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SOCIO-POLITICAL STRUCTURE OF GUJARAT IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY

Ph.D Thesis in History Submitted to The Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda

By

Rashmi R. Batchu

Under the Guidance of Prof. S. Hasan Mahmud

Department of History
acu!ty of "rts

The Maharaja Sayajirao University of Baroda

#adodara$%&' ''(

JUNE 2009

")*+,-./DG/M/+TS

This work is an outcome of aspirations and blessings of many people. I take this opportunity to thank them all with sincere sentiments. This work would not have come to conclusion without the blessings of God, who I believe, is responsible for this happy occasion. I am unable to find enough words to express my gratitude towards my Parents. Their constant encouragement, interest in my work and unfailing support kept me going. I dedicate this work to both my parents, to my mother Shobha for always standing by my side and to my father aghu for his constant interest in my progress and for his wise advice. I can!t thank enough my Guide and Teacher Prof. "asan #ahmud for his valuable guidance. I have been greatly benefitted by his knowledge of "istory and his willingness to part with that knowledge. I am especially thankful to him for reading the Persian texts for me. I am also very thankful to $ahra aunty for all her affection and care that she showed me while I was staying with them. I also wish to express my heartfelt gratitude to my other teachers in the "istory department. I wish to thank Iftikhar Sir for his continuous encouragement. It was his classes on %&th century Transition that inspired me to take up this sub'ect for research. I am greatly indebted to Shama #a!m and (ibhuti #a!m for their support, both personal and professional. I thank )runa #a!m, a'*umar Sir, #aitre #a!m, )dhya #a!m and #aurya Sir for being there whenever I needed them. I also wish to thank Prof. .+.Shah for his encouragement and for clearing away all administrative hurdles as the "ead and ,ean of )rts faculty. To ,r. -harat #ehta I am most thankful for guiding me through the Gua'arati sources and to Prof. Siddi.ui and ,r. /a'eehuddin for their information on Persian sources on Gu'arat. I must thank my sisters before proceeding further 0i.e., if I wish to live to see this pro'ect till its end1. 2irst of all, a big thanks to my sister Pannaga and Sailesh +ee'u, 3arsimha 4ncle and anga )unty, for making my stay at "yderabad en'oyable and to "arshita and ,hanya, my nieces, for making it
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lively 5 en'oyable. I must thank my -rother (asu, )parna -habhi, ,odappa and ,oddamma for having me at their place in ,elhi and taking such good care of me. -eing with San'ana and Sunaina was a lovely experience. I can!t express the gratitude I feel for my sisters 6hitra and (eena7 6hitra for her affectionate care and for 8being there! whenever I needed her throughout this work7 (eena for all the help she provided me and the affection that she covers with constant banter and for having a lively attitude towards life. The presence of all my three sisters provided the strength to wade through some rough patches. #y strength also increased because of the support I received from my friends. 2rom the bottom of my heart I thank all of them. To )rvinda for being a good friend and especially for lending her shoulder to cry7 To Shubhra 'ust for being herself7 To akesh for being a chatter box and for diverting my attention, once in a while, with his innumerable .uestions and to )yesha and Pallavi. I also wish to thank my 'uniors uby, Payal, )fiya, 9ogi, avi and others. Their presence in the department was refreshing. To my fellow researchers, )shish and Shubhali, with who I happily shared the highs and lows of doing esearch. I must also thank my friends +anki and :ucky along with akesh and Payal for translating the Gu'arati garbas. I must thank the staff of the department of "istory. I especially wish to thank ,ave bhai for all the pains he took with regard to my 2ellowship. I also wish to thank the I6" for granting me the +unior esearch 2ellowship which enabled me to complete my research work with satisfaction. #y thanks is also due to the various :ibraries and epositories including The 3ational )rchives, 3ew ,elhi7 +34 :ibrary, 3ew ,elhi7 I6" :ibrary, 3ew ,elhi7 The -.+.Institute, )hmedabad7 Gu'arat (idyapith, )hmedabad7 #.+.:ibrary, )hmedabad7 The ).P.Sate )rchives, "yderabad, The ;smania 4niversity library, The State 6entral :ibrary, "yderabad, Salar+ung #useum :ibrary, etc in "yderabad7 The 6entral :ibrary of -aroda, -aroda ecord ;ffice and Shrimati "ansa #ehta :ibrary, #.S. 4niversity, -aroda. I especially am indebted to the staff of the Shrimati "ansa #ehta :ibrary for complying with all my re.uests.

CONTENTS

Acknowledgements Introduction
1.

6 "# &' '*

The Decline of Mughal Authority in u!arat The New %ower Structure (ise of the )ritish as a %olitical %ower Multi+le Authorities ,, Dis+uted So-ereignties ./" Some reflections on the Social Conditions .1& "/. "/'

"$
3.

4.

5.

.0.

6$ Mercenary System Conclusion )i2liogra+hy

INTRODUCTION

The .'th Century is considered to 2e a turning +oint in Indian 3istory$ The death of Aurang4e2 in .0#0 not only ended the hegemony of the centrali4ed Mughal Em+ire in the su2,continent 2ut also what is called the 5old order6$ Im+ortant changes took +lace in many s+heres$ These as+ects ha-e 2een well researched in the recent years$ In case of u!arat in the course of the century the +olitical scenario changed from the centrali4ed7 hierarchical and -ertical structure to a decentrali4ed7 hori4ontal one$ In this newly emerging structure -arious +rinci+alities emerged which were situated e8ually in terms of resources and sources of legitimacy and were constantly -ying for greater +ower as well as resources$ These +rinci+alities largely could not consolidate their gains$ This in turn +ro-ided sco+e for the in-ol-ement of non,+olitical +eo+le to take a share in the actual +ower in these +laces leading to an augmentation of their resources$ The region of u!arat was one of the si9teen Su2ahs of the Mughal u!arat was an

Em+ire$ Situated on the western +art of the su2continent

em+orium of o-erseas trade of India with (ed Sea7 Africa and from thence to Euro+e$ The geogra+hical contours of the region 2egan to take sha+e since around the ./th Century$ :nder the (a!+ut rulers of Anhilwad,%atan a sem2lance of a centrali4ed %olitical +ower came to 2e esta2lished$ It was strengthened to a greater e9tent during the rule of u!arat Sultans$ ./th to

.*th Centuries also contri2uted towards the identity formation and the de-elo+ment of the regional language as distinct from the Marwad in the North and Malwa in the East of u!arat and Deccan in the South$ Different u!arat referring +arts of the region in earlier times were known 2y different names like Anarta7 ;atha7 and etc$ )y .*th Century howe-er the name to the whole region came into 2eing$ Thus when u!arat +assed into Mughal control it had 2ecome a com+act distinct region which was fostered 2y the Mughals$ The +resent day cultures -i4$7 Main land North u!arat largely corres+onds with Mughal Su2ah u!arat further di-ided into South7 Central and u!arat$ The region com+osed of three su2,regions ha-ing distinct micro u!arat for the sake of con-enience< Saurashtra and =utch$ It was

always attem+ted 2y the rulers o+erating from the mainland to assert their control o-er the other two su2,regions$ They were successful in -arying degrees in esta2lishing control o-er Saurashtra 2ut =utch only tacitly acknowledged the su4erainty of the rulers from mainland7 2e it the >aghelas7 Solankis7 Sultans or the Mughals$ This situation of near +olitical autonomy of =utch +erha+s 2ecame greater during the .'th Century$ An attem+t has 2een made in this study to gain a com+rehensi-e understanding of the de-elo+ments that took +lace during the .'th Century including the changes that came into 2eing with the death of the Mughal Em+eror Aurang4e2 in .0#0 and the esta2lishment of different +rinci+alities$ The aim has also 2een to unra-el the %ower structure of the region during this -olatile +eriod$ It was +ercei-ed that the changes mentioned a2o-e were in the nature of institutional changes which sha+ed the new +ower structure$ %ower here has to 2e necessarily seen in terms of localities and not at the +an,regional le-el as elsewhere$ This was one of the +eculiarities of u!arat$

The +olitical +ower and authority was e9tremely fragmented$ The -ery e9tent of this fragmentation is what defines .'th Century u!arat$ The e9istence of many +rinci+alities7 around "0" that +assed under the )ritish rule as +rincely states7 was a +roduct of this +eriod$ In fact the contours of the local +ower structure as it de-elo+ed during this +eriod were carried into the .1th Century su2!ect to )ritish modifications$ )esides the e9istence of multi+le +olitical authorities the increased +artici+ation of +eo+le from Social7 Martial and Economic arena not con-entionally connected directly with State,2uilding also contri2uted towards this fragmentation$ This study 2egins roughly from the last years of Aurang4e26s reign when the cracks in the Mughal administrati-e a++aratus were 2ecoming a++arent$ These cracks 2ecame wider since the 2eginning of the .'th Century leading to the com+lete 2reakdown of the Mughal +ower$ The most -isi2le result of this 2reakdown was the +er-asi-e and regular Maratha raids into u!arat which was largely unchecked 2y the Mughal officers$ The study ends with the esta2lishment of )ritish hegemony in the region$ 3owe-er7 the esta2lishment of )ritish hegemony in the region was not uniform$ This differed from one +rinci+ality to another and has 2een treated accordingly$ The affairs of Surat for instance ha-e not 2een taken into consideration after .'## when the whole administration of the +lace had +assed into )ritish hands and the Nawa2i was a2olished$ Similarly )haruch +assed into )ritish hands in .00" 2ut it was handed o-er to Sindhia in .0'" as a gift for 2ringing a2out the Treaty of Sal2ai$ In .'#/ )haruch was regained 2y the )ritish$ )aroda acce+ted )ritish +aramount +ower in .'#" and more definitely since the conclusion of the definiti-e treaty in .'#* and therefore the affairs of )aroda6s administration7 etc does not concern us after this

+eriod$ 3owe-er7 it was through )aroda6s acce+ted su4erainty in the rest of the region that the )ritish (esident could further esta2lish the Com+any6s hold on the -arious +rinci+alities of these areas$ In addition the areas under the %eshwa6s control and that of the aekwads in u!arat were minutely aekwad as a shield in intertwined$ This made the )ritish (esident use the 2y the

case of conflicts$ This situation makes it im+erati-e to look at the +art +layed aekwad chieftain in areas outside )aroda well u+ to .'.0,.' from -arious +ers+ecti-es$ It has also 2een found that the o-er lordshi+ of the aekwads in Saurashtra was asserted and enforced 2y the )ritish East India Com+any after .'#" so as to further its own interests$ The )ritish Com+any 2ecame a +arty in the affairs of Saurashtra since .'#0 and in the Mewasi areas of North u!arat since .'..,." through the re-enue settlements$ The )ritish inter-ention was resented 2y the +arties who were ousted from +ower 2y the )ritish and their resistance continued well u+ to .'.*$ In .'.0,.' with the end of the %eshwa6s rule his territories +assed into the hands of the )ritish Com+any$ =utch also acce+ted )ritish su2sidiary alliance in .'.1$ Through some other treaties and agreements the Com+any emerged as the su4erain +ower in the region 2y .'"# and thus the study also ends here$ Although this study is not concerned with the economic changes it has 2een found in the course of the study that the +olitical s+here had o+ened u+ considera2ly and the +ower +olitics was 2eing affected 2y the social and economic de-elo+ments to a greater e9tent$ The enhanced (ole of the 2ankers?Shroffs in the .'th Century +olitics is a well researched area$ In case of u!arat also the role of the )ankers was enhanced and their +artici+ation in State acti-ities was more direct and at times decisi-e$ The +erennial want of resources 2y the rulers and lack of access to ready cash dictated the

in-ol-ement of the 2ankers$ The 2ankers?merchants also contri2uted towards safeguarding towns and @as2as earlier in the Century when the Marathas used to hold these +laces for ransom and demanded ready cash for s+aring the town from destruction$ At that time the 2ankers?merchants largely +ro-ided the money and not the rulers$ The administrators and soldiers were also +aid in cash which again was defrayed 2y the 2ankers$ >e also find the in-ol-ement of the Nagarsheths7 etc undertaking such acti-ities as managing the le-ying of the cesses7 etc to safeguard the local +o+ulation from the undue and harsh e9actions from the rulers$ The )hats and Charans7 held to 2e sacred7 also 2ecame integral to the working of these +rinci+alities7 to a greater e9tent than what they were earlier$ The situation thus turned out to 2e more dynamic than hitherto understood$

SIGNIFICANCE OF 18TH CENTURY

It is largely held 2y the modern scholars that .'th century was a significant +eriod in Indian 3istory$ The century witnessed ma!or u+hea-al in the +olitical situation with the decline and disintegration of the Mughal Em+ire$ >hile the nature of the decline of the Mughal Em+ire and the causes for the same has 2een a matter of intense de2ate in the recent times7 the esta2lishment of -arious authorities filling the -acuum so created has also engaged the attention of the scholars$ >hile the modern scholars freely

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use the term 5successor,state6 to these .'th century entities in the larger conte9t of India7 the use of the term 5State6 in the conte9t of .'th century u!arat has 2een a-oided in this study$ This issue is discussed in detail in the &th cha+ter of the +resent study$ A thorough study of the esta2lishment of these +rinci+alities and the nature of their sur-i-al will without dou2t +ro-ide greater understanding of the +rocess of decentrali4ation that was a significant feature of this +eriod$ Towards the end of the century the emergence of the )ritish East India Com+any as the +aramount authority in the su2,continent has 2een another ma!or concern that has engaged the attention of the scholars since a long time$ The nature of )ritish +resence7 its rise to +olitical +ower and its e9+ansion was neither uniform nor similar in different regions of the su2,continent$ In case of through %rincely states$ The significance of the .'th century in other areas has also 2een 2rought to our notice through many recent studies$ The decentrali4ation led to the emergence of a dynamic military market$. >ith the disintegration of the Mughal Em+ire which was the 2iggest em+loyer of martial elements and the su2se8uent struggle 2etween -arious contenders to resources7 the soldiers found am+le sco+e to make fortunes$ Many grou+s organi4ed on ethnic lines found em+loyment as soldiers like osains7 Ara2s7 (ohillas7 Sindhis7 etc$ Their success de+ended on their entre+reneurial skills$ It is also 2eing asserted through some recent studies that this +eriod saw significant u!arat7 e-en in the .1th century7 the nature of )ritish +resence was 2y and large not direct 2ut

(ecent monogra+hs include >illiam ($ %inch7 /arrior )scetics and Indian <mpires, C:%7 New Delhi7 "##6< Dirk 3$A$ =olff7 3aukar, a'put 5 Sepoy, The <thnohistory of the #ilitary :abour #arket in "industan, %=>?@%&>?, C:%7 Cam2ridge7 .11#$

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changes in the collecti-e +erce+tions of the +eo+le +ro-ing to 2e a +recursor to 5Communalism6"$

CHAPTERISATION

This work is di-ided into si9 cha+ters$ In the first cha+ter the 2reakdown of the Mughal authority in the region has 2een traced in detail$ It has 2een found that the cracks in the administrati-e a++aratus of Mughal u!arat were -isi2le from the last forty years of Aurang4e26s reign itself$ These cracks o+ened wide since the 2eginning of the .'th Century and engulfed the Em+ire$ The Maratha in-asion and su2se8uent occu+ation of the region was a manifestation of this significant trend$ The Maratha occu+ation of u!arat itself was not com+lete$ The Marathas under aekwad and the %eshwa emerged as the o-erlord in the region 2y mid,century 2ut their authority in actual terms was su+erficial and limited$ The situation also worsened due to increased tendencies amongst the Mughal officers to disregard im+erial orders$ >hat followed was the rise of local recalcitrant elements that were largely uncontrolla2le 2y these officers$ The Mughal Na4ims and Aau!dars were in-ol-ed in their 2id to attain greater control of their fau'daris and did not concentrate on maintaining order$ They e-entually chalked out se+arate s+heres of control and authority called Nawa2is$ Se-eral such Nawa2is s+rang u+ in the course of the first half of the Century in the region$

Iftikhar Ahmad =han7 Surat C$ .01*B State7 Community and Society7 %h$d dissertation su2mitted to the Mahara!a Saya!irao :ni-ersity7 Cadodara7 "##0$

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In the Second cha+ter an attem+t to understand the role of certain social grou+s in the emerging +ower structure has 2een made$ 3ere it was found that the role of the hereditary land right holders working at the semi, official le-el was enhanced$ This was es+ecially the case with the su+erior right holders called desais in u!arat$ The 2hats and charans7 originally genealogists to (a!+uts and =athis and held to 2e sacred 2y these +eo+le7 had emerged as im+ortant links 2etween the newly emergent +rinci+alities and the local +o+ulace es+ecially the ryots$ In the course of the Century they emerged as the most sought after 5Securities6 or sureties in all the acti-ities of the State including re-enue collection7 inter,%rinci+ality relationshi+s and securing the tra-elers against looters$ This situation also increased their resources materially$ This +osition was later filled 2y the Ara2 and Sindhi Sibandis as well and much later the )ritish East India Com+any undertook similar duties which contri2uted towards the esta2lishment of )ritish hegemony in the region$ The wides+read use of I!ara and later its institutionali4ation was a discerni2le feature of the Mughal and Maratha administration of .'th century7 as also of the rest of the %rinci+alities$ This ga-e rise to institutions like the #anotidari7 kamavisdari7 as also su2, farming leading to e9+loitation of the ryots$ The third cha+ter looks at the nature of )ritish e9+ansion in the region$ The )ritish East India Com+any was initially a trading concern which came into the +ossession of Surat castle in .0*1 gi-ing it a +olitical status in the region$ The Com+any made three attem+ts to gain +olitical +ower at Surat in .0/*7 .0*. and .0*1$ The last one was successful$ In .00" the Com+any con8uered the district of )haruch through armed force$ 3ere the claim of the early )ritish 3istorians of the Com+any not ha-ing a

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territorial am2ition in this area during this time is 2elied$ The con8uest of )haruch was concei-ed and well +lanned kee+ing in mind the strategic im+ortance of the +lace as well as the fertility of the %arganas for growing cotton$ During the first Anglo,Maratha war u!arat was the theatre of war$ It was also the time when an internal struggle was taking +lace 2etween two factions of the aekwads of )aroda$ The )ritish were 2enefitted 2y +laying aekwad7 the man in o-ind (ao aekwad7 the fugiti-e$ one +arty against the other$ :ltimately7 Aatehsing (ao control of )aroda was su++orted against

In the last +hase of the war the Treaty of =undhela was signed 2etween Aatehsing (ao and the )ritish which +ro-ed to 2e the foundation of Anglo, aekwad relations in the su2se8uent times$ They !ointly made se-eral territorial con8uests which howe-er had to 2e ceded 2ack to the %eshwa through the Treaty of Sal2ai$ The first Anglo,Maratha was a2orted with the )om2ay %residency losing all the 2enefits$ In .'#" the )ritish were acce+ted as the o-erlords 2y aekwads$ Internal commotions in the +rinci+ality led to the )ritish inter-ention$ The )ritish esta2lished their %aramount authority at )aroda 2y defeating Malhar (ao of kadi and later the Ara2 Si2andis7 who had ac8uired much +ower in the +rinci+ality$ Through )aroda6s authority in Saurashtra and the Mehwasi areas of North and East u!arat the )ritish authorities e9tended their hegemony in these areas$ The instrument for this was the 5re-enue settlements6$ The )ritish assumed the role of mediators 2etween the smaller chieftaincies of these areas and the aekwad and %eshwa for tri2ute +ayment that the Marathas were entitled to as o-erlords$ This ended the annual Mulkgiri or tri2ute collection e9+editions undertaken 2y the Marathas$ Through the Treaty of %oona concluded in .'.0,.' the %eshwa6s territories in u!arat7 as elsewhere7 +assed into the control of )ritish East India Com+any$
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The fourth cha+ter is a discussion on the nature of su+erior rights in the conte9t of the dis+utes 2etween -arious +rinci+alities$ The authority is seen here as a right to collect the re-enues of a gi-en +lace$ The e9istence of -arious such claimants in one +lace ga-e rise to fre8uent dis+utes$ These dis+utes were largely undecided and were carried into the ne9t Century to 2e resol-ed through )ritish ar2itration$ This situation also ga-e rise to the +ractice of seeking 5+rotection6 from higher +owers with the )ritish Com+any emerging as the most sought after +rotector$ The fifth cha+ter throws some light on the social conditions and the +erce+tions of the +eo+le regarding the e9isting situation as reflected in the folk literature called garbas$ It was found that the ganim Marathas were feared 2y the common +eo+le$ Many garbas and pavadas were written regarding the de+redations committed 2y the Marathas and also descri2ing their o++ressi-e rule later$ )esides this the le-ying of different kinds of cesses on -arious +rete9ts was a constant source of harassment and drain of resources for the +eo+le$ The situation saw the inter-ention of the local leaders like Nagarsheths7 Shroffs7 etc who re+eatedly sa-ed the towns from +lunderers 2y +aying the ransom money$ The si9th cha+ter deals with the Military situation in the region$ The decline of the Mansa2dari system of martial arrangement ga-e rise to the em+loyment of mercenary system$ The si2andis and their head +amadar came to ac8uire much im+ortance$ 3ere an account of the functions of the Si2andis7 their organi4ation7 kinds of wea+ons in -ogue then7 their (emuneration7 etc has 2een discussed$ Amongst the -arious ethnic grou+s that were working as Si2andis in u!arat the Ara2s were +erha+s the most sought after$ They had come to ac8uire much im+ortance in the +ower
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+olitics in the -arious +rinci+alities as well$ The Ara2 sibandis were dismissed in large num2ers from the region through )ritish interference who +ercei-ed them as a threat to the esta2lishment of the )ritish hegemony$ SOURCES

This study is an attem+t to understand the 2roader changes that had taken +lace in the .'th century$ As already noted7 u!arat e9+erienced the esta2lishment of se-eral different +rinci+alities during this +eriod$ These +rinci+alities deri-ed their source of legitimacy from different authorities mainly the Mughal Em+eror7 the %eshwa and the English East India Com+any$ A student of 3istory therefore faces a serious hurdle in terms of sources as there are no homogenous set of documentation that can gi-e an idea of the de-elo+ments at the regional le-el during this +eriod$ Therefore7 the researches carried out so far co-er only some areas that were com+act and could 2e studied through a homogenous set of sources7 and not the region as a whole$ 3owe-er7 understanding the region as a whole is im+ortant to a student of medie-al 3istory as u!arat was a com+act unit7 culturally and +olitically7 +rior to the .'th century$ Notwithstanding this +ro2lem7 an attem+t has 2een made here to +iece together the information a-aila2le largely from different con-entional sources$ The +rimary sources for this study are mainly the 5Con-entional6 sources -i4$7 the Chronicles7 Tra-el accounts and similar com+ilations$ Amongst the Chronicles the #irat@i@ahmadi com+osed 2y the last Im+erial Diwan Ali Muhammad =han has 2een the 2asic source of information$ It contains information u+ to .06. in the most detailed manner$ Tarikh@i@

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Sorath is another im+ortant source +ertaining e9clusi-ely to the history of Saurashtra with Dunagadh 2eing the centre of the author6s attention7 during our +eriod of concern$ It was written in the .1th century 2y (anchod!i Amar!i7 son of (anchod!i Amar!i the cele2rated diwan of Dunagadh$ This te9t gi-es a succinct account of the de-elo+ments of Saurashtra during this +eriod$ This te9t has a mine of information for this area which is otherwise o2scure$ )hwal@i@Gaekwad7 a %ersian work dealing with the rise of the Marathas and their acti-ities in u!arat has also 2een used$ This te9t was u!arat written in .'"0 2y Sara2hai Nagar7 an official in the )aroda residency$ Sara2hai Nagar was commissioned to write a history of Marathas in 2y the )ritish (esident of )aroda$ It also hel+s to corro2orate information in the Mirat,i,Ahmadi$ Aissa@i@Ghamghin is an account of the end of the )haruch Nawa2i and the )ritish take o-er of )haruch$ It was written 2y Munshi A22as Ali7 a Munshi in the ser-ice of Mua44a4 =han7 the last Nawa2 of )haruch$ In addition +u2lished Documents7 mostly letters7 ha-e also 2een used$ Im+ortant amongst these is the .# Colume series 2y the name Gaekwads of -aroda$ It is the most com+rehensi-e +u2lication of documents with relation to the acti-ities of the )ritish and aekwads in u!arat7 the information coming from the )ritish records$ It concentrates largely on the inter,relations of the aekwads in this 8uarter of the country7 as well as their indi-idual acti-ities$ 3owe-er it suffers from one limitation7 it does not +ro-ided information on e-ents going 2eyond the +ur-iew of the aekwad6s in-ol-ement$ )esides this the Selections from the -ombay ecords in se-eral -olumes chiefly the one containing Ale9ander >alker6s o2ser-ations on Saurashtra7 )allantine6s o2ser-ations on Mahi,=antha7 (ewa,=antha7

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etc< and that of (o2ertson on Cam2ay has 2een used$ Another ma!or source from the Maratha side has come from the +u2lished Maratha records in the Selections from the Poona ,aftar and "istorical Selections from the -aroda State ecords$ )esides this certain sundry records like Selections from the hereditary minister!s of -aroda and the Selections from the Shastri ,aftar has 2een found useful$ In addition -arious tra-el accounts has also 2een used$ An attem+t has also 2een made to study the local contem+orary folk literature called garba and pavada to gauge the im+act of the Maratha intrusion in the region$

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DECLINE OF MUGHAL AUTHORITY IN GUJARAT

The 2eginning of the .'th Century saw ma!or changes in the su2, continent$ The death of Aurang4e27 in .0#0 A$D$ led to a general decline of the Mughal +ower in the Su2ah of u!arat7 as in the rest of the Mughal Em+ire$ The most noticea2le manifestation of this decline was the steady 2reakdown of the carefully 2uilt Mughal system of administration$ The Maratha in-asion and the serious distur2ances created 2y such grou+s as the =olis7/ =athis7& irasias7* etc$7 contri2uted to the decline of effecti-e Mughal administration and authority in the region in a ma!or way$

The Decline of Mughal authority in the region of

u!arat was the

result of a com2ination of factors and is to 2e understood at -arious le-els$ Mainly it was the interests of the 4mrah at the Im+erial Court< their mani+ulations in controlling the Su2ah through Nai2s< the +ercolation of the
3

The =olis are 2elie-ed to 2e the indigenous +o+ulation of u!arat who were marginali4ed first 2y the (a!+uts and later 2y the u!arat Sultans and the Mughals$ They were a recalcitrant section of the Society and fre8uently indulged in harassing the officers and the +eo+le$ This acti-ity increased in the .'th Century leading to disorder and chaos$ They are fre8uently referred as 8#uaBBaran! in the %ersian sources$ =athis were a tri2e of +eo+le residing in central Saurashtra and were known to 2e recalcitrant$ Their areas 2ordered with the sarkar of Ahmada2ad$ :nder effecti-e Mughal authority these elements were ke+t in check 2ut with the decline of this su+erior authority their acti-ity increased leading to disorder and insecurity$ The irasias were younger mem2ers of the family of local chieftains who were gi-en su2sistence 2y the chiefs$ They fre8uently e9+anded their fortunes 2y the use of sword$ Their acti-ities were ke+t in check 2y the Mughals earlier$ During this +eriod the irasias also took ad-antage of the decline of su+erior authority and e9+anded their 2ase$ The role of the irasias has 2een e9+lored in detail in su2se8uent cha+ters of this study$

18

19

Im+erial factional fight to the le-el of Su2ah officials and their su2se8uent infighting< regular in-asions 2y the Marathas and the failure on +art of the Mughal officials to control them7 etc7 contri2uted to the weakening of the Mughal administrati-e mechanism in disintegration of the Mughal u!arat7 leading e-entually to the u!arat$ At the Su2ah le-el the administrati-e

2reakdown is reflected mainly in the a2andonment of the +ractice of se+aration of offices originally meant to 2e a check on each other7 and the coalescing of offices7 either in one +erson or in one faction< ci-il wars as a result of growing am2itions amongst the officers to gain greater +ower< frauds and em2e44lements 2y the officers going unchecked< etc$ In the +rocess7 there was an erosion of the finer characteristic features of Mughal administration$

The signs of gradual fall,out of the administration and a tendency on the +art of officers to disregard Im+erial commands in -isi2le during the last &# years of the .0th u!arat were already century$ There was a further

widening of these cracks7 in addition to new de-elo+ments ty+ical to .'th Century that led to the 2reak down of the Mughal Im+erial authority in u!arat$ ;et us now consider the a-aila2le e-idence to understand this +rocess$ Aurang4e26s reign was tur2ulent for u!arat$ The Mughal,Maratha u!arat 2eing contest in the Deccan caused distur2ances in the Su2ah7

ad!acent to the Deccan$ During the reign of Aurang4e2 three ma!or Maratha attacks took +lace$ In .66& and .60# Shi-a!i attacked and sacked Surat7 the richest +ort town of Mughal India$ In .0#6 Dhana Dadha-7 a Maratha sardar7 in-aded u!arat and routed the Mughal army$ The Mirat,i,Ahmadi which u!arat7 sur+risingly7 does +ro-ides a mine of information for .'th Century

19

20

not +ro-ide any details of this e-ent$ The only detailed source of information on Shi-a!i6s sack of Surat is the English Aactory (ecords$ These records +ro-ide am+le information on the incidents and its im+lications$ In .66&7 for three full days the city of Surat was +lundered and 2urnt down$6 The loot consisted of (s$"# to "* lakhs of one day alone7 2eing carried away 2y /## +orters7 each laden with two 2ags of (u+ees7 and some old$ The Marathas also took "' sere of large +earls7 with many other Dewels7 Diamonds7 (u2ies and Emeralds from the house of 5the re+uted richest merchant in the world6 Cir!i Cora$0 )esides Cir!i Cora7 other 2ig merchants like 3a!i Eahid )eg and 3a!i @asim7 were also looted$' Since there was no wall around the city then7 the Marathas6 task was made easier$ In this whole e+isode7 the #utsaddi7 Inayat =han along with other officers7 sought refuge in the castle instead of arranging for defense$ There is e-idence that 2esides the la9ity of administration7 some of the Mughal officers were in concert with the Marathas$1 Shi-a!i once again attacked Surat in Octo2er .60#$ This time the English Aactors fled to Swali Marine along with their goods to esca+e de+redations$ Interestingly7 most of the Mughal officers too fled the city and the shahbandar7 AaBi and some eminent merchants sought +rotection from the English$.# The smaller (a!as of the -icinity took ad-antage of the situation and attacked the cara-ans of merchandise in the guise of Shi-a!i$.. Aollowing these incidents the trade7 es+ecially Euro+ean trade7 suffered hea-ily$."
6 7 8 9

10 11 12

)$ $%aran!+e7 <nglish ecords on Shiva'i %C>D@%C&E7 Shi-a!i Tercentenary Memorial Series,Col$ CI7 .1/.7 Shi-a Charitra =aryalaya7 %oona7 %$ 0'$ I2id$ I2id$ Shama Mahmood7 Subah Gu'arat under )urangBeb, un+u2lished %h$D dissertation su2mitted to the Mahara!a Saya!i(ao :ni-ersity of )aroda7 .1117 %$ "","/$ <nglish ecords on Shiva'i7 %$ .00$ Sir Charles Aawcett7 The <nglish 2actories in India %CF?@%CFF7 ColB I7 .1/67 %$ .1#$ M$S$Commissariate "istory of Gu'arat, #aratha period %F>&@%&%&7 ColB III7 .1'#7 u!arat Cidya Sa2ha7 Ahmeda2ad7 %+$ "1#,"1"$

20

21

Other than the direct attacks7 the Marathas7 from the last 8uarter of the .0th Century7 took +ossession of the countryside towards the South,east of Surat$ In .60" the smaller forts such as %arnea and )ag-ada in the %ardi su2di-ision of Surat Sarkar were con8uered 2y Shi-a!i$ A Maratha Sardar Moro Trimal con8uered Salher in )aglana in the same year./$ Salher guarded one of the most fre8uented +asses from Deccan into u!arat and ser-ed as a 2ase for Da2hade7 the Sena+ati of (a!a Shahu7 in his e9+editions into u!arat at the turn of the Century$.& (amnagar to the immediate south of u!arat was also taken$ In .60* Marathas under 3am2ir (ao collected 6hauth from )haruch$.* In .6'6 Sam2ha!i +lundered )haruch again$.6 Maratha distur2ance loomed large in South u!arat since then and regular re+orts were recei-ed of their +resence on the threshold of the region$.0 These con8uests facilitated the ra+id onslaught of the Marathas in Su2ah u!arat following the death of Aurang4e2$ Marathas under their leader Dhana Dadha- in-aded the region again in.0#6$ Many Mansa2dars of re+ute were either killed or were taken hostage$ No strong Su2ahdar was +resent at this time in the region$ =hwa!a A2dul 3amid =han7 the Diwan and Nai2, Na4im7 was also taken as hostage and had to +ay a sum of (s$ / lacks for his release$.'

