Lold .(ii)
Again,
1
Xc Km = 1/cold s . Km = C
old
1
= Cnew .S
C
new
C
0ld
.(iii)
Km
Example 01:
Perform Impedance scaling to the following network.
12

R=1 ohm
+
+
V2
C =1F
V1
-
Solution:
Rold = 1
=1F
Cold
Now , let us assume that,

Cnew = 10 F
Note: Generally we assume new value of capacitor 1F or 10 F.
We know that
C
new
= C /K
old
Km = Cold/Cnew = 1F/10 F = 10
Therefore, Rnew = Km .Rold
5
= 10 * 1
Rnew = 100K
R=100k
+
+
V2
C =10 uf
V1
-
Fig(ii) scaled ckt.

The transfer function for fig. (i) ,
Told(s) = 1/(s+1)
1
R C
And, Tnew =
new
S+
new
1
C
new
= 1/s+1
new
Thus we see that there is no change in the following transfer function while doing magnitude
scaling.
Date: 2065/5/3
2. Frequency scaling:
In frequency scaling our objective is to scale the frequency without affecting the magnitude
of the impedance , i.e
ZL = ( = XL) = LS = jWL
Z L = WL is a constant.
Similarly,
Zc ( = Xc) = 1/cs = 1/ jwc
13
Z c = is constant.
wc
To do so any change in w must be compensated by corresponding change in L and c

If, w = old corner frequency
= new corner frequency.
= Kf w
Where,
Kf = frequency scaling factor.
If Kf > 1, then it is called expansion scaling
If, Kf < 1 , then it is called compression scaling.
o
Expansion
= 10
o =
10
Compression
o = 10
3
o =
Also, if T(jw) is old Transfer function, then the new transfer fucnti is T(j )
= T (jKfw)
The resistance is unaffected by frequency scaling , i.e
Rnew= Rold .(v)
For inductor,
Xl = Ls = jwL = jwkf . L/kf
Or, XL = j(wkf) ( Lold/kf) since, L = Lold
= j ( Lold/kf)
Lold = Lold / Kf .(vi)
For capacitor,
C =C /k
new
old
(vii)
f
14
3. Both magnitude and Frequency scaling:

It is not necessary that we scale magnitude and scale in frequency separately. We can do
both at once. Cobining all the above equations.
Rnew = KmRold .(Viii)
Lnew = Km/kf. Lold (ix)
Cnew = Cold/Km.kf .(x)
These three equations are know as element scaling equations.
Example 01:
1
1F
Solution:
W0 = 1 , = 1000
Therefore, kf = o/wo = 1000
Now we know that
Cnew = Cold /kf = 1F/ 1000 = 1 mF
And , Rnew = Rold = 1
1k
1mF
Fig (ii): after frequency scaling.

Now,
1
R C
0ld
Told(S) = s +
1
=s+1
old
R C
old
old
1
R
new
And, Tnew(s) = s +
new
1
R C
new
10
= s + 10
new
Example 02:
R=1/10
1F
15
Perform frequency scaling with o = 1

Example 03:
R1
C1
v1
R2
v2
T(s) = (s+0.5)/(s+3)
Perform magnitude and frequency scaling separately with wo = 3 and 0 = 300.
Solution:
The transfer function of the above figure is
s+
T(s) =
1
R1C1
1
1
s+
+
R1C1 R2C1
.(i)
But given ,
T(s) = (s+0.5)/(s+3) .(ii)
Comparing equation (i) and (ii)
1/R1C1 = 0.5 R1C1 =
2 ..(iii)
Again, ( 1/R1+ 1/R2)1/C1 =

3..(iv) Let , C1= 1 F
For equation (iii) R1 1 = 2
R1 = 2 Therefore from
equation (iv)
(1/2 + 1/R2) 1/2 = 3
Therefore, R2 = 2/5
In order to perform magnitude scaling
R
1old
=2
R2old = 2/5 = 0.4

Cold = 1 F
Say, C1new = 10 F
Then, Km = Cold/Cnew = 1F/ 10
5
F Km = 10
5
Therefore, Rnew = km R2old = 10 0.4 =
40 k The selected ckt will be :
16

200k
40.4F
v1
40k
v2
Again for frequency scaling,

Wo = 3 , 0 = 3000
Therefore , kf = o/ wo = 3000/ 3 = 1000
Therefore, R1new = R1old = 2
R = R = 0.4
2new
2old
C1old = C1old/kf = 1F/ 1000 = 1 mF.
Example 04:
R2= 1/100
C2= 1/10 F
_
R1= 1 C1= 1 F
Perform magnitude scaling to the ckt given.

Note: Take C new as the new value of capacitor for C old where C old represents the
largest value in the circuit.
Solution:
Here, R1old = 1
R =2
2old
C1old = 1 F
C2old = 1/10 F.
Take, Cnew = 10 F.
Then for, magnitude scaling,
C
= C /k
new
old
Km = C1old/ C1new = 1F/ 10 F = 10

5
Therefore, C2new = C2old/km = 0.1 F/ 10
C2new = 1 F
Similarly,
5
R1old = km. R1old = 10 1 = 100 k
5
R2new = km. R2old = (1/100). 10 = 1 k.
1k
_
100k
10 uF
17
Fig: Magnitude Scaling Ckt.
18
Chapter: 3
One port and two port passive network:
Positive real function: The filter circuit is complex transfer function that may be realizable
depending upon weather the transfer function exhibits PRF properties. I the transfer function
is PRF only ckt is realizable. There are two types of passive network : [i] one port network
[ii] Two port network.
I(s)
V(s)
I1(s)
1- port
n/w
V1(s)
Fig. 1(a) one port n/w
I2(s)
2- port
n/w
Fig. 2(b) two port n/w
One port network: Let us suppose of fig of 1(a),

Then, z(s) = V(s) / I(s)
If V(s) = 3s+2
I(s) = 1
Then, z(s) = 3s+2
= Ls +R
3H
V(s)
Thus , the function is realization but if, z(s) = 3s-2 , then it is not realizable.
Date: 2065/ 5/10
Why? ( )
(i)
If F(s) denote the function in S-domain, the F(s) indicates either driving point
impedance or driving admittance. Which ever is concern to us.
(ii) F(s) should be for real value of S.
(iii) The value of F(s) must be greater than or equal to zero. i.e Re[f(s)] 0.
Thus in brief a PRF must be real and +ve .
If F(s) = LS = jWL
L must be +ve.
F(s) = 1/CS = 1/jwc
C must be +ve
F(s) = R
R must be +ve.
Properties of Passive n/w.
A passive network is one
(i)
The element of which one are +ve and real.
19
(ii) The average Power dissipated (APD) by the n/w. for a sinusoidal i/p must be +ve. For
2
one port n/w APD = 1/2 Re[ z(s)][I(s)] 0
Properties of PRF:
1. If F(s) is +ve and real , then 1/F(s) is also +ve and real.
2. The sum of DRFS is always PRF but the difference may not be PRF.
Example: Z1(s) = 5s+ 3 (PRF)
Z2(s) = 2s+ 5 ( PRF)
Then, z1(s)+z2(s) = 7s+8 (PRF)
But, Z1(s) Z 2(s) = 3s-2 (not PRF)
3. The Poles and zeros of PRF cannot be in the right half of the S-Plain.
4. Only poles with real residues can exists on the jw axis.
2
Example: F(s) = 6s/(s + 2 )
In this case, S = j
Residue = real and +ve.
5. The poles and zeroes of PRF Occurs in pairs.
6. The highest power of numerator and denominator polynomial may differ atmost by unity.
Example:
S 5 + 4S 4 + 3S 3 + 3S 2 + 3S 1 + 2
S 6 + 4S 4 + 2S 3 + 3S 2 + 3K
7. The lowest power of numerator and denominator polynomial may differ atmost by unity.
5
4
3
2
Example: S 6 + 4S 4 + 3S 3 + 3S 2 + 3S
+ 4S + 2S
+ 3S
+ 3K
8. The real part of F(s) must be greater than or equal to zero. i.e Re[F(s)] 0
But , if Re[F(s)] = 0 , then the ckt do not
consist resistive components. Hence only
capacitive and inductive components are presents. Hence
only capacitive and inductive
components are present . Such a n/w whose transfer function satisfies this condition is
known as lossless n/w.
Example: Determine weather the function is PRF.
2
2
(i)
z(s) = 2s +5/s(s +1)
2
Hence , z(s) = 2s +5/s(s+1)
2
2
A/s + Bs/(s +1) = A/s + B/ (s +1)/s
2
A = 2s + 5 .s
s(s + 1) s = 0
2
B = 2s + 5 . (s + 1)
2
2
s
s(s + 1)
s
= 2(1) + 5 = 3
(1)
Z(s) = 5/3 + -3s/(s +1)

2
Here, (-3) , the residues ( s = -1) is ve , therefore z(s) is not PRF.
(ii) z(s) = (s + 1)(s + 4) = s(s + 4) + 2(s + 4)
(s + 1)(s + 3)s(s + 3) + 1(s + 3)
20

2
= s 2 + 6s + 8
s + 4s + 3
2s + 5
=1+
(s + 1)(s + 3)
= z1 (s) + z 2 (s)
A + B =3/2 + 1 / 2
Where z2(s) = 2s + 5
=
(s + 1)(s + 3) s + 1 S + 3 s + 1 s + 3
Therefore, z(s) = 1 + 3 / 2 + 1 / 2
s+1 s+3
It is not PRF.
2
3
z(s) = 8s + 4s3 + 3s + 1
(iii)
8s + 3s
Y(s) = s + 2s + 8
s(s + 4)
2
(iv)
Basic ckt Synthesis Techniques:

Any one port n/w each can be
impedance function z(s) . i.e
F (s) =
represented by either admittance function Y(s) or
a n s n + a n1 s n 1 + a n2 s n 2 + ............. + a s + a
b sm +b
m
m 1
m1
+b
s
m 2
m2
+ ............ + b s + b
1
0
0
= P(s)
Q(s)
= N (s)
D(s)
= Z (s)
P(s)
Design of LC Ckt . (Loss less ckt):
Consider a impedance function as
E (s) + O (s)
Z(s) =
Em (s) + Om (s)
Where En(s) and Om(s) denote the even parts of numerator and denominator respectively
and On(s) and On(s) denote odd part.
4
3
s5 + s + s + s + 1
Z(s) =
= N (s)
5
4
3
2
s 6 + s + s + s + s + s + 1 Q(s)
5
(s + s +
(s + s + 1) +
5)
On (s)
n
= 6 E4 (s) 2
(s + s + s + 1) + (s 5 + s 3 + 1)
4
Em (s)
Om (s)
For the loss less function , it is to be noted that,

Re[z(s)] = 0 .(i)
Now, z(s) =
En (s) + On (s) Em (s) Om (s)
Em (s) + Om (s) Em (s) Om (s)
= En (s)Em (s) + On (s)Em (s) 2 En (s)Om2 (s) On (s)Om

(s) Em (s) Om (s)
21Downloaded from www.bhawesh.com.np
= En (s)Em (s) + On (s).Om (s) +On (s)Em (s) En (s)Om (s)

Em 2 (s) + Om 2 (s)
2
Em 2 (s) Om 2 (s)
2
(s) Om (s)
= Re[ z(s)] = En (s)Em (s) On (s).Om (s) (ii)

Em
Therefore from equation (i) and (ii).

En (s)Em (s) On (s).Om (s) = 0
2
2
Em (s) Om (s)
En (s)Em (s) On (s).Om (s) =
0 En (s)Em (s) = On (s).Om (s)
E (s) O (s)
m
= n .(iii)
Om (s) Em (s)
The above equation (iii) indicates that LC ckt is even to odd ( or odd ) to even function.
Properties of LC Ckt:
n 2
n
1. F (s) = a n s + a n2 s + a n 2 s n4 + ............. + a 0
bm s
+ bm 2 s
m2
+ bm4 s
m 4
+ b0
The coefficients an and bm must be real and +ve and F(s) must be even to odd or odd to even
function.
2. The highest power of numerator and denominator can differ atmost by unity ( in this
case it is 2). So does the lowest power.
3. The succeeding power of s in numerator and deno minator must differ by the order of
s + 17s 2 + 165s 0
2 all the way through . Example: 4
s 3 + 4s
4. The poles and zeros must be alternatively placed on the jw axis and lie only on the
imaginary axis.
5. There must be either a pole or a zero at the origin.
Example: Test whether the following function is LC.
2
2
2
2
(i) z(s) = K (s +1)(s +5)/(s +2)(s +10) k>0 It is
not LC ckt function because,
1. There is neither pole or zero at the origin though the pole zero are alternatively placed on
the imaginary axis.
2. It is not even to odd or odd to even function.
2
2
2
(ii) Z(s) = z(s +1)(s +9)/s(s +4)
2
2
2
(iii) Z(s) = k s(s +4)/(s +1)(s +3)
, k> 0
5
3
4 2
(iv) Z(s) = s +4s +5/(4s +s )
Date: 2065/5/12
Design of LC ckt by Fosters Method:
In this case ,
F(s) = k0 + 2ki s
S
s 2 + wi
+ ............ + k s .(i)
2
This equation may represent z(s) or Y(s)

Case I : ( i.e when F(s) = z(s))
22
Then,
Z(s) = k0 + 2ki s + ............ + k s
S
s + wi
Here,
- ko/s will represent a capacitive reactance of 1/ko F.
2
2
- 2ki(s)/(s +w ) will represent LC parallel combination.
2
Having capacitor of value 1/2ki F and inductor of value 2ki/wi . Thus the final circuit will
be:
2
2ki/wi
1/k0
.......
1/2ki
z(s)
st
This method of circuit synthesis is known as foster impedance or series or 1 method for LC
ckt.
Case II
In this case , F(s) = Y(s) , then equation (i) becomes
Y(s) = k0 + 2ki s + ............ + k s
S
s + wi
Here,
- KO/s represents admittance of inductor having value of 1/ko H.
- K s represent admittance of capacitor having value K F.
2
2
- 2ki(s)/s +w represents admittance of series LC combination having inductor of value
2
1/2ki H and capacitor value wi /2ki
The ckt can be realize as :
1/2ki
1/k
wi /2ki
This method of circuit synthesis is known as foster admittance or parallel or 2

LC ckt.
Example 01: Design a Foster series n/w for the following n/w.
F (s) =
s(s 2 + 4)
2(s 2 + 1)(s 2 + 9)
Solution:
It is Fosters series n/w
23
nd
method for

2
s(s + 4)
2
2(s + 1)(s 2 + 9)
F (s) = z(s) =
s(s 2 + 4)
Now, z(s) =
= As + Bs
2(s + 1)(s + 9) s 2 + 1 s 2 + 9
(s
2
2
s(s + 4)
+ 9)
Where, A =
.
2
2
2
s
s = 1
2(s + 1)(s + 9)
2
= 1 + 4 = 3 / 16
2(1 + 9)
Therefore, A = 3/16
2
s(s + 4)
(s + 9)
.
2
2
2
s
2(s + 1)(s + 9)
s = 9
And B =
9+4 = 5 =5
2(9 + 1) 2 8 16
Therefore, B = 5/16
z(s) =
(3 / 16)s
s
+1
(5 / 6)s = z (s) + z (s)

1
2
s
+9
The ckt will be as follows.

L 1= 3/16 H
L 2 = 5/144 H
C1 =16/3 F
C2 = 16/5 F
z(s)
The first part of z(s) ( i.e z1(s) ) represents parallel LC combination having inductor L1 of
value 3/16 H and capacitor of value 16/3 F.
nd
The 2 part of z(s) (i.e z2(s) ) represents parallel LC combination having inductor L2 of
value 5/144 H and capacitor C2 of value 16/5 F.
Example 02: Design Foster parallel n/w for the function
F (s) =
s(s 2 + 4)
2
2
2(s + 1)(s + 9)
Solution:
It is Fosters parallel n/w
F (s) = Y (s) =
Now, z(s) =
s(s 2 + 4)
2(s 2 + 1)(s 2 + 9)
s(s 2 + 4)
= As + Bs
2
2
9) s 2 + 1 s 2 + 9
2(s + 1)(s +
Where, A =
s(s 2 + 4)
(s 2 + 9)
.
2(s 2 + 1)(s 2 + 9)
s
s 2 = 1
24
= 1+4
2(1 + 9)
= 3 / 16
Therefore, A = 3/16
2
s(s + 4)
. (s + 9)
2
2
2
2(s + 1)(s + 9)
s = 9
s
= 9+4 = 5 = 5
2(9 + 1)
2 8 16
And B =
Therefore, B = 5/16
Y (s) = (3 / 16)s + (5 / 6)s = Y (s) + Y (s)
2
2
2
1
s +1
s +9
The ckt will be as follows:

Figure:
The first part of Y(s) ( i.e Y1(s) ) represents series LC combination having inductor L1 of
value 16/3 H and capacitor of value 16/3 F.
nd
The 2 part of Y(s) (i.e Y2(s) ) represents series LC combination having inductor L2 of
value 16/5 H and capacitor C2 of value 144/5 F.
2(s 2 + 1)(s 2 + 9)
Example 03: Design Foster parallel n/w for the function F (s)
Solution:
It is Foster Parallel ,
=
F (s) Y (s)
= 2s
3
= 2(s
+ 1)(s
+ 9)
s(s 2 + 4)
4
+ 20s + 18
s 3 + 4s
4
S +4s )2s +20s +18( 2s

4
2
2s +8s
2
12s +18
2
Therefore, Y(s) = 2s + 12s 3 + 18
+ 4s
2
= 2s + 12s 2 + 18
s(s + 4)
Y(s) = Y1(s) + Y2(s)

2
Now Y2(s) = 2s + 12s + 18 = A + Bs
s (s
+ 4)
= 9 / 2 + (15 / 2)s
s2 +4
s +4
s
2
Y(s) = 2s + 9 / 2 + (15 / 2)s = Y (s) + Y (s) + Y (s)

s
+4
Here Y1(s) = 2s , so C1 = 2 F
25
s(s 2 + 4)
Y2 (s) =
9/2
, So, L1 = 2/9 H
(15 / 2).s
And Y (s) =
s2 +4
L2 = 2/15 H
C2 = 8/15 F
Therefore, The final ckt will be
L 2 =2/15 H
L 1= 2/9H
C1 = 2 F
C2 = 8/15 F
Fig. Fosters parallel n/w of LC ckt.

Assignment:
2
2
1. z(s) = 2(s + 1)(s + 9)
s(s 2 + 1)
2
2
2. Y(s) = 2(s2 + 2)(s 2 + 4)
(s + 3)(s + 1)
Date: 2065/5/17
Continued Fraction method or cauer method for LC
Ckt 1. case- I
It is removed by successive removal of pole at . The ckt will be as follows:
L1
L2
C1
....
C2
Cn
Fig. For F(s) = z(s)

L1
V(s)
C1
L2
C2
....
C3
Cn
Fig. For F(s) = Y(s)

Example 01: Synthesis the following function in cauer form.
26
Z(s) = 2s
+ 12s 3 + 16s
4
2
s + 4s + 3
Solution:
In cauer n/w we proceed as follows:
4
S +4s +3) 2s + 12s + 16s (2s

z1(s)
5
3
2s +8s +6s
3
4
2
4s +10s) s + 4s +3 (s/4
Y2(s)
4
2
S + 10s /4
2
3
3S /2+3) 4S +10S (8s/3
Z3(s)
3
4S +8S
2
2S) 3S /2 +3 (3s/4
Y4(s)
2
3s /2
3) 2s (2s/3
Z5(s)
2s
2H
8/3
2/3
1/4
Z(s)
3/4
Fig. Cauer n/w for LC series ckt

Example: 02: Y(s) =
Y(s)
2s 5 + 12s 3
+ 16s
s 4 + 4s 2 + 3
2F
8/3 F
2/3 F
Fig: Cauer n/w for LC parallel ckt.

Example:03: Synthesis the following ckt in cauer form.
2
2
(i) Y(s) = s(s 2 + 2)(s 2 + 4)
(s + 1)(s
+ 3)
2
2
(ii) Z(s) = s(s 4 + 2)(s 2 + 4)
(s + 1)(s
+ 3)
Cauer II:
This is the case of removal of pole at origin.
C1
C2
L1
....
L2
Ln
Fig. Caure II n/w for LC series ckt.

27
Example:01: Synthesize the following function in cauer form.

4
2
s
Z(s) =
2s
+ 4s
+3
+ 12s3 + 16s
Solution:
Since Z(s) is the case of pole at origin (i.e s = 0 ) z(s) can be rewrite as:
Z(s) =
3 + 4s 2 + s 4
16s + 12s 3 + 2s 5
3
5
2 4
16s+12s +2s ) 3+4s + s (3/16s
2
4
3+9s /4+ 3s /8
2
z1(s)
7s /4+5s /8)16s+12s +2s (64/7s

Y2(s)
3
16s+40s /7
3
5
2
4
44s /7+2s ) 7s /4+5s /8 (49/176s
Z3(s)
2
4
7s /4+44s /88
4
3
5
2
3s /44) 44s /7 +2s ((44) /21s
Y4(s)
3
44s /7
5
2
2s ) 3s /44(3/88s
Z5(s)
2
3s /44
16/3
Z(s)
176/40
7/64
88/3
21/44.44
Fig. Cauer II n/w for LC ckt

Example:02: Y(s) =
7/64
Y(s)
16/3
s 4 + 4s 2 + 3
2s 5 + 12s 3 + 16s
21/1936
176/49
88/3
Fig. Caure II n/w for parallel LC ckt.

R-C one port n/w: (R-C impedance /R-L admittance)
st
1. Foster 1 method:
In this case,
F(s) = z(s) , gives R-C impedance n/w.
28

1/k0
.......
z(s)
1/k1
Foster method defines F(s) as

F(s) = z(s) = ko/s + k1/(s+ 1)+ k2/(s+ 2) + +k
Here,
- ko/s represent capacitive reactance having capacitor of value 1/ko F.
- k represent resistor of value k .
- ki/(s+ i) represents RC parallel in which the resister has a value of ki/ i and a
capacitor has value of 1/ki F.
Properties of RC impedance N/w:
1. the poles of RC impedance n/w are on the ve rea l axis.
2. As in LC ckt, residues of poles (kis) are real and +ve i. z(s ) must be PRF.
3. At two critical frequencies i.e when s = o , i.e = 0 when s = i.e =
4. z(0) = if C0 is present
= Ri , if C0 is missing
5. z( ) = k , R is present
= 0, R is missing
6. z(0) z() is always true.
7. The critical frequency nearest to the origin must be a pole.
8. The poles and zeroes must be alternatively placed.
Example:01 State giving reasons which of the following if not RC impedance.
(a) Z(s) = (s + 1)(s + 4)(s + 9)
s(s + 2)(s + 5)
(b) Z(s) = (s + 1)(s + 8)
(s + 2)(s + 4)
(c) Z(s) = (s + 2)(s + 4)

(s + 1)
(d) Z(s) = (s + 1)(s + 2)

s(s + 3)
Example:02: Synthesis the following function in Foster series form: F(s) =
Solution:
Since it is foster series function z(s) =
6(s + 2)(s + 4)
s(s + 3)
This is the RC impedance n/w.

Now,
(i)
z(0) = , C0 is present .
(ii) z( ) = , R is also present.
29
6(s + 2)(s + 4)
s(s + 3)
Z(s) = ko /s + k + k1/(s+3) = ko /s + k1/(s+3)+6

Ko = 6(s + 2)(s + 4) .s
s(s + 3)
= (6.2.4)/3 = 16
s=0
K2 = 2
Z(s) = 16/s + 2/(s+3) + 6
The component values are as follows:
1/cos
c0 = 1/16 F
16/s
R R = 6
2/(s+3) R1 = 2/3 and C1 = F
The ckt will be:

2/3
1/16
.......
1/2
z(s)
Date: 2065/5/19
F(s) = 6(s + 2)(s + 4)

s(s + 3)
F(s) = z(s) = 6(s + 2)(s + 4)

s(s + 3)
= 6+ 16/s + 2/(s+3)
Forster parallel method for R-C one port n/w:
In this case,
F(s) = Y(s)
Y(s) = ko/s + k1/(s+ 1)+ k2/(s+ 2) + +k
......
R1
R2
L1
L2
Lo
Fig. (i) R-L admittance n/w for foster 2
nd
method in this case
- ko/s represents inductor of value 1/ko

- k represents inductor of value 1/ko
- ki/(s+ i) represents RL series ckt having inductor of value 1/ki H and resister of
value i/k .
30
Properties:
Same as RC- impedance.
Example: 01: Synthesis the following function in foster parallel.
F(s) = 6(s + 2)(s + 4)

s(s + 3)
Solution:
Since it is Foster parallel,
F(s) = Y(s) = 6(s + 2)(s + 4)

s(s + 3)
= 6 + 16/s + 2/(s+3)
The ckt will be:
2/3
1/16
1/6
1/2
Fig. R-L admittance ckt from foster parallel

Continued Fraction method or cauer method for R-C impedance or R-L Admittance:
1. If F(s) = z(s) , then it yields cauer 1 n/w.
2. If F(s) = Y(s) , then it yields cauer 2 n/w.
For cauer 1 n/w:

In this case F(s) = z(s)
Example:01: Synthesize the following function cauer 1 form.
F(s) = 6(s + 2)(s + 4)

s(s + 3)
Solution:
F(s) = z(s) = 6(s + 2)(s + 4) = 6s

s(s + 3)
+ 36s + 48
+ 3s
Now,
2
S +3s)6S +36s+48(6
Z1(s)
2
S +18s
2
18s+48) s + 3s (s/18
Y2(s)
2
S +8s/3
s/3) 18s+ 4s (54
Z3(s)
18s
48) s/3 (s/3.48
Y4(s)
s/3
The ckt will be:
6
54
1/18
1/144
Fig. Caure 1 n/w

31
Cauer 2 n/w:
Example: 02: Realise the given function in cauer 2 n/w F(s) =
6(s + 2)(s + 4)
s(s + 3)
Solution:
In this case,
F(s) = Y(s) =
6(s + 2)(s + 4)
s(s + 3)
In this case circuit will be :

1/18
1/6
1/144
1/54
Fig. Caure 2 method

R-L one-Port n/w: (R-L impedance or R-C admittance n/w)
1. Foster Series method: It yields R-L impedance ckt for which
F(s) = (s) = ko + kis/(s+ 1) + k2s/(s+ 2) + ..+ k s
k1
k2
ko
....
k1/1
k2/2
z(s)
In this case,
- k0 represent resistor of value ko .
- k s represent inductor of value k H.
- kis/(s+ i) represent RL parallel ckt with resistor of value ki and inductor of value
ki/ i .
st
This method of synthesis is know as foster series (1 ) method for R-L one port n/w.
Properties of R-L impedance n/w:
1. Poles are on the ve real axis.
2. The residue of pole must be real and +ve i.e F(s) must be PRF.
3. z(0) = k0 if R0 is present.
= 0 if R0 is missing.
4. z( ) = if L is present.
= Ri if L is missing.
5. z( ) z(0)
6. Zero is nearest to the origin.
7. The pole and zero must be
alternatively placed.
32
2. Foster parallel method:

In this case,
F(s) = Y(s) = ko +k1s/(s+ i) + k2s/(s+ 2) + .+ k
1/k2
1/k
Y(s)
1/k 0
k2/2
k1/1
This method of synthesis is known as Foster parallel method which yields R-C admittance
n/w.
Properties:
Some as that of R-L impedance except F(s) = Y(s)
Example:01: Given F(s) =
4(s + 1)(s + 3)
. Realise the above function in (a) Foster series
(s + 2)(s + 6)
(b) Foster parallel.

Solution:
Since zero is nearest to the origin , (i.e s = -1f) the function yields R-L one port n/w.
(a) Foster series: In this case F(s) = z(s) =
4(s + 1)(s + 3)
(s + 2)(s + 6)
Thus, it yields R-L impedance n/w. To check the availability of components, we use.
Z(0) = (413)/(26 ) = 1 = k o . i.e Ro is present .
Z( ) = 4 = Ri , L is missing.
z (s) /s = 4(s + 1)(s + 3) = 1 + k1 + k2
(s + 2)(s + 6)
K
1
= 4(s + 1)(s + 3) .(s + 2)

s(s + 2)(s + 6)
s+2
s+6
s = 2
= 4(2 + 1)(2 + 3)
2(2 + 6)
=
K2 = 4(s + 1)(s + 3) .(s + 6)
s(s + 2)(s + 6)
s = 6
4(6 + 1)(6 + 3)
6(6 + 2)
K2 = 5/2
z(s)/s = 1 + (1 / 2).s + (5 / 2).s
ss + 2
s+6
33
1/2
5/2
1/4
5/12
z(s)
Fig. Foster series n/w

(b) Foster parallel:
In this case,
F(s) = Y(s) = 4(s + 1)(s + 3)
(s + 2)(s + 6)
Which yields R-C admittance n/w.

(5 /
Y(s) = 1 + (1 / 2).s + 2).s
s+2
s+6
2/5
Y(s)
12/5
Fig. Foster Parallel ckt.