13

14 15 16 17

18

$3$ Desai7 GaBetteer of the -aroda State I, F now onwards -aroda State GaBetteer1 .1"/7 )om2ay7 %+$ &/",&//$ -aroda State GaBetteer, %$&//$ rant Duff7 ) "istory of #arathas, ;ondon7 .'"67 Col$ I7 %$ .1&$ I2id$ %$ "&"$ Ali Mohammad =han7 #irat@i@)hmadi, transl$ M$A$;okhandwala7 aekwad6s Oriental Series no$ &67 %B /.' Fnow onwards #iratG The whole e+isode is co-ered in #irat, %+$ /.',/"*$

21

22

)esides ha-ing to face in-asions the administration had also 2ecome la9 and ar2itrary during the last years of Aurang4e27 although regular royal orders were recei-ed to +ut things in order$ In .606 it was re+orted to the (oyal court that the chaudhries and mu.addams in the Su2ah were taking I!ara of lands under their own !urisdiction$ It was ordered that in 2oth +agir and =halsa lands7 I!ara was not to 2e gi-en to any2ody$.1 In .666 it was re+orted that the Na4im of the Su2ah7 Maha2at =han and other high Mansa2dars7 )akshis7 etc who were su++osed to maintain a com2ined force of "* thousand sawar could not e-en muster one thousand if needed$ Aurang4e2 reacted 2y recalling the )akshi and the >a8ai,nigar and re+lacing them$"# In .61/,1&7 Sher Afghan =han7 the Aau!dar of Sorath intruded into the -illages of Dhandhuka pargana7 the Na4im6s 'agir7 and carried away cattle$ 3e was re+rimanded and asked not to meddle in the Na4im6s +agir$". Around .616 it was re+orted to the court that many +eo+le founded new purahs in Ahmeda2ad$ This resulted in the loss of Im+erial re-enues7 as the goods +assing through the new purahs would not +ay the octroi duties to the o-ernment$ The Diwan was ordered to settle things as +er the customary +ractice so that Im+erial re-enues were not lost$"" In .0#& the Na4im7 %rince Muhammed A4am Shah7 made a++ointments for the Aau!dari of )aroda7 Sorath and Diwani of the Su2ah on his own$ The Em+eror re+rimanded him7 as dismissals and a++ointments of Im+erial officers was the sole +rerogati-e of the Em+eror$ "/

19 20 21 22 23

#irat, %$ "6#$ I2id$ %$"/0$ I2id$ %$"1/$ I2id$ %$"11$ I2id$ %$/.&$

22

23

During the reign of Aurang4e2 we find e-idence of charge of multi+le offices 2eing held 2y a single indi-idual$ The +rinci+le of Mughal administration of not com2ining +agirdari with Aau!dari offices was com+romised$ In .61/,1& one Sher Afghan =han held the +agirdari and Aau!dari of Sorath$"& Shu!a5at =han7 the Na4im of the Su2ah from .6'*, .0#"7 is +erha+s the 2est e9am+le of this trend$ 3is first title was #uhammad -eg *han and later *arTalab *han$ 3e started his career as the Thanedar of %etha+ur in u!arat7 later made the Aau!dar of =adi7 the Amin of Dholka7 etc at different +oints of time$ 3e also held the dual charge of the Mutsaddi and Aau!dari of Surat$"* Through an intrigue he later came to 2e a++ointed as the Na4im of u!arat and was conferred the title of Shu!a5at
"6

=han$ Simultaneously7 he was made the Nai2,Aau!dar of Dodh+ur$ this while he continued as the Na4im of

In .6'0

he was a++ointed the Aau!dar of three +laces7 Dodh+ur A!mer and %atan7 and u!arat$"0 Similarly7 the Diwan of the Su2ah7 Amanat =han also held the charge of Mutsaddi of Surat in .6'07 in addition to the Diwani$"' In the same way Syed Idris =han was the Aau!dar and +agirdar of Nadiad around this time$"1 The a2o-e instances indicate that the esta2lished Mughal Im+erial administrati-e +ractices were 2eing disregarded 2y the +owerful sections of the no2ility leading to ar2itrariness in the functioning of the Mughal administration in the Su2ah$ After the death of Aurang4e2 these +ro2lems got aggra-ated$

24 25 26 27 28 29

I2id$ %$"1/$ I2id$ %$"'#$ I2id$ %$"01$ I2id$ %$"'/$ I2id$ %$"'/$ I2id$ %$"1.$

23

24

On the other hand7 the Maratha de+redations continued with greater -igour with Aurang4e26s death$ Marathas under )ala!i Cishwanath came in the -icinity of Ahmeda2ad7 taking the Dha2ua, odhra route/# and +lundered the area$ 3e did not meet with resistance from any of the Aau!dars on the way< they seem to ha-e 2een deterred 2y the de2acle of .0#6 when the Marathas had ca+tured a num2er of Aau!dars who were released only after +ayment of ransom$ The Na4im7 I2rahim =han7 des+ite ha-ing collected a good force under his command choose to negotiate +eace with the Marathas and a *handani/. of (s " lacs .# thousand was +aid to them from the -ait@ ul@#al$ Ali Mohammad =han e9+lains this 2eha-ior in terms of the a2sence of any successor to the deceased Mughal Em+eror at that time$/"

:nder

ha4i,ud,din =han Airo4 Dung7 the ne9t Na4im of

u!arat7

many regressi-e ta9es came into e9istence$ 3e initiated le-ying of cesses 5abwab! which were +rohi2ited 2y Aurang4e2. On foodgrain7 fodder for animals and other goods taken to market7 an octroi duty H .I +er cart load started 2eing le-ied$ An additional duty or cess of one ru+ee was to 2e collected from a 3indu and half ru+ee 2y Muslims on the a2o-e articles$ This cess was called Ghulak@i@3aBim7 or the 5Na4im6s kitty6 and was a++ro+riated 2y the Na4im$ A se+arate =arori was a++ointed for the +ur+ose who was inde+endent of the Diwan and other royal officers$ Earlier7 se+arate =aroris did the assessment and collection of different kinds of duties$ Since the time of
30

ha4i,ud,din =han Airo4 Dung these two functions were merged

31

32

There were three routes through which the Marathas entered u!arat$ The first one was through =handesh7 crossing the )a2a %iara ford into Surat7 Second through Dha2ua in Malwa to odhra and thirdly through Idar in the e9treme north 2ordering Malwa$ *handani was the money e9tracted 2y the Maratha sardars to a2stain from %lundering an area$ #irat7 %$ ///,//&$

24

25

in a single =arori$ The am2it of merchandise under the new cess was also widened$ It was now also le-ied on the sale of Cegeta2les7 hee7 etc$7 considered an inno-ation 2y the contem+oraries$// In the course of time7 the amount of re-enues from the a2o-e le-ies 2ecame huge$ Se+arate accountants were a++ointed for kee+ing an account of these re-enues$

=han Airo4 Dung died in .0..$ :+on his death7 his ser-ants got hold of his treasure7 a++ro+riated large amounts of wealth and +aid off salaries in arrears to his soldiers and others7 without Im+erial +ermission$ They mishandled the accounts as well$ This was the first recorded instance of high disregard for Im+erial regulations and the +ractice of escheating the +ro+erties and wealth of a deceased Mughal Mansa2dar 2y his followers without royal orders$ This matter was howe-er taken seriously 2y the Im+erial Court$ The Diwan was ordered to confiscate the wealth of the deceased =han$ Armed retainers were sent for his hel+$ Amanat =han the Mutsaddi of Surat7 entitled Shahamat =han7 was a++ointed as the tem+orary Na4im with orders to tackle the situation$ Shahamat =han was transferred and re+laced 2y Asaf,ud,Daula as the Na4im of u!arat shortly after Dahandar Shah6s accession to the throne7 after the death of )ahadur Shah$ It was re+orted that the +receding two Na4ims7 =han Airo4 Dung and Shahamat =han had a++ro+riated the re-enues of the Paibaki and *halsa lands$ The

33

Dr$ Aarhat 3asan asserts that this cess was not new 2ut was common during the .0th Century as well$ Although such cesses were termed as 5a2wa26 in Mughal terminology and re+eatedly +rohi2ited through royal orders the author asserts that its im+osition did not sto+$ It was +art of the 5local ta9es6 not recorded in the official records$ Aarhat 3asan7 State and :ocality in #ughal IndiaB Power relations in /estern India, %>FE@%FG?7 Cam2ridge7 "##67 %$ .".$ 3owe-er during the +eriod of our concern this le-y had 2ecome common and was considered to 2e a +rerogati-e of the Na4im$ It su2se8uently 2ecame as huge source of income as mentioned in the #irat7 %+$ /&/,/&&$

25

26

Diwan of the Su2ah was ordered to transfer the 2alance into the Im+erial treasury< its e9ecution though is dou2tful$

>ith the a++ointment of Asaf,ud,Daula the factional fights at the Im+erial court had reached greater heights$ In the +ro-ince of u!arat this trend gets reflected in the a++ointments of the 3aibs in +lace of the Na4ims themsel-es taking charge of the Su2ah$ As already mentioned7 the Su2ah of u!arat was one of the most co-eted regions and was strategically and economically integral to the Mughal Em+ire$ During the early .'th Century any no2le wanting to control Deccan naturally aimed at the control of u!arat as it ga-e un+recedented +ower and financial resources to such a no2le$ This was es+ecially true in case of Ni4am,ul,Mulk Asaf Dah$/& During this +hase the Na4ims ke+t changing with much greater fre8uency than 2efore and this reflects u+on the factional fights at the Im+erial Court$ Asad =han sent Sar2uland =han as his Nai2,Na4im$ Daud =han %anni7 a +rotJgJ of Eulfi8ar =han7 soon re+laced him$ >ith the rise of the Sayyid )rothers and the Ni4amat of Deccan 2eing gi-en to 3asan Ali =han7 their associate A!it Singh was made Na4im of u!arat$ Aollowing the end of the Sayyid 2rothers6 hegemony7 the -ictorious +arty at the Im+erial court sent 3aider @uli =han as the Nai2,Na4im$/* The incoming and the outgoing Na4ims in-aria2ly settled scores 2y armed struggle$ The +ro2lem was further aggra-ated due to the financial crisis e9+erienced 2y each +arty$

34

35

Itimad Ali =han7 #irat@ul@"a.ai.7 Araser collection7 ."&7 )odleian ;i2rary7 O9ford7 f$ 66 FaG$ I2id$

26

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>ith the coming of Daud =han %anni F.0.&G the Su2ah went into further administrati-e chaos$ Daud =han %anni was known to 2e a good soldier 2ut not ade+t in the art of administration$ 3e was a )i!a+uri no2le who had entered Mughal ser-ice following the Mughal occu+ation of )i!a+ur$/6 3e entrusted the administration of the Su2ah to the ,eccani pandits who had accom+anied him to the su2ah$ The Mirat attri2utes his lack of administrati-e wisdom as the main reason for the success of the raids made 2y the kolis into the city of Ahmeda2ad$ The ,eccani pandits also introduced a cess called chattaman to 2e le-ied on the >a4ifadars and Sayyids$/0 During this time7 an Im+erial order was recei-ed directing the remission of duties collected on hee7 Cegeta2les and cotton mandis to the Im+erial treasury$ The Na4im ignored it as it was an additional source of income for him and thus he was not willing to +art with the same$/'

On the recall of Daud =han %anni7 Mahara!a A!it Singh was a++ointed as the Na4im$ 3e was a confederate of the Sayyid 2rothers$ %erha+s as a check u+on their com2ined +ower 3aider @uli =han Fa +rotJgJ of the other +arty at the Im+erial CourtG was sent as the Diwan of the Su2ah$ In .0.0 Samsam,ud,Daula =han,i,Dauran7 with =hwa!a A2dul 3amid =han as his tem+orary Nai27 re+laced A2hay Singh$ At this !uncture 2oth the +arties +re+ared to fight for the Ni4amat7 3owe-er7 his ad-isors dissuaded the Mahara!a and a ma!or ci-il war was thus a-erted$/1 In .0.' 3aider @uli =han was a++ointed as the Nai2,Na4im as well as the Diwan$ In .0.1 howe-er Mahara!a A!it Singh FA2hay Singh6s son and successorG was 2ack
36 37 38 39

Satish Chandra7 Parties and Politics at the #ughal 6ourt %F?F@%F=?, Aligarh7 .1*17 %$ *$ #irat7 %$ /6&$ I2id$ %$ /*0 #irat7 %$ /00$

27

28

as the Na4im while the Diwani was gi-en !ointly to Nahir =han and his 2rother (uhulla =han$&# The fre8uent transfers of the Na4ims created a situation of uncertainty and affected the general administration of the Su2ah$

The situation was worsened due to internal fighting amongst the local officers$ The higher authorities7 in-ol-ed as they were in their own affairs7 could hardly take cogni4ance of this +ro2lem$ The first intra,administration tussle took +lace 2etween Shahamat =han7 the Nai2,Na4im and Mohammad )eg =han7 the Aau!dar of %atan$ The conte9t of it was as followsB Mohammad )eg =han7 the Nai2 Aau!dar of %atan and a relati-e of Shahamat =han7 was asked to take charge 2y Shahamat =han for the a2o-e duty till his arri-al from Surat$ 3e in-ol-ed himself in the sei4ure of =han Airu4 Dung6s +ro+erty$ Muhammad )eg7 it a++ears7 em2e44led some of it and did not de+osit the entire +ro+erty to the Im+erial treasury$ 3owe-er7 Shahamat =han took charge as Nai2,Na4im of the Su2a and relie-ed Mohammad )eg =han of the charge$ Shortly Shahamat =han sent men to collect the wealth confiscated 2y Mohammad )eg =han$ Mohammad )eg =han resisted this attem+t 2y military force and the 2attle took +lace on the streets of Ahmeda2ad$ Ele+hants7 guns and muskets were freely used on 2oth sides$ %eace was restored e-entually due to the inter-ention of officers like Meher Ali =han7 the )akshi and Safdar =han )a2i$&.

In another e-ent of .0./,.&7 a confrontation took +lace at Surat 2etween the Mutsaddi7 Muhtarim =han and the @illedar7 Ahmed )eg$ The
40 41

I2id$ %+$ /'6,/'0$ I2id$ %+$ /&6,/&0$

28

29

conflict ended into an armed struggle 2etween the two +arties with aid 2eing summoned from outside 2y 2oth +arties$&" In .0.* another similar conflict took +lace again at Surat 2etween Momin =han7 the Mutsaddi and Eia =han7 the @iledar$ The @iledar was defeated and +eace was restored$&/ In .0.' during the Nia2at of 3aider @uli =han7 a trifling 8uarrel 2etween the soldiers of Safdar =han )a2i&& and 3aider @uli =han escalated into a 2attle while 2oth officers were encam+ed at %etlad for re-enue collection$ In this case Safdar =han )a2i was defeated and he fled seeking refuge with the =oli chief of Attarsum2a$&* The two were later reconciled through the inter-ention of the Diwan of %alan+ur$

Meanwhile7 the Maratha de+redations continued in the region$ Dhana Dadha-7 a Maratha sardar who had in-aded se-eral raids into southeast of u!arat in .0#67 continued with his +redatory acti-ities al2eit on a lower scale$ 3e continued to carry out u!arat7 mainly controlling the trade route from )urhan+ur to Surat and e9acting *handani from the cara-ans$ In .0.6 =hande (ao Da2hade7 a sardar acti-e in Mughal Deccan7 was a++ointed as the Sena+ati 2y (a!a Shahu$ 3e entrusted the charge of raiding settlement of chauth to =antha!i =adam )ande and Dama!i (ao u!arat and aekwad I7

and his ne+hew %ila!i (ao aekwad$ It was mainly %ila!i who made a lasting mark on the history of the region$ In .0.1 he +lundered the -illages around Surat entering South
42 43 44

u!arat form =handesh$ 3e succeeded in ca+turing

Son+ara within the !urisdiction of Tokruh7 South of Surat from a )hil

I2id$ %$ /** I2id$ %$ /6" Safdar =han )a2i was a++ointed as the Aau!dar of -arious areas in early .'th Century$ 3e also took i'ara of -arious %arganas$ It was the descendents of his family that later esta2lished the Nawa2is of Dunagadh and )alasinor$ #irat7 %+$ /'.,/'"$

45

29

30

Eamindar7 2uilt a fort and took u+ residence there$&6 The new fort came to 2e called Songadh7 which 2ecame the nucleus of the rise of aekwad rule in u!arat$ %ila!i gradually occu+ied the %arganas of Surat sarkar and 2uilt forts at =onde Ca!a+ur7 Sakul =had FSaekal =acha of AhwalG7 (u+gadh and Sadar )ehl and thus consolidated his +ower in the region$ 3e also 2efriended the (a!a of (a!+i+la and %anch Mahal$&0 The Nai2 Mutsaddi of Surat Shaikh,ul,Islam sent Mohammad %anah and Syed A8il =han to re+el %ila!i (ao$ They were7 howe-er7 defeated and Mohammad %anah was taken hostage and released su2se8uently on collection of ransom$ Since then %ila!i started making annual incursions dee+er into s+ectators$&' u!arat and the a++ointees at Surat7 with the e9ce+tion 2eing (ustam Ali =han7 remained merely +assi-e

3owe-er7 some s+oradic attem+ts were made 2y the Mughal Court to control the Maratha inroads7 which +ro-ed largely unsuccessful$ In .0.. Shahamat =han7 the Na4im successfully re+elled =hande (ao Da2hade6s attack on )haruch$&1 In .0.1 it was decided 2y the (oyal Court that *### sawar 2elonging to Mahara!a A2hay Singh must 2e maintained at Surat and another *### sawar were to 2e +osted at a distance of .* kurohs at the fords and +asses from the Deccan7 to sto+ the Marathas$*# The Diwan7 Nahir =han was ordered to march immediately to Surat with a ca-alry and infantry of /### each for the same +ur+ose$
46

47 48 49

50

#irat7 %$ *1.< -aroda State GaBetteer7 %$ &/'< Sara2hai Nagar7 )hwal@i@Gaekwad7 u!arat Cidya Sa2ha collection no$."17 f$*F2G$ #irat , %$ &.&< -aroda State GaBetteer7 %$ &/'< )hwal, f$*F2G$ )hwal,f$6FaG$ GaBetteer of the -ombay Presidency,Col$ I, o-ernment Central %ress7 )om2ay7 .'017 %$"11 #irat, %+$ /16,/10$

30

31

>ith the end of the Sayyid 2rothers6 hegemony at the Im+erial Court and the a++ointment of Ni4am,ul,Mulk to the >i4arat of the Em+ire7 3aider @uli =han was made the Na4im of u!arat F.0".G$ 3e a++ointed Shu!a5at u!arat$ A 2attle =han*. as his Nai2$ Arom this time the military struggle 2etween the outgoing and incoming Na4ims 2ecomes a feature in lasting for three days took +lace 2etween the Nai2,Na4ims7 Anu+ Singh Fand Nahir =han7 the Diwan7 2elonging to the same +artyG and Shu!a5at =han$ %eace was finally restored and Shu!a5at =han came in control of the administration$ )y this time one can see the rise of a new generation of Aau!dars who were locali4ed and distinguished themsel-es in -arious offices of the Su2ah$ The fact that they held I!ara of -arious +arganas only ga-e them greater sco+e to entrench themsel-es in the Su2ah$ The )a2is under Safdar =han )a2i and Dawan Mard =han I and Shu!a5at =han and his 2rothers are the two most noticea2le factions$ It was ine-ita2le that their interests should clash$ O-ert clash howe-er was a-erted since 2oth recei-ed +atronage of Mui4,ud,Daula 3aider @uli =han7 the Na4im of the Su2ah$

In .0"" 3aider @uli =han himself came to take control of the Su2ah$ According to the narration in the Mirat it seems that this no2le wanted to 2reakaway from the Im+erial control and his su2se8uent acti-ities also suggest the same$ 3owe-er7 to understand his 2eha-ior in the larger conte9t7 other contem+orary sources 2ecome useful$*" Originally Mohammad (e4a7 a
51

52

This Shu!a5at =han is to 2e distinguished from the earlier one who was a Na4im of u!arat under Aurang4e2$ Dadunath Sarkar7 The :ater #ughals, -ol$II7 Orient ;ongman7 fourth edition7 .1''$ It gi-es a succinct account of this no2le6s career taking information from -arious contem+orary %ersian sources$

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+rotJgJ of Mir Dumla7 he rose in Im+erial fa-our during the reign of Aarrukhsiyar$ 3e recei-ed the title of 3aider @uli =han and was a++ointed as Diwan of the Deccan %ro-inces$ 3e did not get on well with Ni4am,ul, Mulk7 then the Na4im of Deccan$ 3e came 2ack fuming$ In .0.0 3e was gi-en the Diwani of u!arat along with many other im+ortant offices$ This u!arat under their control$ 3aider @uli it seems was meant as a check u+on the com2ined +owers of the Sayyid 2rothers7 who held 2oth Deccan and of showed an increase in the re-enues of the Surat +ort and the khalsa mahals u!arat during his Diwani$ 3e was howe-er not +o+ular with the i'aradars of the region$*/ 3e also took an im+ortant +art in ousting the Sayyid 2rothers$ As a reward he was gi-en the +ost of Im+erial Mir Atish as also the Ni4amat of u!arat$ )etween the time of the fall of the Sayyids and Ni4am,ul,Mulk6s taking charge of the >i4arat7 3aider @uli 2ecame -ery influential at the (oyal Court$ 3e is said to ha-e commanded considera2le influence o-er the Em+eror$ Ni4am,ul,Mulk7 u+on his arri-al at Delhi u!arat Faround .0""G$ u!arat$ :+on his +rodded him to take direct charge of his Ni4amat in

This was the 2ackground for his su2se8uent actions in

arri-al in the region he started to confiscate the 'agirs gi-en to Im+erial Mansa2dars$ 3is 'agirs near Delhi were therefore confiscated as a +unishment$ 3e also sei4ed the Ara2 horses that were 2eing sent to the (oyal Court7 as also the wa4ifas7 etc7 and started granting 'agirs to +eo+le of his choice$ In short7 he dis+layed all signs of re2ellion$*& This 2rought Ni4am,ul,Mulk to son u!arat who had o2tained the Ni4amat of u!arat for his ha4i,ud,din =han$ 3earing of the Ni4am6s arri-al7 3aider @uli sought

to 2efriend the local no2les who were howe-er not +re+ared to desert the
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54

Shah Nawa4 =han and A2dul 3ayy7 #aathir@ul@4mra, FedG 3$)e-eridge and )aini %rasad7 Col$ I7 Calcutta7 .1&.$ %+$ 6##,6#.$ #irat7 %$ &#'< :ater #ughals7 II7 %+$ ."0,./#$

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Im+erial cause in his fa-our$ 3e therefore left for Delhi through an alternate route$ It seems that his re2ellion was not so much aimed against the Em+eror whose fa-our he en!oyed 2ut was against the rising +ower of the Ni4am$ This will e9+lain as to why he was acce+ted 2ack into the Im+erial fold without any reser-ation$

In the a2sence of any -ia2le arrangement to run the administration of the Su2ah firmly and the continuing +olitical u+hea-als7 the affairs in the +ro-ince ke+t on deteriorating$ During the .'th Century the +ractice of com2ining se-eral offices in one +erson that was first noticed in the later .0th Century 2ecame ram+ant$ 3aider @uli =han7 as mentioned earlier7 held simultaneous charges of %ro-incial Diwan7 Mutsaddi of Surat7 Diwani of =halsa lands7 Mutsaddi of Cam2ay7 Aau!dari of )aroda7 Nadot7 Arhar Matar7 forests of the 3a-eli pargana of Ahmeda2ad7 etc$** In .0.& Momin =han was a++ointed as the Mutsaddi of Surat7 Aau!dar of )aroda7 %argana of %etlad7 Dholka7 )haruch and Nadiad$*6 Nahir =han7 the confidant of A!it singh7 was a++ointed the Diwan of the Su2ah7 Darogha and =arori of =athra %archa7 offices of octroi duties7 Amin of the arrears of re-enues of Ahmeda2ad Su2ah7 Aau!dar of %etlad %argana and Dholka$ (uhulla =han7 his 2rother7 was gi-en the Nai2,Diwani$ Again in .0". 3aider @uli was a++ointed to the Aau!dari of =adi7 %atta Chunwal7 %argana of 3alwad7 Thanadari of Tharad7 (a!an+ur7 )hamu2i7 %etha+ur and =heralu7 in addition to the Diwani and Ni4amat of u!arat$ 3is relati-e Sherud,Din =han was a++ointed the )akshi and >a8ai,nawis$*0
55 56 57

#irat7 %$/60$ #irat, %$/6.$ #irat7 %$&#&$

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During this +eriod7 the nature of the office of Diwan was com+romised to a large e9tent lea-ing the Diwan ineffectual in the administration$ During the .0th century7 the +ro-incial Diwan was a++ointed 2y a royal order$ 3e had ci-il +owers and his duties included collection of re-enues from the =halsa Mahals and dues on charita2le endowments7 +ayment of salaries as +er rules and looking after financial matters relating to 'agir assignments$*' 3e was also re8uired to look after the general welfare of the ryots and encourage culti-ation< kee+ strict watch o-er the treasury and re+ort em2e44lement< sto+ collection of abwabs7 scrutini4e accountants7 reali4e Ta8awi7 etc$*1 In short7 the Diwan was a check on the +owers of the Na4im in a Su2ah$ During the .'th Century7 following the factional fights amongst the :mrahs and their attem+ts towards aggrandi4ing their own +osition7 the Na4im encroached u+on the +owers and resources of the Diwan$ It was in the Na4im that all the +owers came to 2e concentrated and the Diwani was relegated to a su2ordinate +osition$ )ait,ul,mal was remo-ed from the control of the Diwan and +ut under the control of the =otwal in the city and the Aau!dar,i, ard in case of Purahs$6# In the course of time the +ost of 2oth the offices came to 2e com2ined in either one +erson or one faction$ In .0.'7 as o2ser-ed earlier7 3aider @uli was made the Nai2, Na4im as well as the Diwan6. and in .0". when he was made the Na4im7 his son Dafar @uli was made the Diwan$ Mahara!a A2hay Singh a++ointed Anu+ Singh )handari as Nai2,Na4im and Nahir =han as Nai2,Diwan$ ;ater Shu!a5at =han was gi-en the 3iabat of 2oth Ni4amat and Diwani$
58 59 60 61

Syed Nawa2 Ali and C$N$Seddon7 #irat@i@)hmadi@Supplement7 )aroda7 .1"'7 +$.&'$ %$Saran7 Provincial Government under the #ughals, Allaha2ad7 .1&.7 %+$ .1.,.1"$ #irat, %$ &1#$ I2id$ %$/01$

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3owe-er it must 2e o2ser-ed that the +rocess of decline was not a linear one$ Attem+ts are also noticed in some cases to make the administration conform to the standard Mughal norms$ In .0.' a royal order was issued to Diwans of all Su2ahs to the effect that any ser-ant who was not +resent in his +lace of ser-ice and has a++ointed a gumashta instead was to 2e remo-ed from ser-ice$ During the wi4arat of Ni4am,ul,mulk7 as is well known7 attem+ts were made tighten the reins of administration in +ro-inces$ In .0"/ a royal order under the seal of the Ni4am was sent to the Diwan Aidwi =han remo-ing the =arora of the Na4im in the katra +archa and certain cesses such as the 5 ulak,i,Na4im6 were duly a2olished$6" In addition7 a >a8ai,nawis was a++ointed in such +laces where octroi was collected and also in the =utcheri of the +ro-incial Diwans$ It seems that a ta2 was sought to 2e ke+t on the Diwan6s office$6/

:+on his arri-al in the region in .0"/ to oust 3aider @uli =han the Ni4am a++ointed his own Nai27 3amid =han to take charge of the Su2ah$ 3amid =han was the uncle of the Ni4am$ )y .0"* howe-er the Ni4am went to Deccan and declared his inde+endence$ The ri-al +arty at the (oyal court under the leadershi+ of )urhan,ul,Mulk again a++ointed Sar2uland =han7 this time as the Na4im of ousting 3amid =han$ u!arat in +lace of ha4i,ud,din =han$ Sar2uland =han a++ointed Shu!a5at =han as his Nai2 and entrusted to him the task of

62 63

I2id$ %$&./$ I2id$ %$&./$

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Since this time the +rocess of Mughal decline took a different turn in the region$ In the su2se8uent e-ents the regional factional fights 2ecomes manifest$ The inclusion of the Marathas in the regional +olity added a new dimension leading closer towards the disintegration of the Su2ah$ The 2attle 2etween 3amid =han and Shu!a5at =han6s faction forms an im+ortant cha+ter in the history of .'th century u!arat$ Shu!a5at =han7 along with his 2rothers7 had emerged as a +owerful grou+ in the region7 2y this time$6& To oust 3amid =han from the Su2ah and there2y reducing Ni4am6s stake in the region7 Shu!a5at =han a++lied for financial aid from the Im+erial Court and he was sanctioned (s$/ lakhs that was to 2e defrayed from the re-enues of Surat +ort$6* 3amid =han on the other hand allied with =antha!i =adam )ande through the manoeu-res of the Ni4am$66 =antha!i was +romised the chauth of u!arat for his su++ort in regaining the Su2ah from Shu!a5at =han$ In the 2attle that followed7 Shu!a5at =han was killed$ Aollowing the death of Shu!a5at =han the Marathas entered the city of Ahmeda2ad for the first time$ 6hauth 2elonging to =antha!i was fi9ed in all the #ahals of the city$60 As the news of the death of Shu!a5at =han S+read7 the Marathas came to the region in hoards$ I2rahim @uli7 the younger 2rother of Shu!a5at =han7 attacked 3amid =han in his house and in the ensuing scuffle7 lost his life$6'
64

65 66 67 68

It will not 2e out of +lace here to take a 2rief look at the fortunes of this family that +layed an im+ortant +art in sha+ing the history of this region at this im+ortant !uncture$ Early in the century a Aau!dar 2y the name of @asim )eg had earned fame in the region through his e9+loits against the kolis$ 3e howe-er was killed while fighting the kolis of Mun!+ur in )aroda sarkar$Two other 2rothers of @asim 2eg were similarly killed while in royal ser-ice$ 3is other 2rothers and sons were +atroni4ed 2y 3aider @uli =han$ Masum @uli7 later Shu!a5at =han comes to notice when he ousted the Marwari Nai2 of Mahara!a A2hay Singh from the Aau!dari of Sorath for 3aider @uli$ 3e was also a++ointed as the Nai2,Na4im 2y 3aider @uli in .0". who held on to the Su2ah 2y ousting the Marwari faction$ 3e along with his 2rothers I2rahim @uli =han and (ustam Ali =han had earned much fame es+ecially in fighting the Marathas$ They also held I!ara of -arious +laces at different +oints of time$ #irat, %$ &.0$ I2id$ %$&.0$ I2id$ %$&"/$ #irat, %$ &"*$

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(ustam Ali =han7 who was then the Mutsaddi of Surat and was successful in containing %ila!i (ao aekwad6s acti-ities7 came to know of the death of his 2rothers$ 3e immediately called for a truce with %ila!i and entered into an agreement with him where2y %ila!i agreed to hel+ (ustam Ali =han in fighting 3amid =han$ 3owe-er7 %ila!i7 who could +ercei-e (ustam Ali =han as his ri-al as the latter had single handedly sto++ed %ila!i6s inroads in the -icinity of Surat7 secretly allied himself with 3amid =han$ (ustam Ali too was killed in the ensuing 2attle with 3amid =han$ 3amid =han took control of Ahmeda2ad in the name of the Ni4am$ As +er agreement made earlier with the Marthas7 3amid =han agreed that %ila!i 2e allowed to collect the chauth on the south of the Mahi (i-er61 com+rising the districts of Nandod7 Cham+aner7 )aroda7 )roach7 Surat sarkars7 and =antha!i was to collect the chauth of sarkars to the north of the Mahi (i-er$0#

The -ictory of 3amid =han was howe-er short,li-ed$ :+on the recei+t of the news of the death of Shu!a5at =han and his 2rothers7 Sar2uland =han was sent 2y the Em+eror to take charge of the Ni4amat of u!arat$ The news of his ha-ing reached the 2orders of the Su2ah em2oldened the Aau!dars of the Su2ah and they o+enly came out against 3amid =han$ Sardar Mohammad =han horni7 the fau'dar of =alol F.& kos from Ahmeda2adG7 closed the gates of the town against 3amid =han and =antha!i com2ine< the latter was on way to the region to collect the chauth and peshkash$ Shaikh
69 70

In-aria2ly referred to as 5this side of Mahi6 and 5that side of Mahi6 in the contem+orary %ersian sources$ )hwal7 f$0F2G$

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Illah Kar7 along with others7 held out Ahmeda2ad against 3amid =han0. who was left with little choice 2ut to lea-e for Deccan along with =antha!i$0" Sar2uland =han took control of the Su2ah$

The Marathas howe-er +ersisted in their endea-our to make chauth collection in u!arat$ :+on reaching the region7 Sar2uland =han commissioned his son =hana4ad =han to tackle the Marathas$ %ila!i and =antha!i made Ali Mohan Fofficial Mughal names for Chota :dai+ur and De-gadh )ariyaG in the east their 2ase and started +lundering north and central u!arat well u+ to Dholka7 Dhandhuka andCiramgam$ In order to thwart the efforts of Mughal officers 2oth the Maratha sardars started creating distur2ances in different areas at the same time$ Ainding the Marathas undaunted7 Sar2uland =han agreed in .0"6 to =antha!i6s claim of 6hauth on the north of Mahi e9ce+t %argana 3a-eli Ahmeda2ad and the Ahmeda2ad city$0/ In .0"0 a third faction of the Marathas entered the region$ )a!i (ao %eshwa sent :da!i %owar as his re+resentati-e on the in-itation of Sar2uland =han$ The rift 2etween the %eshwa and the Sena+ati Triam2ak (ao Da2hade in the wake of the rising +ower of the %eshwa was common knowledge$ Through this ste+7 the Na4im sought to undermine the +ower of =antha!i and %ila!i who were the re+resentati-es of the Maratha Sena+ati Da2hade$ 3owe-er7 no agreement could 2e reached immediately$0& In .0"1 an agreement finally was reached where2y the %eshwa was 2ound to oust 2oth %ila!i and =antha!i from
71 72 73 74

u!arat and he would in return get the sole

rights of chauth in the region$ It seems that the Im+erial Court did not
#irat, %$ &&#$ I2id$ %$&&"$ I2id$ %$&&0$ I2id$ %$&**$

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welcome this arrangement made 2y Sar2uland =han and he was su2se8uently recalled from u!arat$

Mahara!a A!it Singh7 son of A2hay Singh re+laced Sar2uland =han as the 3aBim$ 3owe-er7 A!it Singh followed the +olicy of his +redecessor and honoured the agreement reached 2etween the earlier 3aBim and the %eshwa$ The latter arri-ed near Ahmeda2ad to undertake the o+erations +ersonally against %ila!i7 who had 2y then occu+ied )aroda$ The %eshwa7 along with Mughal officers7 laid siege to )aroda$ 3owe-er7 the siege had to 2e lifted as Ni4am,ul,Mulk7 who was then a confederate of the Sena+ati in the Deccan7 came close on the %eshwa6s heel$ The whole e9ercise thus remained inconclusi-e$ A year later7 the %eshwa killed the Sena+ati =hande (ao Da2hade in the )attle of )hilu+ur Fsituated near Ahmeda2adG$ :ma2ai Da2hade7 the mother of the infant Kashwant (ao Da2hade7 the new Sena+ati took control as the regent$ She made %ila!i (ao aekwad the sole incharge of chauth collection in u!arat$ This alarmed the Na4im7 A!it Singh$ In .0/" through an intrigue he got %ila!i murdered in his tent while the latter was on way to the north of region for collection of chauth. A!it Singh immediately crossed the Mahi (i-er and reoccu+ied )aroda and laid siege to Da2hoi7 2ut failed to occu+y it$ 3e succeeded in +ushing the Marathas out of the region7 though tem+orarily$ The Marathas came 2ack in .0// once again7 under the leadershi+ of :ma2ai Da2hade7 the regent to the infant Sena+ati7 who +lundered and +illaged the -icinity of Ahmeda2ad$ The Na4im A!it Singh was left with little choice 2ut to settle chauth for the year with the Marathas$ A *handani of '#7### was +aid and +eace was concluded$0* Since then such
75

I2id$ %$*#0$

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Maratha e9+editions 2ecame an annual affair in this +art of the region as well$

In .0/* )aroda was retaken 2y the Marathas under Mahma!i7 2rother of %ila!i7 from Sher =han )a2i$ Around the same time Dama!i7 son of %ila!i was a++ointed the de+uty 2y :ma2ai and was assigned the sole charge of collection of chauth of u!arat$ 3e sent (enko!i to the region north of Mahi (i-er as his Nai2$ =antha!i resented this and had to 2e defeated at Anand Moghri$ Since then =antha!i is not to 2e seen in u!arat6s +olitics any more$ Around this time7 (enko!i7 with the conni-ance of the desai of the +lace7 ca+tured pargana Ciramgam7 a fertile area that was +art of the =ahlsa mahal$ Ciramgam was also strategically im+ortant since it was through this +lace that Sorath or the %eninsular u!arat could 2e reached$ (atan Singh )handari7 the Nai2 of the Mahara!a who administered the region was known for 2eing o++ressi-e$ )esides7 he also could not get on well with the local officers$ A disagreement with Momin =han +rom+ted Momin =han to cons+ire against the Mahara!a A!it Singh at the Im+erial Court$ 3e o2tained a sanad to oust the Nai27 (atan Singh )handari from Ahmeda2ad and take control as the Na4im himself$ 3e sought (enko!i6s aid for this and agreed to share half the re-enues of the Su2ah e9ce+t that of the city and pargana 3a-eli Ahmeda2ad and the +ort of Cam2ay$ ;ater7 he also agreed to share the re-enues of 3a-eli pargana and e9change the full re-enues of Ciramgam pargana in lieu of Cam2ay$06 In .0/6,/07 after a year long siege7 Ahmada2ad finally fell into the hands of Na!m,ud,Daula Momin =han I$ This was the 2eginning of the !oint Mughal,Maratha rule in the region$00 The
76 77

I2id$ %$*&.$ I2id$ %$*06$

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%ost Momin =han %hase was wrought with factional fights 2etween the local officers for the +ost of Ni4amat and the Im+erial court ceased to +lay any decisi-e role in the +olitics of dis+lay of so-ereign +ower$ u!arat$ The Court well u+ to .0*" made s+oradic attem+ts to a++oint Na4ims 2ut it was more of a ritual than a

In the rest of the Su2ah as well the disintegration of Im+erial Mughal authority had 2egun simultaneously$ At Surat since the death of (ustam Ali =han7 his son Sohra2 =han7 entitled )ehram =han7 continued to rule as the 5Nawa267 inde+endent of Ahmada2ad$ The Im+erial attem+ts at re+lacing him7 first with Mustafid =han and then Momin =han were fruitless$ Surat chalked out its own history since then$ In .0/.7 while Ni4am,ul,Mulk was encam+ed in the -icinity of Surat ha-ing followed )a!i (ao %eshwa7 A2dullah )eg7 the Aau!dar of )haruch7 a++ointed earlier 2y Mu2ari4,ul, Mulk Sar2uland =han7 a++roached the Ni4am and o2tained a sanad acknowledging A2dullah )eg as his de+uty$ 3e was also gi-en the title of Nek Alam =han$ The Sarkar of )haruch consisting of the parganas of )haruch7 Amod7 Ankleshwar7 3ansot7 Dam2usar and Ol+ad was the +ersonal 'agir of the Ni4am$0' E-en after the Ni4am6s withdrawal from the Im+erial ca+ital his 'agirs were not confiscated$ Thus7 the Nawa2i of )haruch was formed although it was much later F.0*'G7 under Nek Nam =han II that a formal sanad was o2tained from the Court for the Nawa2i$ As already seen7 )aroda7 Da2hoi7 Cham+aner7 Ciramgam7 etc had fallen under Maratha control$ Although Cam2ay was not inde+endent7 it was marked out as Momin =han6s +ersonal s+here from around .0/#6s7 as seen in the terms of
78

I2id$ %$&'*$

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agreement reached 2etween (enko!i and Momin =han in the sharing of Su2ah$ In the %eninsula of u!arat it was only in .0&0 that Sher =han )a2i7 titled as )ahadur =han formed the Dunagadh Nawa2i$ )ut Mughal authority in the +eninsula started declining early in the century$ This was largely unchecked due to the +reoccu+ations of the officers with the mainland$ The authority of the Aau!dar of Sorath came to 2e confined to the area called 5New Sorath6$01 )y .0"0 the Aau!dar entirely lost control of the thanas$ The thanadars of Mangrol7 =utiana7 :na,Delwada7 Sutra+ada7 Somnath,%atan7 etc 2ecame inde+endent$'# Nawanagar7 the 2iggest peshkashi Bamindari in the %eninsula was included in the Im+erial =halsa in the last 8uarter of the .0th Century 2y Aurang4e2$ It 2ecame inde+endent soon after Aurang4e26s death$ The Dethwa chief7 a bantha FwantaG holder of Chhaya occu+ied %or2andar7 a rich +ort town on the southern most ti+ of the %eninsula and started asserting himself in this area$ Similarly7 the ohel chief of Sihor7 a small chieftain to the southeast of the %eninsula founded the )ha-nagar +ort and made it his ca+ital in .0"/$ It was these chieftains who e9+anded their s+heres of acti-ity in the course of the century and 2ecame decisi-e in the new +ower Structure in their res+ecti-e localities$ Thus7 2y .0&# the last -estiges of the effecti-e Mughal authority were com+letely lost and a new +ower structure was taking its +lace$

79 80

M$ S$ Commissariate7 "istory of Gu'arat7 II7 Ahmeda2ad7 .1'#7 %$&//$ I2id$

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THE NEW POWER STRUCTURE

The disintegration of the Mughal Em+ire in

u!arat led to the gradual

emergence of -arious inde+endent +olitical entities in the region$ The

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com+osition and structure of each +olity differed from the other in many res+ects$ 3owe-er7 there were certain characteristics that were common in the entire region$ These features are to 2e seen as a natural outcome of a situation calling for realignment at the +olitical le-el$ The newly emergent +olities hardly had any control o-er these factors?elements$ They lacked the necessary administrati-e a++aratus to +ut into force a more feasi2le alternati-e$ The +erennial want of resources e9+erienced 2y these +olities was an added hurdle$ >e ha-e seen in the earlier cha+ter that the effecti-e Mughal authority had declined 2y a2out the middle of .0/#6s$ The +er-asi-e +resence of the Marathas was felt 2y their occu+ation of Da2hoi7 )aroda7 Cham+aner7 Ciramgam and settlement of regular Chauth in )haruch7 Cam2ay and Surat$ In .0/0,/' the Su2ah came to 2e administered !ointly 2y the Mughals and the Marathas$ In .0*' Ahmada2ad came under firm authority of the %eshwa6s officers there2y esta2lishing Maratha rule in the region of u!arat$ :nder the -arious Sarsubahdars'. after .0*' the smaller (a!+ut and =oli chiefs to the North and North,east of the region were su2dued and a claim to Salami or 4dhad +amabandi&E was esta2lished 2y the Marathas$ Similarly7 in Saurashtra the Marathas could esta2lish a right to tri2ute from the Chieftains called khandani$ The decline of the Mughal authority7 the su2se8uent rise of the new +olitical entities and the esta2lishment of Maratha rule in the region led to the emergence of a num2er of +ower wielders at the local le-el$ In the following +ages we will trace the fortunes of these local +otentates in -arious +arts of u!arat$
81 82