Cauer Method for R-L one port n/w:
(1) If F(s) = z(s) , it is called cauer 1 method which yields R-L impedance ckt.
(2) If F(s) = Y(s) , it is called caure 2 method which yields R-C admittance ckt.
Example: 01: Synthesize the following function in
2
(a) caure 1 n/w. (b) cauer 2 n/w. 4s 2 + 16s + 12
s + 8s + 12
Solution:
(a) cauer 1 n/w:
In this case
2
F(s) = z(s) = 4(s + 1)(s + 3) = 4s 2 + 16s + 12
(s + 2)(s + 6)
s + 8s + 12
S +8s+12 ) 4s + 16s+12 ( 4
2
4s + 32s+4s
-ve
This way the ckt cannot be realize. Therefore z(s) is rewritten in form as:
Z(s) = 12 + 16s + 4s 2
12 + 8s + s
34
12+8s +s ) 12+16s+4s ( 1
2
Z1(s) 12+ 8s+s
2
2
8s +3s ) 12+8s+s ( 3/2s
12+9s/2
2
Y2(s)
7s/2 +s ) 8s+3s ( 16/7

2
Z3(s) 8s+16s /7
2
2
5s /7 ) 7s/2+s ( 49/10s
7s/2
2
2
s ) 5s /7 ( 5/7
2
5s /7
1
Y4(s)
Z5(s)
16/7
2/3
10/49
5/7
Fig. cauer 1 n/w

(b) Cauer 2 n/w:
In this case,
F(s) = Y(s) = 4s
2
s
+ 16s + 12 = 12 + 16s + 4s
+ 8s + 12
12 + 8s + s 2
1/2ki
1/k
wi /2ki
Fig. Cauer 2 n/w

Assignment: 03
1. F(s) = (s + 2)(s + 4) Find the n/w of the form (a) Foster series (b) Foster parallel.
(s + 1)(s + 3)
2. Realize the n/w function
F(s) =
(s + 1)(s + 3) (a) 1st Foster method. (b) 2nd foster

(s + 2)(s + 4)
method.
3. Realise the n/w function Y(s) = (s + 2)(s + 4) as a cauer n/w.
(s + 1)(s + 3)
4. z(s) = (s + 1)(s + 3) Realise the function in foster and cauer n/w.

(s + 2)(s + 2)
35
5. Realise the n/w Y(s) =
(s + 2)(s + 4)
(s + 1)(s + 6)
Two port n/w:

1. Z-Parameter
2. Y Parameter
3. ABCD Parameter
4. Transformation of one parameter to other
5. T and n/w
6. Interconnection of two port n/w
a. Cascade b. series
c. parallel.
Date: 2065/5/24
Chapter: 4
Low pass Filter Approximations:
T(jw)
T(jw)
1
1
PB
SB
wo=1
Fig. (a) Ideal case
W
Wp
Ws
(b) Non ideal case
The desirable feature of low pass approximation are

1. Minimum pass band attenuation, p
2. Maximum stop band attenuation, s
3. Low transition band ratio, ws/wp
4. Simple network.
The approximation Method are:
1. Butterworth
2. Chebyshev
3. Inverse chebyshev
4. Ellipse or Cauer
5. Bessel Thomson
1. Butterworth low pass approximation: Generally signal become contaminated with high
frequency signal. It is evident that low pass filter are required to remove such unwanted
signals from the useful one. The desirable LPF response is shown in fig . 1(a)
Below the normalize frequency i.e w0 = 1, the amplitude T ( jw) is
constant and above this frequency it is zero. Pass band and stop band are clearly separated at
wo = 1. But since the ideal response can not be achieve . We make the approximation based
on the ideal response.
We make the magnitude T(jw) nearly constant in PB. In the SB, we require sharp
roll off (n-pole roll off). Where n will be l arge no if abrupt transition from PB to SB is
desired.
Mathematically, we can write,
T(jw) = Re[ T(jw) ] + j Im [ T(jw)]
36
Re[T(jw)] = Real part of T(jw)

Im [T(jw)] = Imaginary part of T(jw).
Where it is to be noted that Re[T(jw)] indicates an even functions.
Where Im[T(jw)] indicates it is an odd function.
Agains,
T*(jw) = T(-jw) = Re[ T(jw)]+jIm [T(jw)] .(ii)The functions so obtained is calle d
conjugate of T(jw)
Thus (i) and (ii) gives
2
2
T(jw) T*(jw) = T ( jw) 2 = Re[T(jw)] + jIm[T(jw)]
(iii) T(jw) T*(jw) = T(s) T*(s) = T (s) 2
The function T (s) 2 (or T ( jw) 2 ) is called magnitude squared function.
Example 01: Find the magnitude square function for
3
2
T(s) = (s+2) / (s + 2s + 2s+3)
3
2
T(s) = -s+2 / -s + 2s 2s +3
T (s) 2 = T(s) . T(-s)
3
2
3
2
= (2+s)/(s +2s +2s+3) (2-s)/(-s +2s 2s+3)
= ..
The magnitude square function is an even function which can be represented by using a
numerator and denominator polynomial that are both even, i.e
T ( jw)
T ( jw)
T ( jw)
A (w 2 )
B (w 2 )
A + A w2 + A w4 + ........... + A
0
w2n
2n
2
4
2n
B0 + B2 w + B4 w + ........... + B2n w
A0
=
2
4
2n
B0 + B2 w + B4 w + ........... + B2n w
Here A2 = A4 = A 2n = 0 (assumption).
The choice has been made as per our inspection on the roll off that was directly dependent on
the number of poles. This means larger the difference between degree of A and B , we get
the larger roll-off . This will give us a direct n-pole roll off for Tn(jw) or Tn(s) which will be
know as All pole function.
Special case:
We assume ,
B2 = B4 = 0
2n
B2n = (1/w0) . B0 and A0 = B0
Now , putting these assumption in the equation (i) we get,
T ( jw)
Ao
2n
B0 + B2n w
1 2n
B0
B0
w
0
37

1
1 2n
1+
2n
w
0
T(
jw)
.(ii)
2n
1+
In generalize condition,
wo = 1
T(
jw)
T(
jw)
.(iii)
1 + ( w)
2n
1
1 + (w )
2n
(iv)
From equation (iv) the following property can be written.

1. At w = 0 , i.e T(j0) = 1 for all values of n.
2. At w = 1 (=w0), i.e T(j1) = 0.707 for all values of n.
3. At w = , i.e T(j )= 0 for all value of n.
4. For large values of w; Tn(jw) exhibits larger roll off.
5. Butterworth response , also known as, maximally flat response, is all pole functions.
6. Butterworth (BU) response can be expanded in Taylors series from as:
T ( jw)
1
1 + (w )
2n -1/2
2n
= (1+w )
2n
= 1+ . w
2n
+ (1/2) . (w
2n
) /2! - ..
1 . w
In Taylor series,
=1
T ( jw)
1
2
..(v)
w2n
Again we know ,
2
1
T ( jw) =
2n
1 + ( w)
Putting jw = s
2
1
T (s) =
s
1+
T (s)
=
2n
1
1 + (1) n s 2n
1+
2n
2n
1
1
=
+s2n
1 + (1) n s 2n
1
(1)
(vi)
Which gives the butterworth response in s-domain

Evaluation of T(s) for BU Response:
(i)
For n = 1 equation (vi) becomes
38
T (s)
1
2
1 s
s =1
s=1
T (s) 2 = 1/(1-s)(1+s)
= 1/(1+s). 1/(1-s)
= T(s) . T(s) T(s) = 1/(s+1)
NOTE:
n
(i)
If s = -1, then, s=1

(180+k360)/n, k = 0,
1..(n-1) in s domain.
(ii)
If s =-1, then, S = 1
k360/n, k =0,1, 2.(n-1)
Date: 2065/5/29
Butterworth transfer function (continued )
(ii)
For n = 2
Equation (vi) becomes ;
T (s) 2 =
1
2 4
1 + (1) s
jw
135
45
225
315
1+s4
To get the poles ,

4
1+s = 0
4
S = -1
S = 1 (180 + k360
)/4 , k = 0, 1, 2, 3 [since n = 4]
S = 1 45 , 135 , 225 , 315

The poles that lie on the left half of s-plane are:
S = 1 135 , 225
Or S = -0.0707 j0.707 = s1, s2
1
T(s) =
(s s1 )(s s2
)
1
=
(s + 0.707 j0.707)(s + 0.707 + j0.707)
1
s 2 + 2s + 1
(iii) For n = 3
39

T (s) =
1
1 + (1)3 s 6
1
1s6
To get the pole

6
1-s = 0
6
S =1
S = 1 k360/n , k = 0,1,2 (2n-1)
S = 1 0, 60, 120, 180, 240, 300
The poles that lie on left half of s-plane are S
=1
120, 180, 240
Or, = 1 120, 1 180, 1

S1 = -0.5 + j0.866
S2 = -1+j0
S3 = -0.5 - 0.866j
T (s) =
240
1
(s s1 )(s s2 )(s s3
)
1
(s + 1)(s 0.5 0.866 j)(s + 0.5 0.866 j)
1
=
(s + 1)(s 2 + s + 1)
jw
120
60
180
240
320
Order and cutoff frequency for Butterworth:

It is to noted that, at w =wp , = p = max
And at w = ws , = s = min
We know that
T (s)
1
w
2n
w
1+
T (s)
Also the attenuation formula is given by ;

= -20log
40
= -20log10
1
2n
+
w
o
2n
= -20log10 1 +
1
2
w
o
= 10log10
2n
.(i)
w
1+
/10 = log10
2n
1+
2n
10 /10 = 1 + w wo
2n
w
wo
= 10 /10 -1
w
w
/10
=
1/2n
(10
-1)
w=
(10 / 10 1) 2n
Now at w = wp , = max
wp
wo =
.(ii)
(10 max/ 10 1) 2 n
and at w = ws , = min
ws
wo =
..(iii)
(10 min/ 10 1) 2n
equating (i) and (ii) can be equated as:
wp
1
ws
(10 min/ 10 1) 2n
(10 max/ 10 1) 2 n
w p (10 max/ 10 1) 2n
=
1
wo
2
1)
(10 min/ 10
wp
2n
(10 max/ 10 1)
(10
min/ 10
1)
Taking log on both sides,

wp 2n
(10 max/ 10 1)
20 log w
= log
min/ 10
o
n = log
(10 max/ 10
(10
1)
min/ 10
(10
1)
/ 2 log
1)
wp
w
o
41
Now let us find expression for transition band ratio , i.e

TBR = ws/wp , where , TBR = Transition band ratio.
min/10
max/10
1/2n
Ws/wp = [(10
1)/(10
-1)]
.(v)
Example 01: Consider a filter using a butterworth response to realize the following
specifications of LPF.
max = 0.5 dB
min = 20 dB
wp = 1000 rad/sec
ws = 2000 rad/sec
Determine the order and cut off frequency for the
filter. Solution:
n = 4.83 5
wo = 1234.12 rad/sec
Note: Always choose higher value of n ( i.e the o rder of filter )because it provides larger
roll off which decreases attenuation.
Date: 2065/6/2
2. Chebyshev Approximation Method For LPF :
T(jw)
T(jw)
BU -R
C-R
Wo
Wo
Fig (i) (a) Chebyshev response
(b) butterworth response
The generalize low pass filter can be represented by

Tn ( jw)
1 + [F (w)]
.(i)
For Butterworth
n
Fn(w) = (w/wo)
With w0 = 1
n
Fn (w) = w
Similarly to butterworth we have to determine the function Fn(w) for chebyshev response for
which the concept of Lissagious figure is required.
Lissagious figure:
42

Horizontal plate
Line of axis
sin
Vertical plate
Fig (ii) (a) CRO Lissagious figure.

n=1
y
n=2
n=3
n=4
Fig(ii) (b) Lissagious figure for n = 1,2,3 and 4

When adjustable frequency multiple of fixed frequency is applied , stationary figures are
obtained which are know as Lissagious figures.
Analysis:
Let the deflection due to voltage on horizontal plates be
x = coskT .(ii)
Where , k = 2 /T
The deflection due to voltage on vertical plates will be then,
y = cosnkT .(iii) Where n is integer and p
roves the multiple frequencies.
From (ii),
-1
KT = cos x
-1
y = cosn cos x ..(iv)
-1
cn(x) = cosn cos x which is the equation for Lissagious figures.
Example: If n = 4
-1
Assume, = cos x
x = cos
Then,
y = cos4
x
0
1
22.5
0.924
45
0.707
67.5
0.383
90
0
4
0
90
180
270
360
y
1
0
-1
0
1
43

y
1
0.383
x=1
-1
0.707
# Analyse the same for n = 3 and 5.

Chebyshev magnitude Response:
We know that ,
Tn ( jw) 2
1
2
1 + [F (w)]
n
Where Fn (w) = cn(w) ; 1

-1
Where cn(w) = cosn cos w
Therefore the magnitude square response will be
Tn ( jw) 2 =
1
2
1+ cn (w)
2
.(vi)
This function (i.e cn(w)) is valid within the range w = 1. However , the function must we
also be valid for longer value of w for which should refine our assumption for cn(w).
w > 1,
Let,
-1
Cos (w) = jz
w = cosjz
we know that ,
e j ( jz ) + e j ( jz )
cosjz =
ez
+ e z
2
= coshz
cosjz = coshz
w = coshz
-1
Z = cosh w
-1
w = cosj cosh w
-1
-1
cos (w) = jcosh w
-1
cn (w) = cosn cos w

-1
= cosnj cosh w
-1
= cosj(ncosh w)
-1
= coshn cosh w
-1
cn(w) = cosh cosh w , w> 1

-1
Cn(w) = cosn cos w, w = 1
44
Properties of magnitude response for Chebyshev:

We know that,
Tn ( jw) 2 =
1
2
2
1+ cn (w)
1
Tn ( jw) =
1+ 2 cn 2 (w)
-1
w1
Where, cn(w) = cosn cos w

-1
= coshn cosh w
w1
and 1
1. At w = 0,
Cn(0) = cosn /2 ; 0,1,2.
1 for n = odd
Tn ( jw) =
1
for
1+ 2
n = even
2. w = 1
cn (1) = 1 for all values of n.
1
Tn ( jw) =
1+ 2
1
w=1
w=1
Fig (iii) (a) C-R for n = odd
(b) C-R for n = even
Order of C-R filter:

We know , the attenuation formula is given by
= -20log Tn ( jw) dB
1
But,
( jw)
n
=
2
1 + 2 cn 2 ( w )
1+ cn
2
2
(w)
= - 20log
1+ cn
(w)
1
2
= -10log 1+ cn 2 (w)
=
10 log 1+ 2 cn 2 (w)
(vii)
= 10log 1+ (cos n cos 1 w) 2

for w > 1,
2
w 1
= 10 log 1+ 2 (cosh n cosh 1 w) 2............. (ix)

Now ,
45
max occurs when , cn(w) = 1

equation (vii) reduces to ,
= max = 10 log ( 1+ 2 .1)(x)
max / 10 = log ( 1+ 2 .1)
1+ 2 = 10 max/10
1
= (10
max/ 10
1) 2
.(xi)
Date: 2065/6/7
Here
we know that
w = wnp , then, 2 cn
(w) = 1
1
[since w >1]
c (w ) = 1 = cosh(n cosh w )
n
np
np
np
-1
-1
Cosh (ncosh whp) = 1
-1
-1
1
Cosh (ncosh whp) =
-1
-1 1
Cosh whp = 1/n. cosh ( )
-1
wnp = cosh(1/n. cosh ( 1 )) (xii)
-1
Wnp = cosh [1/n. cosh ({10

Now = min when w = ws
max/10
1/2
-1}
)]
min = 10 log10(1+ 2 cn 2 (ws )