(e+resentati-es of the %eshwa7 similar to Mughal Na4im$ >alter 3amilton7 ,escription of "indostan, ) General, Statistical and "istorical ,escription of "indostan and the ad'acent 6ountries, Col$ I7 Delhi7 .10.7 %$ 6#0$

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SAURASHTRA The %eninsula of u!arat known in the Mughal sources as Sorath

com+rised mainly of the Sarkar 2y the same name and some other %eshkashi Eamindaris and -antha FwantaG holding chiefdoms$ E9ce+t for the Sorath sarkar7 with Dunagadh as its ca+ital7 other areas in Saurashtra were not administered directly 2y the Mughals e-en in the .0th Century$ The decline of the Mughal +ower 2rought definite changes in the +ower relations of this su2,region as well$ Since .0"" the Maratha incursions into Saurashtra had started on a regular 2asis$ In the initial stages the Marathas did gain a foothold here 2ut later they could only collect the tri2ute through the Mulkgiri e9+editions$ The si4e of Sorath sarkar was reduced 2y .0"0 as the 2au'dars of Sorath lost control o-er the outlying thanas$ The fre8uent change of fau'dars in the su2se8uent years and their ina2ility to crystalli4e their hold o-er this fau'dari led to a situation of chaos$ The only Mughal fau'dar ca+a2le of administering the area effecti-ely was Sher =han )a2i$ 3e was conse8uently made the 3aib@fau'dar of the region in .0"0 2y hulam Muhiyuddin =han7 who succeeded as fau'dar after the death of his father7 Asad =han$'/ Sher =han was also gi-en the I'ara of the +lace for (s$'#7 ###'&$ In .0/# Mir Ismail re+laced Sher =han )a2i$'* ;ater7 )ehram =han7 on 2eing ousted from Surat7 was a++ointed to the fau'dari of Sorath re+lacing Mir Ismail$ 3e was also gi-en the additional charge of Ciramgam for the +ossession of which he had to contest with the Nai2,3aBim7 (atan
83 84

85

#irat7 %$ /*&$ (anchod!i Amar!i7 Tarikh@i@Sorath7 tranls$ E$ (ehatsek7 ;ondon7 .''"7 %$./&$ In case of .'th Century the official word 3aib in-aria2ly im+lied taking of the +ost on i'ara$ #irat, P.&61$

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Singh )handari$ 3e therefore left Syed A8il =han as his Nai2 at Dunagadh and went to Ciramgam$ In the 2attle that ensued7 )ehram =han was killed$ 3i42ar =han was then a++ointed as the fau'dar of Dunagadh around .0&# and he ga-e the Nia2at to Mir Dost5Ali =han$ 3owe-er7 Mir Dost =han and Sadi8 =han7 the !oint fau'dars of the +lace could not manage its affairs$ The ryots and the ,esais of the +lace7 therefore7 sent one Dal+at (am7 who was the vakil of the Ara2 sibandis7 to 2ring Sher =han )a2i to Dunagadh$'6 The #irat attri2utes Mir Dost Ali6s ina2ility to +ay his soldiers as the reason for the recall of Sher =han )a2i$ Sher =han )a2i took o-er the administration from Mir Dost Ali$ It seems that Sher =han )a2i could gain local su++ort i$e$7 from the ryots and desais 2ecause he took the i'ara of this area se-eral times in the +ast7 2oth from the Mughal Su2ahdars and the Marathas$ 3e is also said to ha-e conducted re-enue settlements of the region +rior to the collection of peshkash 2y the 3aBim of Ahmada2ad$ 3e also used to 2e the surety holder for the re-enue +ayments of the local Bamindars of Sorath as well as mainland u!arat$'0 Sher =han assumed the title of 5)ahadur =han6 and 2ecame the first Nawa2 of Dunagadh in .0&0$ The +ower grou+s at Dunagadh com+rised of the Sayyids7 Nagars and the @as2atis$ Amongst these7 the Sayyids and Nagars were e9em+t from +ayment of Bakat.'' The only other grou+ e9em+t from Bakat was of the Sipahis.'1 The Sayyids7 )okhari and @adiri7 were waBifadars of the Sultans and their grants were renewed 2y the Mughals$ )y the .'th Century they seem to ha-e assumed 4amindari rights in Sorath$ They are said to ha-e
86 87 88 89

Tarikh@i@sorath7 %$./1$ I2id$ %$./'$ I2id$ %$//$ Si+ahis were originally Afghans and were in the +rofession of soldiery$ They were gi-en small land grants 2y the u!arat Sultans in this area and in course of time7 they 2ecame well entrenched in the region$

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e9+elled the >aghelas7 the original 4amindars of Mangrol and occu+ied it themsel-es$1# They had also held land in =odinar and =utiana in waBifa. At =utiana the Sayyids had 2uilt two stone forts in the wake of the distur2ances in the early .'th Century and 2ecame inde+endent of Dunagadh fau'dar$ These in-ited Niamat =han ;odi to administer the +lace$ 3owe-er7 later they ousted him and in-ited (ana Surtan!i of %or2andar for the same$ Still later 3ashim =han7 the ado+ted son of )ahadur =han )a2i was called in$ It was from him that Diwan Amar!i wrested this +lace and included it into Dunagadh6s +ossession$1. The ne9t im+ortant grou+ was of the @as2atis$ The definition of the @as2atis is not a-aila2le in our sources$ Neither is their origin s+ecified$ >hat seems definite is that this was a section of the indigenous +o+ulation residing in the @as2as with soldiery as their +rofession$ The @as2atis of Dholka were well known$ %rof$ S$C$Mishra says that the @as2atis were an agrarian community similar to irasias and concedes that their origin is du2ious$1" @as2atis in the .'th century had emerged as a +ower grou+ in many of the ma!or ur2an centers and fortified towns$ There seems to ha-e 2een a constant tussle 2etween the Sayyid >a4ifadars and the @as2atis to take control of the fortifications in this su2,region$ This is 2orne 2y se-eral instances$ At Mangrol7 Shaikh Mian7 the son of @a4i Aakhrud,din7 a Syed7 ousted the %eshwa6s thanadar Dadha- Daswant in .0&' and took control of the fort and the pargana of Mangrol$ 3is main su++orters were the %atani, @as2atis1/ of Mangrol$ 3e later ousted the .asbatis from this +lace and ruled
90 91 92 93

Tarikh@i@sorath7 %$ *"$ I2id$ %+$ &1,*#$ S$C$Mishra7 #uslim 6ommunities in Gu'arat, "nd Edition7 .1'*7 New Delhi7 %+$FE,0/$ According to the Tarikh@i@Sorath %atanis were @as2atis con-erted to Islam$ This im+lies that not all @as2atis were Muslims as suggested 2y the )ritish sources$

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inde+endently and for this the latter nursed a grudge against him$1& In .00#, 0. ;atif Mian another Sayyid from Delwada con8uered :na from the @as2atis of that +lace$ 3owe-er7 later7 due to Amar!i6s interference the +lace was restored to the @as2atis$1* The Nagars who held the desaigiri rights in the Mangrol pargana7 as elsewhere in Saurashtra7 had emerged as the third most im+ortant +ower grou+ during this +eriod$ The Nagars were thus an influential grou+ and therefore any one who wanted to consolidate his +osition in the region tried to 2efriend them and seek their hel+$16 The Nagars had come to hold im+ortant administrati-e +ositions in the administration of the .'th Century +rinci+alities of u!arat7 es+ecially 2ecause of their fluency with %ersian and Marathi languages$10 The Nagars e9+anded their +ower under the tutelage of the Diwan of Dunagadh7 (anchod!i Amar!i in Dunagadh$ 3e single handedly e9+anded the +ossessions of this Nawa2i during the +eriod after )ahadur =han$ )ahadur =han )a2i ruled o-er the much,reduced area of Sorath and tried to e9+and his +rinci+ality and con8uered the fort of Cera-al with the su++ort of Niamat =han ;odhi$ 3e was7 howe-er7 too +reoccu+ied with the affairs of mainland as he was holding )alasinor$ Due to this reason he remained away from Sorath for long and his wi-es looked after Dunagadh6s administration$ Conse8uently7 after his death in .0*' the sta2ility of the kingdom was ad-ersely affected$ Many of Sorath6s areas were encroached u+on 2ecause of the e9+ansionist acti-ities of the wanta chieftains of %or2andar7
94 95 96 97

ondal7 )ha-nagar and Nawanagar while the outlying thanas of

Tarikh@i@Sorath7 %+$ */ L 66$ I2id$ %$0'$ I2id$.&6$ C$($Naik7 Gu'arat ma 3agaron nu 2arsi -hasha ane sahityanu *hedan, Ahmeda2ad7 .1*#7 +assim$

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Mangrol7 Cera-al7 =utiana7 :na,Delwada7 Amreli7 etc were se+arated from Dunagadh7 the thanadars declaring their inde+endence$ New forts like Sutra+ada7 3irakot7 Dhamle!7 ;odhwa7 %ushna-ara7 ;athi7 etc came u+ as sym2ols of assertion of inde+endence 2y different +ower grou+s in res+ecti-e regions$1' It was under these conditions that Amar!i came to control the affairs of Dunagadh$ The Marathas were le-ying tri2ute on all the +rinci+alities here since .0"&,"* e9ce+t for Dunagadh$ In =odinar the Marathas o2tained *#I of the re-enue 2ut Amar!i succeeded in re+elling them and fi9ed the %eshkash of this +lace at (s$ *###$11 At Mangrol the %eshwa had esta2lished a Thana around .0/0$ 3owe-er7 the Bamindars of the pargana migrated from the region to Dunagadh and ad!oining areas as a result of the harassment from Nai2 Nata!i7 the Nai2 of the %eshwa$ .## The Musalmans and the Dats were also harassed on account of the ekadashi and Monday fasting7 +ossi2ly forcing a shut down of 2usiness on these days$ These factors were res+onsi2le for Shaikh Mian6s success in the con8uest of Mangrol in .0&' and e9+elling of the Maratha ruler$.#. Amar!i had come to Dunagadh at the head of a 2and of Ara2 si2andis and offered to con8uer the fort of Cerawal from Shaikh Mian of Mangrol who had taken it from Sultana )i2i7 aunt of the Nawa2$ 3e was .' years old then$ The new Nawa27 Maha2at =han agreed to take him into ser-ice if he could accom+lish the a2o-e task$ Aollowing his success in this -enture7 he was em+loyed7 although he was not gi-en the charge of the #ulki or re-enue and Dudiciary de+artments immediately$.#" It was only after the fort of Tala!a
98 99 100 101 102

Tarikh@i@sorath7 %$6&$ I2id$ %$00$ I2id$ %$*"$ I2id$%+$ *",*/$ I2id$ %$.&'$

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was con8uered in .00. 2y the !oint forces of the )ritish East India Com+any7 )ha-nagar chief7 the Nawa2 of Cam2ay and Amar!i from Dunagadh that he was gi-en the insignia of the Diwan like palki7 etc$.#/ Aollowing this he made many con8uests in the +eninsula adding to Dunagadh6s +ossessions$ Amar!i con8uered Sutra+ada from Chand @as2ati7 a %atani @as2ati$ =utiana was also con8uered from 3ashim =han 2efore (ana Surtan!i of %or2andar could +urchase it through an intrigue$.#& 3e also attacked Mangrol and could fi9 half the share of its re-enue as the Nawa26s share$.#* The !oint forces of Amar!i and Mehraman =hawas of Nawanagar reduced the +ort of Okha$.#6 In .00&,0* the tri2ute of Dhalawad was fi9ed$.#0 Diwan Amar!i thus stood out as the most im+ortant +erson in the state$ 3e consolidated his +osition also 2ecause the successi-e Nawa2s of Dunagadh7 Maha2at =han and 3amid =han were 2oth of a weak dis+osition$ During this +eriod7 the Amar!i asserted his +osition and +laced his own trusted +eo+le at im+ortant +ositions$ The 2rothers7 sons and other close relati-es of the Diwan 2elonging to the Nagar caste7 wielded the real +owers in the state$ The Ara2 Si2andis who were em+loyed since earliest times 2y Amar!i also remained his confidants$ The name of one Salim Damadar amongst his main su++orters a++ears fre8uently Another reason for Amar!i6s im+ortance was that he also en!oyed the trust of the Marathas$ A2urai Mahi+atrai7 the sarsubah of Ahmada2ad7 entrusted Amar!i the work of re-enue collection of the share of the
103 104 105 106 107

I2id$%+$ .*#,.*.$ I2id$ %$.*#$ I2id$%$.*"$ I2id$%+$.*1,.6#$ I2id$%$.6#$

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Marathas$.#' In s+ite of this7 Amar!i continued to o++ose the Marathas whene-er the interests of Dunagadh were in-ol-ed$ In .000 one Diwa!i Shamra!7 de+uty of Aatehsing aekwad7 occu+ied the fort of Amreli$ 3e tried to esta2lish an inde+endent rule there$ Amar!i attacked him and destroyed the fort of Amreli and e9+elled the Maratha sardar from Saurashtra$.#1 Aollowing this incident Aatehsing in-aded the +eninsula 2ut 2efore military confrontation could 2egin7 the -arious chieftains 2rought a2out an agreement and +resents were e9changed 2etween Amar!i and Aatehsing$ In .000 also Aatehsing could not le-y any tri2ute in Saurashtra 2ecause of Amar!i$..# Similarly Amar!i could defeat Amrit (ai and Tho2an7 %eshwa6s re+resentati-es at a2out the same time$... The Diwan7 in the +rocess of e9+anding his +ower also made many enemies$ The ondal Chief Dade!a =um2ha!i was chief amongst them$ 3e was an energetic ruler with a small area of authority in the northwest of Dunagadh$ 3e as+ired to e9+and his +ossessions at the e9+ense of Dunagadh$ 3e was a man of resources and constantly intrigued against the Diwan$ Mehraman =hawas7 the Diwan of Nawanagar was another of Amar!i6s enemies$ (ana Surtan!i of %or2andar and Shaikh Mian of Mangrol7 as also (a!a >akhatsinh held grudge against him$ They had reali4ed that so long as Amar!i was at the helm of affairs at Dunagadh7 they would not 2e a2le to achie-e their am2itions in the region$ Therefore they indulged in intrigues to remo-e him$ The nature of dealings 2etween the Nawa2 and Amar!i also contri2uted in the 2reach of relations 2etween them$ Amar!i6s family was
108 109 110 111

Tarikh@i@Sorath7%$.6.$ I2id$ %+$ .6/,.6&< D$>$>atson FedG7Statistical )ccount of +unagadh7 )om2ay7 .''/7 %$&#$ Statistical account of +unagadh7 %+$ &#,&.$ I2id$ %+$ /1,&#$

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amongst the desais of Mangrol pargana and they were resourceful and +owerful7 as noticed 2efore$ They also took I'aras of -arious +laces7 which was +ractically +er+etual$ )eing a man of resources7 Amar!i7 the Diwan used to gi-e loans to the Nawa2 as the latter was always in need of money$ In the course of time the Nawa2 had a huge de2t to +ay to Amar!i and had mortgaged re-enues of -arious +laces to him$ Amar!i was the 2eneficiary at the e9+ense of the Nawa2$ In addition to this7 the Ara2 sibandis who were largely em+loyed in this chieftaincy7 were defrayed their salaries 2y the Diwan who also acted as their Cakil$ The sibandis therefore7 +aid direct allegiance to him and not to the Nawa2$ :nder these situations the intriguers succeeded in +reci+itating a conflict 2etween the Nawa2 and Diwan Amar!i and Nawa2 Maha2at =han assassinated Amar!i in .0'&$ The mem2ers of Amar!i6s family were im+risoned$ Immediate to this e-ent7 the Nawa2 le-ied 4akat on the Nagars and collected considera2le amount of money$ The Nawa27 howe-er7 could not rea+ the 2enefits of his act$ The Marathas7 Aatehsing aekwad and (u+a!i Sindhia7 on 2ehalf of the %eshwa inter-ened as o-erlords and restored Amar!i6s sons to +ower$ The Nawa2 had to grant immunity to Amar!i6s family as a +rice for Amar!i6s assassination$ The outstanding +ayments of the late Diwan 2y the Nawa2 had amounted to a sum of 6# lakhs of Dam =odis$ It was agreed that the parganas of :na7 Delwada7 Mangrol7 Sil and Dilwasa were to 2e mortgaged to his family 2y the Nawa2 until the li8uidation of the a2o-e de2t with interest$ )esides this7 the Nawa2 also had to cede four -illages of 3alyad7 )hansan7 Antaroli and Akhodar as com+ensation for the murder of the Diwan$ In addition to that7 the children of the Diwan were to recei-e * -illages each from Mangrol and Sutra+ada
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res+ecti-ely$.." (aghunath!i and Dula2!i7 sons of Amar!i7 were also a++ointed !ointly as Diwans$ Their +osition was howe-er not sta2le as the Nawa2 continued to hold grudge against them7 and their re+resentati-es who administered the fortifications under Dunagadh6s authority were ousted one 2y one 2y the Nawa2$ They had to lea-e Dunagadh later and found em+loyment in Nawanagar for some years$ They had to 2e recalled 2y the Nawa2 found it difficult to manage financial affairs$ The relations 2etween the Nawa2 and the Diwan 2rothers continued to 2e conflict ridden$ >ith the death of Dula2!i the +ower of the Diwan family was greatly reduced$ (aghunath!i continued to function as the Diwan well u+ to the end of 3amid =han6s reign 2ut could not e9ercise much hold o-er the Nawa2 as his late father$ >ith the succession of )ahadur =han II in .'.* :mar Mukhasan7 an Ara2 Damadar7 2ecame all,+owerful at Dunagadh$ (aghunath!i 8uit the office of the Diwan 2ecause of a fall,out with the regent,mother of the new Nawa2$ She had ke+t him out of the re-enue settlement made with the English East India Com+any$ >ith the coming of the )ritish7 the +ower relations in the region underwent a change$ :mar Mukhasan Damadar was soon ousted from Dunagadh7 and (aghunath!i7 who was seen as a threat to the e9ercise of )ritish influence at Dunagadh7 was also ke+t out of Dur2ar affairs$ Sunder!i Shi-!i7 a horse trader from =utch7 on the recommendation of Ca+tain )allantine7 the officer in charge of =athiawad affairs was a++ointed the Diwan of Dunagdh$ It was Sunder!i Shi-!i who made o-er Dunagadh6s Mulkgiri rights in Dhalawad to the )ritsh through an agreement$ ;ater7 the fortification of =utiana7 which was considered a right of the Amar!i family7 was taken away from (aghunath!i and handed o-er to the +rotJgJ of the )ritish$
112

aekwad7 a

I2id$ %+$ .0&,.0*$

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At the lower le-el a constant struggle 2etween %or2andar and Mangrol was going on during this +eriod$ Shaikh Mian of Mangrol6s resources +ro-ed to 2e inade8uate and he used to occasionally raid the =athiawad area and carry away cattle from that region so that he could +ay salaries to his soldiers$ 3e also le-ied tri2ute on =eshod7 Chorwad7 =odinar7 %atan and %or2andar$../ Similarly7 the chieftain of %or2andar too collected tri2ute from -illages 2elonging to Mangrol$ )ha-nagar and Nawanagar7 on the other hand7 e9+anded their s+heres of authority after Amar!i6s death$ This was made +ossi2le7 as the aekwad chieftaincy had 2ecome la9 in asserting its authority on this region following its own internal +ro2lems$ The Maratha *handani had fallen into arrears of +ast se-eral years$ The situation was fa-oura2le for 2oth )ha-nagar and Nawanagar chieftains to e9+and their territories at the e9+ense of their neigh2ours7 the =athis and their own -hayad$ The increased +ower of the )ha-nagar chieftain could 2e gauged from the fact that he could successfully defy the aekwad Mulkgiri army under Shi-ram ardi in the last years of the .'th Century$ This tendency of encroachments and e9+ansion at the cost of each other 2y the chieftain6s of Saurashtra ended when the )ritish were a2le to enforce their re-enue settlements in the region$

HEREDITARY SUPERIOR RIGHT HOLDERS

113

I2id$ %$*/

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During the .'th Century7 following the distur2ed conditions7 the 2alance in the agrarian relationshi+s 2rought a2out under the Mughals was distur2ed to a great e9tent$ Anyone who was in a +osition to gain an ad-antage attem+ted to augment his resources and +ower at the e9+ense of the other$ In these anarchic conditions in-aria2ly the hereditary su+erior right holders 2enefited the most$ These su+erior right holders had accumulated wealth from the 2eginning of the century$ Amongst them the desai were the most im+ortant$ Many of the desais had 2een holding i'ara of lands during this +eriod and hence they were a well,entrenched section of agrarian society of the time$ )y -irtue of he 2eing in,charge of the pargana the desai had access to the real state of the 'ama7 the methods of assessment and collection in the pargana and such details that were useful to the new rulers7 the Marathas$ The su++ort of the desais7 therefore7 2ecame e9tremely im+ortant for the Marathas$

These landed elements +layed a +i-otal role in the emergence of se-eral inde+endent +olitical entities as well$ In case of the aekwad6s occu+ation of )aroda it was the desais and mu.addams of )aroda and surrounding areas..& -i4$7 Dala Mu8addam of %adra7 desais of )hayli and Chhani who in-ited %ila!i to occu+y )aroda and su++orted him in the o+erations$..* Similarly at Ciramgam7 it was the desai )hausingh7 who in-ited (enko!i7 the Nai2 of Dama!i aekwad7 to occu+y Ciramgam pargana$ It will 2e worthwhile to take note of the e-ents leading to Dama!i6s occu+ation of Ciramgam$ :daikiran the desai of Ciramgam was a wealthy and influential +erson7 +ro2a2ly also the i'aradar of the pargana. During the
114 115

%adra7 )hayli and Chhani are -illages on the outskirts of )aroda town$ -aroda State GaBetteer7 %+$ &/1,&&#$

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+eriod of +olitical insta2ility of early .'th Century7 a Tank @as2ati murdered him o-er a +ersonal dis+ute$ Safdar =han )a2i7 the fau'dar of Ciramgam also died almost the same time$ Therefore7 )hau Singh7 the son of the deceased desai a++roached the 3aBim Mu2ari4,ul,Mulk Sar2uland =han demanding action against the cul+rits$ The 3aBim did not take any action in the matter7 as he was 2usy resisting the new 3aBim who was sent to take the charge from him$ )hau Singh had7 in the mean while7 started managing the re-enue affairs of the pargana$ In .0// (atan Singh )handari7 the Nai2 3aBim set his eyes on the wealth of this family$ 3e accordingly set out a +lan where2y Dawan Mard =han7 the fau'dar of that +lace was asked to arrest the desai and send him in chains to Ahmada2ad$ >hen Dawan Mard =han arrested the desai7 those who had stood sureties for Dawan Mard =han when he was a++ointed the fau'dar threatened him with dire conse8uences if the latter sent the desai to the Nai2 Na4im$ >e do not ha-e any information a2out these surety holders in our sources7 2ut they were certainly +eo+le with +ower and influence$ The fau'dar had to yield 2efore their threat and set the desai free$..6 This incident made the desai a++rehensi-e of his safety from the Mughal officers and on the first a-aila2le +rete9t he in-ited (enko!i to take control of the Aort of Ciramgam$ 3e was +erha+s under the im+ression that the Marathas7 who were emerging as a +ower in the region7 would 2e a2le to +ro-ide 2etter security to him than the Mughals$ 3is ho+es were 2elied when he reali4ed that the Marathas too were eyeing the wealth of the pargana$

116

#irat7 %$ *."$

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57

The desai soon decided to get rid of the Marathas from Ciramgam$ 3e raised a force consisting of the Ara2 and (ohilla sibandis and shut the doors of the fort on the Marathas$ (enko!i laid siege to the fort$ >hen the siege +ersisted7 the si2andis started clamouring for their salary from the desai. The latter had no other o+tion than to sue for +eace with the Marathas$ In the agreement that followed7 the Marathas ga-e )hausingh desai the town of %atri?%atdi7 situated on the 2order of the (ann of Cutch7 along with its de+endencies7 in e9change for Ciramgam$ These de+endencies consisted of ' -illages taken from =athiawad and .6 -illages from Ciramgam$ In this way in .0&#,&. the Pargana of Ciramgam +assed into Maratha hands$..0 The desai of Ciramgam7 on the other hand7 2ecame the ruler of %atri7 which later 2ecame a +rincely state under the )ritish$

A similar incident that shows the +ower of the landed classes is that of )aroda$ Dala7 the mu.addam of %adra was a wealthy and influential man$ As mentioned earlier7 it was at his 2ehest that %ila!i had occu+ied )aroda$ Aollowing the murder of %ila!i(ao7 the Mughals under the Ni4amat of Mahara!a A2hay Singh reoccu+ied )aroda$ >hile the Mahara!a was settling the affairs of the +lace7 Dala went to meet him as he wished to take the i'ara of )aroda pargana$ During the meeting he reali4ed that the Mahara!a was intent on arresting him and fleece him of his wealth$ Dala howe-er succeeded in esca+ing from the custody of the Na4im$ ;ater7 he wrote to the Na4im that if the latter desired to recei-e sta2le income from him7 he should a++oint Sardar Mohammad =han Mohammad =han
117 118

horni as the fau'dar of )aroda$..' That

horni was su2se8uently a++ointed as the fau'dar of

I2id$ %+ $6##,6#.$ I2id$

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)aroda shows the clout that the mu.addam en!oyed vis a vis the administration$ ;ater it was with his hel+ that Mahma!i..1 ca+tured )aroda from Sher =han )a2i and it +assed +ermanently into aekwad6s control$."# The desais also seem to ha-e further consolidated their economic and social +osition during the course of the century$ >e ha-e already o2ser-ed how one of them 2ecame the chief of a +rinci+ality7 )hau Singh7 the desai of Ciramgam 2ecoming the chief of %atri$ During the rule of the %eshwa some of them 2ecame kamavisdars and manotidars$ The office of a kamavisdar was central to the Maratha re-enue administration$ In him was -ested the authority to collect re-enue7 administer +olice and act as !udicial officer$ 3e was usually gi-en the charge of one pargana and in some cases more than one pargana$ *arkuns FclerksG and Si2andis assisted him$ :+on a++ointment a kamavisdar had to +ay at least half the amount of I'ara7 called rasad to the Marathas$ The other half was gi-en at the end of the sti+ulated +eriod of his office7 after deduction of the e9+enses$ During the Maratha +eriod a kamavisdar was most of the time an outsider$ 3e had to seek local hel+ in +erformance of his duties$ )esides7 he found it difficult to administer all the mahals under his control7 as he was not familiar with local re-enue administrati-e +ractices$ 3e7 therefore7 farmed out such mahals es+ecially the sair mahals7 usually to the local +eo+le7 thus leading to the +ractice of su2,farming$ Cery often it was the local desai7 who 2eing a man of means7 would take such i'aras$ As the Marathas got entrenched in the region the desais turned kamavisdars and

119

120

3is name is gi-en differently in different sourcesB Maha!i in )hwal7 Mahma!i in #irat and Mahad!i in the -aroda State GaBetteer I$ #irat7 %$ *./$

58

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held i'aras themsel-es$ In 2oth cases the desai made the 'amabandi with the -illage %atel directly$.".

Since there was a time lag 2etween the a++ointment of the kamavisdar and his actual control of the territory assigned to him7 he had to make arrangements with the amin and the desais for reali4ation of re-enue for the +eriod +rior to taking actual charge of the +lace$ This arrangement was termed as ta8ahud.""and the holders of such a charge as muta8ahids$."/ Aor this ser-ice the muta8ahid recei-ed a certain share of the re-enue collection$."& This arrangement was also resorted to 2y kamavisdars for 2ringing wasteland under and -illages de+o+ulated for -arious reasons7 under culti-ation$

The de+endence of the kamavisdars on su+erior land right holders like the desais was also 2ecause of their fre8uent transfers$ Aor instance7 in pargana =heda7 2etween .0*" and .'.*7 6* kamavisdars were a++ointed that works out the a-erage term of one year to each kamavisdar$ The tenures of such i'aras -aried 2etween one to fi-e years$."*

121

122

123 124 125

Das+al =aur Dhot7 <conomy and Society of 3orthern Gu'arat with Special eference to*heda ,istrict, .0*#,.'*#7 un+u2lished %h$d Dessertation7 Mahara!a Saya!i(ao :ni-ersity7 )aroda7 .1'67 %$"/&$ The author has re+roduced these statistics from the Marathi records in the %eshwa Daftar$ S$3asan Mahmud7 )n <ighteenth 6entury )grarian #anualH 9asin!s ,atur@i@#alguBari7 =ita2 )ha-an7 New Delhi7 "###7 %$ .6"$ I2id$ Das+al =aur Dhot7 o+7cit$7 %$"1"$ Ale9ander >alker7 Selections from the -ombay Government noH IIIII, 3ew Series, Part@I, )om2ay7 .'*67 %$ "*$

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During the second half of the eighteenth century we notice an increase in the incidence of desais turning kamavisdars either in the same parganas or other parganas$ In Nadiad )a+u!i desai held the i'ara of the Pargana in .0'1,1#$."6 )ala!i Kama!i7 the =ama-isdar was also the desai of )alesar pargana.%EF Sureshwar desai of )aroda pargana held the I'ara of )aroda7 hode7 Shinor7 =oral7 (a!+i+la and Nadiad parganas around .066$."' It is seen that in cases where the desai himself was a kamavisdar he en!oyed a2solute authority in re-enue collection$ In =a+ad-an! pargana the +rice of grains had risen during the year .'./,.&$ (a!aram7 the desai7 who was also the kamavisdar of =a+ad-an! at this time7 changed the mode of re-enue collection from cash to kind$."1

The rights Fha.G of the desai./# consisted of "$*I of the total re-enue collection7 together with pasaitu and 'eewuk7 which was in lieu of the ser-ices that he +erformed$ pasaitu re-enue free land while 'eewuk was reali4ed in cash$./. )oth these rights were hereditary and greatly -alued$ In addition to these a desai also recei-ed naBrana from residents of -illages$ 3e was also sukhdi7 +ossi2ly a +er8uisite in cash7 since it was deducted from the 'ama. Sukhdi was collected 2y the desais7 kamavisdars7 amins and such other su+erior land right holders$./" The desais who held lands on i'ara were gi-en an additional allowance in cash called inam$ Also7 the desais who +aid
126 127

128 129 130

131 132

Das+al =aur Dhot7 o+7 cit$7 %+$ "/&,"/*$ )aroda State (ecords7 "istorical Selections from the -aroda State ecords, Col$ II7 )aroda7 .1/67 %$ .61$FNow onwards 3S)S(G$ "S-S @I7 %$ ..*$ I2id$ %$"/&$ Aor the +osition and role of ,esais in u!arat7 see )$($ ro-er7 The Position of ,esai in the Pargana administration of Subah Gu'arat7 %I3C7 Delhi7 .16.$ Das+al =aur Dhot7 o+7 cit$7 %$ "/6$ I2id$ %+$ "/',"/1$

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giras to the girasias on 2ehalf of the state also recei-ed a +resent from the girasias called cheerda for the timely +ayment of the amount$ )esides these7 the desais also en!oyed a num2er of other +er8uisites$ A desai who was also the kamavisdar was e9em+t from rahdari Ftransit duesG in his area of !urisdiction$ 3e also e9ercised rights o-er artisans and +rofessionals such as the +otters7 2rick makers7 etc who su++lied their articles of trade or manufacture free or at a concessional rate to him$.// It was largely as a result of control of the resources at the local le-el that with the +assage of time the desais 2ecame +owerful at those le-els$ 3ence7 2y the end of the .'th century in =a+adwan!7 the desais held .7"*1 bighas of land in pasaitu< in the fertile tracts of %etlad "70'" bighas< /7"## bighas in Matar pargana<./& in )haruch pargana /67*6/ bighas7./* and in Ankleshwar pargana it was '7*.0 bighas$

There is e-idence to suggest that the desais in-ested their income in -arious commercial acti-ities$ Many desais had emerged as retailers7 2ankers and Shroffs7 through money lending7 manotidari7 etc$ Aor instance7 Amin )hai )hagwan Das ,esai of Mahudha pargana7 Anandram Sewakram and Dalalchand7 the desais of pargana Matar had emerged as 2ankers ha-ing their agencies in the ma!or towns of u!arat and Malwa$ )esides lending money and dealing in hundis7 they also undertook trade acti-ities$ They 2rought cloth and o+ium from Malwa and sold them to retailers in the -illages7 while they sold +roduce of the countryside in the towns$./6

133 134 135

136

I2id$ %$"&" I2id$ %$"/* (a!kumar 3ans7 )grarian <conomy of -roach district during the first half of the %Dth century, un+u2lished %h$D dissertation7 M$S$ :ni-ersity7 .1'07 %$ 0&$ Das+al =aur Dhot7 o+7 cit$7 %$ "&.$

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)$ ($ right in

ro-er has thrown sufficient light on the nature of the desaigiri

u!arat in an im+ortant study$./0 3e notes that the office of desai

could not 2e identified with any of the known offices such as of the patwari7 mu.addam7 chaudhri7 .anungo7 shi.dar7 etc$ ./' 3owe-er7 2oth the desai and the chaudhri were +rimary land right holders and their titles entitled them to en!oy certain additional rights$ Some of their duties and functions were also similar$ Dust as the chaudhri was entitled to nankar7 the desai was entitled to pasaitu7 suggesting that pasaitu was the local term for nankar. )oth the chaudhri and the desai were held res+onsi2le for the assessment of re-enue F'amabandiG in the area under their charge and to endea-our to enlarge the area of culti-ation and look after the welfare of the riaya$./1

IJARA

The institution of i'ara had 2een +re-alent in the Mughal Em+ire from the .0th century$ In u!arat also we ha-e the e-idence of the same$ The e9istence i'ara in the +ort towns of Surat and Cam2ay has 2een 2rought to light through a recent study$.&# The institution of i'ara during the .0th century was highly regulated$ 3owe-er7 during the .'th century we find not only an increase in the incidence of i'ara7 2ut also dilution of +rinci+les go-erning this +ractice$ In u!arat during this +eriod7 i'ara 2ecame an instrument of

137 138 139

140

)$($ ro-er7 o+$cit$ I2id$ %$.*#$ Com+are the functions of chaudhri in N$A$Siddi8ui7 :and evenue )dministration under the #ughals7 New Delhi7 .1'17 +B 1#,1. with the functions of ,esais in )$($ ro-er7 o+$cit$ Aarhat 3asan7 op.cit.

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aggrandi4ement of wealth and resources and thus its holders +layed an im+ortant role in the emerging +ower structure in the region$

During our +eriod of study the sources of re-enue as well as -arious offices were held on I'ara. The office of Nai2,Na4im and Nai2,Aau!dar were let out to indi-iduals on i'ara. Such a +ractice was necessitated as a single +erson held many offices simultaneously during this +eriod$ Such a +erson had to a++oint his 3aib to look after the duties of his offices that he was una2le to su+er-ise +ersonally$ The 3aib held the charge on i'ara. Mirat,ul, 3a8a6i8 contains useful information on farming of offices during the .'th century u!arat$ In .0.1 for instance7 Amir,ul,:mrah 3asan Ali =han was a++ointed as mutasaddi of Surat7 who in turn farmed out the office to one Shaikh,ul,Islam on the +ayment of ten lakh ru+ees and made him his 3aib$.&. (ustam Ali =han similarly +aid ten lakhs for the office of Mutsaddi of Surat$.&" Sher =han )a2i was similarly gi-en the i'ara of the fau'dari of Dunagadh in .0/# for (s$ '#7###.&/ and later in .0&# 3i4a2ar =han ga-e the office of fau'dari of Dunagadh to Mir Dost Ali =han and Sadi8 =han !ointly$.&& Momin =han I ga-e i'ara of the +ost of Nai2,mutsaddi of the +ort of Cam2ay to Aida,ud,din =han along with the i'ara of chorasi pargana$.&*

The fau'dars were also gi-en i'ara of re-enues of parganas under their charge$ This hel+ed them in entrenching themsel-es locally$ As already
141 142 143 144 145

#irat@ul@"a.ai., f$.&1 FaG$ I2id$f$"61 FaG$ Tarikh@i@Sorath,%$./&$ I2id. %$./1$ #irat7 %$ &'"$

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seen7 Sher =han )a2i7 2y -irtue of ha-ing held the i'ara of Dunagadh for many years7 was recalled at the instance of the ryots of the region to re+lace 3i4a2ar =han as the fau'dar of Dunagadh$ Sher =han7 the fau'dar7 was res+onsi2le for esta2lishing the )a2i Nawa2i at Dunagadh$ Similarly7 Dawan Mard =han7 the fau'dar of %atan held the i'ara of %atan7 Ci!a+ur7 =heralu and other +laces$ 3e laid the foundations of the Nawa2i of (adhan+ur$ Momin =han7 the fau'dar of Cam2ay7 held the i'ara of parganas Cam2ay %etlad7 Arhar Matar7 and other areas around Cam2ay$ 3e later esta2lished the nawabi of Cam2ay$ (ustam Ali =han was gi-en the i'ara of peshkash from the smaller wanta holders on the ri-er Catrak and Mundah$.&6 >ith the rise of Shu!a5at =han as the Nai2,Na4im in the Su2ah7 he was the gi-en the i'ara of Dholka7 3a-eli pargana Ahmada2ad7 )haruch7 Dam2usar7 Ma82ula2ad FAmodG7 )ulsar and =adi pargana$.&0

>ith the Marathas taking o-er larger territories in the region7 they introduced the kamavisdari system7 which was an institutionali4ed form of i'ara$ The Marathas ga-e three ty+es of i'arasB #a.ta7 kutcha and istawa$ In ma.ta a kamavisdar was to +ay a fi9ed amount as rasad%=&7 or ad-ance7 consisting of half the amount of the 'ama8$ If he7 su2se8uently7 suffered any legitimate loss in the re-enue collection7 he would get a remission in re-enue after in-estigation$ If he collected more than the sti+ulated amount7 he was entitled to kee+ that to himself$ In kutcha the kamavisdar was o2liged to +ay to go-ernment whate-er he collected7 after deducting all incurred e9+enses$
146 147 148

#irat, %$ &."$ #irat, %$ &.6$ asad consisted of two +artsB one +aid in ad-ance at the time of taking the i'ara of the +lace$ It used to 2e generally in Ash-in Shud FOcto2erG$ The other +art called khara' rasad was +aid at year end or end of the i'ara contract$7 D$3$ ense and D$($)ana!i FedG7 TheGaekwads of -aroda@<nglish ,ocuments, ColB C7 )om2ay7 FNow onwards O)G7 %+$.*6 L .6*,.66$

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In this case he recei-ed a fi9ed salary$ In case of istawa7 re-enue demand was fi9ed on an ascending scale$ This +ractice was ado+ted for +laces where agriculture had suffered due to some reasons and it needed to 2e reha2ilitated$.&1 The collection of 6hauth was also let out on I'ara, such an i'aradar 2eing known as chauthia.