2
2 cn (ws ) = 10
2
-1
min/10
1
2
min/10
(cosh ncos ws) = 10

-1
Or, ( cosh ncosh ws) = (10

-1
-1
cosh ws = cosh [(10

-1
n = {cosh [(10
-1
min/10
min/10
-1)/ (10
-1)/ (10
min/10
max/10
max/10
-1)/ (10
-1) n
1/2
-1)]
max/10
-1)]
1/2
-1
}/cosh ws ..(xiii)
Example: Given wp = 1 , ws = 2.33 , max = 0.5dB , min = 22 dB. Calculate n for

Butterworth and chebyshev filters which filter would you select.
Solution: For Butterworth filter , the order is given by
max/10
min/10
n = log10[(10
-1)/(10
-1)]/ 2 log (wp/ws)
= log[(10
0. 5/10
-1)/(10
22/10
-1)]/2log (1/2.33)
= 4.234 5
n for BU = 5
For Chebyshev the order is given by ,
-1
min/10
max/10
-1
n = cosh [(10
-1)/(10
-1)]/cosh (2.33)
= 2.89 3
46
n for chebyshev = 3 .
Since the order of chebyshev filter (i.e n =3) is less then the order of butterworth filter (i.e n
= 5) and both filter provides the same roll- off for the specification, n would choose
chebyshev filter.
Chebyshev poles location and network function:
We know
2
1
..(i)
T ( jw) =
2
1+ cn 2 (w)
Substituting s = jw equation (i) becomes,

2
1
..(ii)
T (s) =
2
1+ cn (s / j)
To determine the poles,

2
1+ cn (s / j) = 0
cn (s / j) = j 1 (iii)
Again,
-1
Cn (s/j) = cosn cos (s/j)
Let
-1
Cos (s/j) = x = u + jv
Then, cn(s/j) = cosnx = cosn (u+jv)
= cosnu. Cosnjv sinnu. Sin njv
= cosnu coshnv jsin nu . sinh nv
=0j
[ from equ. (iii)]
1
Thus, comparing , we
get, Cosnu . cosh nv = 0 sinnu. Sinhnv = 0
[ cosjnv = coshnv
[ sinjnv = jsinhv]
The minimum value of

Coshnv = 1, coshnv not equal to 0
cosnu = 0
Or cosnuk = cos(2k+1). /2, k =
0,1,2. Uk = (2k+1) /2n .(v)
Now ,
-sinnuk = sinhnvk =
But, sin nuk = +- 1
+-1 . sinhnvk =
1
Or sinhnv =
1
-1
Nvk= sinh ( )
k
-1
Vk = 1/n. sinh ( )
47
Again, we know that

-1
Cos (s/j) = x = u +jv
s/j = cosx = cos(u+jv)
in general,
sk = jcos(uk +jv)
= j[cosuk .cosjv sinu k. sinjv]
= j[cosuk . coshv jsinu k. sinhv ]
Sk = sinuk. sinhv + jcosuk. coshv (vi) , k =
0,1,2.(2n-1) Again,
Sk = sin[(2k +1) /2n] sinhv + jcos[(2k+1) /2n]
coshv Or , sk = k + jwk ..(viii)
Where,
k = sin[(2k+1) /2n] sinhv .(ix)
Form euation (ix) ,
Now adding equation (xi) and (xii) we get,
Which is equation of ellipse . Therefore we can say that the poles of chebyshev filter lie on
the ellipse.
Date: 2065/6/9
th
Example:01 Obtained the 4 order network function of a low pass chebyshev filter with
max = 0.75 dB
Solution: n = 4 max = 0.75 dB
max/10
1/2
-1
Now = ( 10
-1) whp = cosh (1/n. cosh
0.75/10
1/2
(1/)) = (10
-1) = 0.434
-1
And whp = cosh ( 1/n. cosh (1/)) =
Pole location is given by
48
Sk = sinuk sinhv + jcosuk coshv

Where, uk = (2k+1) ./2n ; k = 0, 1,
-1
2n-1 V = 1/n. sinh (1/)
uo = /8 u1 = 3/8 , u2 = 5/8, u3 = 7/8 , u4 = 9/8
u5 = 11/8 u6 = 13/8 , u7 = 15//8
v = 0.393
(adjust calculator in radian)
s0 = 0.154 + 0.996j
s1 = 0.373+ 0.413j
s2 = 0.373 0.413j
s3 = 0.154-0.996j
s4 = -0.154 0.996j
s5 = -0.373 0.413j
s6 = -0.373 + 0.413j
s7 = -0.154 + 0.996j
The transfer function (or n/w function) for forth order chebyshev filter is given by ,
T(s) = 1/(s+s4)(s+s5)(s+s6)(s+s7)
jw
S7
S0
S1
S6
S2
S5
S4
S3
Home Assignment:
rd
Example:02: Determine the network function for 3 order chebyshev LPF with max =
0.75 dB ( =p ; pass band attenuation)
Date: 2065/6/14
Inverse chebyshev low pass approximation:
49

T (jw)
T (jw)
Ideal LPF
BU-Response
T (jw)
T (jw)
inverse-Chebyshev-response
Chebyshev-respone
2
1- T (jw)
Fig: intermediate stage to obtain inverse chebyshev response.

2
Tic(jw)
Fig: The reciprocal value of w of intermediate stage give the value of w in I-C
response. We know the response of chebyshev is given by
T ( jw)
1- T ( jw)
1
2
1+ cn (w)
1
= 12
1+ cn (w)
2
(w)
= 2cn 2
1+ cn (w)
Now replace w by 1/w
50
IC
( jw)
cn (1/ w)
(i)
2
2
1+ cn (1 / w)
Where,
TIC ( jw)
is the magnitude square response for I-C.
We know ,
-1
cn(1/w) = cosncos (1/w)
at for w = 1
cn(1) = 1 for all value of n
Thus equation (i) becomes
IC
( j.1)
2
= .1
1+ 2
2
IC
( j.1) =
.1
(ii)
1+ 2
We know that ,
min = -20log TIC ( j.1) dB (iii)
Using equation (ii) on equation (iii) , we get,
= min = -20log TIC ( j.1) dB
= - 20log
1/2
1+
2
1+
= 10log
min = 10 log [ 1+ 1 }
2
Or , 10
min/10
-1 =
= (10 min/ 10 10) 2

1
1
2
. (iv)
Again in general, the attenuation formula can be written as:

2 cn 2 (1 / w)
= -10log
1+ 2 c 2 (1 / w)
n
= 10 log 1
1
2
(1 / w)
2
n
Now at w = wp = max
Then above equation becomes
1
c 2 (1 / w
= max = 10 log 1 +
(10
max/10
c
n
1) =
(1 / w ) = 1 .
)
p
1
cn (1 / w p )
2
(10 max/ 10 1)
51
(10 min/ 10 1)
cn (1 / w p ) =
(10 max/ 10 1)
(10 min/ 10 1)
(10 max/ 10 1)
cn (1 / w p ) =
.(v)
-1
cn (1 / w p ) = coshn cosh (1/wp) . (vi)
[ wp < 1, 1/wp > 1]

Thus equating equation (v) and (vii)
1
-1
1) 2
Coshn cosh (1/w ) = (10

(101 max/ 10 1)
1 (10 min/ 10 1) 2
min/ 10
cosh
1)
(10 max/ 10
1
n=
cosh
(vii)
(1 / w p )
Which gives the required order for the inverse chebyshev filter.
Now , for half power frequency i.e at w = wp
TIC ( j.1) = 1/2
TIC ( j.1) 2 =
Which means,
2
cn (1 / wP ) = 1
1
2
cn (1 / wnp ) =
cn (1 / w) =
-1
-1
Coshn.cosh (1/wnp) =cosh

-1
-1
n coshn.cosh ( (1 / wnp ) = cosh ( )

-1
-1
cosh ( (1 / wnp ) = 1/n. cosh ( )

-1
1/wnp = cosh[1/n. cosh ( )]
w
np
1
cosh
cosh
< 1 .(viii)
1
(
Which gives the desire half power frequency.

Example: 01
Given, max = 0.5 dB
min = 22 dB
wp = 0.9
n=?
wnp = ?
52
Assignment:
Example:02 Differentiate between Butterworth , chevyshev and inverse chebysehev filters.
Pole zero location for inverse chebyshev:
We know that ,
2
TIC ( jw)
cn 2 (1 / w)
2
2
1+ cn (1 / w)
T(s). T(-s) = z(s).z(-s)/[p(s).p(-s)]

Where, z(s) z(-s) |s = jw = 2 cn 2 (1 / w)
P(s) P(-s)|s = jw = 1 + 2 cn 2 (1 / w)
For zero location:
2
cn (1 / wk )
cn (1 / wk )
= 0 cn (1 / wk ) = 0
-1
Cosn cos (1/wk) = cos(k/2) for k = 1,3,5 ..(i.e
-1
odd) ncos (1/wk) = k/2
1/wk = cos(k/2n) which gives the zero for inverse chebyshev.
Wk = sec(k/2n)
For poles:
1+ 2 cn 2 (1 / wk ) = 0
The poles location are similar to chebyshev.
Simply replacing wk by 1/wk
i.e if chebyshev poles = pi
Then , inverse chbyshev poles = 1/pi
Fig. Pole location
Fig. Zero location
Example:01
Given,
min = 18 dB
max = 0.25 dB
ws = 1.4 rad/sec
wp = 1 rad/sec
Find out the pole and zero for inverse chbyshev response.
53
Chapter 5
Frequency transformation:
Frequency transformation is important because the prototype LPF with any type of
approximation can be converted into high pass band pass , band stops filters within the same
characteristics easily.
T(jw)
1
0.707
Wc
The effect of frequency transformation are:

1. Magnitude response 2. Network function
3. Location of poles and zeroes. 4. Network elements.
Types of transformation:
1. LP to LP transformation
Transformation
W
W0
New LPF
Old LPF
Replace s by wo/o .s
i.e
w0 = 1 ( in normalized case)
s s/0
(s) = T
LP(new)
LP(old)
(s/ )
0
For eamaple,
If
TLP(s) =
1/S+1 Then
TLP(old)(s) = 1/s+1
TLP(new)(s) = TLP(old)(s/o) = 1/(s/o)+1 = 0/(s+0)
1. For resistor:
- No change.
2. For inductor:
XL = LS
Putting s
s
0
54
L
XL = L old s =
0
=L /
old
s = Lnew .S
0
3. For capacitor:
new
old
Xc = 1/cs
Putting s s
Xc =
s
old
0
1
= C .s
C
old
new
0 .s
Cnew = Cold/s
2 LP to HP Transformation:
Transformation
W
W0
HPF with 0
LPF with W0
In this case we replace s 0
w0 .s
Or , s
0
s
[Since w0 = 1]
THP(s) = TLP(s)
s=
=T
LP
( )
0
S
Example if TLP(s) = 1/(s+1)

1
Then, THP(s) = 0 + 1 = s
s
(1) For resistor:

No change
(2) For inductor:
XL = LS
Putting s
0
s
55
XL = L.
1
.s
L0
1
Comparing
with 1/CS
.s
L 0
C=
L 0
(3) For capacitor:

Xc = 1/cs
Putting s
s
1
XL =
s
c
1
=
= LS
.S
.c
s
1
Comparing
with LS
.S
1
L=
C
0
Date: 2056/6/15
(3) LP to BP Transformation:
T
TBP(j )
(jw)
LP
Transmission
Ws
In this case,
2
2
sw.s +
0
Here, u L =
B And w0 = 1
s.s
Bs
2
Where 0 = L. u
56
(1) For resistor

- no change
(2) For inductor:
XL = LS
The new value of inductive reactance is given by:
s 2 + 0
= L.
XL
.s
XL
Bs
L0
+
Bs
L
.s +
B
1
B
L0 2 .s
The new component are inductor and capacitor in series.

L
Lo
(3) For capacitor:

The new capacitive reactance form LP to BP is given by :
1
= s + 0
2
c.
Bs
1
2
= cs + c0
Bs
2
=c
c 0 2 = c
B s+
B s + Bs
1
B
c0 2 .s
The new components (i.e inductor and capacitor) are in parallel as shown in fig. below:
B
Co
2
B
LP to BS Transformation:
TBS(j )
T (jw)
LP
Transmission
Ws
57
In this case s is replaced by

s
But w0 = 1,
Bs
.w0
s + 0
Bs
2
s + 0
(1) For resistor :

Resistor value remain same.
(2) For inductor:
XL = LS
Bs
XL = L. s 2 + 0 2 = . s 2 + 0 2 = s 2
+
LBS
LBS
1
2
0 = 1
LBs LB
s+
1
LB
0 2 .s
The new component (i.e inductor and capacitor ) are in parallel as in figure below:
LB
2
LB
(3) For capacitor:

Xc = 1/cs
1
Xc =
CBS
Bs
2
s 2 + 02
c . s + 0
s2
CB
s
2
0
CBs
CB
.s +
1
CB
0 2 .s
CB
Example:01: If T(s) =
10 and u = 20.
Solution:
Then, TLP(s) =
CB
1 , then change the above function from LP to BP. Given , L =

s+1
1
, L = 10 , u = 20
s+1
We know ,
2
0 = L. u = 10. 20 =
200 For Lp to BP we replace
s
s 2 + 0
B
s 2 + 2000 s 2 + 200
=
10s
(20 10)s
58
Thus,
s + 200 = TBP (s) =
LP
s=
10s
TBP(s) =
10s
= s 2 + 10s + 200
s + 200
+1
10s
10(s)
s 2 + 10s + 200
th
Example:02: Obtain the transfer function of the 4 order Butter worth HPF with 0 = 2
4
10 rad/sec.
TLP(s) =
s + 2.61313s
1
+ 3.41921s 2 + 2.61313s + 1
We know that ,
s
0
s
1
4
0
2.61313
3
0
+ 3.41921
2
0
+ 2.61313
+1
th
Example:03:The filter shown in the figure below is a 4 order chebyshev low pass filter with
p = 1 dB and wp = 1. Obtain a bandpass filter from this low pass with o = 400 rad/sec and
B = 150.
+
V1
E
V2
-
Solution:
For LP2 to BP conversion , we replace
s
+ 0
Bs
Where, o = 400 rad/sec , B = 150

Now for section A:
L = 1.2817
Which changes to series LC component as shown below:

L
B
Lo
The new inductor value is = L/B = 1.2817/150 = 8.54 mH

2
2
and the new value of capacitor is = B/L 0 = 150/(1.2817400 ) = 731.45 F.
For section B:
59

C= 1. 9093
Which changes for LP to BP As:
B
Co
2
B
New inductor value = B/C o = 150/(1.9093400 )= 491.01

F New capacitor value = C/B = 1.9093/150 = 12.72 F
For section C:
L = 1.4126
B
2
Lo
L
B
For section D:
B
Co
2
B
For section E:
R=1
8. 54 mH
R=1
663. 66uF
731. 45uF
V
+
-
9. 41 mH
491uH
12.72 uF
893. 71mH
6. 99 mF
Date: 2065/6/16
60
Doubly Terminated LC-Ladder ckt:

I2
I1
R1
Loss less
Vs
Ladder
zi n
-
R2
V2
V1
-
Fig.1 Doubly Terminated LC ladder ckt.

From figure(i)
I1= Vs/(R1 +Vin) (i)
Where,
Zin = Rin + jxin .(ii)
Since the ckt is loss less Input
power = output power
2
2
P1 = zin |I1(jw)| = |V2(jw)| /R2 (iii)
From equation (i) and (iii)
2
2
zin|Vs(jw)| /(R1+zin) = |V2(jw)| /R2
2
or , |V2(jw)| /|vs(jw)| = zin R2/(R1+zin)

..(iv) Now for matched source.
R1 = zin
Which means
V1 = vs/2
2
P1max = |v1(jw)| /R1 = |vs(jw)| /4R1

Also it is to remember that ,
2
P2 = |v2(jw)| /R2
2
2
2
2
|(jw)| = p2/p1max = [|v2(jw)| /R2]/ |vs(jw)| /4R1 = 4R1/R2. |v2(jw)/vs(jw)| ..(vi)
Form equation (iv) and (vi)
2
|H(jw)| = 4R1/R2. {zin R2/(R1+zin)}
2
2
= 4R1zin/ (R1+zin) = 1- (R1-zin) /(R1
2
2
2
2
+zin) (R1-zin) /(R1 +zin) = |(jw)|
= reflection coefficient
(R z ) 2
(s).(s) = 1 in 2
(R1 + zin )
(s) = (R1 zin ) .....................(vii)

(R1 + zin )
From equation (vii) , we get

z
st z
1 (s)
1 in
in = R1 .
z
in
1 + (s)
1+ (s)
nd
= R1 . 1 (s) -----------2
..(viii)
z
in
Generally we take R1 = 1. Both impedances in equation (viii) are reciprocal impedance.

Synthesis of Doubley Terminated LC ladder with equal terminal (All pass filter)
61
For butterworth response:

2
T ( jw
(s)
1
N (s)N (s)
2n =
D(s)D(s)
1+w
= H ( jw) =
2
= 1 H (s)
(s).(s) =
= 1 H ( jw)
w2 n
1 + w2n
[since w0 = 1]
=1 1
= w2n
2n
2n
1+w
1+ w
n
n
w2n
(ix)
=
= s .(s)
D(s).D(s) D(s).D(s)
Now,
For n = 1
D(s) = s+1
[since T(s) = H(s) = 1/S+1]
Form equation (ix)
n
(s) = s /D(s)
1
= s /s+1 = s/s+1
s
s+
z = R 1 (s)
1 1
in1
1 .
1 + (s) = 1.
s
1 s+
+ 1
1
Zin1 = .
.............(a)
s+1s
= .s + 1 + s
2s + 1
Zin2 = 2s+1 .(b)

Zin2 = 2s+ 1 = Ls + R
i.e L = 2, and R = 1
The ckt will be
2
R1
1
vs
+
-
R2
From equation (a) , zin1 = 1/(2s+1) i.e c = 2, and R = 1

+
1
vs
+
-
1v2
2
-
For n = 2
2
D(s) = s +2s + 1
n
n
(s) = s = 2 s
D(s) s + 2s + 1
z
in1
2
2
2
2
= 1 (s) = 1 s /(s + 2 s + 1) = (s + 2 s + 1 s )
1 + (s)
1+s
/(s
+ 2s + 1)
(s
+ 2s + 1 + s )
62
Downloaded from
www.bhawesh.com.np
( 2s + 1)
zin1 =
..(a)
(2s + 2s + 1)
Similary,
Z = 2s 2
in2
+ 2 s + 1 .(b)
2s + 1
Taking equation (b)

2
2 s+1) 2s +2 s +1 (2.s
z1(s)
2s +2 s
1 ) 2.s + 1( 2 s Y2(s)
2 s
z3(s)
1) 1 (1
1

+
1
1.41
+
-
vs
1v2
1.41
2
1
vs
+
-
1.41
1.41
Home work : For n = 3 and n = 4

Date: 2065/6/17
Synthesis of Doubly Terminated LC - Ladder with unequal termination: ( R1 R2) :
For R1 R2 the butter worth response is given by ,
H ( jw)
2
= H (0) = T ( jw) 2
1 + w2n
Generally we take,
R1 1 and R1 R2
I1
R1
+
- Vs
Zin
I2
LC
R2 V2
63
From figure, the transform function , T(s) =
V2
Vs
From which we get ,

R2
R2 + R1
T(0) =
Example:01: Realize the doubly terminated ladder filter

with a Butter worth response for n = 3, R1 = 1, R2 = 2 .
Solution:
We know, for unequal termination ( i.e R1 R2) the
Butterworth response is given by,
Now we know
H (s) 2 = 4R1 . V2 (s)
R2 Vs (s)
H (s)
4R1
R2
T (s)
(
j
w
)
H (S ) = 2 R1 .T (s)
R2
H (0) = 2 R1 .T (0) = 2 R1 . R2
R2
R2 R1 + R2
H (0) = 2
R2 .R1
R1 + R2
(0) 1
2n
+w
Here, n = 3, R1 = 1 & R2 = 2
4.1.2
4R2 .R1
H (0) = ( R2 + R1 )2 = (1 + 2)2 = 9
H ( jw) 2 =
8/9
1 + w2 n
The reflection coefficient function is

( jw)
= 1 H ( jw)
2n
2n
=1 8 /29n = 1 + w 8 / 9 = 1 / 9 + w
2n
2n
1+ w
1+w
1 / 9 (s / j)
( jw)
= 1 / 69 + (s /6j)
23
2
Or, (s) 2
1+w
23
1+w
1 / 9 (s) 6
=
6 =
1s
3
(s).(s) = (1 / 3 + s )
D(s)
1+w
(1 / 3)
(s )
1s
. (1 / 3 s
Where, D(s). D(-s) = 1- s
= (1 / 3 s)(1 / 63 +
s) 1 s
D(s)
6
64
(s) = 1 / 3 + s
D(s)
For n = 3,
3
2
D(s) = s +2s + 2s+1 (from table)
The first impedance is ,
3
1/3+s
1 s + 2s 2 + 2s + 1
Z = 1 (s)
in1
1/3+s3
1 (s) =
1 + s 3 + 2s 2 + 2s + 1
Z =
in1
Z =
in2
2s + 2s + 2 / 3
2
3
2s + 2s + 2s + 4 / 3 .(a)
2
3
2s + 2s + 2s + 4 / 3
2s 2 + 2s + 2 / 3 ..(b)
Now using continued fraction method for equation (b)
2s +2s+2/3 ) 2s +2s +2s + 4/3 ( s
z1(s)
2s +2s +2/3.s
2
4/3.s+4/3 ) 2s +2s+ 2/3 (3/2. s
2
2s +2s
2/3 ) 4/3.s +4/3(2s
4/3.s
4/3 ) 2/3 (1/2
2/3
+
-
Y2(s)
z3(s)
Y4(s)
2
2/3
Home Assignment:
Try it for n = 1, 2, 3 and 4 , for unequal terminal i. e R1 = 1 and R2 = 2.
4
3
2
[ for n = 4, D(s) = s +2.16s +3.14s +2.6s+1]
Review of ideal and non ideal properties of operational amplifiers, GBP, CMRR,
Inverting and non inverting A/F.
65
Fundamental of Active filter circuit:Ideal & Non-ideal properties of op-amp.

Gain Bandwidth product( GBP)
CMRR & its importance.
The main advantage of Active filter:Small in size

Provide grater amplification
Cheaper than passive filter.
The limitation area:Extra Vcc is required

Sensitive to temperature
Low gain at high temperature
Low gain at high frequencies
CMRR should be high
Certain important configuration of op-amp:Rf

R
Vo =
Rf
Vo
.Vi
R
(2) Non-investing:Rf
R
Vo
Vi
Vo = 1
RF
Vi
(3)Integration:-
66

c
R
Vi
Vo =
Vo
.Vi =
RCS
1
Vi
RC S
If R1=1 & C = 1, then

Vo
1
=
Vi
S
I.e. Integrator always contributes polo.
(4) Differentiator:Rf
Vo
Vi
Vi O = Vo O
1
R
CS
Vo = (CRS )Vi
If Ro= 1& Co= 1, Then
Vo
= S
Vi
(5) Summer:-
Rf
R1
V2
R1
Vo =
RF
(V1
Vo
+ V2 )
Ri
(6) Subtract or (Difference A/F)
67
Rf
R1
V1
V2
Vo
R1
Rf
Vo =
RF
(V2
V1 )
Ri
Design of Active filters (op-amp based):(1) Investing type:Z2

V1
Z1
From fig.
R(S) = V1 (S )
V1 (S )
Z
2
Z1
(a) T(S) = -K/S

Since, the above T(S) contributes polo we can reduce the T(S) with T(S) of integrator
I.e. T ( S ) =
1
RCS
=K
S
K=
1
RC
If R=1, then,
C=1/K
If C=1, then, R=1/K
1/k
R =1
Thus the design will be

(b) T(S)= -KS
(Do yourself)
(c) T(S) = -K(S+a1)
We can compare with the general T(S) of investing type ie.
T(S) =
Z2
Z1
68
V2
= k( S +
a1 ) Z1
1
Or y2 = y1 = k (S + a )
1
1
y2
y1
If y 2 = 1, then,
Y1 = KS+Ka1
1
Y2
Y1
1/ka1
1
+
V2
1/ka1
Fig:- Design for R(s) = - (s + a1)
(d) T(S) =
K
S + P1
1/k
Let we can write,

Z2
K
=
Z1 S + P1
y
k/p1
y 2 = ( S + P1 )
y
1
fig: Design for T(S)= -K/(S+P1)
y2 = ( S + P 1 )
K
y1=1, then
S+P
S P
= K+K
K
ks
(e) T(S) =
s+p
y2 =
2
V
Z2
1
=1
P
Z1
+
K
K
S
If Z2=1, then,
1/k
k/p1
+
V1
69
V2

1
Z =
1
KS
T ( S ) = K
(f)
S+q
1
S+P
1
s+q
Z2
=K
Z1
s+p
s+q
y1
=k
y2
s+ p
Let y1= ks + kq1

Then, y2 = s + p1
1
k
1/p1
V1
V2
1/ka1
Fig: Design for T(S) =
#2
nd
k (s + q 1 )
(
)
s + p1
approach of above problem
(Do Yourself)
(2)Non-investing type:-
V1
V2
Z2
Z1
1
a -p /p1
(s + q )
1
(
)
V2
k
(a) T(S) =
Where, q1>p1
s + p1
1/a-p1
Comparing,
z
1+ z
s+q
2
1
=k
s+p
70

s+q
z2
s +p
=k
z
1
ks + kq1 s p1
s + p1
= s(k 1)+ (kq1 p1 )

(s + p 1 )
z1
z2
For, k = 1
k (s + q1 )
q1 p1
z2
z1 = s + p1
y1
1
=
s
p1
y2
+
q1 p1 q1 p1
T(s) =
( s + p1 )
for k = 1
If y1 = 1, then
s
y2 =
q1 p1
For, k 1
p1
q1 p1
= s(k 1)+ (kq1 p1 )
z2
(s + p 1 )
z1
We assume,
Kq1 = p1
K = p1/q1
s (k
s( p 1 q 1 )
1)
z2
1200
q1
z 1 = (s + p 1 ) =
p1
q1
z2
=
z1
q1
1 + p1 / s
( s + p1 )
If z2
V1
Design for T(s) =
p1 q 1
=
q1
(s + q1 )
)
s + p1
for k 1& p1 >q1
Then, z1 = 1 + p1 / s
nd
#2
approach
y1
=? (Do Yourself) y2
Example:- 01
st
Realize 1 order inverting which satisfy the following T(s)

1000
T(s) =
s + 1000
We know that,
= 1000
s +100
71
V2

y1 = 1000 =
1
y2 s + 1000
s +1
100
If y1=1 then,
y2 =
s
1
+1, c =
100
0
1000
Example:-02
st
Realize the 1 order Non- inverting filter with following T(s)

T ( s) =
n
s+4
s+8
sol :- For the case given,

T(S) = 1 +
z2 s + 4
=
z
s+8
1
Or, z2 = s + 4 s 8 = 4
z1
s+4
s
The direct approach does not provide the required design; we go in the following manner.
Here, P1 =8
Q1=4
Ie, p1=q1
Let, k = p1 = 8 = 2
q1 4
2( s + 4) 1
T (s) =
.
= 2
( s + 8)
( s + 8)
(s + 4)
( 1)
= T1 (s).T2 (s).T3 (s)

2( s + 4)
For, T1(S) = (s + 8)
1 + z2 = 2 s + 8 s 8
z1
z2 = s
z s+8
( s + 8)
y1 = s
y2 s + 8
If y1= S, then y2 = S + 8
72

1
1
2
V
1/8
RC-CR Transformation:1 ohm

T (S ) = z2 = 1000
z1 S + 1000
1 ohm
1mf
2
V
It is law pass response,
If, Ri = 1 = 1 = 1k
Ci 1mf
1F
& Ci = 1 = 1 = 1F
Ri 1
V
T(s) = z2 =
z
1
s
s + 1000
1000
2
It is the transformation by which a low pass filter can be converted into a high pass filter by the
simple change in the component Value i.e. In this case Ri is replace by Ci and Ci=1/Ri and Ci is replaced
by Ri and Ri=1/Ci.
CHAPTER:- 8
Biquad circuits:nd
Consider a 2
order filter as shown below:-
- At low freq, c behaves as line open cut so, V2 = V1

- At high freq. c behave as line short cut V2= O
Hence, it is a low pass filter.
v2 ( s)
T(s) =
1
cs
v1 ( s) = R + LS + 1
c
s
=
s2
1
Lc
Rs+ 1
+
Lc
L
73

To get poles, S 2 + R S + 1 =0
LC
L
&, for loss less ckt , ie, if R= 0,
2
Then, S + 1/Lc =0
Or, s = j
1
LC
= jwo where, wo = 1
Lc
Poles are imaginary and conjugate,
Quality factor:-(Q)
Q
= WoL
It is defined as the ratio of inductive reactance at frequency Wo to the

resistance. Now,
Q=
1 .L = 1 L
C
LC RR
Also, Wo = R
Q
L
T ( s ) =
Wo 2
2
+ Wo S + Wo
Q
. (i)
This is the standard from & the design parameter is Wo & Q.
V1
Wo1 .Q
To get the actual poles:- S 2 +
V2
Wo
.S + Wo = 0
Q
Let, the poles be, j then,
D(S) = (S + + j )(s + j )
D(S) = S 2 + 2 + ( 2 + 2 )= 0 (ii)
Comparing equation (i) and (ii)
2 = Wo
Q
=
&
2 + 2 =Wo 2
Wo
2Q
& = Wo 1
1
4Q
Typing Biquad current:-
74

A typical Biquad ckt can be represented as, T(s) =
Gw
2
0
s + w0 s + w 2
0
Q
Where, G = Gain & choice of inverting and non inverting.