The )ritish in the .'th Century too resorted to i'aradari Fre-enue farmingG$ )esides the land re-enue7 the customs 2elonging to the East India Com+any at )ha-nagar was farmed out$ >e ha-e figures for the year .000$ Out of four 2idders7 Nasser-an!i )oman!i and )ocundas Mohandas7 the highest 2idders7 were gi-en i'ara of )ha-nagar F(s$ .#7."*?,G and Mahuwa7 a +ort of lesser im+ortance in the kingdom of )ha-nagar7 F(s$ .7."6?,G7 res+ecti-ely$.*# Towards the end of the Century the )ritish also wanted to take i'ara of aekwad chauth in Surat so as to resol-e fre8uent dis+utes o-er re-enue sharing 2etween the Nawa2 of Surat and the Marathas$.*. The factors at Surat ga-e the chaukis FthanasG in Calsad districts on i'ara for si9 months at the rate of (s$ *7ooo +er month around .0'#$ .*" %resuma2ly other chaukis were also gi-en on I'ara.

The +ractice of i'ara ga-e rise to manotidari7 the su2,farming of re-enues7 and em+loyment of marfatias in re-enue collection machinery$ Manoti means financial surety and was gi-en in two +laces$ As mentioned
149 150

151

152

N$A$Siddi8ui7 o+$cit$7 %+$ 1",.#.< Das+al$ =aur$ Dhot7 o+$cit$7%$ "'1$ $>$forrest FedG7 Selections from the :etters, ,espatches and other State Papers7 3ome Series7 Col$ I7 Surat7 &th A+ril .0007 %$ /1&$ $S$Sardesai FedG7 Poona esidency correspondence, volHII, #alet!s <mbassy7 )om2ay7 .1/67 %$/"#$ G;- III, %$ 6#$

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earlier7 u+on o2taining the i'ara a kamavisdar had to +ay half of the assessed re-enue in ad-ance known as rasad to the go-ernment$ Aor this the shroffs or merchants F%arekhsG ad-anced him the re8uired amount of money for which they charged interest called as manoti. The rates of manoti de+ended on the amount ad-anced and it also differed from +lace to +lace$ Secondly7 the needful ryots took loans from wealthy indi-iduals7 usually a desai, either for re-enue +ayment or for the +urchase of cattle7 seeds7 etc Fta.aviG$ In this case the manoti could 2e as high as "*I$.*/ In addition to that7 the -illage had to maintain a havaldar or a mehta Fscri2eG on 2ehalf of the manotidar$.*& Cery often the surety holders a2used their +osition and usur+ed the +roduce of land or the land of the farmers itself$.** In case of the i'aradari and manotidari com2ining in the same indi-idual or grou+7 it led to greater hold o-er the ryots$ This was es+ecially true of the Aasbatis of Dholka$.*6

SECURITIES

The +ractice of securing security of someone for good conduct was an old one$ :nder the Mughals the erring Bamindars and malguBars had to furnish security of a relia2le +erson for the timely regular and +ayment of land re-enue$ In u!arat7 the 3aBims regularly sought securities from recalcitrant ryots and Bamindars such as the kolis$ >e also find the mem2ers
153 154 155 156

/alker@Selections IIIII, %+$ "6,"0$ I2id$ %+$&#,&. I2id$ %+$ "6,"0 I2id$ %+$ /1,&#$

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of the bhat community standing as securities$ It is suggested that e-en Todar Mal also fa-oured the bhats as security holders in and charans in histories of the nati-e u!arat$ The bhats u!arat were the traditional genealogists who maintained the u!arati chiefs$ They were held in high re-erence

throughout the region without e9ce+tion$ Since the earliest times the bhats functioned as guides and +ro-ided security to the tra-elers and merchants +assing through the areas of the refractory Eamindar$ A good descri+tion of this is gi-en 2y a .6th Century a Turkish tra-eler7 who wroteB

JIn Gu'arat there is a tribe of -amiano called -hats, who

warrant the

safe conveyance of merchants and travelers from one country to another for a stipulated sum of money. If the a'puts meet the caravan with the intention of robbing them the bhats would draw their daggers and threaten to kill themselves if the least harm should happen to the caravan. The a'puts then let the caravan pass unmolested. -ut if it suffers the least damage the -hats kill themselves and if they did not, they would lose their honour and never afterwards be respected. ;f on the contrary, they devote themselves for the sake of caravans the a'puts are 'udged guilty of death and are executed by their eis together with their whole families. Two -hats were sent to attend usK$.*0 During the .'th Century the role of the bhats and that of the charans7 2ecame more im+ortant in the conte9t of the +re-ailing conditions of
157

Statement of Sidhi Ali =a+udan who -isited u!arat in .**/$ Translations of :iterary Society@ -ombay@II$ % 1$ C$f$7 Cam+2ell FedG7 -om.Pre.GaB.Population@ "indus, o+$cit$7 footnote,.7 %$ ".#$

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insecurity$ Therefore7 no monetary transaction was considered safe unless it in-ol-ed a strong security on 2oth sides7 assuring the fair +erformance of the sti+ulated terms 2y 2oth the sides$ This system of security seeking was known in u!arat as bandheri$.*' Securities were sought in all transactions7 of 2oth +u2lic and +ri-ate nature$ Since the 2eginning of the century7 as a safeguard against the harassment 2y the Im+erial officers7 +rominent citi4ens and the general +u2lic insisted on seeking security of a relia2le +erson for good 2eha-ior 2y the officers$ There are instances cited in the #irat which shows that sometimes +owerful officers tried to -iolate their securities< sometimes they were successful7 sometimes they were not$ 3ere is the case of anga Das7 a wealthy silk merchant of Ahmeda2ad who was made the 3agarsheth of Ahmada2ad 2y Mu2ari4,ul,Mulk$ :+on Mahara!a A2hay Singh6s assum+tion of 3iBamat7 he furnished the security of A2hay =aran Singh to anga Das$ A2hay =aran Singh7 the son of Durga Das (athod was well known in the region and was a confidante of the 3aBim$ The Nagarsheth therefore felt rela9ed and regarded himself safe from the e9actions of the 3aBim$ 3owe-er7 the Na4im secured an Im+erial order for im+risonment of the Nagarsheth on false charges of misa++ro+riation of money$ Su2se8uently7 he arrested the Nagarseth and escheated the wealth 2elonging to him and also im+osed fines on +eo+le associated with the silk industry of Ahmada2ad$ A2hay =aran Singh6s re+utation was greatly tarnished since he could not honour the security$.*1 Another incident7 also mentioned 2efore is that of (atan Singh )handari7 the 3aib,3aBim who had sought to sei4e the wealth of )hau Singh7 the wealthy ,esai of Ciramgam$ The Nai2@3aBim could not 2e successful 2ecause there was an acti-e
158

159

-andheri is a term mentioned in the Mirat$ Ale9ander >alker7 on the other hand calls it -handari. #irat, %+$ &'0,&''

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resistance from the surety holders$ Dawan Mard =han7 the fau'dar of Ciramgam had to 2e re+laced 2y Sher =han )a2i as a measure to +acify the securities$.6#

As seen a2o-e7 only that indi-idual or +arty could undertake to +ro-ide security that had the ca+a2ility to enforce the terms of agreement$ In case of the -hats and Charans it was the socio,religious re-erence attached to them that rendered them most ca+a2le of such an undertaking$ The social +osition of the bhats can 2e gauged from the fact that no sale,deed or transaction was considered -alid unless it was countersigned 2y a bhat$ *olis7 bhils and (a!+uts all res+ected a )hat security$.6. In case of a 2reach of agreement 2y either of the +arties7 a )hat could force him to fulfill his terms 2y resorting to the +ractice of dharna and traga$ ,harna was the +ractice where a )hat would collect men from his caste and sit 2efore the residence of the +erson not fulfilling the sti+ulated terms of the agreement$ The )hat would not lea-e the +lace unless the +erson com+lied$ In case of traga the )hat would go a ste+ further and either inflicts in!ures on his +erson or kill a mem2er of his own family$ The most e9treme ste+ he would resort to would 2e to commit suicide in front of the house of the defaulter$ Suicide 2y a bhat was most dreaded 2y the +eo+le as it was considered that a bhat6s soul will not get sal-ation and it will lea-e a curse who one who forced such an action$ It seems that the +ractice of traga was not confined to -hats alone 2ut e-en some )rahmins +racticed it$.6"

160 161 162

I2id$ %+$ *.",*./$ Dames Cam+2ell FedG7 -om.Pres.GaB. Population@"indus, o+$cit$7 %+$ "#1,".# I2id$ %$ /..

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During the .'th century7 a )hat was also considered to 2e a connecting link 2etween the Mewasi +o+ulation and the Maratha go-ernment$.6/ Charans could stand security of large amounts running in lakhs of ru+ees$ The (a!+uts +referred the surety of a bhat o-er that of the wealthiest 2anker$.6&

The moral authority wielded 2y the bhat was utili4ed 2y -arious +arties to settle contentious issues$ During the .'th Century -arious +olities trying to garner ma9imum resources +ut e9tra-agant demands on the +easantry which the latter was una2le to +ay$ Sometimes the +easantry refused to gi-e e-en the legitimate amount of re-enue to the authorities$ In such cases7 the bhats interceded on 2ehalf of the +easantry with the authorities and worked out a mutually agreed sum and stood surety for the same 2efore the authorities$ Such a role +layed 2y the bhat was mutually ad-antageous 2oth to the ryots and to the authorities$ The @as2atis of Dholka also were known to +erform these duties$

The security of the bhats was also sought7 when7 at the time of maturity of cro+7 the patel of the -illage asked the kamavisdar to issue the +ermission sli+ for har-esting$ The bhats had to stand as sureties at this +oint of time for not allowing the ryots to rea+ the har-est without the +ermission of the kamavisdar and also ensure that the har-ested cro+ is not taken away 2y stealth$.6* The e9tent of trust ke+t in the -hats is e9hi2ited in the fact that
163 164 165

>alter 3amilton7o+$cit$7 %$ 6#1$ -om.Pres.GaB. Population@"indus7 o+$ cit$7 %$".0$ /alker@Selections IIIII, %$ *$

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the su2 leasing of the unculti-ated and de+o+ulated lands of a -illages 2y the =ama-isdar did not in-ol-e any written order7 instead a )hat security was considered enough to confirm the agreement$.66 >hen the Marathas started collecting khandani Ftri2uteG in their mulkgiri e9+editions in u!arat7 they also insisted on someone standing surety for the khandani to 2e +aid 2y the chieftains$ This system was in -ogue in Saurashtra and the Mewasi sections of North Securities$.6' u!arat com+rising the di-isions of Mahi,=antha and (ewa =antha$.60 Ale9ander >alker has listed the following si9 kinds of

a$ 5Aail Eamin6 or 5Chaloo Eamin6 meant for securing the good 2eha-ior of the su2ordinate chiefs$ 2$ 53a4ar Eamin6 or security for +ersonal a++earance$ c$ 5Mahal Eamin6 was the security for Money7 %ro+erty or (e-enue$ d$ 5;ila Eamin6 was +ermanent7 literally eternal$ This was also the security for good )eha-iour 2ut more 2inding and solemn$ e$ 5Arr FadG Eamin6 was additional security$ f$ The si9th security was called 5Ootkhand Mahade-6$ This was resorted to in e9treme cases$ It was a solemn in-ocation in which the )hat undertaking the security 2ound himself most securely$ It was e9acted from only the most refractory of the Mewasis$

166 167

168

I2id$ %$ "*$ *antha in u!arati means a ri-er 2ank$ Mahi =antha was the area on the ri-er Mahi and (ewa =antha was the )anks of Narmada$ These areas were inha2ited 2y the =oli Eamindars who were largely recalcitrant and force was re8uired to collect re-enues from them$ These areas were officially referred to as #ewasi 2y the Marathas7 meaning recalcitrant$ /alker@ Selections IIIII, %$ /6$

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In addition to the a2o-e7 sankla Bamin or connected security was also taken$ It means the security gi-en 2y a chief for the conduct of the chief of his ad!oining territory7 thus forming a chain of securities7 making them res+onsi2le for each other$.61 This was resorted to 2y the )ritish East India Com+any in the re-enue settlements of Saurashtra and Mahi =antha$

An instance showing the im+ortant +osition the )hat security had come to hold is recorded in the English sources$ It is a con-ersation 2etween Takhta2ai7 the fa-ourite wife of Anand (ao aekwad and angadhar Shastri7 the karbhari of the )ritish (esidency at )aroda7 in .'#/$ Takhta2ai was accused of intriguing to oust the )ritish (esident from )aroda$

MN (Takhta) Bai /hat is desiredL

Shat!i 9ou must plainly disclose the transactions lately passed7 again you must give the security of some person possessed of two lakhs of upees. 0To gain freedom1

Bai

"ow can a woman find a money security against inimical Intrigues, who has been once accused of themL

Sha"t!i /hat security then will you giveL

169

I2id$ %$1'$

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Bai

I will give that of a -hat.

Sha"t!i /hat can a poor -hat do, if you, -ai should unfortunately fall again amid the foesL

Bai

It is true in a temporal light the -hats are poor. -ut, if I failed in my engagements, a -hat would bring a thousand of his order and shed their blood before my face, cursing and upbraiding7 which much I would fear. Therefore this security may be taken with the fullest confidence.

Sha"t!i ) -hat has nothing. "ow can you offer such securityL

Bai:

)ll over Gu'arat the -hats stand securities for :akhs of upees, do they notL )nd the ob'ect, for which he pledges himself, is fulfilled from the fear that he else would shed his blood7 so you must take -hat +amin MK %F?

;ater the $amin of Cishwaram )hat was gi-en 2y Takhta )ai$

Ma!or Ale9ander >alker had gi-en a detailed account of the +ractice of securities in )aroda under the aikwads in the late .'th century$ It mainly relates to the engagements 2etween the
170

aikwad chief and his su2!ects$ 3e

G;- (I7 %$ 00$

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further informs that e-ery transaction of the go-ernment was secured 2y a -handari7 that its use +er-ades e-ery de+artment of the o-ernment and continues in chain downwards through its su2!ects in all the transactions of any conse8uence$ These su2!ects were the Ara2 'amadars and some other +rinci+al military officers$ In this ca+acity the Ara2 'amadars had e-ery right to interfere in the acti-ities of the go-ernment$ This in turn increased their influence and +ower$.0.

The term -handari seems to 2e deri-ation from Sanskrit 5)ahu6 meaning a hand and 5Dherda67 to +lace or to sei4e$.0" There were Securities safeguarding the +ro+erty as well as +ersons$ In case of a crime ha-ing 2een committed 2y the +erson ha-ing a security7 the security gi-er was taken into confidence 2y the administration 2efore +roceeding to deal with that +erson$.0/ No koli would go out of his -illage without a security$ In some cases security was also sought from the chief of a +lace 2efore an indi-idual7 may 2e a merchant7 took u+ his residence there$.0& In case of +ro+erty also the go-ernment could not a2use the +arty ha-ing security7 unduly$

The +ower which the security gi-er en!oyed and how the com+any e9+anded its influence in the domestic affairs of the the following wordsB aekwad o-ernment 2ecause of it 2eing a security holder7 is e9+lained 2y Ale9ander >alker in

171 172 173 174

I2id$ %+$ .&6,.&0$ I2id$ %+$ .&0,.*#$ I2id$ I2id$

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J MGenerally speaking and considering the extensive power conferred by giving a -handari, which necessarily implies a power of enforcing a due performance of the obligation and the control ac.uired thereby in many important affairs of the Govt, it may rather be considered as a beneficial engagement, and the risk must be triflingM

In fact a -handari is very seldom or never broken. It is the support of a weak Government, and a breach would threaten a dissolution of it. 2rom what has been said the -handari will be found to have many advantages. In the case of substitution of the 6ompany!s for the )rab -handari, the "on!ble 6ompany became possessed of a very extensive influence and at the same time deprived the Gaekwad sardars of a powerful means by which they derived a right of controlling their GovernmentsM

It also affords another mode of extending the 6ompany!s influence7 for, as the -handari on their side is perfectly disinterested and gratuitous, it must be considered as an act of condescension and favour, and establishes a connection with the #oneyed men, which the company have reaped much benefit from in their pecuniary transactions in -aroda.K.0*

>hile the East India Com+any undertook to dis2and the Ara2 Si2andis from the aekwad6s +rinci+ality7 the aekwad had to take enormous amounts of loans from 2oth the Com+any and other Shroffs7 to
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I2id$

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make +ayments of arrears of +ay to the Sibandis$ In this case also the Com+any stood guarantee to see to it that the districts allotted 2y the aekwad for the re+ayment of the said loans to the Shroffs will 2e used for that +ur+ose only$.06 On discharge of the Ara2 'amadars, their security res+onsi2ilities were taken o-er 2y the Com+any$.00 The East India Com+any considered this security system as the 2asis of their relationshi+ with the nati-e rulers of this region which ga-e 5almost unlimited +owers6 to interfere in the internal administration of the aekwads$.0' The (e-enue Settlement agreements undertaken 2y the Com+any with the -arious +rinci+alities of Saurashtra and North,eastern u!arat were also in the nature of the Securities$

The 2usiness of security holding was a source of great income to its holders$ The bhats and charans were a2le to maintain large dro-es of carriages of cattle7 which they used for inland trading in grain and other commodities$.01 Also they acted as money lenders and as +awn2rokers$.'# >e ha-e the e-idence of Dam2usar where the charans were holding large chunks of re-enue free land and other +ieces of land ac8uired through mortgage or +urchase$.'. The @as2atis of Dholka were also 2enefitted 2ecause of their acting as security holders$.'" The East India Com+any used this +ractice as a tool to enhance its +osition and role in the region$ Such
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178 179 180 181

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O) CII7 ++$ .&6,.&0$ $S$Sardesai FedG7 Poona esidency 6orrespondence, Col$ ./7 <lphinstone!s <mbassy7 )om2ay7 .1*'7 ;t$."7 %+$ **,6#$ I2id$ >alter 3amilton7 o+7cit$7 %$ 6.#$ -om.Pres. GaB, -ol.IC7 Ahmada2ad7 .'017 %$/'$ Thomas Marshall7 5A Statistical Account of the %argana of Dam2usar6 7 "6th Dec7 .'"#7 in The Transactions of the :iterary Society of -ombay, ColB III7 .'"/7 %$ /00$ -om.Pres. GaB@ )hmadabad, o+$cit$7 %$ .&'

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+ossessions augmented their resources and +ro-ided them further means to strengthen their economic and +olitical +osition$

RISE OF BRITISH POLITICAL POWER IN GUJARAT

The English East India Com+any had e9isted +er-asi-ely as a merchant 2ody at Surat during the .0th Century along with the Dutch$ During Shi-a!i6s attack on Surat the English chief and factors +layed a nota2le +art in 2oth safeguarding their own factory as well as +ro-iding +rotection to the +eo+le who sought it$ The English East India Com+any also o2tained trading concessions from Aurang4e2 for their resistance to Maratha attacks$ In the new +ower structure that emerged in u!arat in the .'th century7 the )ritish East India Com+any +erha+s deri-ed the ma9imum 2enefit$ The in-ol-ement of the English East India Com+any in the affairs in Surat7 in

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su2se8uent years7 hel+ed them esta2lish their +olitical authority o-er the entire region$

The 2reakdown of the law and order situation in

u!arat had se-ere

re+ercussions on the region$ One of them was the loosening of the Mughal Im+erial administrati-e control on 2ig merchants as also the -arious East India Com+anies$ They could o2tain 2ig concessions in the +ayment of the custom duties and other 2enefits 2y 2ecoming +layers in the +olitical tussle going on 2etween -arious contenders to +ower$ They were in a +osition to +lay one +arty against the other as they commanded material means$ This was +erha+s e9+erienced in Surat more than any other +lace of the region$ There were ra+id changes in the +olitics in Surat7 2rought a2out 2y am2itious elements7 most of who were linked to commerce$ Most nota2le amongst them were Mullah Mohammad Ali and Ahmad Chela2i$ These elements were moti-ated 2y commercial interests in siding with one +olitical faction or the other at Surat$ It was this attem+t to control the +olitical +owers to enhance their wealth that also +rom+ted the English and the Dutch East India Com+anies to enter the +olitical scene of Surat$

The design of the English East India Com+any seems to ha-e 2een to enhance the Com+any6s trade +ros+ects -is,O,-is the others 2y creating mono+olies$ This was clearly e-ident in the +hase following the )ritish control of the Surat castle after which the 3awab remained merely in name$ The )ritish attem+ted and largely succeeded in undermining the trade of the other East India Com+anies7 Dutch and the Arench as also the 2ig Indian

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merchants like the Chella2is$.'/ 3owe-er7 in the course of time the )om2ay %residency6s need to augment its resources for its maintenance and the com+etition offered 2y the other two %residencies seems to ha-e had an o-erriding influence on the acti-ities of the English in u!arat$ The con8uest of )haruch should 2e seen in this light$ )haruch was considered strategically im+ortant and rich in resources so needed 2y the %residency$ )y the time of the 5(agho2a affair6 FAirst Anglo,Maratha >arG.'&7 the +olitical com+le9ion at the +an,India le-el had changed$ The English East India Com+any had emerged as a +ower of significance in the midst of the triangular conflict 2etween the Marathas7 3yder Ali and the English in the southern and western India$

The English +ossessions consisted of directly administered areas and %rincely States$ Surat was the first +lace to 2e con8uered 2y the Com+any followed 2y )haruch7 as mentioned a2o-e$ These were directly administered areas$ >ith the acce+tance of )ritish hegemony in .'#",#/ 2y the Anand (ao7 the aekwad Chief of )aroda7 the )ritish were a2le to gain a definite standing in the region7 something they had failed to achie-e during the Airst Anglo,Maratha >ar$

>e ha-e traced in the following +ages the account of e9+ansion of )ritish +ower in
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u!arat starting from Surat7 )haruch and )aroda to

184

The design of the English Com+any to mono+oli4e the trade of Surat is mentioned 2y non,English tra-elers$C$ $3atalkat FedG7 2rench ecords relating to the "istory of the #arathas7 Col$I7 )om2ay7 .10'7 %$/ L 0.,0"< S+linter Sta-orinus7 transl$ Samuel 3ull >ilcocke7 (oyages to the <ast Indies, Col$ III7 ;ondon7 .01'7 %$ *1$ This ha++ened in .00*$ The (agho2a Affair has 2een descri2ed in detail in the su2se8uent +ages$

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=athiawad and =utch and to the regions of Mahi,=antha and (ewa,=antha$ )y .'.0,.'.'7 the )ritish had gained a com+lete mastery of u!arat7 as after the defeat of )a!i (ao II7 the office of %eshwa was a2olished and all his territories also came under the )ritish control$

CON#UEST OF SURAT

As seen earlier7 since the 2eginning of the century the Maratha e9+ansion in u!arat had disru+ted its economic and social life$ The main 2runt of their acti-ities was taken 2y Surat7 es+ecially its parganas7 the Surat atthavisi$ The parganas were agriculturally rich$ Immediate to the death of (ustam Ali =han7 the Marathas occu+ied the whole of the countryside$ The successors of (ustam could hardly check the ra+id ad-ance of the Marathas$ They were 2usy in the factional struggle for the office of the mutasaddi whose authority was restricted to the control of the town only$ Su2se8uent de-elo+ments only worsened the situation$ The merchant +rince Mohammad Ali ousted Sohra2 =han7 Falso known as )ehram =hanG7 son of (ustam7 from the office of the mutasaddi$ Mohammad Ali had the su++ort of the Dutch and the English East India Com+anies$ Teg )eg =han Falso known as Teg )akht =hanG was a++ointed the mutasaddi$ Mohammad Ali considered Teg )eg =han a +lia2le candidate$ 3owe-er7 Teg )eg =han could

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disentangle himself from Mohammad Ali6s control and got him assassinated$.'* After getting rid of Mahammad Ali7 Teg )akht =han6s administration was free from outside interference and he could maintain order and esta2lish his sole authority o-er the whole town$ Teg )eg =han assumed the title of 3awab$ )efore him7 the two officers7 the #utasaddi and the Ailledar were a++ointed 2y Mughal Im+erial authority$ 3owe-er7 Teg )akht =han after 2ecoming the mutasaddi a++ointed his 2rother )eglar =han to the office of Ailledari7 without seeking consent of local Mughal authority$ Another 2rother7 Safdar =han similarly was a++ointed as Nai2 for the +olice and other administrati-e duties$
.'6

As the countryside had come into the aekwad in .0/*7 where2y a

+ossession of the Marathas and the 3awab was una2le to oust them7 he entered into an agreement with Dama!i (ao collecting the re-enues around Surat$.'0 The relations of the English East India Com+any were always strained with the 3awab?#utasaddi since the times of (ustam Ali =han$ It continued to 2e so under Sohra2 =han and Teg )akht =han as well$ The main source of contention seems to ha-e 2een the re+eated demands of Peshkash made
185

yearly amount of (s$"7 /67### was to 2e gi-en 2y the Marathas after

186 187

Mulla Mohammad Ali succeeded to the fortunes of his grandfather Mulla A2dul Dafar in .0.1$ In .0"1 he attem+ted to esta2lish a settlement on +iram islands and later at Athwa at the e9+ense of Surat6s re-enues$ Sohra2 =han sto++ed him 2ecause of which Mohammad Ali got Sohra2 =han re+laced with Teg )akht =han$ Sohra2 =han was ousted from Surat$ ;ater Mohammad Ali attem+ted to get an im+erial sanad in the name of his son thus aiming to merge his wealth with +olitical +ower$ 3owe-er Teg )akht =han got Mohammad Ali im+risoned and assassinated in +rison in .0/" and Mohammad Ali thus ceased to +lay any +art in Surat6s +olitics$ -om. Pres. GaB, (ol.II, Surat 5 -roach7 )om2ay7 .'007 %+$..#,...$ I2id$ %$..6$ I2id$ %$..0$

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2y the 3awab who was always hard,+ressed for resources$.'' In the change of administration after Mohammad Ali6s assassination in .0//7 3enry ;owther7 the English chief at Surat was known to ha-e +layed an acti-e role$ This ga-e the Surat factory a +olitical +osition in the local +olitics$ The English now 2ecame +olitically am2itious$ The )ritish made three attem+ts to gain a +olitical foothold in SuratB in .0/*7 .0*.,*" and .0*',*1$ In .0/* the )ritish am2ition in Surat was limited to o2taining the control of the tanka or the admiralty of the Surat +ort$ This was a +ost created 2y Aurang4e2 in .6'0 after the con8uest of )i!a+ur$ 3e assigned the +ost to the Sidis of Dan!ira FDanda,(a!+uriG$ The function of this office was to guard the Surat coast against the +irates and there2y safeguard the sea,2orne trade$ This +ost carried with it a salary of (s$ / lacs %er annum$ Immediate to the assum+tion of +ower 2y Teg )eg =han7 the English at Surat demanded that they 2e transferred the charge of tanka from the Sidis$ The English considered the 3awab as o2liged to them for their su++ort in 2ringing him to office$ The English did not resort to -iolence 2ut ado+ted the +eaceful means$ They accordingly commenced negotiations with the 3awab from 0th Dune lasting till /.st Duly$.'1 3owe-er7 the 3awab did not acknowledge the English claim$ 3e was desirous of co-eting a +art of the salary of the tanka for himself 2y kee+ing the Sidi in charge$ The 3awab seems to ha-e +ercei-ed the Sidi as a +lia2le candidate$ The English on the other hand demanded the whole income since they were strong enough to enforce it$ The failure of these negotiations led to friction
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Surat Aactory Diary7 ;etter from )om2ay7 /#th May .0"*7 C$f$ Commissariate7 o+7 cit$7 Col$ III$ %+$*"#,*".$ MThe Nawa2shi+ of Teg )eg =han at SuratK in -omaby Auarterly eview7 Col$ IC7 )om2ay7 .'*67 %$.1/$

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2etween the two$ The 3awab also ill,treated some of the Com+any de+endants$ :nder this +rete9t the English chief left the town with his factors and went on 2oard their Shi+s at the mouth of the ri-er Ta+i$ 3e drew a formal statement of grie-ances demanding redress and threatened with re+risals on Surat trade$ The terms included +rotection according to the charter of .0.6< that their 2oats should not 2e molested and their de+endants7 those who were ill,treated7 were to 2e com+ensated$.1# The 3awab7 in answer7 +laced guards o-er the factory and for2ade Indian merchants from trading with them$ 3e also ga-e his own set of demands to the English$ 3e accused the English of e-ading duties on the +ri-ate trade under co-er of e9em+tion granted only to the com+any6s goods$.1. The English7 on the other hand7 re+elled an attack made 2y the Sidi and 2lockaded the mouth of the ri-er Ta+i$ It was from this ri-er that the goods used to come into the town from the sea$ This 2lockade continued for one full year and the +ro-isions of the town had risen to &#I$.1" In Ae2ruary .0/* the 3awab finally ordered the remo-al of the guards from the Aactory and the Indians were +ermitted to trade with the English$ The relations 2etween the two continued to 2e sour$ It seems the English factors at Surat were re2uked 2y their su+eriors for their interference in the +olitics of the +lace7 for we find the factors writing in .0&.B J;ur business goes on without impediment and we hope it will not be otherwise, as we shall only confine ourselves to our own sphere and not the

190 191 192

I2id7 +$ .10$ I2id7 %+$ .10,.1'$ I2id7 %+$ "##,"#"$

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least interfere with any transactions relative to government further than supporting your honour!s privileges when called in .uestionK.%DG It was not until .0*.,*" that the English 2ecame +olitically acti-e again$ )y then the situation had changed much$ In .0&6 Teg )eg =han died leading to a s+ate of succession wars$ In .0&0 Safdar =han7 Teg )eg =han6s 2rother succeeded him and >a8ar =han7 Safdar6s son 2ecame the Ailledar$ 3owe-er7 a year later Mian Achhind7 Son,in,law to Teg )eg =han defeated the father,son duo and took the 3awabi under his control$ 3e had the su++ort of his wealthy mother,in,law known as 5)egum6$ It seems that the )ritish hel+ed Mian Achhind in ousting Safdar =han from Surat$ )y .0*#,*. the 3awab had failed to +ay the tanka fee of (s$/ lacs +er annum to the Sidi of Dan!ira7 for some time$ Therefore7 he sent some cruisers Fshi+sG into the ri-er Ta+i at a time when the monsoon was setting in$ :nder the +retence of monsoon7 the shi+s remained at Surat and the 3awab was unaware of their real intentions$ The commander of the s8uadron7 Sidi Masud7 took this o++ortunity to sei4e the castle$ Immediate to this de-elo+ment many of the Acchind6s dissatisfied officers -i4$7 the former sla-es of Teg )akht =han who had 2een freed 2y him +rior to his death and who also had much wealth and +ower in the darbar7 !oined the Sidi faction$ Two of Achhind6s other im+ortant officers also !oined the Sidi$.1& The e-ent which 2rought a2out another change of administration at Surat was as followsB Mian Achhind and Ali Nawa4 =han7 his cousin and
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-omaby Auarterly review7 o+$cit$7 %$ ""#$ G;-@ I7 %$0&$

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Custom,Master at Surat had fallen,off$ Mian Achhind ordered Ali Nawa4 =han to lea-e the town and confiscated his wealth including horses and other assets$ Ali Nawa4 =han instead took shelter with the Sidi$.1* This strengthened the Sidi6s +osition$ The Sidi retaliated on 2ehalf of Ali Nawa4 =han 2y 2ringing Ali Nawa46s +ossessions into the town walls forci2ly$ This show of strength 2y Sidi so alarmed the 3awab that he started +re+arations for 2attle$ 3e also in-ited the Marathas to his aid$ Meanwhile the merchants were a++rehensi-e that this fresh 2out of -iolence would 2ring the Ganim FMarathasG into a greater share of +ower in the administration of the town$ They therefore a++roached the English Chief to ar2itrate 2etween the 3awab and the Sidi7 which the English acce+ted after much deli2eration$ In the negotiations it was said that the 3awab would not 2ring in the Marathas +ro-ided Ali Nawa4 =han left the +lace$ After much +ressure was e9erted the Sidi only +romised to 5neither encourage him FAli Nawa4 =hanG to stay nor o++ose his going6$.16 Ali Nawa4 did not go$ The merchants were desirous that the English should assist Mian Achhind and the merchants would defray the charges Fas they were a++rehensi-e that the anims would take o-er the control of the townG$ The chief declined the offer$.10 3owe-er7 2ecause of the greater in-ol-ement of the Dutch in su++ort of the Sidi and the news of this +arty6s designs to 2ring 2ack Safdar =han as 3awab of Surat made the English factors uncomforta2le$ The Sidi and Safdar =han were also re+orted to ha-e entered into a treaty with the Dutch
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I2id$ I2id$ %+$ 0&,0*$ I2id$

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where2y the new 3awab would +rocure a sanad for the Dutch entitling them to +ay only (s$.#7### annually in lieu of the customs and also to 2uild a wharf and land all their goods there$ This would ha-e 2rought the Dutch at +ar with the English in the trade of Surat$.1' )om2ay instructed the English chief at Surat to sto+ the Dutch from a-ailing these +ri-ileges$.11 At this time the English chief also a++rehended an attack on the English factory 2y the Sidi$"## On the other hand Mian Achhind +ro+osed to cede the castle to the English whose re-enues were (s$ ""### with an additional .#### from the 3awab for hel+ing him against the Sidi$ 3e also +romised to cede the Sidi6s tanka7 which consisted of a fi9ed +ro+ortion of the customs amounting to around (s$ .70*7###$ The English ser-ants 2elie-ed this would +ut the English trade and Com+any6s affairs in Surat on a -ery secure footing$"#. )om2ay also entered into negotiations with the %eshwa7 )ala!i )a!i (ao to secure his su++ort in ousting the Sidi$ The English at Surat still maintained that they were not interested in the +olitics of the +lace and were only defending their em+loyer6s interests$ Amongst the many terms agreed were that Sidi Masud =han would 2e ousted from Surat7 the English would ha-e the tanka7 Mian Achhind to 2e retained as the 3awab7 the Dutch wall to 2e destroyed and the e9+enses incurred 2y the English was to 2e made good 2y the Surat go-ernment$"#" 3owe-er it seems that the Maratha alliance was sought to neutrali4e the %eshwa while the English attem+ted to strengthen

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I2id$ %$0'$ I2id$ %$'#$ I2id$ %+$ 0',01$ I2id$ %+$ '#,'.$ I2id$ %+$16,10$

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their +osition at Surat$"#/ The English then made a +act with the 3awab of )haruch also$"#& The final 2attle commenced with the Sidi attacking the castle in Decem2er .0*.$ The Sidi gained an u++er hand and 2lockaded the English factory from recei-ing +ro-isions and the castle was handed o-er 2y Mian Achhind$ The English could not +re-ent the castle from falling into the Sidi6s hand7 as the 3awab of )haruch could not raise enough force in time$ The matter was finally settled with the Sidi agreeing to +ay two hundred thousand ru+ees for all e9+enses and damages$"#* The English gained nothing from this e9+edition$ This change of go-ernment 2rought a2out 2y the Sidi greatly enhanced his +ower$ 3e not only retained the control of the castle7 2ut also encroached u+on the +ower of the 3awab and a++ro+riated .?/rd of the re-enues for himself$"#6 >hen Safdar =han and his Nai2 Aaras =han intrigued with the %eshwa to oust Sidi Masud7 he immediately re+laced Aaras =han with Ali Nawa4 =han as the Nai2$ 3e also ke+t the right to a++oint the officers to im+ortant +osts at the Dar2ar with himself$ The 3awab 2ecame a +awn in Sidi Masud6s hands$ Sidi Masud was all,+owerful at Surat till his death in .0*6$ :+on his death his son Ahmad =han succeeded him$ Safdar =han also died in .0*'
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An agreement was reached 2y the English at Surat and the %eshwa to oust the sidi from Surat$ O) I7 %+$ 16,1'$The %eshwa was simultaneously attem+ting to occu+y Surat himself and was negotiating with Miyan Acchind$ $S$Sardesai FedG7 Selections from the Peshwa ,aftar7 no. E= The Peshwa!s 6ommitments on the /est 6oast, )om2ay7 .1/"7 %+$ "01,"'#$ )oth wanted to sto+ the Sidi from gaining +ower$ G;- I7 %+$ 10,1'$ I2id$ %$ .#.$ Sta-orinus7 Col$III7 o+$cit$7 %$ //$