In normalized case, i.e. for w0 = 1
T ( s) =
G
s
s + +1
Q
.. (i)
Equation (i) can be implemented if G & Q ate given,

Let us go for inverting type of design
G
s
s + +1
Q
i. e. T ( s) =
v2
=
v1
G
s
2
s + +1
Q
Gv =
s2 +
+1v
Q
Gv =
s s2 +
1v
Q
Gv1
v2 =
1
s s+
v2
s s+
Q
v2
1
+
v2 =
s
Q
v2
s s+
v2
vs
s+
Q
Gv
s+
[1]. (ii)
s
Q
The equation (ii) is cascade Realization costing of 3 steps:
Stage:-1
1
s+
1
Q
v +
2
G v ii (a)
1
1
s+
Q
Stage:-2
..
ii (b) s
75

1
Stage:-3
(-1) =
ii(c)
+
For stage 1, we need more analysis:
Z3
V1
Z2
V3
Z1
From figure
v = z3 .v z3 .v
3
2
z 1 1 z2
1 v2 + 1 v1 .. (iii)
z2
z1
From equation ii (a)
v3 = z3
v3 =
1
1
s+
Q
=
3
1
s+
[1v2 + ( G )]v1
v2
1 1
1
1
v . (iV)
1
G
Comparing eq (iii) & (iV)
1
z3 =
1
s+
Q
Q
z2 = 1 (a resistor)
= 1 (a resistor)
G
76

For, z3 =
1
s+
1
Q
Or, y3 = s +
Q
The ckt for Z3 will be
1
Q
1
1/Q
V2
Q
V3
The overall ckt will be,

1
1
1/Q
V2
Fig: This is ring of 3 ckt and is popularly known as two Thomas Biquid.
Two Thomas Biquid:C1
R3
V1
V 2
C2
R1
R4
3
R2
R5
R5
V4
Fig:-General Two Thomas Biquid.

From figure,
1
c1
s
v3 =
1
R1 + c1
s
R1
v4 =
v1
(i)
v2
R
2
1
v3 (ii)
R4 c2 s
v2 = v4 (iii)
n
From eq (ii) & (iii)
1
2 = R c s v (iv)
3
4 2
n
Again, from eq (i) & (iv)

77
V2
R1
R4 c2 s.v2 =
c1 s
v
+ 1
v2
1 R
2
R1 +
c1 s
1
v
R3 R4 c1c2
T (s) = 2 =
1
1
v1 s 2
s+
+
Rc
R2 R4 c1c2
1
(V)
But the standard form of Biquid is

T ( s) = v2 =
v
Gw0 2
(Vi)
w0
2
s + Q .s + w0
2
Comparing eqn (V) & (Vi)

w2 =
0
1
R2 R4 c1c2
w2 =
1 2
1
= Gw 2
0
R2 R4 c1c2
Also,
or,
(Vii)
R R cc
= G.
R R cc
2
R R cc
1 2
1 2
R2
.(Viii)
R3
or, G =
Finally,
w0
1
=
Q R1c1
1
1
=
R1c1
R R c c2
Q
or,
Q=
R 2c
1
R R cc
2
(ix)
1 2
With,
c1 = c 2 = 1
& R2 = R4 =
1 We get,
W0 = 1
G=
R3 =
R
3
1
G
Q = R1
78
R1= Q
The important property of the Biquid ckt is that it can be orthogonally turned. It means
(a) R2 can be adjusted to a specified Value of w0.
(b)R1can then be adjusted to give specified of Q without changing w0, which has been already adjusted.
(3) Finally, R3can be adjusted to give the desired Value of G fir the ckt without changing w0 & Q which
has already been set.
These three steps are known as tuning algorithm.
Sallen key Biquad circuit:C
1
R1
R2 V a
V1
V2
RA
C2
Fig: Sallen-key Biquad

From fig (i),
v2 = 1 + RA = k
v1
RB
. .(i)
Va = v2
(ii)
k
Applying Nodel Analysis at mode a,
V
= 0
Va Vb + a 0
(iii)
R2
1 S
C2
Applying Nodal analysis at node b,

v2
vb v1 + vb k + vb v2 = 0
R1
R2
1
c1 s
1
Or,Vb
R1
1
R2
1
+
Or,Vb
+c s
v2
Rk
2
c2 s
+c s
=0
R2 k
v
b
=0
v2 c1 s = 0
R2 k R1
1
v1
R1
R1 R2
n
Similarly, rearranging eq (iii)
v2
v2
k v3 + k = 0
R
R
1
2
2
c2 s
R2
79

Or, vb
1 + c2 s
=R
v2 .(Vi)
R k
k
Thus from eq (V) & (Vi)
2
1
R
c2 s
R2 kk
R1
cs
1
Or,R
+c s v
R2 k
R2
1
R1
+ c1 s
R1c
T ( s) =
Gw
c sv
+ 1 2
R2
R2 k
1
R1 R2 c1c2
R 2 c1
=0
R2 k
R2
=
s +
T ( s) v2
v1
+c s
1
v
1
+
v1
R
(1 k )
s
R c
2
1
R1 R2 c1c2
w
+
s2
s+w
. (Viii)
Comparing eq (Vii) and (Viii)

G=k
w0 =
R R cc
1
1 2
w0 = 1 + 1 + 1 k
QR1c1 R2 c1 R2 c2
Design I (equal elements Values):In this case,
R2 = R1 = R = 1 &
C1 = C2 = C = 1
For which, W0
=1
K=3
=1+
Q
Now, let us take,
RB
RA
RA = 1 then,
RB = 2- 1/Q
In this case the final ckt will be,
C1= 1
R1= 1
V1
R2= 1 -
V2
C2 = 1
RA=R1 = 2-1/Q
B
80

Design II (unity gain design):In this case k = 1
This is turn require d the non inverting ckt to b e replaced by a Voltage followers.
We keep,
R1 = R2 = 1
We know,
w0 = 1 + 1 + 1 k
QR1c1
R2 c1 R2 c2
Or,
w0 = 1 + 1
Q c 1 c1
w0
2
c
1
Also, W0 =
c1c2
R1 R2 c1c2
But, we take, in normalized case,
W0 = 1
C1C2 = 1
C1= 1/C2
2Q
Thus, C1 = 2Q
C2 = 1/2Q
The final ckt will be,
V2
+
-
V1
1/2
Q
Design II (equal capacitance of equal feed bake):In this case,

C1 = C2 = C = 1
RA = RB = R = 1
K= 1+RB/RA = 2
W0 = 1
w0 1 1
1 12
= =
+
+
Q Q R1 R2
R2
R1 = Q
R2 = 1/Q
Also, W 0 2 =
1
=1
R1 R2 c1c2
81

1
1/Q -
V1
V2
1
Example:- 01
th
Design a 4 order Butterworth filter using equal element of Sallen Key ckt. Then Let w0 =2 1000
rad/sec & use capacitor of 0.1 F
n
Sol .:th
The 4 order Sallen Key in blocks can be represented by

nd
2nd
1st
st
1 order
orderr
From table,
Q1 = 0.54 and Q2 = 1.31
st
For 1 stage:Wo = 1, Q1 = 0.54
& for equal element design in Sallen
key, R1 = R2 = 1
& C1 = C2 =1
RA = 1,
RB =2 1/Q = 2 -1/0.54
RB = 0.148
For 2
nd
stage:WO = 1
Q2 = 1.31
R1 = R2 = R = 1
C1 = C2 = C = 1
RA = 1
RB =1/Q2 = 2-1/1.31 = 1.236

The design should be for,
= 21000
& C = 0.1f
We can apply both magnitude and frequency scaling at

once. Now, we know,
C =
new
nd
old
Cnew .kf = 0.110
21000 = 235.54
For 2 stage,
RBnew = Km RBold = 1591.54*1.236 = 1967.14
The ckt will be,
82

0.1F
1.6k -
1.6k
V1
0.1F
1.6k
0.1F
1.6k
236
V2
2k
1.6k
1.6k
th
Fig: 4 order butter worth active Salleney biquad with equal element
design forW = 21000 rad / sec & C = 0.1F .
Gain adjustment (EqualiZation in Sallen key:2
KWo
T (S ) =
.. (i)
2 Wo
2
S
+
.S + Wo
Q
In Butterworth,
T (jo) = 1 or 0 dB
But in equation (i) T (jo) = k (k>/1) which needs to be equalized.
Ra
R1
Vb
V1
Rb
V1
Fig:- i(a)
fig:- i(b)
If H is considered to be the gain provided by fig i(b) which is such

that, H. k = 1
Also it is to noted that, in Sallen key,
G=K
Also, H. G = 1
H =1/G
Now, T (S) =
Vb
Rb
=
V1 Ra + Rb
Also, we should remember that,

RR
a b
=R
Ra + Rb 1
Now, solving the above equation by setting R=1, we get Ra =
1/H In term of G the Value of R a & Rb is
Ra = G
Rb =
G
G
1
83

In term Q R a and Rb can be expressed as,
Ra = 3
1
Q
G = K =
= 3Q 1
Rb
3 1
2Q 1
Gain Enhancement (Increment) in Sallen key:C1

R1
R2
-
V1
V2
RB
C2
Ra
RA
Rb
We have, gain,
K=3
=1+
RA
RB
But, sometimes for given Q the Value of gain will be Very small and amplification to our need.
Although the separate ckt for gain enhancement can be used, the Sallen key ckt itself can be modified to
compensate the gain, using additional arrangement of two resistor as, shown in the fig (ii)
Let, C1 = C2 = C
& R1 = R2 = R then,
T(S) = of sallen key will be,
k
R2C2
T(S) =
2
3 k
+
RC
Where, =
.S +
1
2
R C
Rb
Ra + Rb
Wo = 3 k
Q
RC
1
Q=
3 k
For a given Value of Q the gain k can be increa sed to our requirement by proportionally decreasing
the new factor .
84

High pass sallen key:In this case,
GS
THP(S) =
S 2 + Wo
.S + Wo 2
Q
Applying RC-CR transformation in active low pass Sallen key biquid, in the non-inverting terminals we
get the following final ckt THP(S) as,
1/C1
1/R1 1/R 2
V1
V2
RA RB
1/C2
THP(S) =
2
Where, WO =
KS 2
1
1
K 1
+
+
CR
1 1
R2 C2 R2 C1
1
1
.S +
R1 R2 C1C2
R1 R 2 C 1 C 2
G=k
Wo =
1
QR2 C2
1 + k 1
R2 C1 R1C1
1/C1
Band pass Sallen key Biquad:R1
C2
-
In this case,
V1
R3
C1
R A RB
k
.S
TBP(S) =
R C
1 1
1
RC
1
1
+
R3C2
1k
1
+
R3C1
.S +
R 2 C1
R1 + R2
R R RCC
1
Where,
WO = R1 + R2
R R RCC
1
Q=
R1C1
WO
1 +
+ 1 +1 k
R3C2 R3C1 R2 C1
1
85
V2

k
R1C1
G=
1 + 1 + 1 +1 k
R1C1 R3C2 R3C1 R2 C1
Also, in standard from,
W
G
.S
TBP(S) =
S2 +
+ WO
.S
Q
Where, W1 = WO Bw/2
W2 = WO + Bw/2
And, Q = WO = WO
Bw W2 W1
Band stop Sallen key:TBS(S) =
G S 2 + WO
W
S2+
)
2
.S + W
Q
R1
R2
V1
V2
C1
C2
RB
RA
Assuming,
R2 = R1 = R
C1 = C2 = C
R3 = R/2
We obtained,
K S
1
2
R C
TBS(S) = 2
S + 4( 1 k ) S + 1
2 2
R C
RC
1
WO =
RC
1
Q=
4(1 k )
G=K=1+
RB
RA
86

# Use equal amount design to obtain Bond pass Sallen key Biquad with WO =1 & Q =10. Also find
the upper band & lower band frequency. When WO =1000Hz
WO =1
Q = 10
W1, W2 if WO = 1000Hz
R1 + R2
R1 R2 R3C1C2
W
WO =
Q=
1 + 1 + 1 + 1k
R1C1 R3C2 R3C1 R2 C1
k
G=
R1C1
1
1
1k
+
+
+
R 3C
R1C1
R3C1 R2 C1
2
1
R2
V1
R1
C2
V2
C1
R3
RA
RB
R1 = R2 = R3 = R
C1 = C2 = C =1
From which, we get,
WO =
But,
2R = 2
R
RB
WO = 1
RW = 2
2
10 = 4 k
2
4 k = 10
1
Also,
10 = 4 k
R
From which,
2
K = 4 10
K = 4 R = 4 2 = 3.86
10
10
Again,
G=
k = 3.86 = 27.28
4 k 4 3.86
G = 27.28
The required gain (K=3.86) for design parameter WO = 1 & Q =10 is less than the gain (G = 27.28), so
gain must be reduced. For this, we need the two resisters (Ra & Rb). Sampling by replacing R1 so, that,
Ra =G =27.28
87

G = 27.28 = 1.04
G 1 27.28 1
Again, We know,
K = 1+RB/RA
Rb =
For, RA = 1
RB = k-1 + 3.86 1 = 2.86
The required final ckt will be:1/2
V1
27.28
1
1.04
1/2
1
V2
2.86
Now,
New frequency = 1000HZ = 0
= 1000
w0
Frequency scaling factor kf =

Cnew = cold/kf
Or, Cnew = 1/1000 = 1mf

C1new = C2new = 1mf
Now for upper band and lower band frequency 0 = Q/BW
BW = Q/ 0 = 10/1000 = 0.01
1 = 0 BW/2 = 1000-0.01/2 = 999.999HZ
2 = 0 + Bw/2 = 1000+0.01/2 = 1000.005HZ
th
Question:-.1 Design a 4 order butterworth active Sallen key law pass filter with unity gain. Realise it with
practical components.
th
Question:-.2 Design a 5 order butterworth active Sallen key law pass filter with equal feed back resistance
and equal capacitance Values. Then use, w0 = 2 1000rad/sec and C =1F .
th
Question:-.3 Design a 4 order buttterworth active Sallen Key low pass filter with equal element design.
Multiple feed back Biquad current:-
R
V
R1
Fig(i) low pass MFB
88
v2
=
v1
R1R3c1c2
1
1
2
+
+
s +
c
R
R2
1 R1
3
In standard form,
T(s) =
Gw
T ( s) =
(i)
s+
R2 R3c1c2
2
0
.(ii)
s2 +
+w
w0
2
0
Q
Comparing eqn (i) & (ii)
w2 =
0
R Rcc
2
3 1 2
w0 =
R2 R3c1c2
w
And,
1 1
Qc
R1
R
3
and, G = R2/R1
Equating (i) can be modified in the form,

v2
Gb0
T ( s ) = v = s2 + b s + b
1
Where, b0 = W0
..(iii)
Design in terms of bo & b1

Let, C1 = 1F
bo
G=
R2 R3C2
R2
R1
& b1 = 1 + 1 + 1
R1 R2 R3
Solving,
2C2 bo
R2 =
b +
1
b1 4C2 bo (1 + G )
Example: 01
Design a biquad ckt for G = 5, b1 = 1.2 & bO =1
89

Here, given,
G=5
b1 = 1.2
bO =1
bo = 1
WO = 1
& we know,
b = Wo
1
Q
Q = WO = 1 = 0.833
b1 1.2
Also,
R2
=5
R1
Let,
C1= 1F (Choose higher)
C2 = 0.05F (Choose lower Value)

For which,
2 0.05 1
R =
1.2 +
=16.89
17
1.22 4 0.05 1(1 + 5)
R2 =
17 But,
5 = R2
R1
R = R2 = 17
1
5
5
R1 = 3.4
Again,
bo =
1
R2 R3C2
Or, R3 =
1
bo R2C2
1
117 0.05
R3 = 1.18
The final design will be
90

16.89
0.05
-
V1
3.4
1.18
It is to be noted that,
1 1
C
1
R3
1
+
=1
R2
R1
3.4
1
+
= 1.2 = b1
16.89 1.18
High pass MFB:C
R2
C3
V1
R1
V2
In this case,
C1 .S 2
C2
T(S) = 2
C1 + C2 + C3 +
S +
R2C2C3
The standard form is,
T(S) =
R1R2C2C3
GS 2
S2 +
W
O
2
.S + WO
GS 2
S2
+bs+b
1
.. (ii)
O
Q
C1 = C3 = 1F
G = C1 /C2 = 1/C2
C2 = 1/G
With,
Also,
bO =
b1 =
1
R1 R2 C2C3
C +C +C
1
R2 C2 C3
Now, bo can rewritten as,

b1 =
2+
1
G
R2
G
2
R 2 b1
G
= R2 =
1
S
G
b1
91

R2
= 2G + 1
(iV)
b
Similarly,
bO =
R1 =
1
=
Rl R2 C 2 C 3
Gb1
1
G
=
(2G +1) 1
R1 (2G + 1)
R1 b1 . G .1
..(V)
b0 (2G + 1)
Equation (iii), (iV) & (V) show that the component Value (with C1 = C2 = 1 ) can be adjusted from
the design parameters G, b0 and b2
92
Band pass MFB:-
C2
R2
-
V1
R1
C1
T(s) =
1
s +
2
R2 c1
V2
1 .s
R1 c2
1
+
R sc+
2
1
R1 R2 c1c2
Where,
2
0
=b
0
R1 R2 c1c2
w0 = 1 + 1 = b
QR2 c1
R 2 c2 0
Q=
R1 R2
c2
c1
G=
R c
2
c
1
c2
R1 c1 + c2
Q = w0 = w 0
Bw w2 w1
Where, w1 = w0
Bw
2
And w2 = w0 +
Bw
2
* Band step filter for MFB (cfkm} ug]{)
93
KHN Biquad (kerwin Huelsman-Newcomb):The general KHN Biquad ckt is given by;
R1
C
Rf
R
R2
C
R
V1
V2
R3
Fig (i) universal KHN-Biquid
Rf
If we consider only high pass, the ckt will be as follows:

1
Fig (ii) high passes KHN Biquad
V1
2
V
The o/p for fig (ii) will be,

=
HP
R3
R +R
1+
Rf
v
23
1
sin ce,VBP
R2
R +R
.VHP
w
0
Rf
V
HP
LP
s HP
R3
0
V
HP
&V
RF
w0
23
V3
Rcs s
V
BP
Rc
s Rcs
2
V
HP
w
0
VHP
Thus in general, blocks,
-WoVHP
HP
V
o) VHP
Band pass
High pass
(-W
HP)
BP)
Filter (V filter(V
Low pass
Filter(V LP)
st
But the standard form of KHN is giVen by, (for the 1 stage)
1
V
= kv
HP
w
0
Qs
HP
HP
Where,
Rf/R1 = 1
R3/R2 = 2Q1 K = 2- 1/Q
W0 = 1/Rc
KHN Biquad ckt is also called universal biquad ckt because from its Various stages as shown in fig (i), low
pass prototype, high pass prototype and band pass prototype can be achieve from a single ckt.
94
VHP
Chapter:-9
Sensitivity:Let us consider the following two fig (i) & (ii) with
L2
L1 = 0.9956H
C1 = 0.91097F
K=1
R3 = 1.0143
R4 = 8.9422
V1
R1 = 1 ,
Fig:- (i)
Fig:- (ii)
The transfer function of both the ckts are same which is T(s) =
C2 = 0.1F
C3 =1F
V2
1.10251
+ 1.09735 + 1.10251
At W = 0, i.e. T(yo) = 1 which indicates that both gives the Butterworth response. Now, let us assume that all elements are increased by
1%
For passive |T(y0 )| = 0.99168 gain reduced 0.83% & for-active, |T (y0)| = 0.98308 gain
reduced 1.7%
Thus, it proves that passive filters are less sensitive to element changing than active filters.
Definition of sensitivity:If x is the element & y is the design parameter for example R may be element & w0 may be the
y
defined by, =
design parameter then sensitivity is denoted by

x
y
%changeiny = y = x . y
%changeinx x
y x
x
= x dy
y dx
x
single parameter sensitivity
Differential sensitivity
First order sensitivity
* Sensitivity is known
If S = 0.1 than 1% change in x, result 0.1% change in y.
Classical sensitivity
If S = 2 then 1% change in x, result 2% change in y.
Bode sensitivity
* Properties of first order sensitivity:y
(i) =
x
x dky = x dy
ky dxy dx
=
x
95
ky
Where, k = constant
x
y+k
d (k + y) = x dy = x dy y
y + k dx y dx y + k
y + k dx
x
(ii)
x
y +k
y+ k x
(iii)
1
dy
1
dy
x dy
. 1
= .
= .
1 =
y
xy dx
1
xy d ( x)
.dx
x
y
dx
1 dy
Or, =
xy dx
1
x
x
y
1 dy
x
=
x 1 y dx
y. dy
dx
=
1x
x
1
y
(iV) =
x
=1 +
y1 y2
y2
(V)
x
=1
(Vi) n
x
y1
y2
y1
(Vii)
ln y
x
y
(ix)
= 1
ln y
exp (y )
(x)
y2
= y
* Derive all the properties
Sensitivity of passive ckt (Biquad):V2
96

We know,
2
Gw
T(s) =
s2 + w
s+w
We need to find out,

S
,S
w0
,S
,S
,S
from figure,
1
T ( s) =
Lc
R
s
+
1
+
Lc
Ls
1
Lc
w =
Comparing,
0
Or,
w0
R
w0 R
=
Q L
1
(1) S
L2 C 2
= L .C
2
Q = L.w0 = L.L .C
R
= L2C
d (w0
)
R
.
w0 dR
R1
d
dR
L C
=0
L2C 2
1
(2) SRQ =
2
L C
R . d (Q)
Q
dL C
dR
1
2
= 1
11
dR
R 1
(3) SW0 Q = 1
2
(4) S Q L = 1
2
(5) S w0 = 1
(6) ScQ = 1
2
2
Sensitivity of active Biquad ckt:(1) Two Thomas Biquid
In this case,
1
w =
=R
2R
2
2c
4
1
2
2c
1
R2 R4c1c2
2
R c
Q=
G=RR
2
1)
= R1 R2
1 1
RRR
1
1
2
R4 2 c1 2 c2
1
2
S Rl =
2
97
2)
3)
1
= 2
WO
R4
SC =
W
SR
WO
, R ,C ,C
2 4
2
W
O
1
S
4) C = 2
Similarly,
= 1
2
5)
SR = 1
1
6) S
= 1
2
R2
7)
8)
9)
SR = 1
1
2
1
Q
SC = +
1
2
Q
S =1
C2
2
Q
10)
S
11)
=1
R2
R3
= 1
(1) SWO = 1 = R2 . d (WO )

R2
2 WO d ( R2 )
1
d R
2
2
R2
R2 . 1 .R 32 2 1 .C 21 .C 1
2
.R
1
2
WO 2 2 4
3
2
1
2
.R .R
1
2
R.
1
2
d ( R2 )
WO
=
.R 2 .C 2 .C
2
2
R .R .C
2
1
= 2
4
3
2
.R
R2
2 .C 2
.C
.C
1
1
2
2
2
2
1
2
(2) Sallen key Biquid ckt:In this case,

WO =
1
R1R2C2C1
1
R1R2C1C2
Q = 1 + 1 + (1 K )
R1C1 R2C1
R2C2
98

K=1+
RB
RA
Equal Element design
K = 3 1 . (1)
Q
1)
SR
3)
SC
Q
1
4)
5)
SkQ
C2
SQ
6)
7)
SR
8)
Sk
RA
2Q
1-2Q
2Q-1
3Q-1
SR
1+Q
2
1
2Q
2
2)
+1Q
2
1 + 2Q
2
1+Q
2
+1 Q
2
feedback resistance
(K = 2) (2)
1 +Q
2
Sensitivity
Equal capacitance and
-1
1
1
Q
2
( 2Q 1)
RA
9)
SR
(3Q 1)
( 2Q 1)
(3Q 1)
1
2
1
2
Moderately sensitive
High sensitive
(1) Design (1) is the simplest implementation interim of element Values out its disadvantage is that it is
highly.
(2) Design (2) is less sensitive them design (1) in sensitivity is achieved at the expense of
large resistance Value spread.
(3) Design (3) is the least sensitivity is achieved at the expense of large capacitor Value spread.
Q. Derive SR = 1 + Q in Sallen key equal amount design.
1
2
Q
Multiparameter sensitiVity:Let,
Y = f (x1, x2, x3 .. x
Then,
y
y
i=1
= S
n)
xi
x
i
Let, R1, R2 R
n be the receptivity group and C1, C2, Cn be the capacitive group and
1 , 2 ,.............. n be the capacitive gains.

Then,
99
y
m
= S
y
n
+ S
+ S
(i)
Ri
Ci
y i=1
i
i=1
i=1
Thus, we can define the multiparameter sensitivity as the combined effect of all the individual sensitivity
in a particular ckt and is generally express as shown in eqn (i).
100

Chapter:-10
Higher order Active filter:The higher order active filter, in terms of transform function, can be defined by,
m
a m s + a m sm1 + ......... + a s + a o
1
T (S ) =
n
b s + b s n1 + ......... + b + b
1
n1
If n is even, then, the higher order active filt er in cascade realization may be expressed as:
n/2
T (S ) =
a s
+ a s+ a
2i
1i
oi
b s +bs+b
2
i=1 2i
1i
oi
Similarly, if n is odd, then,

( n+1)/ 2
au s + ao1
T (S ) = b s + b
11
o1
a s
2i
+a s+a
1i
s2
oi
+bs+b
2i
1i
o1
Example 01:Design a low pass Butterworth active Sallen key filter with unity Voltage gain. The design filter ckt
must meet the following specification.
max = 0.5d 3
min = 10d3
wp = 1000rad/sec
ws = 200rad/sec
Choose appropriate element Values so that the filter can be practically

realized. Soln:- The order of Butterworth filter is given by
log 10
max
10
n=
= 4.83
=5
th
The filter is of 5 order (i.e. n = 5)
2nd order
1st order
Q1 = 0.5
2nd order
Q2 = 0.62
Q3 = 1.62
Also w0 = 1
For given condition
wp
0 = (
10
st
For 1 stage:R
+
C
101

1
Rc
Here, T(s) =
1
s+
Rc
w0 =1
1/Rc =1
Or, Rc = 1
Let, Cnew = 0.1 F
Again we also need to perform frequency scaling with
=
1263.2 w0
Applying both magnitude and frequency scaling
Kf =
Cnew =
cold
kf .km
1
Or, 0.1 F =
1263.2 km
km =
7616.40 Rnew =
km Rold
= 7916.40 X 1 = 7.916k
nd
stage:+
In unity Voltage gain of Sallen key

W0 = 1
& R1, R2 =
1 C1 = 2Q
C2 = 1/2Q
Where, Q = 0.62
C1 = 1.24F
C2 = 0.806F
Applying magnitude and frequency scaling
Let,
C1new = 0.1 F
Or, C1new = C1 old/kmkf

Km = 9816.34
C2new =
c2old
0.806
= 0.065F = 65.03nF
=
kmkf 9816.34 1263.2
Similarly,
102

R1new = R2 new = kmRold = 9816.34 1 =
rd
9.8 For 3 stage:wo = 1

R1 = R2 = 1
C1 = 2Q, C2 =1/2Q
For, Q = 1.62
C1 = 2Q = 2 X 1.62 = 3.24F
C2 = 1/2Q = 1/2X1.62 = 0.308F
For let C1new = 0.1 F
= Cold =
C
1new
C
2new
3.24
= 25649.14
kf .km 0.110 1263.2

C old
0.308
= 9.51nF
= 2
=
km.kf 25649.14 1263.2
R1new = R2new = kmR1old = 25649 1 = 25.64k

Therefore the final ckt will be,
0.1 F
0.1 F
7.961k
9.8k
9.8k
25.64k
25.64k
65.04 F
9.51 F
th
Fig: - 5 order low pass Butterworth active Sallen key Biquad with unity Voltage gain.
th
Ex: 02; Design a 5 order low pass Butterworth filter with F0 = 1 kHz and capacitance
of Of 0.1 F. Implement this ckt in MFB.
Example:- 03
implement the same in two Thomas.
Example:- 04
In some application filter ckt must meet the following specification.
max = 0.5dB
min = 20dB
ws = 2
wp
The design must be highest sensitivity low pass Butterworth active Sallen key filter with unity Voltage
gain. Chose appropriate element Values so that the filter can be realized.
Also calculate the sensitivity of Q with 1% incorrect in Values of filter elements due to some
reason.
103
Chapter: - 11
Simulation of passive n/w: Tellegen proposed a mode called gyrator where.

V1 = kI2 ............(i)
V2 = kI1 ..(ii)
For the fig (i) shown below
I1
I2
V1
IL
Greater
V2
ZL
Here, k is a real constant

Now, let ZL be the load, then,
V2 = ZLIL
Or, V2 = -ZLKL
From equation (i) and (ii)
v
2
V1
=k
Or, V1
kI1
=k
Z
L
)
(from eqn (ii))
ZL
v
Or,
I1
Zin =
k2
ZL
2
K
= Zi1
ZL
If ZL is capacitor, then,
ZL= 1
cs
Zin = k2cs = Leq .s

Where,
2
Leq = k c
I
+
I1
Greater
V1
V2
L
eq
I1
Fig:-(iii) symbol for Gaygrator
104

GIC (General Impedance Converter):It was developed by Antoniou, So also called Antoniou GIC.
+
-
V I
V3
Z1
Z3
2
V2
1 1
Fig (i) General impedance converter

I2
I1
V2
GIC
V1
Fig:- (ii) symbol for Gic

V1 = V2
& I1 = -I2
From fig (i)
I1 =
v v
1
z1
I =
v v
2
z4
v1 v4
[v1 =
v2 ] z4
Also, I1 = -I2
v v
3
Or,
v4 v
z2
z3
Or, I1z1 = I1 z4
z2
z3
Or, I1=
z z
2
z1z3
We know,
Z
in
v1
I1
.I 2
z z
1 3
z2 z4
. v2 [v1 = v2 ]
I2
v
=k 2
I2
Where,
105
k=
z z
1
z2 z4
Let, ZL be the lead,

then, v2 = ZL IL = ZL I2
Or,
v2
= ZL
I2
Thus,
Zin = kZL
Zin =
z1z3
.ZL = Leq.S
z2 z4
Always,
ZL = RL
Z1 = R1
Z3 = R3
Now, if z2 = 1 and Z4 = R4 then,
c2 s
zin =
R1R3c2
.RL .s = Leq.S
R4
In this case, k =
Also, I1 =
Or, I1 =
R1R3C4
R2
z2 z4
I2 z1z3
.I2
ks
Or, I2 = ksI1
I2 : I1 = ks :1
Thus the representation will be

I
I1
KS:1
RL
L
eq
G
ic
It is to be noted that this is the case of Grounded inductor simulation.