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leading to the succession of Ali Nawa4 =han as the 3awab$ During these 0 years i$e$7 from .0*" to .0*1 the English chief often +layed the role of a negotiator 2etween the Sidi and the merchants7 although they themsel-es were not free from molestation 2y the Sidi$ The Sidi +ro2a2ly +ercei-ed them as a threat to his +ower$ It should 2e noted that unlike the +icture +ainted 2y the English factors in the limited corres+ondence that has 2een a-aila2le to this study7 the English did not cease to +lay a +olitical role against the Sidi$ Michelguglielmo Torri has shown this con-incingly$"#0 )y .0*' Ellis7 the English Chief at Surat had carefully 2uilt a +lan to take o-er the castle of Surat$ 3owe-er7 the %eshwa7 getting news of this +lan7 attacked )assein and threatened to attack )om2ay itself$ This immediately +ut a sto+ to all action from )om2ay and the +lans were halted$ Aollowing the death of Sidi Masud and Safdar =han7 the %eshwa was also o2ser-ing the situation of Surat and wanted to take o-er the control of the +lace himself$"#' At this !uncture se-eral de-elo+ments took +lace that made )om2ay renew its 8uest for Surat and its con8uest was relati-ely smoother$ The arri-al of Admiral %ocock FSent to fight the Arench on the >est coast from Aort >illiamG at )om2ay tilted the 2alance of the +ower at Surat in fa-our of the English$ The e9istence of such a 2ig force at the dis+osal of )om2ay ke+t the Marathas away from the Surat +olitics and the Dutch were also o2liged to remain +assi-e$
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"#1

At Surat the situation was 2ecoming ri+e for

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Michel uglielmo Torri7 MMughal No2les7 Indian Merchants and the )eginning of the )ritish con8uest in western IndiaB The case of Surat .0*6,.0*1P, #odern )sian Studies7 /"7 "7 .11'$ $S$Sardesai7 Peshwa ,aftar, no$ "&7 o+$cit$7 passim. Stavorinus III7 o+$cit$7 %$ /0< M$Torri7 o+$cit$7 %$ 01.$

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another ma!or change$ >ith the succession of Sidi Ahmad =han and his reckless 2eha-iour there was a fall,out 2etween him and Ali Nawa4 =han$ It seems that the Sidi at this time was trying to 2ring Mian Achhind 2ack at Surat$ 3e had in-ited Achhind6s son to stay at his Castle at Surat in No.0*'$".# The 3awab therefore sought %eshwa6s hel+ to oust the Sidi$ At the same time Mian Achhind7 who was already under the %eshwa6s +atronage collected a large army and ad-anced u+on Surat$ 3e could ca+ture (ander Fthe twin +ort of Surat and of lesser im+ortanceG$ 3e later con8uered Surat itself from Ali Nawa4 khan$ >ith Ali Nawa4 khan a++lying for %eshwa6s hel+7 the %eshwa tried to sto+ Achhind from going to Surat$ 3e was howe-er on the mo-e and did not sto+ u+on getting the instructions$ The )ritish7 on their +art forwarded the argument that the merchants of the city had a++lied for English hel+ against the 5tyranny6 of the Sidi$ The English themsel-es were not free from a2use and monetary e9actions$ )esides7 the +eo+le under their +rotection were ill,treated$".. Dohn S+encer had succeeded Ellis as Surat Chief in early .0*1$ Immediately7 two of Achhind6s officers a++roached the English Chief re8uesting him to take o-er the castle$ These officers were Sidi Dafar and >alliullah$ They were 2oth wealthy and a++rehensi-e that their wealth could 2ecome the reason of their ruin$ The condition for their su++ort was that Aaras =han 2e made the 3awab or at least the Nai2 3awab$"." To ensure success in this -enture the English also entered into an agreement with the %eshwa to oust the Sidi$"./ The %eshwa7 on his +art was keen to continue the
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$S$Sardesai7 Peshwa ,aftar no$ "&7 o+$cit$7 ;t$ "#&7 %+$ "#&,"#*$ Stavorinus III7 %$ /6$ $>$Aorrest7 o+$cit$7 ColB II7 %$ **$ Stavorinus, o+$cit$7 %+$ &1,*#$

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friendly relations with )om2ay in the wake of the !oint Anglo,Maratha action against the forts of :nderi and Ci!aydurg in the Deccan and against the re2ellious Angrias on the west coast$".& Aollowing these arrangements the English were ready for action$ The Aactory Chief at Surat decided to go on,2oard7 as on +re-ious occasions7 to make the im+act felt$ Although this action was +redetermined they needed a +rete9t$ Therefore a Damadar was sent to the Sidi6s Dar2ar to make re+resentation of the insults that were meted out to the English$ 3a-ing come to know of English +lans the Sidi attem+ted to sto+ the vakils of the Aactory7 Edul and Nasserwan!i7 from !oining the English factors on 2oard$ This was used as a +rete9t 2y the English to commence action$".* )y chance the 3awab6s family had !ust then reached Surat from )om2ay -ia Sea,route$ The chief ke+t his 5Eenana6 on 2oard as a security against in!ury to the factory and to Mr$ Erskine$ Meanwhile Mian Achhind made fer-ent a++eals to the %eshwa to take control of the city 2efore the English do$".6 The %eshwa stayed neutral in the face of criticism of his +olicy from his own +eo+le$".0 On the other hand the )ritish at Surat were waiting for reinforcements from )om2ay 2efore commencing the hostilities$".' >ith the arri-al of the )ritish troo+s there was much alarm in the town$ The Sidi detached himself from the 3awab and +re+ared to fight$ Achhind was a++rehensi-e of the English7 as they would
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$S$Sardesai7 Peshwa ,aftar7 No$ "&7 o+$cit$7 +assim$ G;- I,%$./"$ $S$Sardesai7 Peshwa ,aftar no$ "&7 o+$cit$7 ;t$ "/#7 %+$ "//,"/&$ It seems that simultaneous negotiations were 2eing carried on 2y the %eshwa6s officers to take o-er Surat town during this time as well7 2ut the %eshwa seems to ha-e refused to use force against the English in this instance$ Peshwa ,aftar no$ "&7 ;t$ "/&7 %+$ "/0,"/'$ G;- I7 +$ ./0$

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su++ort Aaras =han instead of him$ The )ritish took +ossession of the outer wall$ Due to the insistence of >alliullah and Sidi Dafar it was agreed to make Aaras =han the 3aib@ 3awab instead of 3awab$ An agreement was reached 2etween the 3awab and the English through which the Makai gate leading into the inner town was o+ened u+ and the )ritish troo+s took control of the Castle$ The Sidi threw himself at the mercy of the English without gi-ing a fight$".1 The castle and the tanka +assed into )ritish hands on *th March .0*1$""# Thus Surat 2ecame the first territorial +ossession of the English East India Com+any +ro-iding a 2ase for their su2se8uent e9+ansion in the region$

CON#UEST OF BHARUCH The +argana of )haruch was one of the fertile sarkars of u!arat$ The +ort town of )haruch was an im+ortant centre of coastal and internal trade during this +eriod$ It was ruled 2y a 3awab7 who owed allegiance earlier to the Ni4am of 3ydera2ad and since the mid,century7 he ac8uired the sanad from the Mughal Em+eror$ The countryside of )haruch was considered -ery fertile and suita2le for cotton +roduction$ Much of the cotton +roduced in this region came from this area$ )riefly let us look at the rise of )haruch 3awabi 2efore its take o-er 2y the East India Com+any$ Aollowing the death of (ustam Ali =han7 %ila!i aekwad occu+ied )haruch$ 3e could hold it only for nine months$ The
219 220

I2id$ %$.*#$ I2id$ %+$ .*#,.*.$

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@as2ati"". troo+s that were left to garrison it su2mitted the town to one A2dullah )eg7 the fau'dar7 so a++ointed 2y Sar2uland =han$ In .0/. A2dullah )eg recei-ed the +atronage of the Ni4am and esta2lished his rule and thus 2ecame the founder of a dynasty$ In .0*' Nek Nam =han o2tained a Mughal sanad7 ado+ted the title of 3awab and freed himself from the tutelage of the Ni4am$"""

Around .0&. Dama!i

aekwad could o2tain a 6#I share in the

re-enues of the +lace$ A Chauthia was left there to collect the share$ The 3awab6s authority 2y then was confined to the town only< the parganas of Ankleshwar7 3ansot7 Ol+ad7 Dam2usar7 etc were in the hands of the Marathas$ In .0*. when Dama!i was com+elled to share his +ossessions with the %eshwa these parganas fell in %eshwa6s hands$ Su2se8uently the kamavisdars were a++ointed 2y the %eshwa$

This situation made the 3awab6s +osition -ulnera2le to a great e9tent$ 3e was always in the danger of 2eing eliminated 2y his more +owerful neigh2ours7 2e it the Marathas7 %eshwa and the aekwad7 or the other 3awabs of Surat and Cam2ay$ 3owe-er the English East India Com+any +ro-ed to 2e the more am2itious one$ The e+isode of )ritish con8uest of )haruch was as sudden as it was une9+ected$ The )ritish had emerged as an im+ortant +ower in south u!arat 2y then$ )haruch was co-eted 2ecause of the rich cotton growing parganas$ Immediate to its con8uest it was also contem+lated to e9change this area with Salsette7 )assein7 etc$""/ The latter
221 222 223

Aor a descri+tion of the Aasbatis see the second and si9th cha+ters$ #irat7 %$ 0/#$ D$3$ ense and D$($)ana!i FedG7 The Third <nglish <mbassy to Poona comprising

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+laces su++lied )om2ay with its necessities and were considered to 2e im+ortant for its sustenance$ The %eshwa was keen to ha-e )haruch7 as it was strategically im+ortant7 situated as it was 2etween Malwa and The deal could not 2e made$ u!arat$

The reason for the desire to con8uer )haruch on +art of the Com+any ser-ants is well descri2ed 2y Mr$ Tayler$ It goes like thisB

JM -roach is the key to the rich kingdom of Gu'arat where most of our <urope investment is provided, and from whence all the best cotton is brought for the consumption of India and 6hina. -ehind Gu'arat lie the extensive provinces of )'mer and +aisalmer, which formerly took up a large .uantity of our woolens and other <uropean 6ommoditiesMKEE=

There is an am2iguity in our sources as to why the )ritish wanted to con8uer this 3awabi7 es+ecially in -iew of the fact that later )om2ay %residency tried to e9change it with other areas near )om2ay$ The only information that we get in this conte9t is that around .00# Aatehsing (ao aekwad attem+ted to e-en anne9 the re-enue share of the nawab Fleft to the nawab as +er the earlier agreementG$ 3e wanted to control )haruch so as to sto+ o-ind (ao aekwad from gaining a foothold in the region$ The chief of English factory at Surat Dames (yley a++rehended that the aekwad
#ostyn!s ,iary sept! %FFE@2eb! %FF=and #ostyn!s :etters, )om2ay7 .1/&7 FNow onwards Mostyn6s DiaryG7 ;t$ dt$ "6th Danuary7 .00/7 %+$ '.,'/ L I2id$ %+$ ./.,./"$ G;- II7 %$ .#'$

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would 2ecome more +owerful in the region7 if he got control of )haruch$""* 3e therefore +ro+osed taking o-er )haruch in the name of Surat 3awab$ 3e also assured his higher authorities that such a ste+ would not 2e 8uestioned 2y the other +owers since the Surat 3awab also was a Mughal7 deri-ing his legitimacy from Delhi$ )eing in the Treaty with the Com+any7 )haruch could 2e safely entrusted to him$""6

On the 2asis of this ad-ice and information the )om2ay authorities authori4ed Dames (yley to +ut forward a claim to the 52urBa6 FcustomsG of )haruch +ort through the Surat 3awab$""0 Accordingly it was claimed that the fau'dar of )haruch was earlier under Surat go-ernment6s authority$ Nek Nam =han a++ro+riated this right that 2elonged to Surat$ This de+endence was su++osed to ha-e 2een since the last .*# years and the arrears due since last &# years$ Therefore it was asked of Mua44a4 =han to +ay the arrears of the furBa and hand o-er the future control of the same to the Surat 3awab$""'

It seems that this claim was fictitious or at least unsu++orted 2y any strong e-idence$ During hey days of Mughal Em+ire )haruch was +laced under the !urisdiction of the fau'dar of Surat$ Arom (ustam Ali =han6s time )haruch got detached from Surat$""1 Thus7 the so,called right of the Surat
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I2id$ %+$ ",/ I2id7 %+$ ",/$ I2id7%$ /$ I2id7%$&$ Syed Ma82ool Ahmad7 ) "istory of the 3awabs of -roach based on the Persian manuscript 5#a'mua@i@,a8anish!, Delhi7 .1'*7 %$ .0#$ This manuscri+t is a collection of letters +ertaining to the Nawa2s of )roach and di-ided into four +arts$ Two forms of this te9t has 2een a-aila2le for this study$ The first two +arts has 2een edited and translated 2y Saeed 3asan$ many letters from the other two +arts has 2een translated and re+roduced in the monogra+h entitled 5) "istory of the 3awabs of -roach6$ The im+ortance of these

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3awab was ill defined to say the least$ It only ser-ed as an ali2i to the )ritish who were looking for an o++ortunity to take o-er )haruch$ They com+uted the Amount of arrears at the rate of (s 0#7### +er year which amounted to the total of "' lakh ru+ees$

In addition to this another monetary claim was also made$ This came directly from the Com+any$ In .06& the 3awab of )haruch had entered into a treaty with Mr$ 3odges where2y it was settled that the custom duties were to 2e +aid to the nawab at the rate of .QI on all goods 2elonging to the Com+any and those under the Com+any6s +rotection$ After two to three years to this agreement the 3awab ar2itrarily raised the Duties to "Q I$ The amount of the difference was calculated at the rate of (s$ .7 *#7 ###$ Thus7 the total amount of claims on the 3awab of )haruch came to (s$ /# ;akhs$ The authorities at )om2ay 2elie-ed that this ste+ would intimidate the 3awab who would then 2e amena2le to sign the Su2sidiary Treaty and come under the Com+any6s +rotection$"/# The 3awab on the other hand refused to acknowledge 2oth the claims and attri2uted the demand of the English to the instigation of the 5+eo+le of Surat6$"/. This was immediately followed 2y the first )ritish e9+edition against )haruch$ am2ier was a++ointed as the Commander of the )ritish troo+s$ These troo+s first con8uered the island of Tala!a7 a stronghold of =oli %irates$ It was a fort in the grou+ of Islands in the ulf of Cam2ay$ This +ro-ided a good stand+oint to land the )ritish troo+s and commence action against )haruch$"/" The troo+s were ordered to
translations as a++earing in the second work can 2e ascertained as the original te9t is not known to e9ist in any of the re+ositories$ The second work will now onwards 2e referred to as MD in 3O)$ G;- II7 %+$ &,*$ I2id$ %$/6$ I2id7 %+$ *,6$

230 231 232

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take the sea route in attacking )haruch$

am2ier7 howe-er7 took land route

disregarding the orders$ The e9+edition failed com+letely and Nawa26s men defeated the )ritish troo+s$ In the En8uiry that followed it was noticed that the )ritish lacked -ital information on the fords of the ri-er Narmada7 the strength of 3awab6s army7 the condition of the Aort walls7 etc$"//

To withdraw the troo+s com+letely at that !uncture was thought to 2e disastrous to the military re+utation of the Com+any$ Therefore7 am2ier +ersuaded Mua44a4 =han to send ;allu Das7 his Diwan with two relia2le +ersons to Surat to settle the dis+ute and to offer him some +etty +resents with a re8uest to withdraw the English troo+s$"/& The 3awab on the other hand reali4ed the danger of ha-ing the now +olitically +owerful Com+any as an enemy and sent the said +eo+le to Surat to negotiate on his 2ehalf$ In the negotiations the English at Surat +ro+osed that the 3awab should +ay (s$ &*7ooo annually from the furBa$"/* Mua44a4 =han agreed to this reluctantly on the condition that the English should take it u+on themsel-es to reali4e the customs and the income from the parganas7 deduct the e9+enses and take the remainder towards their demand$"/6 The negotiations did not yield any +ositi-e results$

)y now 2oth the )om2ay authorities and the 3awab were keen to reach a settlement$ The Desais and the ryots were an9ious of another )ritish

233 234 235 236

I2id7 %+$ &",&6$ I2id7 %+$ .1,"#$ #, III7 ;t$.0# in ";-, o+$cit$7 %+$ 61,0#$ I2id7 ;t$ no .0/ in ";-7 o+$cit$7 %$61$

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attack$"/0 The )om2ay authorities on the other hand were re+rimanded for their un!ustified action$"/' Therefore a di+lomatic -isit was made 2y the 3awab to )om2ay7 on in-itation$ )oth +arties howe-er did not trust each other$ The 3awab made +re+arations to defy the English in case of a second attack$ 3e +urchased two cannons and em+loyed some e9+ert %ortuguese musketeers from Diu$ 3e also arranged to kee+ s+ies in the Surat factory and )om2ay as well$"/1 The )om2ay authorities on the other hand instructed their ser-ants7 sent to fetch the 3awab7 to make o2ser-ations regarding all the im+ortant matters needed for con8uest$"&# Their information was recorded minutely and used later in the second e9+edition$ At )om2ay an agreement reached where2y the 3awab agreed to +ay an amount of (s$& ;akhs in res+onse to the demand made on him$ Since he did not ha-e ready money to +ay it was agreed to recei-e half the amount in si9 months and the rest the ne9t year$"&. 3owe-er things did not +ro-e as smooth as it seemed$ The 3awab7 u+on reaching )haruch7 refused to acknowledge many terms of the Agreement$ 3e was to ha-e +ro-ided a suita2le +lace for setting u+ the English factory in )haruch town$ Once Dames Morley7 the commercial resident7 reached there7 the 3awab refused to +ro-ide the +lace$ 3e further insulted him 2y +u2licly refusing to acce+t the +resent sent to the 3awab$ It turned out to 2e a 2ig mistake on 3awab6s +art$ The )om2ay authorities took the whole thing seriously and recalled Morley$ The 3awab6s 2eha-ior7 without dou2t was rash 2ut not unfounded$ The +ro2lem started while the 3awab was in )om2ay itself$ There are two set of sources here7 one from the English +ers+ecti-e and another from 3awab6s +ers+ecti-e$ According to
237 238 239 240 241

G;- II,%$.*$ I2id7 %+$ /#,/.$ #, III7 ;t$.00 in ";-7 %+$ 0.,0/$ G;- II7 %+$ &",&6$ I2id7 %$ *"$

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the English sources while the 3awab was coming 2ack to )haruch form )om2ay he sent his luggage under the care of his agent FmehtaG through the land route$ Although he had asked for a Maratha +ass and the )om2ay %resident had written to %oona for ac8uiring one7 the 3awab did not wait for the same$ It so ha++ened that while the luggage was +assing through the Maratha controlled areas near Surat7 the Maratha kamavisdar Naga- (am sei4ed the luggage and im+risoned the caretaker and his men$ The 3awab made re+eated re8uests to the %resident to hel+ him get 2ack his men and things from the Marathas and asserted that it was according to the terms of the Agreement of +rotecting mutual interests$"&" )ut the %resident +aid no heed$ The e9+lanation gi-en 2y the English was that since the 3awab did not wait for the arri-al of Maratha Pass from %oona it was not their res+onsi2ility$

The e-idence from the 3awabi sources7 howe-er7 gi-es a com+letely different -ersion of the e-ents$ According to these sources the luggage of the 3awab was interce+ted while it was on its way to )om2ay and not while coming 2ack as recorded in the English sources$ It further informs that this +arty was going through the land route on the ad-ice of the %resident of )om2ay$ The latter is also said to ha-e desired to interfere in the matter while the 3awab was at )om2ay itself 2ut was sto++ed 2y the 3awab who did not want to create hostilities 2etween the %eshwa and the English$ 3e further assured the %resident to order his men to get 2ack to )haruch and refer to the %resident in case the matter did not sol-e with that$ "&/ On his return to )haruch the 3awab set out to tackle the matter himself$ 3e went to
242 243

I2id7 %+$ 60,6'$ #, III7 ;t$ "#' in ";- %+$ 1',.##$

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3ansot with the intention of redressing his losses$ 3e simultaneously +ursued di+lomatic route as well$ 3e sought the hel+ of Aatehsing (ao aekwad and wrote to the English %resident as well$ Ainally7 the matter was settled with the hel+ of Aatehsing6s interference$"&& After ' months of ca+ti-ity his men were released and the 3awab +aid (s$ *7"## for their maintenance$"&* The 3awab also resented the fact that the English factory at )haruch was +ut under the authority of Surat factory and not directly under )om2ay$"&6

>hate-er the cause may ha-e 2een7 the )om2ay Council took the Nawa26s defiant attitude seriously$ )haruch was attacked for the second time and in a short time taken 2y the )ritish forces under >edder2urn on .'th No-em2er7 .00"$ The 3awab fled to the =oli chief of Dehwan7 who +ro-ided refuge to him$ The 3awab died within a short while to this e-ent$ 3is son Mumta4 =han7 under the direction of the =oli Chief Ealim Dalia7 attem+ted to attack the town su2se8uently 2ut was re+ulsed 2y the )ritish garrison$ )haruch +assed successfully into )ritish +ossession7 later to 2e gi-en o-er to the Sindhia$

The )ritish occu+ation of )haruch 2rought the )om2ay %residency more closely into the +ower dynamics of the region7 a +rocess that 2egan almost immediately with the commencement of the first Anglo,Maratha war$ u!arat was the theatre of the ma!or action of this +rolonged war$
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I2id7 ;t$"&/ in ";-, %$."/< "S-S @II7 ;tB /#7 %B .0/< G;- II7 %$ 6'$ I2id7 ;t$ "*. in ";-, %$ ."/$ G;- II7 %$ 0"$

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FIRST ANGLO$MARATHA WAR IN GUJARAT

The Maratha war 2egan as an internal disru+tion in the Maratha %olity at %oona$ It was a struggle for the office of %eshwa amongst the ri-al factions of the Marathas at %oona com+rising the -arbhai or the 5Ministerial %arty6 against the +retensions of (aghunath (ao F(agho2aG7 2rother of earlier %eshwa7 )ala!i )a!i (ao$ $S$ Sardesai and rant Duff ha-e gi-en details of this e+isode$"&0 According to them7 (aghunath (ao was accused of ha-ing assassinated Narayan (ao %eshwa7 u+on whose death (aghunath (ao came to +ower$ 3e was known to ha-e earlier made similar attem+ts with Madha- (ao %eshwa7 2ut he +ro-ed stronger$ Narayan (ao was weak$ 3e was killed sometime in .00&$ Once this charge was +ro-ed7 the ministers at %oona known as -arbhais formed a league to o++ose (agho2a. They started military action against (agho2a who was then encam+ed in =arnatak$ :+on getting the news he !oined Sindhia and 3olkar in )urhan+ur +lanning defence$ Sindhia and 3olkar entered into negotiations on his 2ehalf7 trying to secure fa-oura2le terms for (agho2a with the -arbhais$ At a2out the same time a son was 2orn to Narayan (ao +osthumously$ 3e was unanimously declared to 2e the ne9t %eshwa and the -arbhais 2ecame strengthened$ (agho2a7 on the other hand7 o+ened negotiations with the )om2ay %residency through the Surat factory chief (o2ert the Marathas$
247

am2ier$ This was the

2eginning of )ritish interference in what was otherwise an internal war of

rant Duff7 o+$cit$7 Col$ II7 %$ "#& onwards$ $ S$ Sardesai7 3ew "istory of the #arathas, Col III7 )om2ay7 .1&'7 %+$ 6/,''$

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In the Course of the se+arate negotiations7 2eing conducted 2y Sindhia and 3olkar7 they secretly agreed to hand o-er (agho2a to the -arbhais$ (ecei-ing this news (agho2a immediately fled to the -icinity of )aroda to !oin o-ind (ao aekwad who had 2y then 2esieged Aatehsing aekwad in the confines of )aroda fort$ o-ind (ao was a +artisan and staunch aekwad contest for +ower in aekwad su++ort to aekwad in .06'

su++orter of (agho2a$ It was to (agho2a that he owed his +resent +osition$ It 2ecomes im+erati-e here to understand the u!arat in order to a++reciate the significance of the Anglo,(agho2a alliance$ The death of Dama!i (ao 2rought many dis+utes in the

aekwad chieftaincy of )aroda$ Most

im+ortantly the succession dis+ute 2etween two of his sons +ro-ed detrimental to the +ower this +rinci+ality held in the larger Maratha %olity$ In .06' the last of the 2attles for su+remacy was fought 2etween the %eshwa and the aekwad$ Dama!i (ao refused to +ay the tri2ute due to the %eshwa o-ind (ao aekwad7 his son7 was taken as that led to this 2attle known as -attle of ,hodap$ Dama!i (ao was defeated 2y Madha- (ao %eshwa and hostage to %oona$ Almost immediately Dama!i (ao died$ Dama!i (ao had fi-e sons from two wi-es$ Saya!i (ao was the eldest< Aatehsing was his 2rother and Mana!i (ao still younger$ o-ind (ao on the other hand was the son of the eldest wife though younger to Saya!i (ao$ 3is 2rother was Malhar (ao$ Thus 2oth Saya!i (ao with Aatehsing (ao as his regent and o-ind (ao laid claim to the Gadi of )aroda$ At that time the claim of Saya!i (ao and Aatehsing (ao was acce+ted 2y Madha- (ao %eshwa and the claims of o-ind (ao also was admitted with the interference of Sindhia who +atroni4ed him$ o-ind (ao was assigned the military duties7 as a +art of the

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aekwad6s res+onsi2ility towards the %eshwa7 his o-erlord$ Aatehsing (ao was gi-en the ci-il administration of his +ossessions in words7 o-ind (ao was ke+t out of u!arat$ In other u!arat and his chance of getting o-ind (ao with "7### men o-ind (ao o-ind (ao

+ossession of his ancestral +atrimony was nullified$ >hen (agho2a came to +ower he re-ersed the decision and +ro-ided and some guns for his con8uest of thus attacked u!arat$ 3e also ga-e to

letters addressed to the English$"&' This was in Danuary .00&$ aekwad +ossessions in South

u!arat starting from Songadh$

3e had re+laced Aatehsing (ao6s Chauthias with his own in all these areas and had 2esieged )aroda when (agho2a !oined him$

(agho2a o+ened negotiations with the English at Surat through Narottam Das7 his agent$ (o2ert am2ier7 the chief of Surat7 was authori4ed 2y the %resident of )om2ay to undertake these negotiations$ In return of )om2ay6s alliance7 (agho2a was asked to cede certain territories around )om2ay -i4$7 Salsette7 )assein7 =aran!a7 etc$ (agho2a who attached much im+ortance to these strategic +laces around )om2ay refused to cede them$ In its +lace cession of certain areas around Surat and )haruch was agreed u+on$"&1 The )om2ay authorities were -ery keen to 2ring a2out this alliance formally and in their fa-our for which am2ier +romised monetary and territorial rewards to Narottam Das7 the agent$"*# The draft of the Treaty that was desired to 2e concluded 2etween the two +arties had to 2e re-ised se-eral times 2ecause of technicalities$ Aor instance7 )om2ay 8uestioned the authority of (agho2a in alienating the territories and re-enues of Surat and
248 249 250

G;- II7 %$ .01$ I2id$ %$ "#1$ I2id$ %$ "."$

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)haruch7 which 2elonged to the aekwads and (agho2a e-en as the %eshwa lacked the necessary authority to gi-e it away$"*. It was desired that he should o2tain the grant of these +laces from the aekwad family and am2ier transfer the same to the com+any$"*" In concluding the negotiations

had e9+ressed orders to make sure that the 5territories to 2e had6 was to 2e con-eniently situated for administering7 and of the -alue of (s$ .'Q lakhs$"*/

In the meanwhile7

o-ind (ao and (agho2a had to raise the siege of

)aroda as Aatehsing (ao recei-ed reinforcements from %oona$ >ith this o-ind (ao lost all the ad-antages he had gained in the last months$ "*& 3owe-er7 2efore this information reached )om2ay7 the authorities had resol-ed to hel+ (agho2a on ""nd Danuary .00*$"** In a skirmish with the ministerial forces (agho2a was defeated mainly 2ecause of the defection of his Ara2 forces$ 3e immediately fled to Cam2ay a++rehending general defection of his forces$ 3e demanded the +rotection of the English (esident at Cam2ay 2ut the 3awab refused to admit him$ 3e therefore fled to )ha-nagar from where he was sent to Surat$"*6 The Treaty of Surat was signed 2etween the English and (agho2a in March .00*$ In the final negotiation the English could o2tain the territories of )assein and its de+endencies7 Salsette and its de+endencies7 =enery7 Ele+hanta and 3og Island$ In reater and ;ittle =aran!a7 u!arat (agho2a granted the

%eshwa6s share of Dam2usar7 Ol+ad7 3ansot7 Ankleshwar etc to the

251 252 253 254 255 256

I2id7 %+$ ".6,".0$ I2id$ I2id$ %+$ "/.,"/"$ I2id$ %+$ ""1,"/# $ I2id$ %$"/.$ I2id$ %$"&*$

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English$"*0 3e also +romised to +rocure necessary sanads for the

aekwad6s

share of re-enues from )haruch town and parganas$"*' >ith this7 the English troo+s entered the 2attleground with Thomas =eating as the commander$

It was also thought that Aatehsing (ao should 2e induced to !oin the Anglo,(agho2a alliance$ It was +ro+osed 2y )om2ay to induce Aatehsing (ao to desert the -arbhais cause$ 3e was +ercei-ed as the soul of the o++osing +arty as without him the -arbhais would 2e lost7 not knowing the local fords and roads$ It was also +ro+osed to 2ring a2out an accommodation 2etween the two 2rothers7 o-ind (ao and Aatehsing (ao aekwad$ Territorial di-isions for the same were also +ro+osed 2y the English factors$"*1 To this7 Aatehsing also re+lied +ositi-ely$"6# It was re+orted that the -arbhais did not trust him$"6. )ecause of the )ritish in-ol-ement the aekwad contest was su2sumed within the larger +ower struggle in the region$

Se-eral factors were res+onsi2le for the commencement of this war$ It was not !ust a struggle of (agho2a to gain +ower 2ut also of the )om2ay %residency$ The )om2ay %residency had to a++ly for financial su++ort to )engal for its sustenance$ This was an o++ortunity for )om2ay to augment its resources through territorial cessions7 which could make it self,sufficient$
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I2id$ *th Article in the Treaty of Surat7 %$ "*#$ I2id$ 6th Article in the Treaty of Surat$ I2id$ %+$ "60,"61$ I2id$ I2id$ A Note 2y the English agent Shankar Mall$

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The ad-antages to 2e had from the cessions made 2y (agho2a are e9+ressed 2y )om2ay council to >arren 3astings in these wordsB

JMThe compact and the convenient situation of the several parganas with respect to our settlements of Surat and -haruch will enable us to collect the revenues with little expense, and a very small addition to the garrisons at those places will be .uite sufficient for their defense. The evenues will defray the expenses and provide the investment of this

presidency. The 6ompany will possess many valuable articles of 6ommerce within their own territories, and be able greatly to extend the sale of wollens and other staples of Great -ritain. /e have been some 0time1 in peaceable possession of all the ceded territories except -assein. The revenues are collecting without any difficultyMKECE

The income arising from the limited territories under the control of )om2ay and the trade 2eing carried on7 although e9tensi-e7 was not enough for meeting the e9+enses$ Therefore the necessity to enlarge its territories was felt 2y the )om2ay authorities since .06' since which time additions were made to the fortifications and the military esta2lishment was increased$"6/ According to later English source two moti-es had induced the )ritish to interfere in the Maratha affairs$ )om2ay needed to ha-e control of Salsette for its e9istence and the danger from the Arench who might ha-e 2ecome a threat with stronger su++ort on the west coast$ The English wanted
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I2id7 %$/"&$ English East India Coma+any7 )n "istorical account of the settlement and possession of -ombay, ;ondon7 .0'.7 %+$ ',1$

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Marathas on their side since the Maratha su++ort could ha-e 2een decisi-e$"6&

3owe-er7 the Calcutta authorities were not in fa-our of action against the Marathas$ >arren 3astings du22ed the ste+s taken 2y )om2ay as 5im+olitic7 dangerous7 unauthori4ed and un!ust6 and the Treaty with (agho2a was declared in-alid$ It seems that Calcutta was attem+ting to assert its +osition as the Su+reme authority of the )ritish East India Com+any in India o-er the other two +residencies$ It was recently -ested with this +ower through the (egulating Act of .00/$ The troo+s were ordered to 2e recalled and their intention of sending an Em2assy to %oona to o+en fresh negotiations was declared 2y Calcutta$"6* Colonel :+ton was accordingly sent to %oona$ At the same time the cession of )haruch re-enues made 2y Aatehsing (ao7 districts of Chikli7 Caria- and =oral were ordered to 2e retained till a definiti-e treaty was concluded with %oona$"66 It seems that the English treated their relations with Aatehsing (ao as 2eing se+arate from the (agho2a alliance$ Aatehsing (ao attached himself with the English with the ho+e that they would 2ring an understanding with o-ind (ao$ 3e also made -arious territorial cessions to +lease them like the )haruch re-enues7 -illages of =oral7 )atta7 etc$"60 Aatehsing (ao was ready to gi-e .?/rd of his +ossessions to o-ind (ao to 2ring the struggle for authority amongst the o-ind (ao was not satisfied$ 3e withdrew aekwad to an end$ 3owe-er7
264

his su++ort to (agho2a and took to de+redations$"6' After much

265 266 267 268

>$>$3unter7 The Imperial GaBetteer of India@The Indian <mpire, Col$ II,3istorical7 ;ondon7 .1#07 %$&&"$ G;- II7 %+$ "1*,"16$ I2id$ %+$ /"",/"/$ I2id$ %+$ /.# L /"/$ I2id$ %+$ /..,/."$

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+rocrastination

o-ind (ao acce+ted the terms +ro+osed 2y Aatehsing

through Col$ =eating and an accommodation was reached7"61 though the Maratha sources inform us that he was not satisfied$ 3e contacted the ministerial +arty$ 3e was then assured of their +rotection and was induced to take an oath of allegiance to the infant %eshwa$"0# In .006 the Treaty of %urandhar was signed and the )om2ay authorities were re8uired to dis2and (agho2a6s army and deli-er him to %oona$

The >ar with the Marathas was howe-er renewed following the re+orts of the tri+artite alliance in south 2etween 3yderAli7 Ni4am and the Marathas at %oona$ The %oona ministers s+ecifically demanded the relin8uishment of Salsette and handing o-er of (agho2a to get out of the a2o-e anti,)ritish alliance$"0. This was not acce+ta2le to the English$ >ith the recommencement of >ar in No-em2er .0017 +olitical and military +owers 2y the o-ernor eneral oddard was assigned the duties of leading the )ritish troo+s and he was gi-en 2oth eneral7 >arren 3astings$ It aekwad chief7 which was suggested 2y )om2ay %resident to 2efriend the

would safeguard the northern +ossessions of the English territories$"0" Action was commenced on /rd Dan .0'#7 with the English Chief of )haruch taking control of the %eshwa6s parganas of Ankleshwar and 3ansot$ The kamavisdars called for aid from Aatehsing (ao who did not seem to ha-e res+onded$"0/ On "6th Dan .0'# the Treaty of =undhela was signed 2etween en$
269 270 271 272 273 274

oddard on 2ehalf of the East India Com+any and Aatehsing (ao$"0&

I2id$ %$/"#$ $S$Sardesai7 Peshwa ,aftar no. GC7 o+$cit7 %$ "'1$ G;- III$ %$ &"$ I2id$ %+$ /6,/0$ I2id$ %+$ *0,*'$ I2id7 %$6#$

107

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Amongst other things Aatehsing (ao acce+ted the su4erainty of the )ritish7 which freed him com+letely from the tutelage of the %eshwa$ It was further sti+ulated to share the territories in u!arat with the %eshwa6s +ossessions to the North of Mahi falling into Aatehsing (ao6s share and the aekwad6s share of the Surat re-enues and other areas south of Ta+i falling into the control of the )ritish$"0* ;ater7 Ahmada2ad was ca+tured 2y the !oint forces of en$ oddard and Aatehsing (ao$"06 It was gi-en to the charge of oddard shrewdly confined his military Aatehsing (ao$ This ac8uisition manifested the su+erior +osition of the English in this +art of the country$ actions to such areas as were the +ossessions of Aatehsing (ao and there2y +rotected the )ritish areas of )haruch and Surat from the effects of war$"00 The theatre of war from now onwards turned to =onkan from u!arat$ )y Decem2er .0'#7 howe-er7 +eace was esta2lished 2etween the Marathas and the English for tackling the rising +ower of their mutual enemy7 3aider Ali in the South$ The Treaty of Sal2ai was concluded where2y the gains made 2y the )om2ay %residency were lost com+letely$ Aatehsing (ao re-erted 2ack to his +re-ious status of -assalage to the %eshwa$ In addition7 he lost his share of )haruch6s re-enues also$ )haruch was gi-en as gift to the English 2y the barbhais in consideration of signing the Treaty of Sal2ai$ The English in turn ga-e it to Sindhia as he was instrumental in 2ringing a2out the a2o-e agreement$ >ith this7 the am2itions of financial inde+endence 2y )om2ay %residency and the Aatehsing (ao6s dream of freeing himself from %eshwa6s tutelage7 2oth were ended$ It was as much a loss to )om2ay as it was to the aekwad$ It could 2e gathered that )om2ay6s interests were sacrificed for the sake of the larger am2ition of the English in India$
275 276 277

I2id$ %$*6$ I2id$ %$66$ I2id$ %$ '"$

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3owe-er7 this turn of e-ents did not end the friendshi+ 2etween the aekwad and the )om2ay %residency$ On the other hand an informal alliance was continued 2etween the two$ In fact the English Com+any 2ecame a third +arty to the +olitical relations 2etween the %eshwa and the aekwad through a clause in the Treaty of Sal2ai where2y the English reser-ed the right to interfere in the e-ent of attem+ts to encroach on the territories of the aekwad +rinci+ality 2y the %oona authorities$ This was manifested when Aatehsing (ao died and Mana!i (ao was a++ointed the regent in his +lace 2y %oona$ Nana Aadna-is demanded the cession of aekwad chauth of Surat as a +rice for Mana!i (ao6s succession$ At this time Charles Malet7 the English resident at %oona7 +rom+tly inter-ened reminding the %oona administration of the a2o-e article$ The matter ended there itself$ Thus all these factors contri2uted towards cementing the relations 2etween the aekwads and the Com+any$ In .'#",#/ )aroda a++lied for military hel+ from )om2ay to 8uell a serious internal distur2ance7 which led the English to esta2lish their su+erior +ower at )aroda and there2y e9+and their hegemony in the rest of u!arat as well$

BARODA

)aroda had 2ecome the seat of su4erain +ower in aekwads$ )y the end of the Century7 the

u!arat under the

aekwads along with the %eshwa

were the acce+ted o-erlords in almost all the areas of the region$ This chieftaincy e9+anded its +ower under Dama!i (ao and Aatehsing (ao$ >ith the death of o-ind (ao in .'##7 howe-er7 the fortunes of this dynasty took

109

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low e22$ The internal dissensions mainly resulting from the factional fights and court +olitics created insta2ility facilitating the interference of the English$ The English East India Com+any7 2y this time had ac8uired a definite +olitical character$ The defeat and death of Ti+u Sultan had added considera2le influence to the +osition of the )om2ay %residency$ They now saw the way to fulfilling their am2itions that were retarded 2y the Treaty of Sal2ai$ The e+isode of the esta2lishment of )ritish su+eriority at )aroda is to 2e seen in this conte9t$

On the e-e of )ritish interference in this chieftaincy there were mainly three +owerful indigenous factions at )aroda7 =anho!i (ao7 (ao!i A++a!i and the Ara2 sibandis$ In Se+tem2er .'## Anand (ao his father =anho!i (ao minister under aekwad succeeded o-ind (ao7 on the latter6s death$ Anad(ao was of a weak aekwad"0'7 his illegitimate 2rother$ 3e worked as a regent$ o-ind (ao$ 3e had his own am2itions$ The third +arty was aekwad kingdom$ The Shroffs who

+ersonality$ Therefore7 the administrati-e management was taken o-er 2y )esides him there was one (ao!i A++a!i F(ao2aG who was an influential of the Ara2 Si2andis"01 who were organi4ed into grou+s and were in control of all the city gates and forts of the defrayed their salaries in turn controlled them$

278

=anho!i (ao is generally referred to as illegitimate in the English sources$ 3owe-er7 strictly s+eaking he was not illegitimate$ 3e was an offs+ring of o-ind (ao6s wife who was the daughter of a =oli chieftain$ Amongst the Marathas such wi-es did not en!oy the same status as the Maratha +rincesses$ Therefore7 such an offs+ring also was not acce+ted as the rightful heir$ =anho!i (ao was an am2itious man and had re2elled against his father three times in his father6s lifetime itself$ Aor a detail account of the role of the Ara2 Si2andis in the +ower +olitics of )aroda and the )ritish %olicy to oust them7 see (ashmi )atchu7 The )rab Sibandis at -aroda and the -ritish Policy towards them %&??@%&?G, %I3C 6'th Session7 "##'7 Delhi$

279

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111

=anho!i (ao u+on assuming the reigns of the go-ernment7 attem+ted to 2ring some sem2lance organi4ation to the finances of the chieftaincy$ A large +art of the e9+enses was de-oted to the maintenance of the mercenaries$ =anho!i (ao6s measures were mainly aimed at reducing this e9+enditure$ The Ara2 Damadars7 unha++y with this mo-e7 cons+ired and im+risoned =anho!i (ao and +laced him under the su+er-ision of their own guards$"'# In his +lace they 2rought (ao2a to +ower as Diwan$ :+on (ao2a6s assuming go-ernment he was confronted with the same +ro2lems$ Ousting the Ara2s was 2eyond his means$ Airstly they were in control of all the forts and city walls including that of )aroda$ Secondly7 =anho!i was ke+t under their control and could 2e used to re+lace (ao2a if they wanted$"'. In the meanwhile Malhar (ao of =adi had risen in re2ellion$ 3e was the uncle of Anand (ao and a minor +arallel line of the aekwad chieftain$ The aekwads of =adi were a aekwads in u!arat$ =hande (ao7 2rother of Dama!i

(ao7 had increased aekwad influence in the Central and North u!arat as a de+uty of Dama!i (ao$ Therefore7 Dama!i (ao ga-e him a !agir of Nadiad7 =adi and a few other +laces$ 3e was re8uired to +ay an annual naBrana and 2e a -assal of )aroda$ Malhar (ao was his son and successor$ 3e had risen in re2ellion in su++ort of =anho!i (ao and the force sent to tackle him under )a2a!i was defeated 2y Malhar (ao$ 3e had taken the towns of Cisnagar and Ci!a+ur and it was re+orted that he was marching to take Ahmeda2ad as well$"'" The Ara2s had refused to march against him7 as it meant lea-ing )aroda$ At this !uncture (ao2a asked for troo+s from the )ritish7 as e-en the %eshwa6s troo+s were not on hand$ %eshwa had farmed his re-enues to the
280 281 282

G;- I(7 %$ ."0$ I2id$ %$""$ I2id$ %+$ ."0,."' L .0$

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112

aekwad in .'##$ Therefore whole of the region was then under the administration of the Ara2s$"'& aekwads$
"'/

Thus7 to secure his own +osition as

Diwan7 (ao2a in-ited the English to take control of )aroda7 2y ousting the

It was to 8uell the distur2ance created 2y Malhar (ao that Ale9andar >alker was sent to )aroda in Danuary .'#"$ The formal reason of his -isit was to offer condolence to Anand (ao on the death of Surat chauth and the pargana of Chikli 2y the o-ind (ao$ This -isit7 >alker e9+lained7 was delayed 2ecause of the delay in the grant of the aekwad go-ernment$"'* >alker was gi-en the charge of commanding the troo+s"'6 sent against Malhar (ao and was later made the first )ritish (esident at )aroda$ :+on their arri-al7 the )ritish had to confront the Ara2s who had 2ecome all, +owerful$ Two Treaties were concluded 2etween the Com+any and the aekwads where2y the )ritish were acce+ted as the +aramount authority 2y )aroda$ The first was signed on 'th March .'#" at Cam2ay 2etween (ao2a on 2ehalf of the aekwad ruler and the English %resident of )om2ay7 Donathan Duncan"'0$ In the "nd article of this agreement it was sti+ulated to reduce the Ara2 si2andis through the coo+eration of the )ritish and to +ermanently su2sidi4e from the Com+any a force of a2out "### se+oys and a com+any of Euro+ean artillery and its +ro+ortion of lascars with an estimated e9+ense of (s$ 6*7ooo +er month$ It was further agreed to kee+ this clause secret till the end of the =adi re2ellion$"'' Another treaty was
283 284 285 286 287 288

I2id$ %$*/$ I2id$ /"$ I2id7 %$ .&'$ I2id$ %$..*$ I2id$ %$"'.$ I2id$ %$"'.$

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entered into on 6th Dune .'#" and the )ritish were acce+ted as the +aramount +ower at )aroda$"'1 It was agreed +ri-ately 2etween the Com+any and (ao2a where2y the English assured (ao2a that the +ost of diwan would +ermanently reside in the latter6s family$ A Sanad was duly issued$"1#

In the armed action that followed7 Malhar (ao was defeated and his 'agir confiscated$"1. ;ater he fled to Saurashtra and continued with his re2ellious acti-ities against the aekwad administration$ >ith the end of =adi re2ellion7 >alker and (ao2a together dis2anded the Ara2 Si2andis of )aroda"1" and the )ritish authority was firmly entrenched in )aroda$ In .'#* a single treaty called the Definiti-e Treaty was concluded 2etween the two in +lace of the multi+le treaties signed earlier$ This made the alliance more definite and firm$ >ith the esta2lishment of the )ritish +ower o-er )aroda the )ritish were +laced in an ad-antageous +osition to e9tend their direct influence in the rest of the region as well$

SAURASHTRA AND NORTH$EAST GUJARAT

The Marathas7

aekwad and %eshwa7 were !ointly the acce+ted u!arat

o-erlords of the -arious chieftaincies in Saurashtra and North,east

289 290

regions$"1/ These +rinci+alities were lia2le to +ay an annual tri2ute khandani

I2id$ %$ &.#$ )$A$ u+te FedG7 Selections from the "istorical ecords of the "ereditary #inisters of -aroda, Calcutta7 .1""7 %$/*$ G;- I(7 %$ /06$ This e+isode has 2een treated in detail in the last cha+ter$ The North,east region of u!arat consists of se-eral small +rinci+alities generally referred to as #ewasi 2ecause of the recalcitrant nature of the inha2itants$ It mainly consists of

291 292 293

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to the o-erlord$ 3owe-er this tri2ute was not easily forthcoming and the Marathas had to carry out annual e9+editions called #ulkgiri to collect the same$ The amount of the tri2ute was decided according to the resistance +ower of the tri2ute +aying +arty$ The more +owerful +rinci+alities always +aid less$ It was also a 8uestion of honour with these +rinci+alities to not +ay the tri2ute$ )y the agreement of .0*" the tri2ute due from these areas were e8ually di-ided 2etween the %eshwa and the aekwad$ E-en then7 their res+ecti-e territories were minutely inters+ersed$ Since Aatehsing (ao6s time the %eshwa6s share of the tri2ute of Mahi,=antha was gi-en in I!ara to the aekwads$"1& Since .'## whole of the re-enue of the %eshwa in u!arat was assigned to the their 2ase here$ aekwads$ Thus7 effecti-ely the aekwads were the sole o-erlords of the region$ Therefore it was easier for the )ritish to e9+and

the (ewa,=antha7 Mahi,=antha7 Sa2ar,=antha7 etc areas7 each under a s+ecific administrati-e agency during the )ritish rule$ ;ying to the e9treme north,east corner of the )om2ay %residency7 the Mahi,=antha was 2ounded on north 2y Sirohi and Mewar7 on the east 2y Dungar+ur7 on west 2y ;una-ada and =adi district and on the south 2y the (ewa =antha states of ;una-ada and )alasinor$ It included the ma!or +rinci+alities of Idar7 (eh-ar7 Catrak,=antha7 Sa2ar,=antha7 )a-isi and =otasan$ D$M$Cam+2ell FedG7 -om.Pres.GaB@ #ahi *antha, -ol,C7 )om2ay7 .''#7 %+$ /**,/*6$ (ewa,kantha is referred to the areas lying on the 2anks of the ri-er Narmada7 2ut it also includes an irregular 2and of territory +assing north from Narmada to Mahi$ )ounded on the north 2y Dungar+ur and )answada7 on the east 2y the su2,di-isions of Dhalod and Dohad in %anch Mahals and +arts of =handesh7 on the south 2y the aekwad territories and the Mand-i su2,di-ision of Surat and on the west 2y Ankleshwar7 )haruch7 godhra7 =alol and +arts of =aira$ ;arger +rinci+alities in this area consisted of Chhota :de+ur7 De-garh )ariya7 Sunth7 ;una-ada and )alasinor$ D$M$Cam+2ell FedG7 -om.Pres.GaB@ ewa *antha,Col$ CI7 .''#7 %$ .$ Saurashtra region was generally referred to as =athiawad in the )ritish sources7 although a distinction is also made 2etween -arious +ro-inces 5prants6 of Saurashtra 2y Ale9ander >alker while dealing s+ecifically with this su2!ect$ /alker@Selections IIIII7 o+$cit$
294

"S-S II7 ;t$ ./7 %$.*'$

114

115

Ale9ander >alker considered the )ritish interference in Saurashtra immediate to the esta2lishment of their influence in )aroda$ The reason for this was an a++lication 2y the =athi chiefs of Cheetal7 Dasdan7 Det+ur7 =ondla7 etc$ in .'#/ seeking English +rotection$ This came as a result of the acti-ities of the )ha-nagar chief e9+anding his territories at the e9+ense of the =athis$ )ha-nagar chief7 >akhatsing had undertaken these acti-ities since the last years of the .'th Century when he had emerged as a +owerful ruler in the -icinity$ This +ro-ed to 2e disastrous to the =athis$ In addition7 the Dam of Nawanagar also had started making fresh le-ies on the =athis$ The =athis were thus on the 2rink of e9tinction$ The )ritish were +ercei-ed as a 2igger +ower ca+a2le of +rotecting them against their mightier neigh2ours$ Thus7 the =athis a++lied for )ritish +rotection$"1* In addition the (a!a of Mor-i FMor2iG also sent his (akil to >alker at )aroda seeking English inter-ention in his 8uarrel with the (a!a of Malia$ Earlier >alker had sent his agent Moul-i Mohammad Ali to Saurashtra to gain information on the state of affairs$ The Moul-i informed >alker of the a++rehensions of all the +rinci+al chiefs7 es+ecially the Dam of Nawanagar7 regarding the English interference in their internal affairs$ 3e tried to dissuade the Mor2i (a!a from taking such a ste+$"16 At the same time the other concerns of the Com+any authorities made them decline further action in this 8uarter$

In .'#& it was +ro+osed 2y >alker to 2egin the +olicy of e9tending English influence in Saurashtra$ A +ro+osition was sought to 2e made to all the tri2ute +aying chieftaincies$ The ones who acce+ted were to recei-e
295 296

/alker@Selections IIIII, %$6&$ I2id$ %$6'$

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+rotection while the ones refusing were to 2e chastised$"10 In the di-ision of the territory so +ossessed7 the Com+any was to ha-e all the forts and seacoast of Saurashtra7 while the aekwad was to 2e assigned territories of the same -alue in the interior$"1' A )ritish esta2lishment in Saurashtra was deemed of great im+ortance for the sake of checking the +iracies that were in!urious to the commerce of )om2ay$ The +ossession of the Coast would also ha-e ena2led them to e9tend their commercial and +olitical influence to the mouth of Indus$"11 In addition7 the =aira district7 consisting of the parganas of Dholka7 Dhanduka7 ogha7 (an+ur7 etc7 +assed into the )ritish hands from the %eshwa in .'#/ through the Treaty of )assein$ There was a need to safeguard these areas from the neigh2ouring tur2ulent chiefs of =athiawad$ These were the 2order areas$ It was decided to arrange for the aekwad6s rights first and that of the %eshwa6s later as doing 2oth at the same time would ha-e alarmed the chieftains$/## This was later to create +ro2lems 2etween the Com+any and %eshwa$

The )ritish interference in this region was in the nature of mediation and ar2itration$ The instrument for the a2o-e was the re-enue settlements$ The Mulkgiri e9+edition conducted annually 2y the aekwad armies was cum2ersome and costly$ In order to a-oid this as well as to further their own interests it was thought e9+edient to arrange for the re-enue settlements on a +ermanent 2asis and recei-a2le through the )ritish authorities$ In August .'#07 Col$ >alker7 !ointly with the aikwad go-ernment7 sent letters asking the Saurashtra chiefs to send their (akils to the English cam+ in
297 298 299 300

oontoo

I2id$ %$.11$ I2id$ I2id$ %$*#1$ I2id$ %$"##$

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117

Falso written as

oondoo in the sourcesG in Mor2i +rinci+ality to settle the

Mulkgiri +ayments$/#. These settlements were +er+etual in nature 2ut the Amount of re-enue to 2e collected was su2!ect to change and was made for .# years known as Decennial settlements$ 2ail Bamini and )d $amini were taken from each chieftain ensuring regular and timely +ayment$ In addition7 Sankla $amini was also taken which made the chieftains mutually res+onsi2le for each other$/#"

The 3awab of Dunagadh and the +am of Nawanagar offered some resistance to these settlements$ The (a!a of Malia was chastised 2y the English troo+s and the fort of Malia was destroyed 2y >alker to show the military strength of the )ritish$/#/Dust when the )ritish troo+s were cam+ing at Goontoo for carrying out the settlement7 the Dam of Nawanagar ac8uired the fort of =ondorna$ The 2ackground of this was that the (a!a of %or2andar had a considera2le num2er of Makrani si2andis in his em+loyment$ In a dis+ute with the Ara2 Si2andis and the (a!a7 the Makranis around '##7 left %or2andar and took the fort of =ondorna under their control$ The Dam of Nawanagar 2ought the fort 2y defraying the arrears of salaries due to the si2andis$/#& The inter-ention of the )ritish troo+s in fa-our of %or2andar made the Dam relin8uish the +ossession of the fort$ The )ritish in return o2tained half a share of the re-enues of the +ort of %or2andar in .'#1$/#* The chief of Nawanagar resisted the attem+ts of the )ritish e-en after this$ It was
301 302

303 304 305

/alker@Selections IIIII, %+$06 L 0'$ I2id$ %$1'$ Aor the meaning of the different ty+es of $amini, see 5Securities6 in the second cha+ter$ G;- (II7 %$ *0#$ /alker@Selections IIIII, %+$.&#,.&.$ G;- (III7 %$/*#$

117

118

only after the show of strength 2y the )ritish in .0.& that Nawanagar yielded$

After the demise of Nawa2 3amid =han of Dunagadh7

aekwad6s

3aib@,iwan Cithal (ao got the whole of Amreli with )ritish aid 2y way of naBrana$ This was following the increase in influence of the Ara2 +amadar7 :mar Mukhasan and his faction in the darbar of the new 3awab7 )ahadur =han and the lowering of Diwan (aghunath!i6s +ower at Dunagadh$ Earlier the aekwads had only .?/rd share in the re-enues$ In .'.",./ the aekwads took o-er the entire pargana and also 2uilt a fort there$/#6 In addition7 the pargana of =odinar was also gi-en to the aekwads$ /#0 In .'.*,.6 Damadar Mukhasan attem+ted to hurt the Nawa2 +hysically7 2ecause of which ca+tain )allantyne/#' had to take action and oust him and his men from the town$ The Nawa27 in gratitude7 wai-ed off his right to Eortala2i/#1 from Dhandhuka7 (an+ur7 ogha and Dholera in .'.0$/.# In .'".7 through an agreement7 the Nawa2 authori4ed the English to collect his Eortala2i throughout the +ro-ince and retain one,fourth of the amount collected as e9+enses for the same$ Sundar!i Shi-!i7 a =hatri horse trader7 who en!oyed much influence with Ca+tain )allantyne and 2rought a2out a2o-e agreements7 was made the diwan of Dunagadh with )ritish su++ort$/.. The general nature of re-enue settlements was that an agreement was made with all the chieftains where2y FaG they were not to +ro-ide asylum to
306 307 308 309 310 311

I2id$ %+$/&/,/&&< Tarikh@i@sorath7 %$'"$ I2id$ %$ /&&< I2id$ %+$ "#1,".#$ )ritish agent for Saurashtra$ Dunagadh6s Eortal2i is similar to Marathi *handani$ Statistical )ccount of +unagadh7 ++$ *&,**$ I2id$ %$**$

118

119

any thief7 )harwatia FoutlawG7 or a re2el of the sarkar< F2G no de+redation to 2e carried out in the Sarkar6s or com+any6s territories and merchants and tra-elers were to 2e +rotected7 and FcG no forci2le +ossession of lands was to 2e made$/."

The )ritish and the was farmed out to the

aekwad made these settlements ar2itrarily and aekwad and its term was to end in .'.&7 no

the %eshwa was not consulted$ As the share of %eshwa6s re-enues in u!arat immediate +ro2lem was faced 2y the )ritish in .'#0,#'$ 3owe-er7 the )ritish were a2le to 2ring a2out a tem+orary arrangement em+owering them to collect the re-enues of the %eshwa as well$ There were still loo+holes left in the agreement concluded 2y El+hinstone 2ut the interests of the )ritish were safeguarded for the time 2eing$/./ 3ence7 the +ro2lem of negotiation would ha-e come after the end of the decennial arrangement i$e$7 in .'.0,.'$ )y then7 howe-er7 the %eshwa was defeated decisi-ely and his +ossessions7 in u!arat as elsewhere7 were taken o-er 2y the )om2ay %residency$ >ith this7 the +ro2lem of Saurashtra tri2ute settlement also ended$

The effecti-e arrangement of the (e-enue Settlements in Saurashtra and its 2enefits to the )ritish +rom+ted its ado+tion also in Mahi,=antha in .'..,.'."$ ;ieut$ Col$ )allantyne was de+uted to induce the chiefs of this area to acce+t the Com+any6s +rotection$ )acha Damadar of )aroda7 the commandant of the Mulkgiri forces in Mahi,=antha7 !oined him$ Decennial settlements similar to =athiawad were made here as well with regard to the
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/alker@Selections IIIII, %+$..#,...$ G;- II7 %+$ */,*6$

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claims of the

aekwads$/.& In .'.0,.' the last %eshwa )a!i (ao was

defeated and the office of %eshwa was a2olished$ >ith this7 %eshwa6s rule in u!arat also came to an end and his territories +assed into )ritish control$ Through another agreement reached with the =antha re-enues$/.* In .'## The )ritish East India Com+any a2olished the Nawa2i of Surat and the Nawa2 was +ensioned off$ The office of Chief and the Council was re+laced 2y three different de+artments7 that of a (e-enue Collector7 a Dudge and Megistrate and a lieut$ the o-ernor for ;aw and Order$/.6 In .'#" aekwad share of Surat was gi-en to the )ritish and that of the %eshwa aekwad Chief on /rd A+ril .'"#7 the )ritish gained the sole management of the =athiawad and Mahi,

in .'#/ through the Treaty of )assein$ In .'#/ the )ritish also came into +ossession of )haruch from Sindhia$ In case of =utch the Treaty of su2sidiary alliance of .'.1 made the )ritish o-erlords$ The )ritish had 2ecome a2solute +aramount +ower in u!arat 2y .'"#

314

315 316

D$($=elly FedG7 Selections from the ecords of -ombay Government III, #ahee *antha7 New Series7 )om2ay7 .'*67 +$6$ I2id$ %$0$ -om. Pres. GaB. (ol. II, Surat7 o+$cit$7 %$ .*&$

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M:;TI%;E A:T3O(ITIES , DIS%:TED SOCE(EI NTK

It has 2een o2ser-ed in the following +ages that an acute fragmentation of authority had taken +lace in u!arat during this +eriod$ This situation led to an o-erla++ing of rights of -arious contenders o-er different areas of the region7 which led to regular conflicts amongst them$ This fragmentation of +ower was a result of the 2reakdown of the Mughal authority in the region su2se8uently leading to the esta2lishment of many inde+endent +rinci+alities of -arying denominations$ The 8uestion of the esta2lishment and sustenance of so many +rinci+alities without a homogenous source of legitimacy has engaged the attention of scholars working on .'th century u!arat for sometime$ This study attem+ts to understand the e9tent of this fragmentation and the milieu in which the su2se8uent conflicts came into 2eing$ One of the most striking features of the +olitical scenario of the +eriod was the ha+ha4ard way in which these +rinci+alities came to e9ercise authority$ In almost all the +laces the authority was di-ided and shared 2etween multi+le claimants and this created confusion regarding the actual nature of so-ereignty in these +rinci+alities$ The lack of resources with these +rinci+alities and the mounting e9+enditure made territorial aggrandi4ement a necessity for their sur-i-al$ As noted in the second cha+ter7 the security holders7 the irasias7

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the desais7 etc had de-elo+ed considera2le +olitical clout during this +eriod diluting the actual +ower of the rulers7 the Marathas and the 3awabs alike$ Authority in this conte9t is to 2e understood as the claim and the right to go-ern and collect a share in the re-enues in any gi-en +lace$ The re-enue rights that came to 2e e9ercised 2y -arious claimants during the .'th Century disregarded the traditional fiscal di-isions of parganas and sarkars$ The right to collect re-enues also im+lied a right to administer the +lace$ Thus7 in the towns that were !ointly administered 2y the Marathas and the Nawa2s a chauthia was a++ointed as the Maratha re+resentati-e$ 3ere also the consideration was to kee+ an actual account of the e-eryday income that was collected in the towns and the city gates like the customs duties7 fines7 etc$ The claimants were only keen to share such income among themsel-es and not e-eryone was keen to administer the region$ Se-eral incidents that took +lace during this +eriod throw some light on the ethos of the +olitics of that +eriod$ The +rocess of sharing authority and re-enues 2etween two or more su+erior authorities in the region 2egan since .0"* when %ila!i (ao and =antha!i =adam )ande were assigned the chauth of south and North of ri-er Mahi res+ecti-ely 2y 3amid =han$ >ith the esta2lishment of dual Mughal, Maratha rule in .0/0,/'7 the administration was also shared 2etween the two$ According to the terms of agreement7 (enko!i +osted his own men at (aigadh ate7 =han Dahan ate7 Damal+ur ate7 Astodia and (ai+ur ates$ Manning these gates was left in the Maratha charge$ (enko!i a++ointed his own naibs7 havaldars7 fau'dars7 thanadars in addition to the Mughal officers7 at +laces where re-enues under different heads were collected$ These +laces included the office for the collection of religious ta9es7
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miscellaneous ta9es7 animal markets7 mint7 Deweler6s market7 pan market7 oil and -egeta2les mandis7 fords and chaklas$ (enko!i6s naibs were instructed to work in co,o+eration with the Na4im6s officers$/.0 The sharing of administration was 2ound to create friction$ Since the 2eginning of dual administration we find regular skirmishes taking +lace 2etween the two +arties7 mainly on the issue of re-enue sharing$ >ith the death of Momin =han I Na!m,ud,Daula in .0&. the situation worsened$ More factional fights amongst the naibs of 2oth the Mughals and the Marathas ensued$ Muftakhir =han and Aida,ud,Din =han were !ointly a++ointed as the Mughal Nai2,Na4ims who howe-er could not hold on to +ower$ They made way to Dawan Mard =han$ =hande (ao aekwad7 as Dama!i (ao6s de+uty at Ahmeda2ad7 on the other hand re+laced (enko!i$ (enko!i was im+risoned for mismanagement of funds$ 3e was recalled 2y :ma2ai Da2hade to the Deccan to 2e reinstated after one year to his earlier +osition of Maratha naib at Ahmada2ad$ In the meanwhile Dawan Mard =han ousted the naib of =hande (ao from Ahmada2ad and wrested pargana haveli Ahmada2ad from him and 2ecame the sole master of the Maratha mahals as well$/.' It could 2e seen here that 2oth +arties treated the agreement of !oint rule as a tem+orary arrangement$ It was an arrangement in which each +arty waited to eliminate the other from +ower and take com+lete control of the territories$ (e+eatedly the Mughal naibs attem+ted to oust the Maratha naibs and similarly (enko!i also intrigued to occu+y Ahmada2ad com+letely$ The factional fights amongst 2oth +arties howe-er induced them to seek cross,alliances$ Thus7 =hande (ao and Dawan Mard =han allied for a while against (enko!i7 while the latter sought the hel+ of
317 318

#irat, %$ *06$ #irat, %$ 6''$

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Sher =han )a2i$/.1 In fact since .0"* it was no longer a Mughal,Maratha contest< the local fau'dars and the -arious Maratha sardars indi-idually were trying to take control of the region and at times allying with each other$ The +hase of !oint Mughal,Maratha rule came to an end in .0*" with the con8uest of Ahmada2ad 2y %eshwa6s de+uty$ At the same time7 Dama!i (ao was com+elled to surrender half of the con8uered territories in u!arat to the %eshwa$ Since then the %eshwa 2ecame a direct +arty with territorial interests in the region$ Thus7 we find the emergence of another kind of dual authority in the regionB that of the %eshwa and the aekwads$ At this time Shri+at (ao was a++ointed as Sarsubah at Ahmada2ad and Sewak (am as Dama!i (ao6s naib$ (s$ 67ooo was fi9ed as aekwad6s share of e9+enses for guarding the city of Ahmada2ad$/"# The situation in the region did not change much with this de-elo+ment$ Ariction e9isted in the %eshwa, aekwad relations as well$ Three ma!or 2attles took +lace 2etween the their inde+endent +osition to the %eshwa7 the the aekwads and the %eshwas at aekwads were not a natural different +oints of time$ :nlike Sindhia and 3olkar7 the +rotJgJs who owed -assal of the %eshwa$ The status of -assalage to the %eshwa was im+osed on aekwads$ In fact the two re+resented two ri-al factions of the Maratha +olity$ It is im+ortant here to understand the nature of relationshi+ 2etween the two and for this we need to trace 2ack the rise of %eshwa as the su+erior authority and dwell on the nature of Maratha +olity for a while$ The Maratha +olity during the .'th century was a loose confederacy of -arious factions claiming legitimacy from Shi-a!i6s successor (a!a Shahu$
319 320

I2id$ I2id$ %$0*#$

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>ith the death of Shi-a!i in .6'# and the ra+id Mughal e9+ansion into the Deccan7 the Maratha +olity disintegrated$ Sam2ha!i7 the first son of Shi-a!i and his successor was killed 2y Aurang4e2$ Shi-a!i6s second son7 (a!aram with his head8uarters at =olha+ur ke+t u+ the o++osition to Mughal authority$ Su2se8uent con8uests were 2eing carried out 2y indi-idual Maratha Sardars$ Em+eror )ahadur Shah7 Aurang4e26s successor7 released Sam2ha!i6s son Shahu7 who was 2rought u+ 2y Aurang4e27 in order to control the Marathas$ Shahu6s release created a schism amongst the Marathas$ At this time the Maratha administration was carried on 2y7 what is known as7 the )shtha Pradhan Fcouncil of eight ministersG$ Amongst the im+ortant offices in the )shtha Pradhan was that of Peshwa and Senapati. The Senapati was in charge of the Military and the Peshwa that of fiscal administration$ It was during this struggle for hegemony 2etween the two factions of Shi-a!i6s successors that the office of Peshwa gained +rominence under )ala!i Cishwanath$ )ala!i Cishwanath was a *arkun in the ser-ice of a +rominent Maratha sardar Dhana!i Dadha-$/". 3e could rise in Shahu6s fa-our 2y hel+ing Shahu gain an u++er hand in his struggle with Tara2ai7 wife of (a!aram and regent to her son7 during .0.",./$ During this time he also rose from 2eing a mere administrator to 2ecoming a military general$ In .0.& )ala!i Cishwanath was a++ointed to the office of Peshwa$ After the assum+tion of office he made certain arrangements in the administration that made the Maratha sardars largely inde+endent of the (a!a$ Their o2ligation towards the (a!a was confined merely to the +ayment of Sardeshmukhi$ The re-enue collection and management of the territories con8uered were left com+letely to the res+ecti-e sardars$/"" The %eshwa also took com+lete
321 322

rant Duff7 Col I7 o+$cit$7 %$&"/$ Satish Chandra7 #edieval India, II@#ughal <mpire, Delhi7 "##07 %+$&1',&11$

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control of the administration re+lacing the (a!a for all +ractical +ur+oses$ :nder )a!i (ao the office of the %eshwa came to ac8uire definite military o-ertones and the office also 2ecame hereditary in this Aamily$ The %eshwa thus re+laced the (a!a as the focal +oint of the Maratha +ower$ Meanwhile7 in the +eriod inter-ening 2etween )ala!i Cishwanath6s death in .0"# and the formal in-estiture of )a!i (ao I to the office of %eshwa in .0".7 Dama!i (ao aekwad I7 who was under the command of =hande (ao Da2hade7 the Senapati7 distinguished himself and came to 2e in-ested with the title of Shamsher -ahadur and the +ost of second,in,command of =hande (ao Da2hade$/"/ In the following decade )a!i (ao %eshwa e9+anded his s+here of authority at the e9+ense of the Senapati in Deccan$ This was resented 2y the Senapati who allied with Ni4am,ul,mulk Asaf Dah I to su2-ert the rising +ower of the %eshwa$ aekwad and =antha!i as +rotJgJs and -assals of the Senapati were consolidating their +osition in u!arat$ Their +osition 2ecame more definite after the chauth settlements of .0"* with 3amid =han and later with Sar2uland =han$ At this !uncture the %eshwa struck a harsh 2low to this faction 2y killing the Sena+ati in the )attle of )hilu+ur/"& in u!arat$ 3e also sent :da!i %owar as a check on the growing +ower of the aekwads and allied himself with the Mughal Na4im Sar2uland =han$ 3owe-er7 the %eshwa did not inter-ene in the affairs of 2y .0/* Dama!i (ao firmly esta2lish his authority in u!arat effecti-ely until .0*"7 and aekwad was the only Maratha sardar who could u!arat$ After the )attle of )hilu+ur7 the

Senapati faction itself e9+erienced uncertainty as the Da2hade family declined e-en though :ma2ai Da2hade continued to hold the reigns for a while$ :ma2ai6s death and the rise of Dama!i (ao
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aekwad II and his rift

rant Duff7 Col I7 o+$cit$7 %$&0"$ )hilu+ur is situated to the North of Ahmeda2ad$

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with the Da2hade family sealed the fate of the Da2hade family$/"* )y .0&1 Dama!i (ao aekwad had 2ecome -ery +owerful$ At this time the Maratha (a!a7 Shahu died leading to another s+ate of succession wars$ Tara )ai7 in a 2id to oust %eshwa )ala!i )a!i (ao from +ower7 formed a confederacy of Maratha sardars who were o++osed to the %eshwa$ She in-ited Dama!i (ao aekwad to lead the confederacy$ Initially the confederates gained some success$ ;ater the %eshwa in-ited the mem2ers of the o++osing confederacy to his cam+ on the +rete9t of negotiations 2y taking sacred oaths and fraudulently im+risoned them$ Dama!i (ao was also im+risoned for almost two years and was com+elled to surrender to the %eshwa half the share of his territories in u!arat$ 3e was also made to acce+t the o-er lordshi+ of the aekwads$ 3owe-er7 the aekwads %eshwa7 +ay annual tri2ute and render military ser-ice$ Since then the %eshwa gained su+remacy o-er the ne-er acce+ted %eshwa6s o-er lordshi+ wholeheartedly and allied with any force that o++osed %eshwa6s +owerB earlier it was the Ni4am and later in the Century the English East India Com+any$ The third 2attle 2etween the %eshwa and the Dama!i (ao aekwads took +lace in .06'7 !ust 2efore the death of aekwad$ >hile Madha- (ao I was the %eshwa at %oona7

(aghunath (ao7 the 2rother of )ala!i )a!i (ao and a ri-al claimant to the office of the %eshwa7 re2elled against his ne+hew$ In this7 Dama!i (ao aekwad su++orted (aghunath (ao and sent military hel+ with his son o-ind (ao as the commander of the army$ (aghunath (ao along with his su++orters including o-ind (ao7 were taken +risoners in the )attle of u!arat$ A large amount of money was le-ied on Dhoda+ fought again in

Dama!i (ao as fine for re2ellion and as outstanding tri2ute$ In the following
325

%$M$Doshi FedG7 Selections from the Peshwa ,aftar, no$."7 New Series7)om2ay7 .16"7 +assim$

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year7 the death of Dama!i (ao and the struggle for succession amongst his sons7 mainly Aatehsing (ao aekwad and o-ind (ao aekwad7 ga-e further sco+e for the %eshwa to inter-ene and su2-ert the +ower of the aekwads$ The 8uestion of the inter,relationshi+ of the %eshwa and aekwad was raised a decade later 2y the East India Com+any ser-ants in the lengthy discussions relating to the right to alienate lands 2elonging to the aekwads6 share of the territories in %urandhar$ u!arat7 following the Treaty of

LOCAL CHIEFTAINCIES

The structure of authority in

u!arat was stratified since many

centuries< there e9isted a hierarchy of +olitical authorities$ At the a+e9 was the 3ead of a centrali4ed State who was the highest authority$ )elow this was another layer of +eo+le e9ercising +ower located in different areas and in-aria2ly organi4ed on clan 2asis$ The local (a!+uts/"6 are to 2e included in this category$ They e9ercised hereditary rights of -arious kinds o-er their territory$ 3owe-er7 the rights of this class of +eo+le was e-ol-ing and undergoing changes throughout the medie-al +eriod$ The indigenous +o+ulation of the region originally consisted of =olis and )hils$ The )hils
326

The term (a!+ut has 2een used here with certain reser-ations$ These grou+s called themsel-es 2y their clan namesB %armars7 Chauhans7 ohel7 Dethwas7 Dade!as7 etc$2efore the Mughal +eriod$ This is -ery clearly e-ident from the inscri+tions found in -arious +arts of u!arat where the clan names alone are mentioned$ It is from the time of the Mughals that they were termed as (a!+uts and 2y im+lication7 kshatriyas$ I am grateful to %rofessor S$ 3asan Mahmud for +ointing out this fact to me$