Example:- 01
Simulate the following ladder ckt with GIC.
106

1.618
1.618
1.618
0.618
0.618
V1
Soln.
We need to simulate L2 &L4 with GIC
For, L2
We know that,
L2eq = KRL
Let, Z2 =1/c2s
& Z1 = R1
Z3 = R3
Z4 = R4
If R1 = R2 = R4 = 1
& C2 = 1, then,
L2eq = RL
RL = L2eq =
0.618 RL = 0.618
Similarly, for L4
RL = 0.618
1
1.618
0.5
1.618
+
V1
1
1
0.618
0.618
Fig: Equivalent ckt with GIC.
Floating Inductor simulator:-
107

L
V2
V1
KS:1
V1
GIC
GIC
1:KS
V 1
V 2
V2
2
From fig 1(a)
V1 V2
= Leq .s .. (1)
I1
From fig (a) (c),
V1 = V1
V =V1
2
Also,
I11 = ksI1
I21 = ksI2
1
I1 = I2
. (ii)
I1 = I2
.. (iii)
From eqn (ii) & (iii)

1
I2 = KSI1
Also,
1
1
V V
1
=R
I2
Or,
Or,
V V
1
KSI1
V1 V2
=R
= KRS ..(iV)
I1
From eqn (i) & (iV),
Leq = K.R
R = Leq
K
. (V)
Where,
108
2
4

K = R1 R2C2 or,
R4
R1R3C4
R2
Example:- 01
Simulate the following ladder ckt with GIC.
L2
R1
V1
C1
L4
C3
RL
Ladder Design with frequency dependent Ve resistor (FDNR):We know,
in
ZZ
1
.Z L
.. (i)
Z2 Z4
If,
Z1 =
1
c1s
Z3 =
C3 S
ZL = RL
Z2 = R2
Z4 = R4
Then, eqn (i) becomes,
1.1
zin =
cscs
1
R2 R4
.RL
R2 R4c1c3s
=
in
1
Ds2
(ii)
Where,
D=
R Rcc
2
1 3
RL
Put, s = jw
Then, zin =
(iii)
Dw2
Equation (iii) define FDNR
Process,
Let us consider the following simple RLC ckt.
109

L
R
C
+
V1
We scale this ckt by 1/s i.e

R.1/S
R
L
1/R
LS.1/S
1/CS . 1/S
L
C=D

1/R
1/R
C1
C=D
R2
+-
R4
RL
Here,
D=
R Rcc
2
1 3
RL
If, R2 = R4 = 1 & c3 = c3 = 1
Then,
RL =
1 1
=
Example:-02
R1
C3
C5
RL
V1
Realize the above ckt

110

Leapfrog simulation of ladders:Consider a ladder circuit,
L2
L4
L6
C3
+
-
C5
RL
V2
V1
I5
+
V1
Y1
+
-
Y3
Y5
V2
V
4
ZV2
-
Z6
Fig :-1(b)
From figure, (b)
I1 = y1 (V1-V2)
V2 = Z2 (I1-I3)
I3 = y3 (V2-V4) __________(i)
V4 = Z4 (I3-I5)
I5 = y5 (V4-V6)
V6 = Z6I5
Recall that,
Y = Gx can be represented in the form
(2) Y = X1+X2
+
X1
or,
X
2
X2
(3) y = m1x1+m2x2
m
1
m
X
or,
X1
Y
m2
X2
m2
X2
111

n
Modifying eq (i) set,

I1 = y1 (V1+ (-V2))
V2 = Z2 (I1+ (-I2))
I3 = y3 (V2 + (-V4))
V4 = Z4 (I3+ (-I5))
I5 = y5 (V4+ (-V6))
.(ii)
V6 = Z6I5
I1
Z2
V2
I3
I1
-V4
I1
V4
Z4
I5
Y5
-V6
Z
5
-1
V1
-1
y1
+
z2
+
-1
y3
V2
z4
+
-1
112
y5
V4 +
-1
z6
v6

In active ckt, we can not realize the current, so we replace all the currents by their respective Voltages.
i.e, we replace,
I V1
Y Ty
Z TZ
From eq (iii)
I1
y1
(v1 v2 )
or, VT 1 = Ty1 (v1 v2 )

Also, v2 = z2 (I1 I3 )
=
z2
( I1
)z z1
I3
v2 = Tz2 (vI 1 vI 3 )
n
Thus eq (ii) can be rewritten

as, VI1 = Ty1 (V1-V2)
V2 = TZ2 (VI1-VI3)
VI3 = Ty3 (V2-V4)
V4 = TZ4 (VI3-VI5)
.(iii)
VI5 = Ty5 (V4-V6)

V6 = TZ6VI5
-1
V1
-1
Ty1
Tz2
Ty3
V2
-1
Tz4
-1
Modifying eq set (iii)

-VI1 = -Ty1 (V1-V2)
-V2 = TZ2 (-VI1+VI3)
-VI3 = -Ty3 (-V2+V4)
V4 = TZ4 (VI3-VI5)
-VI5 = -Ty5 (V4-V6)
-V6 = TZ6 (-VI5)
.(iv)
113
+
V4
-1
Ty5
Tz6

-1
V1
Ty1
+
Tz2
-VI1
Ty3
Tz4
VI3
-V2
Tz6
Ty5
V4
VI5
Certain important op-Amp configuration:R
(1)
(2)
R
V1
R
R
V2
V1
1.18
(4)
V3
V2
(3)
R1
V2
R
V1
C2
V2
Example:-:01
th
Design a 4 order low pass Butterworth filter with
power frequency of 10 rad/sec. The filter must be 2
implemented on leapfrog active filter simulation.
0.7654
1.848
1
y1
+
-
y3
1.848 z4
z2
1
0.7654
Sol :-
Iy1
Tz
Ty3
Tz1
From fig (i)

Z1 = R1+L1S
114
v6

1
1
=
R+LS
y1 =
z2 =
L1
R
s+ 1
L1
1
c2 s
y = 1
3
L3s
1
1
R
y4 = c4 +
RL
z4 =
c4
RLc4 s + 1
s+
c4 RL
= RLc 4 s + 1
RL
Now,
1
L1
z2 =
s + R1
L1
1
c2 s
y = 1
3
L3s
y =
1
Ty = L1
1
Tz2 =
s + R1
L1
1
1
= (1)
c2 s
Ty = 1
3
L3s
c s
2
1
c4
s+
z4
Tz4 = 1
1
c4
1
s+
cR
c4 R L
+
2
-Ty1
R1
Ty3
Ty4
Tz
Comparison
115
Downloaded from
www.bhawesh.com.np
Ty =
1
1
L1
s+
1
R1c2
s+
RL
L1
Tz2 =
1
(1)
c2
s
Ty3 =
= (1)
c2 s
1
[R = 1]
Rcs
[R = 1]
Rcs
1
Yz4 = (1)
s
R2c
2
L3
s
[R1 = R2 = 1]
c4
+
cR
4
(1)
s+
1
R1c2
[R1 = R2 = 1]
Rc
2
Now, for frequency and magnitude scaling

W0 = 1rad/sec
4
0 = 10 rad/sec
4
kf = 10
Let, km =10
Now scale.
In summary, leapfrog simulation can be done in the following steps.
(1) Choose a suitable low pass prototype which meets the following specifications.(see table 13.1 of van
valkenbutg)
(2) Perform freq transformation if necessary.
(3) Identify the various y & z in the form of block diagram.
(4) Select the leapfrog block diagram to simulate the ckt.
(5) Find the active ckt that realize each of the blocks.
(6) Arrange the ckt with necessary components.
(7) Scale the ckt to meet the actual requirements.
116
Chapter:-12
The Mos switch
G
SD
B
Preferred for voice frequency filters

If VGS<VT, switch off, behave as open ckt between S & D.
If VGS>VT, switch on, behave as short ckt between S & D.
100M
OFF
10k
ON
ON
OFF
TC
TC is the time period.

fc =
= Switching frequency
TC
The equivalent representation for such case is
S
O
Fig:- SPST Switch
(single pole single throw switch)
Again, consider the two phase clock.
117
T
C
Note that, the frequency do not overlap and when 1 , is OFF, 2 is ON, and vice
versa. The representation for these cases will be
P1
P2
2
Fig:- SPDT( SIngle pole double through switch)
DPDT (Double pole Double through) switch:1
1
1
2
2
1
Let us consider the following specification ckt for DPDT switch.
118

a
2
C
V1
Vc
V2
The equivalent ckt for S/W is
R
C
When S/W is brought to position b,
V2 = -VC
V2 =-V1
This show that DPDT S/w acts as an inverter
Q. How can you use DPDT as an Inverter?
Simulation of resistor by switched capacitor
1+
+2
V2
V1
1
- 2
Let us assume SPDT switch as shown in fig (i) let V1 (t) be the i/p voltage, if s/w is
n
at position a then the eq ckt will be:
R1
CR
The capacitor will get charge for
1 = R1CR
V1
0.63V1
V2
I1
Now let us more the switch to position b.

The charge transferred will be
q = CR (V1-V2)
The current in this is
119

i(t ) =
= CR (v1 v2
)t
CR (v1 v2 ) = (v1
v2 ) Tc Rc
RC =
fcCR
Switched capacitor for op-amp based angle operation:(1) Integrator

C
R
V1
V2
V1
V2
From fig
R=
1
fxCR
1
= fc. CR .s
v2 =
1 .c.s
c
v1
fcCR
T ( s) = fc.
CR
.s c
(2) loosy Integrator

R1
C3
C2
V1
V2
V1
C2
+
V2
Here,
R = 1 &R = 1
1
3
fcc1
fcc3
v2 =
v
1
fc
c1
c2
c3
s + fc
c2
(3) Adder Integrator
120

C2
C2
R0
C0
V0
V0
R1
V1
V2
V2
V1
C1
v = 1 v 1 .v
Rc
Rcs 0
s
2
1
0
= fc
c0 1
c 1
. .v0 fc 1 . .v1
2s
c2 s
(4) Inverting
Rf
Cf
V2
R1
V1
V1
V2
1
v2 = Rf = fccf = c1
v1
R1
v2 =
1 cf
fcc1
1
cfs = c1
v2 = c 1
1 cf
c1s
v1
v1 cF
(5)
C2
R1
1
R
V0
R2
V1
R1
V2
-V1
R1
v2
= ( v1 ).
v1 R1c2 s
R1c2 s
Thus, the ckt using switched capacitor will be,
2
C
V1
= fc.
V2
c
1
.s v1 c2
(6)
121
V2

C2
c1
V 1
V2
V1
R1
V0
V0
C1
R1
c2
V2
v2 = 1 (v v )
1
2
v1 R1c2 s
Example:-01
Realize the given circuit by switched capacitor.
C2= 0.10
R1=10k
V1
V2
C2= 0.10
R1=10k
V1
v
2
C2= 0.10
R1=10k
V2
1
R1c2 s
v1
But, R1 =
fcc1
v
c
12 = fc. 1 .
v1 c2 s
= R1c2 = 10 103 0.01106 = 104
or, R1c2 =
.
4
10
1 c1
. = 10
fc c2
fc c2
Let, fc = 10 kHz
1 ,
c1
= 104
3
10 10 0.01 106
c1 = 0.01F
First order filter:-
122
V1
V1
2
C
T ( s) =
V2
c1
c2
T ( s) = s + fc c1
1
R1c2
s+
fc
1
R1c2
c2
R4
C4
R3
C2
V1
C1
C2
V2
C3
V2
C1
c
2
Rc
R3c
T ( s ) = c1
s
s + fc. c
T ( s) = c1
c c4
2
c1
s + fc.
c2
4 2
sin ce : R3 =
1
fcc3
& R4 =
fcc4
123
C2 V

Example:- 01
Design a switched capacitor filter from the following plot.
2
3
10 10
4
5
10 10
-20dB
From the plot,

( ) = (s + a)(s + b)
Ts
(s + c)(s + d )
3
4
= (s + 10 )(s + 10 )
(s +102 )(s +105 )
(s + 10)
=
s + 10
s + 10
s + 10
= T1 (s) T2 (s)
for,
(s + 103 )
2
T1( s) = (s + 10 ) .(i)
n
Comparing eq (i) with

T ( s) = c1
c
s + fc
2 s + fc
c4
c1
c4
c1
Take, fc = 10 kHz
C1 = C2 =10 pf
C3 = 1 pf
C4 = 0.1pf
For,
(s +104 )
T2(s) = (s + 10 )
Comparing,
5
c
T ( s) = 1
c
s + fc
2 s + fc
c
3
c1
c4
c1
C1 = C2 =10
pf C3 = 10 pf
C4 = 100 pf
124

4
C
2
2
C 3
V1
2
V
1
1
Example:-02
dB Gain
6dB
0dB
120
T ( s) =
220
400
(s + 100)(s +
400)
( s + 200)2
125

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Gain and Attenuation:

Then the voltage gain in db is given by ,

Now, the voltage attenuation is given by ,

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Types of filters: ( According to the function)

4. Band stop filter(BSF): A BSF is complement of BPF where signal components at

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ranges from o to infinity.

Non- ideal Characteristics:

3. Band between PB and SB so defined are known as transition bands. (TB).

When , m = n = 1, then the T(s) of equation (i) will be bilinear , i.e

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Here, G = a1/b1 = Gain

Taking laplace transform of equation (i) and (ii)

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Fig. 2. Magnitude plot

(jw) = tan (o/w0) tan (w/wo)

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Above figure can be modified as:

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(jw) = tan (-w/wo) - tan (

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From fig (i)

Now applying kirchoffs voltage law, for fig (i).

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For Magnitude plot:

For Phase plot,

Where, w01= 1/R1C1

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pole zero plot

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filter of similar characteristics of varying center frequency and impedance level

If Km . 1, then it is called scale up.

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Now , let us assume that,

Fig(ii) scaled ckt.

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To do so any change in w must be compensated by corresponding change in L and c

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3. Both magnitude and Frequency scaling:

Fig (ii): after frequency scaling.

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Perform frequency scaling with o = 1

Again, ( 1/R1+ 1/R2)1/C1 =

R2old = 2/5 = 0.4

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Again for frequency scaling,

C1old = C1old/kf = 1F/ 1000 = 1 mF.

Perform magnitude scaling to the ckt given.

Km = C1old/ C1new = 1F/ 10 F = 10

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Fig: Magnitude Scaling Ckt.

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Fig. 1(a) one port n/w

Fig. 2(b) two port n/w

One port network: Let us suppose of fig of 1(a),

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Z(s) = 5/3 + -3s/(s +1)

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Basic ckt Synthesis Techniques:

represented by either admittance function Y(s) or