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were geogra+hically marginali4ed with the emergence of the (a!+uts such as the Solankis7 >aghelas7 etc$ The (a!+uts su2se8uently esta2lished a relati-ely centrali4ed +olitical authority in the region$ Thus7 the +rocess of su2-erting these smaller +olities and e9tracting tri2ute as a mark of o-er lordshi+ started$ Since then at least two le-els of authority came into 2eing$ There was a constant tussle 2etween this local grou+ and the new rulers$ This tussle got magnified with the esta2lishment of the Sultanate of u!arat that wanted to control the entire region centrally$ It was at this !uncture that the system of wanta FbanthaG and tilpad7 demarcating the re-enue share was introduced 2y the Sultans as a com+romise$/"0 The local rulers were left with su+erior rights o-er one fourth of their lands FbanthaG7 while the Sultans e9ercised his rights o-er the remaining three,fourth +art FtilpadG$ The same system continued under the Mughals$ >ith the esta2lishment of the Maratha sway salami was le-ied on the smaller wanta chieftains to the north and the east of Ahmeda2ad$/"' This was collected through mulkgiri e9+editions$ Aollowing the decline of Mughal +ower and the Maratha e9+ansion these Bamindars attem+ted to augment their +ossessions$ The Chiefs of Saurashtra were 2enefited the most$ In u!arat mainland7 smaller wanta holders esta2lished claims FgirasG in the re-enues of neigh2ouring -illages7 something similar to the Maratha chauth. The nature of +olity amongst these chieftaincies was 2ased on the lines of -hayad7 loosely translated as 5)rotherhood6 in the English sources$ These +olities were largely clan 2ased$ The law of +rimogeniture +re-ailed in case of succession to the chieftaincy$ The younger mem2ers of the family were entitled to a share in the territory for their su2sistence$ This was known
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A$=$Aor2es7 asmala, ColB II7 O9ford7 %+$ "0#,"0.$ >alter 3amilton7 o+$cit$7 %$ 6#0$

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as giras7 literally meaning a mouthful7 and its holder a girasia7 also called bhoomia and sometimes thakurda$ >ithin their giras the girasias were a2solute so-ereigns and the chief made no interference in its internal matters of administration$ The irasias were only duty 2ound to furnish their chief with military aid in case of war$ In =utch they ga-e no annual monetary naBrana to their chief 2ut in Saurashtra it was customary to gi-e a certain amount of annual naBrana$ This was to defray the tri2ute that was le-ied 2y the su+erior +owers$/"1 This bhayad system of di-iding the so-ereign rights led to acute fragmentation$ It also led the younger and more dynamic and im+o-erished girasias to resort to loot and +lunder< such girasias that +lundered others6 giras were called bharwatio$ The outlaws were dri-en 2y a sense of de+ri-ation and an inflated idea of honour7 and they were glorified and eulogi4ed in local 2allads$//# They were referred to as :utero FlooterG in a sense meaning a hero$ This +ractice was wides+read during this +eriod and it led to much distur2ance$ The term giras has two meanings$ The first was the hereditary right of the younger clan mem2er in the re-enue of the %rinci+ality$ This kind of giras and the girasia were considered honoura2le$ 3owe-er7 due to the acute fragmentation of the girasia rights the younger girasias recei-ed less amount of su2sistence in land$ This fact cou+led with their 4eal for e9+ansion made these girasias e9+and their areas of acti-ity and lay claim to a share of re-enue in their neigh2ouring -illages$ These -illages ha++ened to 2e rasti or +eaceful -illages as against the mewasi or recalcitrant -illages$
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330

Dames Mac Murdo7 MAn Account of Cutch and of the countries lying 2etween u4erat and the ri-er Indus7 from An!arP7 "1th Se+t7 .'.'7 Transactions of the :iterary Society of -ombay, Col$ II7 .'"#7 %+$ "//,"/6$ C$A$=incaid7 ;utlaws of *athiawad and other Studies, )om2ay7 .1#*7 %$.1$ Aor similar tendencies in Andhra %radesh see D$A$(ichards and C$Narayan (ao7 M)anditry in Mughal IndiaB 3istorical and Aolk +erce+tionsP7 I<S" 7 Col RCII7 No$ .7 .1'#$

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enerally the mewasi girasia chiefs laid claims in the rasti -illages$ Such a claim was also called as giras7 differentiated sometimes with a +refi9 toda, i.e., toda@giras$ )ecause of the com+lete 2reakdown of the law and order of the region during the .'th century many girasias e9+anded their claim to toda@giras$ The ma!or local +rinci+alities of Saurashtra and North %or2andar7 Dhrangadhra7 etc in North the Eastern fringes of u!arat

functioned on the lines of bhayad$ This included Nawanagar7 )ha-nagar7 ondal7 etc$ in Saurashtra7 as also Idar7 %alan+ur7 u!arat$ Since Nawanagar and )ha-nagar had u!arat and Chhota :dai+ur7 De-gadh )ariya7 and (a!+i+la on

e9+anded their areas of direct control at the e9+ense of their own girasias7 the latter were ne-er reconciled with the former$ The )ritish East India Com+any e9+loited this situation 2y su++orting the girasias against these chieftains of the region and thus e9ert +ressure on them$ In case of =utch this situation was more com+licated$ 3ere7 the girasias were stratified entities$ A class of them called teelats had their own su2,girasias$ These su2,girasias were duty 2ound to render military assistance to their res+ecti-e teelats and not to the Maharao directly$ Thus7 a hierarchy within hierarchy had emerged amongst the girasias in =utch$ The Maharao did not ha-e any control o-er these su2,girasias$ The teelats res+ected the autonomy of their su2,girasias and did not inter-ene in their internal matters$ Since the Maharao did not +ay tri2ute to any higher authority such as the Marathas7 the girasias were not o2liged to +ay the annual naBrana to him$

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Many of the +rinci+alities that came into 2eing during the .'th Century were 2ased on the bhayad system$ It was due to this that we get three +arallel lines of aekwad ruleB one in )aroda which was regarded as the aekwad7 and the aekwad family$ su+reme authority< the second in =adi and Nadiad which com+rised of the 'agir of =hande (ao7 2estowed on him 2y Dama!i (ao third at Sankheda7 held in 'agir 2y another mem2er of the re-erted to the

3owe-er7 with the inter-ention of the )ritish7 the latter two 'agirs were aikwads of )aroda in .'#",/$ The -arious )a2i nawabis can also 2e included into this category$ In this scenario of ra+id changes taking +lace in +olitical authority in different regions of u!arat7 -arious contending +arties sought after the areas that were rich in re-enue7 2oth agricultural and non,agricultural$ ;et us consider the case of )haruch$ Since its ince+tion )haruch Nawa2i was faced with danger from its neigh2ours$ The Nawa2i consisted of the Mughal sarkar of )haruch including the +ort,town and the pargana of )haruch7 the parganas of Ankleshwar7 3ansot7 Ol+ad7 Amod and Dam2usar$ Dama!i (ao >ith aekwad6s offensi-e against )haruch in .0&. the parganas of

Ankleshwar7 Ol+ad7 3ansot7 Amod and Dam2usar fell into Maratha hands$ )efore Dama!i (ao could con8uer )haruch town itself a com+romise was reached 2etween him and Nek Nam =han7 the Nawa2 of )haruch7 at the 2ehest of the Ni4am$ It was settled to assign 6#I of the re-enues of )haruch to the aekwads and &#I was to 2e left with the Nawa2$ Since then the aekwad6s administration of the countryside was solely taken o-er 2y were further shared 2etween the 3awab and the the aekwad6s territories in

kamavisdars. The administration of the pargana and the town of )haruch aekwad chauthia$ In .0*" u!arat were shared half,and,half 2etween the

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%eshwa and the

aekwads where2y the %eshwa came into the +ossession of

the parganas of Ankleshwar7 3ansot7 Ol+ad7 Amod and Dam2usar and the aekwads were left with the pargana and town of )haruch$ In the course of the "# years following .0&. di-ision7 the 3awab managed to lay a claim on the !ama5 of the %eshwa6s parganas of Dam2usar and Amod through #ulkgiri e9+editions$//. 3e collected this share from the (a!as of the two +laces and +resuma2ly not from the %eshwa6s kamavisdars$ )esides the Nawa2 and the Marathas7 the local chieftains7 mostly =olis7 also had a claim in the re-enue of the countryside of )haruch$ The (a!a of (a!+i+la also le-ied toda@giras from .6 -illages in 3ansot and )haruch parganas$//" The simultaneous e9ercise of re-enue rights 2y se-eral claimants led to fre8uent dis+utes and confrontations$ Many such confrontations 2etween the Nawa2s of )haruch and their neigh2ours are recorded in our sources$/// The nature and fre8uency of these conflicts 2rings forth the insta2ility e9+erienced 2y the )haruch Nawa2i$ There was an instance during the rule of Nawa2 3asan Ali =han of )haruch when the Surat Nawa27 3afi4 Masud =han7 in collusion with an I!aradar of Ankleshwar7 Mian!i7 had cons+ired to ca+ture )haruch$//& Similarly7 in .06. the %eshwa sent orders to chastise the Nawa2 of )haruch for attem+ting to take o-er Amod from the %eshwa6s kamavisdar, which was howe-er a-erted after o-ind (ao aekwad assured the %eshwa of tackling the Nawa2$//* This incident occurred immediate to the defeat of the Marathas in the third 2attle of %ani+at7 when the -arious Nawa2s of
331 332 333 334 335

u!arat7 as re+resentati-es of the Mughal Em+eror7 were ordered

G;- II7 %$..1$ >alter 3amilton7 o+$cit$7 %$ 0./$ Saeed 3asan7 #a'mua@i@,anish7 o+$cit$7 Col$ I7 +$ & L Col$ II7 +$ /* #, III7 f$ &" in ";-7 %+$ "*,"'$ %$M$Doshi FedG7 Selections from the Peshwa ,aftar7 Col$ III7 (e-i-al of Maratha +ower7 )om2ay7 .16"7 ;t$""&7 %$"0.$

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to con8uer the territories under Maratha control$//6 Another ma!or confrontation took +lace in .06' 2etween Mua44a4 =han and Shri+at (ao7 %eshwa6s kamavisdar of Amod$ Two actions of Shri+at (ao 2rought a2out this conflict$ In the +rocess of re-enue collection e9+edition in Amod the Nawa2 was attem+ting to get a muchalka from the 4amindar of that +lace through A4am (ana7 patel of a -illage$ Shri+at (ao interfered in the matter and in-ited A4am (ana for negotiations 2ut im+risoned him7 des+ite ha-ing +romised a safe conduct earlier$ 3e also e9tracted a sum of (s$ *7### from A4am (ana$ In addition Shri+at (ao also collected re-enues from the -illages of )haruch +argana7 which did not fall in his !urisdiction$ )ecause of the 2eha-iour of Shri+at (ao Mua44a4 =han re-oked the surety of =hando!i Sainkar7 gi-en earlier for the Nawa26s good 2eha-iour Fi$e$7 to not encroach on the other +arty6s rightsG$//0 In retaliation the Nawa2 carried away the cattle 2elonging to the parganas of Shri+at (ao$ This seems to ha-e alarmed Shri+at (ao who una2le to 2ear the e9+enses of Si2andi7 im+lored the Nawa2 for negotiations$//' 3owe-er the matter was settled through a 2attle in which Shri+at (ao was defeated$//1 Similarly7 a 2attle took +lace 2etween Aatehsing and Mua44a4 =han7 when in .00# Aatehsing (ao aekwad6s officers collected re-enues without informing the Nawa2$ Aatehsing (ao further made the Nawa26s officers acce+t his claim to more re-enues than was collected$/&# It seems that collecting one6s share of re-enues without informing the other claimant was considered an illegitimate act and would 2e a cause of conflict$ It is understood that in such cases there were chances that the +arty that +roceeded on #ulkgiri would
336 337 338 339

340

#irat7 %$ 1"/$ #, III7 f$.#. in ";-7 %$ &0$ I2id$ %$&'$ =ishore Das Munshi7 #a'mua@e@,anish, transl$ Saeed 3asan7 Allaha2ad7 .1*07 ;tB .67 %+$ //, /6$ #, III7 ;tB .*. in ";-7%$**$

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e9tract more than its due share$ The patels and the desais also refused to settle the 'amabandi unless re+resentati-es of 2oth +arties concerned were +resent$ Aollowing the first )ritish e9+edition of )haruch the ryots of )haruch were a++rehensi-e of another attack and refused to +ay the 'ama8$ ;allu2hai therefore asked Aatehsing (ao safeguarding their interests$/&. >ith the )ritish con8uest of )haruch the conflicts 2etween the new rulers of )haruch and the aekwads with regard to their res+ecti-e shares in )haruch had 2egun$ 3owe-er7 di+lomacy and not force was used to resol-e these conflicts$ The reason for this was that Aatehsing (ao aekwad wanted to remain friendly with the )ritish7 in who he saw a +owerful ally against the highhanded 2eha-iour of the %eshwa$ On the other hand7 Anglo,%eshwa relations 2efore the first Anglo,Maratha war were not hostile7 if not e9actly friendly$ They 2oth did not want to antagoni4e each other unnecessarily$ In an incident that occurred immediately after the )ritish con8uered )haruch in .00"7 we see a confrontation 2etween Aatehsing (ao aekwad and the )ritish Aactors at )haruch$ Immediate after the )ritish takeo-er of )haruch7 Aatehsing (ao aekwad arri-ed in the -icinity of )haruch with a large force to settle his rights in )haruch with the )ritish on the same terms as it e9isted during the times of the Nawa2s$/&" The )ritish7 on the other hand7 attem+ted to reduce the num2er of claimants on the re-enues they had to share with$ Accordingly7 they tried to induce Aatehsing (ao aekwad to acce+t a certain sum of money in lieu of his claims on )haruch re-enues$/&/ This did not work$ After much +rocrastination the )haruch Aactors admitted Aatehsing
341 342 343

aekwad to address letters to the aekwad su++ort in

desais to +lacate them and reassure them of

G;- II, %$.*$ I2id$ %+$ ..1 L ."6$ I2id$ %$.".$

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(ao6s claims7 2ut only for one year$/&& >ith the commencement of the first Anglo,Maratha war almost immediately7 the renewal of the agreement could not 2e done 2y the )ritish and matters stood where they were$ In .00/ another dis+ute took +lace7 this time 2etween the %eshwa6s *amavisdars and )ritish Aactors at )haruch$ >hile Mr$ Mostyn was at %oona in the ca+acity of the Com+any6s am2assador7 he was asked for certain clarifications 2y the %oona darbar$ It was com+lained that the )ritish officers at )haruch had collected an amount of (s$ .07### from the 5amaldar of Amod and were demanding an additional amount of (s$ 67### for the e9+enses of the e9+edition carried out 2y them$ The %oona durbar demanded that the Com+any return the amount collected and release the +risoners$ :+on in8uiry it was found that the +eshwa6s 8amaldars had refused to +ay what was rightfully due to the Com+any and to enforce that right the Aactors sent a force$ It was only !ust that the charges for such an e9+edition 2e defrayed 2y the 8amaldars$ This argument seems to ha-e con-inced the %oona darbar and the matter was not +ursued further$/&* )esides7 %oona did not want to end di+lomatic relations with the Com+any7 who could ha-e +ro-ed a dangerous enemy in the wake of the disorderly conditions at %oona following the death of %eshwa Madha-rao I$/&6 At a2out the same time the %oona dar2ar made another com+laint7 again in relation to )haruch Aactors$ It was alleged that the )haruch Aactors were demanding a share in the re-enues of 3ansot and Ankleshwar and were threatening with re+risals in case of non,com+liance$ The %eshwa6s re+resentati-e insisted that none of the two parganas e-er +aid anything 2efore to )haruch7 as they were always under the !urisdiction of Surat$ The )ritish demanded re-enues
344 345 346

I2id$ %$.&#$ #ostyn!s ,iary, %+$ .0*,.06 I2id$

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of these +laces7 2oth from Surat and )haruch$/&0 The Maratha officer FchitnisG informed Mr$ Mostyn that the a2o-e parganas were a2solutely under Surat6s authority and they +aid (s$ "# to ". thousand annually and )haruch had no claim on either$ The Nawa2 of )haruch had re+ortedly coerced these +laces to +ay him some amount since fi-e,si9 years 2ack$ This7 the %oona darbar asserted7 was no ground for the )ritish claims$/&' In August the same year another com+laint was recei-ed at %oona where the )haruch Aactors were accused of threatening the 8amaldar of ;lpad and demanding a +resent in the form of money7/&1 hay and +ro-isions$/*# In re+ly the )haruch Aactors asserted that they intended to take only that +art which formerly 2elonged to the 3awab and that they re+eatedly sent en-oys to ask the kamavisdar to coo+erate$ The kamavisdar Falso referred to as pandit in English sourcesG in charge of Ol+ad did not res+ond des+ite se-eral communications$ 3e also had held the patels in the small,fortified -illage7 which made it im+erati-e for the )ritish to take action$ In the +rocess the kamavisdar fled$ According to the )ritish Aactors at )haruch JMthe nabobs demand on these places was not, we beg leave to observe, founded in violence7 but these provinces as well as )mod and +ambusar actually appertained in former times to -roach, and stand so on the #ogals books to this day. The Peshwa and the Gai.ua 0Gaekwad1 therefore have been the un'ust usurpers of those countries, and by violence stripped this government of themMKG>% The a2o-e statement indicates that the 2asis of re-enue claims was Mughal and the 'amabandi was settled according to the re-enue records of
347 348 349 350 351

I2id$ %$.'#$ I2id$ %+$ .'#,.'.$ I2id$ %$.1*$ I2id$ %$.16$ I2id$ %+$ ".&,".'$

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the Mughal times$ It is curious also to o2ser-e the )ritish refer to the Marathas as 5usur+ers6 of the Nawa26s rights when they themsel-es had no scru+les in con8uering )haruch from the Nawa2$ At Surat too the Marathas administered the +arganas/*" and the Nawa2 had to share the town administration with the Maratha chauthia7 in addition to the English East India Com+any since their occu+ation of the castle in .0*1$ So7 in effect7 the authority was e9tremely fragmented in the town7 with the English 2eing a ma!or +ower there since .0*1$/*/ The re-enues of Surat were di-ided into three +artsB one +art 2eing assigned to the Nawa27 another to the holder of the castle and the third +art went to the Marathas called chauth$ The Marathas further di-ided it into two e8ual +arts 2etween the aekwads and the %eshwa$ The +osition in the parganas was e-en more com+le9$ There were local chiefs like that of Dharam+ur7 Mand-i7 etc7 who also had esta2lished their rights on the re-enues of their res+ecti-e areas$ 3ence re-enue sharing in the parganas was e9tremely fragmented$ In fact the e9istence of re+resentati-es of se-eral authorities at the +lace of collection of customs duties7 according to a Arench officer7 was one of the reasons that scared away foreign merchants who saw a hoard of ins+ectors when their goods entered the town$/*& Surat too e9+erienced fre8uent dis+utes 2etween the a2o-e,mentioned three contenders$ The +arties who failed to meet their claims in Surat resorted to disru+tion of trade in the town$ The Marathas chauthias fre8uently went out of the town and sto++ed +ro-isions and goods from entering the fortified areas of the town$ This incon-enience +rodded the Nawa2 to negotiate the issue on hand$ The )ritish too made similar attem+ts 2ut on Sea$ They had taken control of the
352 353 354

See cha+ter III$ C$ $ 3atalkar7 o+$cit$7 %+$ 0.,0"$ I2id$

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5Mullah ate6 or Seafarer6s ate7 at the mouth of the ri-er Ta+i7 from where the goods would 2e loaded on Shi+s for o-erseas trade$ In .0*" and in .0*', *1 the )ritish Aactors sto++ed the trade of the town for almost one year 2ecause of which the Nawa2 was forced to listen to their grie-ances$ At Cam2ay also7 the %eshwa and the Nawa2 go-erned the town !ointly$ The Nawa2 fre8uently sought )ritish hel+ to thwart fre8uent Maratha attem+ts to ca+ture the +ortions of the town that did not 2elong to the Marathas$ The aekwad e9ercised claims of ghasdana on Cam2ay$ To understand another kind of dis+utes we will now re-ert to )haruch$ >hile the English Aactors were dealing with the -arious dis+utes relating to the Marathas7 another de-elo+ment +ut the )haruch Aactors in dilemma$ Early in Danuary .00& o-ind (ao aekwad7 Aatehsing (ao aekwad6s gaddi was made aekwad6s 2rother and a ri-al claimant to the

the rightful successor to the gaddi of )aroda 2y (aghunath (ao7 the new %eshwa$/** o-ind (ao immediately set out with a large army to u!arat$ 3e encam+ed near )haruch$ Simultaneously Aatehsing (ao also encam+ed in the -icinity of )haruch to sto+ o-ind (ao from entering the region$ The Aactors at )haruch were a++rehensi-e that the +ros+ecti-e 2attle would 2e fought in their parganas which would ha-e naturally reduced their re-enues$ The Aactors resorted to di+lomacy and asked parganas$ o-ind (ao to not enter their o-ind (ao on the other hand asked the Aactors to not +ermit

Aatehsing (ao to collect re-enues from )haruch parganas$/*6 The )ritish treated this issue as a dis+ute 2etween the two 2rothers although the -illages were getting affected$ In the su2se8uent 2attle Aatesing (ao was defeated
355

356

o-ind (ao was gi-en the gaddi in +lace of Saya!i (ao aekwad7 whose regent was Aatehsing (ao$ Saya!i (ao was of a weak +ersonality and therefore all +ower in the aekwad chieftaincy rested with Aatehsing (ao$ G;- II7 %$.'#$

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and he fled to )aroda fort$ >hile the matters were in this state7 the )ritish +lanned to induce the Surat Nawa2 to reco-er as many parganas as he could into his control7 earlier taken 2y the Marathas7 since the Marathas F aekwadsG were at war with each other$/*0 The )om2ay authorities wished to remain neutral in re+ly to collection$/*' 3owe-er7 therefore recei-ed o-ind (ao6s solicitations 2ut ad-ised the Aactors to su++ort that +arty which is strongest for the +ur+ose of re-enue o-ind (ao had 2y then come to control the entire countryside and Aatehsing was holed u+ in )aroda$ The )ritish Aactors o-ind (ao6s chauthia in +lace of Aatehsing (ao6s chauthia$/*1 In the meanwhile (aghunath (ao had to flee under )ritish +rotection against the %oona darbar$ The struggle for )haruch 2etween the aekwad 2rothers was su2sumed within the larger 2attle of the first Anglo, Maratha war$ This situation led to another dis+ute regarding the actual +olitical status of the aekwad -is,O,-is the %eshwa$ The conte9t in which the -e9ed issue of the aekwad,%eshwa

relationshi+ was discussed 2y the )ritish authorities is as followsB >hile the negotiations for su++orting (agho2a 2y the )om2ay +residency was afoot7 he was asked to alienate certain lands7 es+ecially the Maratha share of )haruch6s re-enues$ This7 the )ritish Aactors found7 was not to 2e gi-en 2y (agho2a as it 2elonged to aekwad chief and only he had the right to alienate his lands$/6# It was accordingly decided to make (agho2a o2tain the grant of these re-enues from the aekwad for the English$/6. In the Treaty of Surat7 territories falling 2etween )om2ay and )haruch were recei-ed 2y
357 358 359

360 361

I2id$ %$.'/$ I2id$ %$.''$ I2id$ %+$ ""&,""*$ It is not e9+licitly mentioned as to when o-ind (ao6s chauthia was allowed to undertake his duties 2ut 2y the time the %oona ministers6 army was +ursuing (agho2a we find o-ind (ao7s chauthia in )haruch re8uesting the English for aid$ I2id$ %$"#.$ I2id$ %+$ ".6,".0$

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)ritish 2ut e9cluding the

aekwad6s share$/6" It is to 2e remem2ered that

(agho2a made these cessations as the rightful %eshwa and the )ritish +lanned to +ut him in the %eshwa6s office through this war$ The cessations so o2tained would then ha-e 2ecome legal$ 3e also +romised to +rocure sanads from the aekwad granting his shares as well$/6/ ;ater7 Aatehsing also 2ecame a +arty in the alliance against the ministers at %oona and made o-er se-eral cessations like =oral7 Chikli7 Caria- and )atta$ This +rocess was sto++ed midway due to the interference of )engal and Col$ :+ton was sent as en-oy to %oona$ As truce was declared 2etween the English and the Marathas7 and with >arren 3astings6 in-alidating the Treaty of Surat7 one would ha-e 2elie-ed that the cessations made 2y Aatehsing (ao would ha-e re-erted 2ack to him$ 3owe-er7 >arren 3astings categorically asked the )om2ay %residency to retain the +ossession of the aekwad6s share of )haruch re-enues along with a2o-e,mentioned areas until a +eace treaty was concluded$/6& 3astings was +ro2a2ly +ressuri4ed to make this order7 as the )om2ay %residency was unwilling to hand o-er its gains$ >hile Col$ :+ton was in %oona the ministers refused to acknowledge aekwad6s right to alienate territories and asserted that he was a mere -assal of the %eshwa and that u!arat was his 'agir and as such he had no right to alienate it without +ermission from the %eshwa$ Aollowing this7 a s+ate of
362 363 364

I2id$ *th Article in the Treaty of Surat7 %$ "*#$ I2id$ 6th Article in the treaty of Surat$ G;- II,%+$ /"",/"/$ 3ere let us consider the meaning of the term !agir in this conte9t$ The -ery idea of !agir in Maratha terminology sounds -ague and is used in se-eral formal grants of territories$ In .0*" when the Marathas con8uered Ahmeda2ad from Dawan Mard =han he was gi-en the +arganas of %atan7 Sami7 Mun!+ur7 =heralu and others as !agir as +er the settlement$ This was ins+ite of the fact that the Marathas could not ca+ture Ahmeda2ad e-en after +rolonged siege and had to take its +ossession through negotiations$Similarly Cam2ay and %etlad were gi-en as !agir to Momin =han IIin .0*', *17 this too after a +rolonged siege of Ahmeda2ad in .0*',*1$ It is interesting also considering that these Nawa2s claimed inde+endence from the Marathas and their legitimacy from the Mughal Em+eror directly and the Marathas had failed to con8uer these areas from the Nawa2s$

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corres+ondence was e9changed 2etween )om2ay7 Calcutta and %oona where each +arty asserted its own +oint of -iew$ The )om2ay authorities and Surat Aactors asserted the inde+endent status of aekwad 2ut Calcutta was adamant to treat the %eshwa as the undis+uted head of Maratha +olity$ Col$ :+ton had e9+ressed orders to +lease %oona and as such )om2ay6s claims fell on deaf ears$ Aor Aatehsing (ao aekwad the alliance of )om2ay was o-ind (ao and7 therefore7 he im+ortant to sa-e his own +osition against

su++orted )om2ay6s claims7 although later we find Aatehsing (ao acknowledging his +osition as a 'agirdar of the %eshwa and declared his +ossessions as a 'agir$/6* )om2ay authorities7 howe-er7 refused to acknowledge %oona6s +oint of -iew$ They 8uoted se-eral instances where the aekwad had earlier undertaken decisions of so-ereign nature on his own and without referring to the %eshwa$ They said that the district of Caria- was ceded to the English since .0*1$/66 Similarly7 when the )ritish con8uered )haruch7 Aatehsing (ao concluded a treaty with the English safeguarding his share of re-enues in )haruch with no reference to the %eshwa$ The %oona ,arbar too did not raise o2!ections to this7 e-en though Mr$ Mostyn7 the English en-oy7 was at %oona at that time$/60 Earlier7 in .00" according to an agreement concluded 2etween Saya!i (ao,Aatehsing (ao and Madha- (ao %eshwa7 the aekwads asked +ermission to undertake o+erations against the Nawa2s of u!arat and enlarge their own domain$ The %eshwa categorically said that he was not concerned with the areas in the aekwad6s share of territories$/6' On the 2asis of this set of e-idence7 Calcutta authorities +ermitted )om2ay to kee+ +ossession of the territories
365

G;- III7 %+$ "","/$ I2id$ %+$ ",&$ G;- II, %$"&$ I2id$ %+$.*,.6$

366 367 368

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ceded to them until the ministers7 as +er a clause in the Treaty of %urandhar7 +ro-ided a more -ia2le +roof of the This issued got +rolonged$ The Maratha sources on the other hand seem to su++ort the claims of %oona ministers$ It may 2e worthwhile to 2riefly take stock of the de-elo+ments that had determined the +osition of the of aekwads in the Maratha +olity$ :ma2ai Da2hade a++ointed Dama!i (ao as the mamlatdar u!arat after %ila!i (ao6s death$/0# In .0*" when )ala!i )a!i (ao %eshwa aekwad and demanded surrender of half his had im+risoned Dama!i (ao aekwad6s de+endence on %oona$/61

territories in u!arat he stated his status as 2eing merely a mutali. or de+uty of Da2hades$/0. >ith the death of Shahu in .0&1 and the defeat of the ri-al +arty in Maratha +olitics the %eshwa had emerged as the su+reme authority$ In the +artition treaty of .0*" we find the %eshwa granting half of Maratha territories of u!arat to the aekwad in his own name$/0" Since then the aekwad 2ut the inherent rift aekwad6s right as a official documents refer to the %eshwa as the sarkar$ Thus7 it is +ossi2le that the %eshwa was the acce+ted o-erlord of the 2etween the two made aekwad as+ire for freedom from his tutelage$ It is

also +ossi2le that alienation of lands was a +art of the

sardar who single,handedly con8uered the whole +ro-ince and therefore was not usually interfered with 2y the %eshwa$ This was an im+ortant characteristic of the Maratha +olity during this +eriod where the %eshwa was lenient with sardars who o+erated on their own outside swara'ya$/0/ In this
369 370 371 372 373

I2id$ "S-S @I, ;tB "'7 %$ ".$ -aroda State GaBetteer, %+$ &*",&*/$ "S-S I, %$ *"$ Swara!ya was the term used for the areas originally con8uered 2y Shi-a!i as distinct from the Moglai or Mughal6s areas that were con8uered 2y the Maratha sardars su2se8uently$ Swara!ya formed the core area of the Maratha =ingdom$ In Moglai areas the re-enue rights were shared with the Mughals$

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+articular case the %oona ministers were a++rehensi-e of the rise of )om2ay as a counter+oise to their own +ower in western India and therefore sought to cur2 )om2ay6s territorial am2itions$ The issue was settled in the Treaty of Sal2ai in .0'" in fa-our of %oona ,arbar and the )ritish had to return the parganas ceded earlier$ )haruch also was taken from Aatehsing (ao 2y %oona7 +ossi2ly to make their +oint7 and gi-en as a gift to the English for +eace settlements$ The )ritish in turn ga-e it to the Sindhia$ Thus7 aekwad6s +osition as the -assal of %eshwa was reaffirmed$ As mentioned elsewhere7 the )ritish East India Com+any wanted to reduce the num2er of claimants to re-enues in areas controlled 2y it$ In +ursuance of this am2ition they introduced a clause in the Treaty of =undhela Fconcluded during the first Anglo,Maratha warG where2y territories con8uered from the %eshwa in +artitioned in such a way that the u!arat was +ro+osed to 2e aekwad and the English had sole

+ossession of their res+ecti-e shares$/0& According to this agreement the )ritish were to recei-e territories in the south around Surat and )haruch7 while the aekwads would 2e gi-en the territories in the North7 com+rising Ahmada2ad and other areas$

MUL%GIRI

374

G;- III, *th article in the Treaty of =undhela7 %$ 16$

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The )ritish east India Com+any 2ecame a direct +arty with territorial rights in Saurashtra in .'#/ with their taking +ossession of the four districts of ogha7 (an+ur7 Dholka and Dhandhuka7 o2tained from the %eshwa through the Treaty of )assein$ This later 2ecame =aira collectorate$ They found the +olitical situation in the region to 2e a com+le9 one$ They made efforts to understand the nature of Maratha relations with the smaller chieftains of Saurashtra and Mahi,=antha,(ewa =antha FNorth u!aratG regions$ The Marathas had 2een conducting annual mulkgiri or re-enue collection e9+editions into these regions$ The chiefs were o2liged to +ay a khandani Ftri2uteG and acce+t the Marathas as o-erlords$ The amount of khandani -aried from year to year and de+ended on the resistance +ower of the chiefs as well as the force at the command of the tri2ute collectors$ Aor all +ractical +ur+oses these chiefs were free to manage their chieftaincies without any interference from their Maratha o-erlords$ The Maratha mulkgiri claims consisted of two +arts7 one 'amabandi and other khara'at$/0* khara'at consisted of many +er8uisites7 ghasdana 2eing an im+ortant +er8uisite reser-ed for the sardar who conducted the mulkgiri cam+aign$ %rior to the introduction of the )ritish7 the Marathas had +rinci+ally the right to interfere in settling succession dis+utes< +unish offenders< deal with lawless elements< o-ersee the maintenance of internal +eace 2y the local chiefs etc$/06 The recognised the rights of the aekwads came to e9ercise these rights in a more definite way after the )ritish entry into Saurashtra$ The )ritish ekwads to e9ercise control o-er the chieftains aekwad of the region as it was also in their interest$ Cithalrao De-a!i7 the
375

376

It is the corru+t word for ikhra'at7 an esta2lished head of re-enue under the Mughals$ )aroda State a4etteer7 %$66*$ C$:$Aitchison7 ) 6ollection of Treaties, <ngagements and Sanads, ColB CI7 Calcutta7 .1/"7 %+$ '#,'.$

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sarsubah o2tained a footing in the region 2y ca+turing Amreli town and e9+anding the aekwad +ossessions in the +eninsula after .'#&$ The )ritish ekwads$ It was could not do this directly since they had no legitimate authority to interfere in the region< they were content to 2e seen as an ally of the only after the transfer of %eshwa6s territories in u!arat to the Com+any in

.'.0,.' that the )ritish ser-ants came to e9ercise direct control$ Ma!or Ale9ander >alker7 who has made im+ortant o2ser-ations on the nature of so-ereignty in Saurashtra7 notes that the chieftains of Saurashtra were indifferent during the transition of their o-er lordshi+ from the Mughal to the Maratha go-ernments$ They +aid 'ama8 to whoe-er +ossessed the local authority in the area and that neither Nawa2s nor the Marathas interfered in their internal matters$ The only acti-ity they undertook was the mulkgiri e9+editions7 which in the course of time esta2lished their own con-entions$ Accordingly7 when the Maratha mulkgiri force a++eared in Saurashtra7 all fights amongst the local chiefs were to sto+$ In case any chieftain did not com+ly with this rule7 the Marathas le-ied a fine on that chief$ Similarly7 u+on the a++earance of the force on the 2orders of a +rinci+ality the local chief was re8uired to send his vakils or karbharis to settle his tri2ute$ After this7 he had to lea-e a few soldiers there to tell any other mulkgiri +arty that settlement has already 2een made$ This sa-ed them from the +ossi2le loot and +lunder$ This +ractice was called bhandar$ In case a chief refused to settle his tri2ute7 the mulkgiri forces would ra-age the territory and com+el the chief to make a settlement$/00 The +ractice of mulkgiri was not confined to the Marathas alone$ The Nawa2 of Dunagadh had an e8ual right to mulkgiri in Saurashtra$/0' The
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/alker@Selections IIIII, %+$ "61,"0"$ I2id$ %$"0"$

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parganas of Salem7 )anthali7 Cera-al7 %atan7 Di-7 =utiana7 )had7 Miari7 Aliah7 )iare!7 Chorwad7 Sutra+ada7 =odinar7 :na7 Delwada were directly ruled 2y the Nawa2$ In the parganas of Mangrol7 Det+ur7 Dhana+oli7 (am+ur7 )agasra7 )ilkha7 Sil )andar7 Cera-al and Amreli he had to share the mulkgiri re-enue with other claimants$/01 )esides the -arious +rinci+alities of Saurashtra7 Dunagadh6s claim to mulkgiri e9tended well into the +ro-inces of Dhalawad7 Dhandhuka7 (an+ur and ogha Fin Ahmada2ad sarkarG$ In Saurashtra it e9tended u+ to 3allad7 Machu =antha7 etc$/'# In .'". there were .1/ different +rinci+alities in Saurashtra7 out of which ./& including )ha-nagar7 Nawanagar7 %or2andar7 Mor2i and Dhrangadhra +aid Bortalabi Fthe e8ui-alent of the Maratha khandaniG to Dunagadh$/'. In addition to Bortalabi7 the Nawa2 also collected ghasdana like the Marathas$ According to the Tarikh@i@Sorath7 Saurashtra was di-ided into .'' se+arate states during the )ritish times7 out of which ./ did not +ay any tri2ute7 16 +aid the tri2ute to the )ritish and 0# to aekwads and 1 to 2oth$ Out of .'' +rinci+alities7 ./" +aid Bortalabi to Dunagadh as well$/'" In addition the chiefs of )ha-nagar7 Nawanagar and >adhwan also conducted mulkgiri and collected tri2ute from their bhayad as also from the smaller chiefs in the neigh2ourhood$ In Mangrol the (a!a of Mangrol and Dunagadh Nawa2 !ointly e9ercised re-enue rights$/'/ Mian )adr,ud,Din who had come to administer Mangrol after dri-ing out the Marathas in .0&' also had a share in the re-enue of the +lace$ )esides7 he collected tri2ute from =eshod7 Chorwad7 =odinar7 %atan7 %or2andar7 etc$/'&
379 380 381

382 383 384

Tarikh@i@Sorath, %$//$ /alker@Selections7 %$"0/$ )arnewall6s re+ort to o-t7 /.st Oct7 .'".7 c$f$ The -abi rulers of Sorath, Dunagadh State %ress7 .1#/7 %$ &$ Tarikh@i@Sorath7 %$"$ I2id$ %+$ *0,*'$ I2id$ %$*/$

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The e9tent of fragmentation of the re-enue rights in central Saurashtra can 2e had from some statistics a-aila2le with us$ In .'#/ the Com+any officers found that in Dhanduka there were .#/ -illages out of which "6 -illages sought +rotection from )ha-nagar and "6 from the chief of ;imdi$ All .#/ -illages +aid 'ama8 to the Com+any Fthey had earlier +aid that to the %eshwaG 2ut owed no other o2ligation$/'* In case of (an+ur only the @as2a of (an+ur and / rasti -illages com+rised Com+any6s areas of direct authority< the rest were under their res+ecti-e girasias who ruled inde+endently$/'6 The girasias again +aid a fi9ed sum as tri2ute to )ha-nagar7 ;imdi and >adhwan for +rotection against de+redations$/'0 Similarly7 in ogha the Com+any had direct rule in the town of ogha and " rasti -illages whereas *1 -illages 2elonged to )ha-nagar and '6 to girasias$ There were in total '& -illages$/'' In fact7 although ogha district 2elonged to the Com+any the )ha-nagar (a!a was acknowledged as the +rinci+al so-ereign in most +arts$ 3e was one of the girasias of the area$ The girasias on the other hand +aid mulkgiri tri2ute to the Marathas and Dunagadh 2esides the 'ama8 to the Com+any$/'1 The )ha-nagar chief had a share in the customs of the ogha +ort as well$/1# Thus7 Ale9ander >alker o2ser-es that 5it is difficult to +oint out a single +aramount +ower in the region7 as the authority was di-ided e9tremely6 2ut asserts that no dis+ute arose 2etween the -arious claimants as each +arty recei-ed its due share without any conflict$/1.

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/alker@Selections IIIII, %$ .6$ I2id$ %$ .'$ I2id$ %$.1$ I2id$ %$ "#$ I2id$ %$ ".$ I2id$ I2id$

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In mainland areas as well7 multi+le claims to tri2ute were esta2lished in the course of the Century$ This was more +ronounced in the areas referred to as (ewa,=antha and Mahi,=antha in )ritish sources$ These areas were called mewasi areas in Maratha sources$ In e9treme north as also on the eastern fringes of the region7 multi+le claims to re-enues had come into 2eing$ In the (ewa =antha Agency7 the )ritish had recogni4ed 6 large and ** small states$ Amongst the large states were Chota :de+ur7 Sunth7 De-gadh )ariya7 (a!+i+la7 ;unawada and )alasinor$/1" Mahi,=antha com+rised of *1 states$/1/ ;unawada +aid tri2ute to aekwads7 Sindhias/1& and )a2is of )alasinor$/1* )hameria and =an!eri +rinci+alities similarly +aid tri2ute to 2oth aekwads and Sindhias$ /16De-gadh )ariya7 howe-er7 resisted the attem+ts of the Sindhia to a claim in its re-enues and instead itself had a claim on the re-enues of Dohad7 3alol and =alol7 areas in the %anch Mahal district that were under Sindhia6s management$/10 At %alan+ur the %eshwa7 3olkar and the aekwads le-ied tri2ute$/1' The Nawa2 of (adhan+ur was a u!arat -assal of %alan+ur7 and the chiefs of >agad district in =utch were in turn -assals of the Nawa2 of (adhan+ur$/11 The %anch Mahals in eastern was under the authority of the Sindhia and odhra was the administrati-e

head8uarter of the district$ Dungar+ur and )answara in north,eastern u!arat were tri2utary to the %owars of Dhar$&## Idar and )alasinor undertook mulkgiri e9+editions on surrounding areas occasionally$ The Idar chief too undertook #ulkgiri e9+editions and also le-ied a cess called khichree7
392 393 394 395 396 397 398 399 400

-om. Pres. GaB@ ewa kantha7 o+$cit$7 %+$ .,"$ I2id$ #ahi@*antha7 %+$ /**,/*6$ G;- (I, %$ 1/$ -om.Pres.GaB@ ewa *antha, o+$cit$7 %$ ."'$ G;- (I, %$ 1/$ I2id$ %$..1$ -om. Pres. GaB@Palanpur, o+$cit$7 %$ /".$ >alter,3amilton7 o+$cit$7 %+$ 6"1,6/#$ G;- (I, %+$ 1",1/$

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similar to Maratha ghasdana7 which was formally recogni4ed as a right and thus safeguarded 2y the )ritish in the re-enue settlements$&#. They also +aid tri2ute to the mulkgiri forces of Sindhia and 3olkar 2ut were otherwise inde+endent so-ereigns in their own right$&#" These figures7 2y no means com+lete7 gi-e an idea of the e9tent and the range of fragmentation of re-enue collection rights in .'th century u!arat$

PROTECTION

In this highly fragmented +olity in

u!arat and the struggle amongst

-arious contenders for territorial gains at the e9+ense of the other created conditions where -arious sections of society7 including functionaries of the state7 sought +rotection from another +ower in times of distress$ 3ence7 we find mem2ers of the mercantile and 2usiness community such as merchants and 2ankers7 su+erior land right holders like the patels and the desais as also no2les and officials of a territory seeking +rotection of some outside +ower against their own chiefs$ Sometimes it was designed to further their -ested interests$ >e are citing here some of such e9am+les$ Immediately after the )ritish con8uest of )haruch7 ;allu2hai took the +rotection of Aatehsing (ao aekwad and refused to go o-er to the )ritish$ 3e was considered to 2e an im+ortant official7 2eing the diwan of the Nawa27 and was also the desai and i'aradar of agriculturally fertile )haruch
401 402

Selections@#ahee *antha7 o+$cit$7 %$6$ G;- (I7 %$ .##$

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pargana$ Strong securities and counter securities7 assuring a safe conduct were gi-en 2y the )ritish East India Com+any to secure the +erson of ;allu2hai$&#/ Another case was of (udra!i desai of Chorasi pargana who had fled from aekwad6s ser-ice and without settling his accounts$ 3e sought the +rotection of the )ritish at Surat and was a++ointed the 5amaldar of Chikli$ The aekwad demanded that (udra!i 2e made o-er to him7 as he was his ser-ant$&#& Similarly7 in .01# Mana!i (ao aekwad7 who succeeded Aatehsing (ao7 accused the English Chief of Surat and the Nawa2 of Surat7 of gi-ing refuge to one )hima!i )haskar7 the sarsubah of Na-sari7 who had owed large amounts to the aekwads$ To this the )om2ay authorities reminded Mana!i (ao of a certain Maratha treaty of .0/1 where2y he was re8uired to furnish +roofs against the said +erson for the Nawa2 to hand him o-er$ ;ater the Surat chief was authori4ed to deal with the issue though we do not know the end result$&#* Another significant case is that of Muncher!i7 the desai of Na-sari$ =anho!i im+risoned Muncher!i6s family with the intention of e9tracting money from him under some +rete9t$ Muncher!i sought the Com+any6s hel+ to inter-ene on his 2ehalf as he was under its +rotection$ 3e was released later with the )ritish hel+$ 3e7 howe-er7 tried to 2ring down =anho!i (ao from +ower and su++orted (ao2a in 2ringing the )ritish to +ower at )aroda$&#6 Similarly7 in Cam2ay Mohammad @uli7 the successor of Momin =han II7 ga-e +rotection to one Ta+idas7 the patel of a aekwad -illage$ Aatehsing (ao sent a force to get Ta+idas and a fine of (s$ .*7### was also le-ied on Cam2ay$ Ta+idas howe-er fled to )ha-nagar$&#0

403 404 405 406 407

G;- III, %+$ ."0 L .&1$ I2id$ %$1$ I2id$ %$ .61$ G;- I(, %+$ /1,&# L &/,&&$ /alker@Selections IIIII, %$'.$

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)esides indi-iduals7 the smaller +rinci+alities also sought +rotection from the 2igger +owers to safeguard their +olitical interests$ Thus in .0*" when u!arat was di-ided 2etween the %eshwa and the aekwads7 the Nawa2 of Cam2ay sent his peshkar )ra!lal to %oona re8uesting the %eshwa to collect the chauth from Cam2ay instead of the .0'" the Cala =athis of aekwad$ The Nawa2 aekwads$ &#' In hence was seeking +rotection of the %eshwa against the

ir7 in +ossession of Cisa-adar and Chelna7 sought

+rotection of the Nawa2 of Dunagadh against the more +owerful kingdoms in Saurashtra and +ledged re-enues of half of their -illages to the Nawa2$ In .01& Nawa2 Maha2at =han of Dunagadh transferred Cisa-adar and Chelna districts to the Nawa2 of )antwa for management as he found managing the tur2ulent =athis a difficult !o2$&#1 Dunagadh howe-er failed to +rotect these +rinci+alities from the encroachments of )ha-nagar and Nawanagar$ Thus7 the =athi chiefs of Chital7 Dasdan7 Det+ur and =undla a++lied for )ritish +rotection in .'#/ es+ecially against )ha-nagar and Nawanagar$&.# In another case7 the %eshwa ga-e )allu Mian7 the descendant of the Sidi of Dan!ira7 the 'agir of Satargam in Surat Atha-isi in .0107 after taking o-er Dan!ira from the Sidi chief$ The )ritish stood as +rotector in the agreement$ The Sidi later o2tained a sanad from the Mughal Court and formed the Nawa2i of Sachin$&.. It could 2e seen that the )ritish had emerged as the most sought after +rotectors in the region 2y the end of the .'th Century$ This ha++ened due to the increase in their +olitical authority in the region$ They now also acted as
408 409 410 411

3$D$(o2ertson7 "istorical 3arrative of the city of 6ambay in Selections from the ecords of the -ombay Government, RRCI7 New Series7 )om2ay7 .'*67 %$ 6*$ C$A$=incaid7 o+$cit$7 %$.6$ /alker@Selections IIIII, %$6&$ >$3$3arrison7 ough notes connected with Sachin estate in the Surat 6ollectorate, in Selections from the ecords of the -ombay Government, no$ RRCI7 New Series7 )om2ay7 %+$ "6,"0$

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+rotectors to -arious +rinci+alities against 2igger +owers$ Thus7 through the Treaty of Sal2ai in .0'" the English agreed to +rotect the when in .01* aekwads against any kind of encroachments on their territories 2y the %eshwa$ Conse8uently7 o-ind (ao took o-er the gaddi of )aroda and the %oona aekwad share of Surat chauth and Chorasi ministers tried to get the

pargana7 the )ritish resident C$>$ Malet inter-ened to sto+ it$&." In fact after the conclusion of the treaty of Sal2ai the %eshwa addressed his o2!ections with regard to the aekwads through the agency of the )ritish$ Aor instance7 in .0'* the %eshwa com+lained against Aatehsing (ao to the Com+any saying he was neither +aying tri2ute nor +ro-iding military aid and was also +lundering the %eshwa6s mahals in 2rother u!arat$&./ In .01/ Mana!i (ao asked to 2e +rotected 2y the Com+any in case of an attack from his o-ind (ao7 referring to the treaty of Sal2ai$ The Com+any though o-ind (ao would most +ro2a2ly succeed Mana!i (ao o-ind (ao had7 Com+any6s decided not to inter-ene in the internal affairs of the family on the ad-ice of Malet7 who held that who had no direct successors while

inter-ention would +lace it in a +recarious +osition$&.& %rotection to Mana!i (ao was thus refused to safeguard the Com+any6s interests$

INTERMEDIARIES The intertwining of the re-enue interests of -arious +arties also +ro-ided sco+e for the emergence of intermediaries with di+lomatic skills$ The commercial agents like modi7 marfatia and vakil e9isted since earlier times facilitating the interaction of the foreign merchants and the East India
412 413 414

Poona esidency 6orrespondence, (ol. II7 o+$cit$7 %$ G;- III7 %$ .*6$ G;- III7 %+$ .01,.'. L .'"$

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Com+anies with the local officials$ The .'th century howe-er saw similar mediators emerging in the +olitical s+here as well$ Thus7 the office of peshkar7 comes to our notice$ The nature of office of peshkar was earlier mundane re-enue related one while during this +eriod the functions of mediation came to 2e added7 in addition to the re-enue record kee+ing$ Since the !oint Mughal,Maratha rule came to 2e esta2lished at Ahmeda2ad the need to maintain accurate re-enue accounts was felt 2y 2oth sides$ As 2oth sides attem+ted to augment their own resources at the e9+ense of the other7 the peshkar 2ecame an im+ortant official$ 3e also ser-ed as a link 2etween the two +arties$ Some of them7 like )alidas the peshkar of Na!m, ud,Daula Momin =han and also during the Nia2at of Aida,ud,din =han and (enko!i at Ahmeda2ad7 could gain +ersonal 2enefits 2ecause of his di+lomatic skills$&.* The intermediary nature of the officer peshkar comes to our notice in certain other cases also$ Peshkar )ra!lal went to %oona to settle the 6hauth affairs of Cam2ay Nawa2$&.6 Similarly Ca!eram too was an influential peshkar of the Nawa2 of Cam2ay$ ,esai Sur!i7 the diwan cum peshkar of )ha-nagar acted as an intermediary with the Maratha o-erlords of )ha-nagar and its neigh2ouring chiefs of Dunagadh and Surat$ &.0 It seems that the +ost of diwan in case of these local +rinci+alities was -ested in a +erson who was a com2ination of peshkar7 vakil of si2andis and desai of fertile +arganas$ Sur!i was the desai of ogha in addition to 2eing a vakil of the Ara2 sibandis as well$&.' The case was the same with ;allu2hai of )haruch and diwan Amar!i of Dunagadh and Mehraman =hawas of Nawanagar$
415 416 417

418

#irat7 %$ *11$ #irat7 %+$ 0*/ L 06'$ D$>$>atson7 M3istorical sketch of the town of )ha-nagarP7 Indian )nti.uary7 .'0&7 %$"'&$ 3e also had a 2anking firm in ogha$

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Sometimes tem+orary mediators were re8uired$ Thus7 we find Dhan!i Shaw %arsi mediating with Nawa2 Mua44a4 =han on 2ehalf of English East India Com+any +ost the first English e9+edition on )haruch$ ;ater when the English had con8uered )haruch7 Dhan!i Shaw was again re+resenting the Com+any with the aekwads while Aatehsing (ao aekwad sent (udra!i )a+u as his re+resentati-e in the negotiations regarding the sharing of the re-enues of )haruch$&.1 Similar to the office of peshkar was that of the karbhari. *arbhari is a Marathi term used for intermediaries$ This was an official +osition and the sole function of mediation was attached to a karbhari$ A karbhari6s skills included knowledge of languages like %ersian7 Marathi7 u!arati and at times English and one of karbhari6s im+ortant functions included translations as well$ Some karbharis en!oyed +rominence as their ser-ices were considered to 2e im+ortant es+ecially to a new +ower like the )ritish East India Com+any towards the end of the .'th century$ angadhar Shastri7 the karbhari of )aroda7 was one such high +rofile karbhari who was sent on the mission of +ersuading the %eshwa )a!i (ao II to renew the i'ara of his share of u!arat6s re-enues to the aekwads in .'.&$ Triam2ak Danglia assassinated angadhar Shastri which 2ecame an antecedent to the third angadhar Shastri also seems to ha-e had se-eral

Anglo,Maratha war$

vakils or lesser agents under his authority in different towns$ 3e had a vakil in )aroda and another in %oona to inform him of the de-elo+ments there$ It seems that the office of *arbhari as an inde+endent di+lomatic office came u+ with the introduction of )ritish residency in )aroda$

419

Aor (udra!i see G;- II7 %$ ."0< for Dhan!i Shaw O) II7 +assim$

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In case of the local %rinci+alities the agents were referred to as vakils$ Different agents were em+loyed for s+ecific functions$ Aor instance vakils of the sibandis looked after recruitment of the sibandis$ Similarly +olitical vakils worked as a link with the higher authorities on 2ehalf of their master$ They also negotiated with the higher +owers in case of dis+utes and resol-ed conflicts$ Thus in case of =handani settlements the vakils negotiated with the higher authorities$&"# Thus7 the chaos resulting from the e9istence of multi+le authorities during the .'th century was managed to some e9tent 2y these mechanisms$

SOME REFLECTIONS ON THE SOCIAL CONDITIONS

>e ha-e noticed in the +re-ious cha+ters that the 2reakdown of the Mughal authority created a situation of social unrest and insecurity in u!arat in the .'th century$ An attem+t has 2een made in the following +ages to understand the general effects of the unrest and the +erce+tions of the
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/alker@selections IIIII$ %assim$

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local +eo+le towards of that situation$ >e ha-e also tried to understand the mechanisms 2y which they tried to meet the situation$ In order to gauge the +eo+le6s feelings of the effects of the in-asions7 we ha-e analy4ed the folk literature of the +eriod7 as we do not e9+ect to get information on such a theme in the 5con-entional6 sources whose o2!ecti-e is -ery different$ Some of the garbas written in this +eriod +ro-ide an insight into our su2!ect$

Garbas are the most +o+ular and common form of +oetical literature of u!arat$ These were com+osed and sung on im+ortant social occasions such as marriages7 2irths and deaths$ The garbas were +redominantly associated with -hakti and were usually +rayers -erses addressed to one or the other form of oddess Am2a$ Some of them commemorated certain e-ents that had a larger social 2earing$ These garbas thus are a useful source of information on the +eo+le6s +erce+tion of e-ents and situations< e-en though they do not +ro-ide ela2orate information on the historical e-ents$ Also7 garbas ha-e many forms7 the pavado and the shalakho 2eing the most common forms of eulogi4ing an e-ent or a heroic feat$ Though shalakho and pavado were distinct from each other7 2y our time the difference seems to ha-e 2een narrowed down and the terms are used interchangea2ly$ &".

)efore we take u+ the information in these garbas7 it is necessary to e9+lain the terms that occur in them$ The Marathas are referred to as ganim FAra2ic 5ghanim67 meaning 5+lunderer6G7 an e9+ression of disdain7 in non, Marathi sources$ English sources7 for instance7 refer to Shi-a!i as ganim Fand his guerilla warfare as ganim kavaG7 2ecause he had +lundered the city of
421

: Doshi7 A (a-al and K Shukla FedsG7 Gu'arati sahityano Itihas, Ahmeda2ad7 .1067 %+$ /*,/6$

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Surat$ Interestingly7 the Marathi sources use this word to denote a 5hero6$ 3ence7 the usage of the word ganim has o++osite connotations in the Maratha and non,Maratha sources of the +eriod$ Now let us e9amine the gar2a work called Ganim no :adai no Pavado7 com+osed 2y Cishwanath Dani in .0#6$ This garba relates to the first ma!or 2attle of the century 2etween the Mughal officers of u!arat and the Marathas under Dhana u!arat from the ganim Dadha- in which the Mughals were routed$ This work is a +rayer sung to oddess Am2ika im+loring her to +rotect FMarathasG$ The details in the pavado also corro2orate the information in the con-entional sources$ This pavado contains &1 +aragra+hs< each +aragra+h is a four liner$ Thus it saysB&""

)hay lage ghano ganimna katakno (aghne sarvano nahi evoN +amna doot to pran laine vate Anal taruaarno nahiye te-oS &"/

M O/e areP very scared of the Ganim!s valour #ore than that of a TigerN The +am!s men 09am, god of death1 leave after they take life away -ut the Ganim keeps coming backM
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423

In this cha+ter only a loose translation of the -erses as 2een done as the intention was only to understand the %erce+tions of the +eo+le$ Man!ulal$ ($ Ma!mudar7 )achu2hai (a-at7 Manu2hai Doghani FedsG7 Gu'arati :oksahityamala, Col$ III7 .16/7 Ahmeda2ad7 %+$ "0/,"'"$

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It &'!th(! "a)" that7

9e amare shir thaliyo che ghaniN Te to gardho thayo nevo varsheNN Te pratipalna nathi re shakto kariN To amari sari te kon karsheLNN

The <mperor who is suppose to protect us "as become an old man of D? years, "e cannot look after us anymore /ho is going to take care of us thenL

In another -erse the garba informs us a2out the e9cessi-e re-enues that were collected 2y the officers

#oghanu dukh ne megh aave nahinN To tamara 'anya kyam 'eveLNN 8'i'iyo! le ghani, ganim mare aniN..

T/e haveP the sorrow of high prices and the rains do not come 9ou tell us how do we liveL The ruler takes more 0taxes1 and the Ganim killsM

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The garba also states that no2ody7 meaning the officers7 comes to o++ose the Marathas$ (eferring to the 2attle of .0#67 it says that it has 2een ages waiting7 2ut no Su2ahdar came with an army to rescue the +eo+le from the Marathas and e-en the Diwan is in FMarathaG custody$

(at 'ota bhuda maas eka' thayoN *o subo naviyo sena layinoNN *habar leye sheherni yehne diwan'iN Te becharo padya kaid thyineNN &"&

It has been ages waitingN 3o suba 0subahdar1 came with an armyNN The ,iwan who looks after the city 0of )hmedabad1N "e himself is imprisonedNN

Towards the end7 it im+lores the anything$

oddess to hel+ the +eo+le of

u!arat as a *han or a #ir Fmeaning the Mughal officersG alone cannot do

Another pavado titled as ustam na Shalakho7 also known as Ibrahim Auli no Pavado was com+osed in .0"* 2y one Shamal )hat of Ahmada2ad6s )egum+ura$ It is a -ersified -ersion of the 2attle 2etween Shu!a5at =han and 3amid =han that took +lace in .0"*$ The Shu!a6at =han faction7 consisting of three 2rothers7 was -ery +o+ular with the +eo+le of u!arat$ Their +o+ularity is reflected in this pavado$ Two +arts of the te9t
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I2id$ %$"1'$

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has 2een a-aila2le for this study&"*7 one dealing with Shu!a6at =han and I2rahim @uli =han6s death at Ahmada2ad and the other dealing with (ustam Ali =han6s death in the 52attle of Aras6$ The initial -erses +raise the three 2rothers and the effects of their administration in the following wordsB

Mvado te veer shu'aatyashanNN +ene padshahima ati Ghana maanN )nmi mehwasi 'ene vash kidhaNN Pra'a paline mota 'ash leedhaN

JM The brave Shu'a!at *han, the one who had great respect at the imperial court The one who had controlled the #ehwasis, and earned the goodwill of the people.K

Th(* it +,(" &'!th(!

Tethi nanero ustam kahiyeNN +ena 'udhno par na lahiyeN upe rudone datar 'anuNN Sahuma shiroman tene vashanuN +ehena naamthi taskar traseNN ,akshini gamin saat gao naseN Tethi nanero madino 'aoNN )bhram kuli ladakwaoN

JOthe oneP younger to him is called ustam, I will now be describing himN
425

The -erses +ertaining to Ahmada2ad has 2een e9tracted from a later work7 ($)$Dote7 Gu'aratnu Patnagar )hmadabad7 Ahmeda2ad7 .1"1< while the +art dealing with Surat ha-e 2een taken from another .1th century work7 Ishwarlal Icharam Desai7 Surat Sona ni #urat7 Surat7 .1*'$

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"e was good to look at and exalted 0shiroman1 in every wayN "earing his name the looters were scared away Southern Ganims ran miles awayN 0:iterally seven villages, saat@gao1 9oungest of all is Ibrahim Auli, The one who is the favourite of allK

Then the %oet goes on to descri2e the 2attle7 the details of which match with the account in the #irat@i@)hmadi$ In the 2attle of Arras the %oet asserts that (ustam was killed 2y 2etrayal of %ila!i (ao or else he could not ha-e 2een defeated$ %ila!i allied with (ustam first and then changed sides7 as defeating (ustam was im+ortant to him$

M partam pilu'iye dago deedu chhe, looti lashkar ne kop keedho chhe, bee'o to kanthak koli mehwasi, deedho ratyabo, keedho bahu hashiM. Tyare ustam khan maara gaya chhe.

JM 2irst Pila'i betrayed him, angered him by looting his provisions, then the mehwasis betrayed him by harassing his armyMM It is only after all that, that ustam could be defeatedNK

After (ustam6s death the Marathas looted the +laces around Ahmada2ad as +er the agreement with 3amid =han$ tyathi "amidshah Gu'arate avya sarve #aratha sanghate lavya, bhadarma aavi keedho mukamM
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vachan apyu te palo tame sava dahado seher lootyu ame, hamedshah ema' kahave seher lootyani namoshi ave, hamedshah to sheherma raha, looti lagadi maretha gaya, navya verano navyopar bar bar rupiya lidha be vaar.

JM 2rom there 0bank of #ahi iver1 "amid *han came to Gu'arat 0)hmadabad1-ringing all the #arathas with him, "e settled down in -hadraM, 82ulfill the promise you made! 0the #arathas said1, 8we will loot the city!, O-utP "amid *han was ashamed 0scared for his reputation1 to loot the city, OTherefore heP remained in the city and the #arathas left after plundering it. OTheyP started the new trend of levying vera 0cesses1 and took twice the amount Othey were promisedPK

Th( Pavado (*-" .ith th( /!ai"( ,& R'"ta0 A1i %ha*2" 3!a4(!)5

JM The way a Tiger roars ustam!s army goes into the battlefield, Seeing him the enemy runs awayN The way birds fly by the approach of men, The #arathas also run away seeing the advent of ustam!s armyK

A*- hi" a-0i*i"t!ati,*7

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Surano ha., lokno Tham ustame tyaha 'ayi keedho vishram )avine dushman pavle lage ustamna sarkhu surapan bhage. <nha sarikhi himatya rahe'o Taruare 'as enho toh de'yo, ,hanya eni 'anani@keri kukh 0kok1 Sura'anne pragatavyu sukh.

J ustam would sit in peace only when his people live in peace, ;nce he catches his enemy even they start to sing his praiseN Praise be to the mother, who gave birth to him, the one who has given peace to people.K

The im+ortance of the last -erse could 2e understood through the measures (ustam had taken to control the local miscreants$ The #irat mentions an incident where Syed Ali >ai47 a +reacher7 was creating social discord in Surat$ (ustam im+risoned him and sent him to )aroda$&"6 This created u+roar as the >ai4 had Ara2 and (umi sibandis as retainers 2ut (ustam silenced e-ery2ody through his strong rule and esta2lished +eace in the town$ >hile (ustam was +roceeding to Ahmada2ad to fight 3amid =han some +eo+le influenced him to release Syed Ali who returned to Surat$ In .0"6 after (ustam6s death Syed Ali +layed an im+ortant role in instigating a riot in Surat$&"0
426 427

#irat, o+$cit$7 %+$ &.&,&.*$ #irat@ul@ha.ai.7 o+$cit$7 f$ &6# FaG

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The resistance to the +ayment of 'ama8 is in e-idence since the last years of the .0th Century$ This has also 2een reckoned as one of the e-idence of Mughal decline$ In case of u!arat7 this tendency was s+oradic in the .0th Century and during the .'th Century it 2ecame wides+read with most of the region 2ecoming Bortalbi$ Amongst the areas that were 2ecoming Bortalb7 Cam2ay was +erha+s one of the first$ A +iece of folk literature7 the te9t of which unfortunately could not 2e located 2ut it finds a mention in the Gu'arati Sahitya *osh indicates this tendency$ -han no Shalakho was com+osed in .0#0 in =haksar pargana of sarkar =ham2ayat FCam2ayG$ It eulogi4es a fight 2etween the ryots near %adra -illage and the Mughal Su2ahdar o-er the non,+ayment of the +ama8 as early as .0#0$ The +eo+le of =haksar pargana ga-e se-en bighas of land in pasaitu Fre-enue free -illage grantG to angadas )ha-ani for com+osing this +oem$&"'

%eshwa6s rule has left a negati-e mark on the minds of the +eo+le of u!arat$ The wides+read use of i'ara and its institutionali4ation under the Maratha rule led to the o++ression of the local +o+ulation$ Another o++ressi-e institution that came in e9istence was the kamavisdari system in which the functions of re-enue collection7 maintenance of law and order and the !udicial duties were com2ined in one +erson7 the kamavisdar$ The kamavisdars also introduced the system of collection of fines instead of handing down +unishment to criminals$ The kamavisdars were in dire need resources and hence they used e-ery o++ortunity to collect money$ This wrecked ha-oc in the social system$ The rich could always get away after committing crimes while the +oor could not +ay the e9or2itant fines$ Certain
428

Dayant =othari7 Dayant adith7 Chandrakant Sheth FedsG7 Gu'arati Sahitya *osh7 %art$ I, Medie-al7 Ahmeda2ad7 .1'17+$ 1&$

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Sarsubahs7 who held the office on i'ara7 em+loyed s+ies in the cities and nailed down +eo+le for committing crimes so that they could im+ose fines on them$ In most cases +eo+le were falsely im+licated in order to e9tract money from them$ The Sati Saduba no Pavado7 com+osed in .'.6 at Ahmeda2ad is de-oted e9clusi-ely to one such incident$&"1 It runs like thisB Naro+ant A22a7 the Sarsubah of u!arat had em+loyed chhadias&/# or agents who re+orted on the wealth and the +ri-ate information of +eo+le around the Ahmeda2ad city$ )ased u+on their information the Sarsu2ah asked such +eo+le as were accused of -arious crimes to +ay u+ to retain their honour and freedom$ On refusal they were harshly treated like kee+ing hea-y stones on such +ersons or confining them in dark rooms$ The amount so o2tained was shared 2etween the chhadia and the sarsubah$ It so ha++ened that one day Sadu2a7 the wife of a bhat in the city7 was accused of adultery and was 2eing carried away 2y the Sarsubah6s men$ Sadu2a in retaliation +leaded her hus2and to kill her to +rotect her honour i$e$7 +erform traga$ The bhat accordingly committed traga on his infant son and wife$ This created a tumult$ All the bhats in the city assem2led 2efore the Sarsubah6s 3a-eli and the house of the chhadia$ Aour of the Shroffs also !oined them in seeking an e9+lanation$ All the merchants and such grou+s as the )rahmanas7 osains7 Aakirs7 etc also assem2led 2efore the sarsubah6s aekwad and the +lace and closed down the sho+s$ The inter-ention of the

English +roduced no +acifying effect on them$&/. They demanded that the chhadia named :ttam 2e handed o-er to them$ At length the chhadia was handed o-er to the mo2 that 2eat him to death$ ;ater7 a shrine was
429

430 431

Though the te9t of this pavado could not 2e located7 it6s contents ha-e 2een summari4ed in detail 2y Commissariate Col$ III7 o+$cit$7 %+$ ''&,''1$ 6hhadia literally meant a +erson who re+orts or one who indulges in gossi+s7 I2id$ A$=$Aor2es7 asmala II, op.cit., %+$ &"1,&/#< ($)$Dote7 o+$cit$7 %+$ .*&,.**$ The incident also finds mention in G;- II7 %+$ ."0,."'$

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constructed and dedicated to the memory of Sadu2a and she was gi-en the status of a sati$&/"

Another garba7 relating to the times of A2a Shelukar7 the sarsubah of Ahmeda2ad is a-aila2le in +arts$ A2a Shelukar was the Sarsu2ah of u!arat around .'## and was a +artisan of Nana Aadna-is$ It is said that he took I!ara of the +lace for ten lakhs of (u+ees$ To collect this e9or2itant amount he 2latantly harassed the +eo+le of Ahmada2ad$ This garba called Shelukar no Garbo descri2es his atrocities in detail$&// It starts withB

Punethi shelukar aaviyore *arva amdavadna ra're, Shelukar sheed avyo! to ser mare.

JShelukar has come from Poona To rule over )hmadabad /hy has he come and what forLK Then the garba descri2es the details of his rece+tion and his lifestyle$

aypur darwa'e pesiya re bhare chadhavi asvari, Pesta te hatya kareere, kapyo rastano piliyo.

J"e entered from the aipur gate with an impressive Onumber

432 433

A$=$Aor2es7 %$ &'"$ The u!arati -ersion of the te9t is gi-en in the footnote7 ($)$Dote7 o+$cit$7 %+B .*#,.*.$

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ofP followersN Immediately he committed a murder, cut down all the pipal=G= trees on the roadNK It &'!th(! "a)"B

)avyo tare doshala odhi, gayo tare chadro odi, Shelukar te 'as na lidhore, M gayo tare taliyo bahu padiyoNN

JO"eP entered openly wearing a shawl 0doshala1 and left wrapped in a sheet 0chadar1N "e did not earn any goodwillN M.. /hen he left people clapped a lot 0expressing happiness1NK

The a2o-e -erse shows that A2a Shelukar was un+o+ular with the +eo+le of Ahmeda2ad$ A2a Shelukar was defeated and im+risoned 2y o-ind (ao aekwad in .'##$ 3e was a su++orter of Nana Aadna-is and o++osed )a!i(ao II6s accession to the office of %eshwa in .010$ Su2se8uently7 when Nana Aadna-is died in .'## Shelukar re2elled against the %eshwa$ )a!i (ao II commissioned o-ind (ao aekwad to 8uell the re2ellion and arrest Shelukar$ Su2se8uently7 the aekwads were gi-en the

i'ara of Ahmeda2ad and this ended the cha+ter of Shelukar6s rule in u!arat$

434

%i+al trees are considered to 2e sacred in u!arat as in the rest of India as they +ro-ide shadow and refuge from heat7 to the tra-elers$ The com+oser here calls cutting down these trees a murder$

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The %eshwa6s sarsubahs in general were e9+loitati-e$ )hmedabad no Itihas7 written during the .1th century recounts that the wealthy +eo+le were scared to dis+lay their wealth or wear good clothes in +u2lic7 as that would ha-e attracted the attention of Sarsubah6s men$ It also mentions that the ro22eries committed in the city used to go unnoticed7 as the sarsubah was 2elie-ed to take a chauth in the stolen +ro+erty$ E-en though no documentary +roof su++orts this statement7 2ut the le-el of lack of confidence in the integrity of the sarsubah is clearly e-ident$&/*

It may 2e mentioned that there were a few e9ce+tion to this general rule of conduct 2y the Maratha Sarsubas$ Aor e9am+le7 (aghunath Mahi+at7 +o+ularly known as *aka Saheb who was the uncle of was Cithalrao )a2a!i7 the aekwad Sarsu2ah of =atiawad7 was e9tolled for his kindness and welfare measures$ In Mahi+at6s time7 there was an increase in the 'ama and was also credited with re+airing the =ankaria tank and make it ser-icea2le$ 3e ruled for ten years from .'##,.'.#$ 3e was known to 2e soft s+oken and good to the ryots$&/6

During the famine of .'./7 called )gnotaro *al7 another sarsubah7 (amchandra =ishan took a++ro+riate measures to ameliorate the sufferings of the common +eo+le$ During this famine the +rice of grain rose e9or2itantly$ The Sarsubah created a stock of grain at a centrali4ed +lace and also +osted chaukis o-er the sho+s to ensure that grain is not taken away for hoarding$ 3e then organi4ed a grain distri2ution system so that e-ery family got the re8uisite amount of grain$&/0$
435 436 437

Maganlal >akhatchand7 Amda-ad no Itihas7 Ahmeda2ad7 .'*.7 %+$ .#*,.#6$ I2id$ %$&6$ I2id$ %+$ &0,&'$

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The harassment of the +o+ulation and e9action of undue ta9es was not confined to the Marathas alone$ In the first half of the eighteenth century the Na4ims also 2eha-ed similarly$ #irat@i@)hmadi has many references to high handedness of the Nai2,Na4ims in collecting illegal ta9es7 the most common 2eing -ewarah$ The Nai2,Na4ims also collected fines instead of +unishing the criminals and made e9actions without any scru+les and falsely im+risoned +eo+le$&/' The Na4ims targeted certain communities of traders and e9tracted money from them on -arious counts7 including +utting fine on the entire community for a crime committed 2y one of its mem2ers$&/1

)esides the Marathas7 the local communities like the

irasias7 =olis

and =athis also contri2uted towards the disorder$ The =olis had always 2een tur2ulent and created distur2ances in the Mughal heydays as well$ Since the last years of the .0th Century they increased their +lunder and +illaging acti-ities$ The =athis who li-ed in central Saurashtra 2ordering the sarkar of Ahmeda2ad7 similarly harassed the areas 2etween Duangadh and Ahmada2ad$ Their main 2ase was Than which was destroyed 2y Shu!a5at =han I in .61#$ During the .'th Century the =athis 2ecame e-en more recalcitrant$ Aatehsing (ao aekwad commissioned the Nawa2 of Cam2ay to deal with the =athis as Cam2ay6s territories 2ordered those of the =athis$ The Nawa2 recei-ed a grant7 called kathipal consisting of se-en -illages and forty thousand ru+ees annually from the aekwads for the same$ =ham2ayat 2ore the 2runt of the =athi de+redations the most 2eing contiguous to the =athi territory$ They esta2lished giras claims o-er certain -illages of Cam2ay$&&# )y the end of the Century7 howe-er7 their +ower declined
438 439 440

#irat7 %+$ /1'7 &*17 L &'0,&'1$ I2id$ %assim$ -om.Pres.GaB@ 6ambay7 o+$cit$7 %$ ""#$

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considera2ly and they were o2liged to a++ly for +rotection from first the Nawa2 of Dunagadh$ ;ater they sought the hel+ of the )ritish against the aggressions of the )ha-nagar chieftain7 as already mentioned$

6ERAS

(era in

u!arati was used in the sense of cess or an additional ta9$

These cesses came to 2e le-ied since the 2eginning of the Century due to the slackening of Mughal authority and got included in the 'ama8$ The #irat refers to the e9tra ta9es that were le-ied on the residents of towns as bewarah$ Though we ha-e not 2een a2le to understand the difference7 if any7 2etween the two7 the conce+t of vera and bewarah a++ears to 2e the same$ The ta9 reali4ed from on houses from indi-iduals is called bewarah in the #irat< in later sources the same is referred to as vera$&&. The le-ying of -arious cesses shows the attitude of the rulers to e9tract as much money from -arious sections of the +eo+le as they can and bewarah was one such additional demand to meet that end$ -ewarah came to 2e le-ied for the first time after the death of Shu!a5at =han 2y 3amid =han7 the uncle of Ni4am, ul, Mulk$&&" This su2se8uently 2ecame a ma!or source of re-enue for the Na4ims es+ecially when the city was under siege$ This cess was le-ied on -arious +rete9ts$ Aor instance7 when Mu2ari4,ul,Mulk 2ecame Na4im he arrested im+ortant traders of the )ohra community and tortured them7 e-en killing one of them$ 3e e9tracted fines u+ to (s$ / lakhs from the traders of this community and im+osed bewarah of -arious counts re+eatedly on the
441 442

#irat for )ewarah and -om. PreB. GaB@provincial series@Gu'arat for different kinds of -era7 +assim$ #irat7 %$&"6$

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community$&&/ During the Maratha rule many other kinds of bewarah came to 2e le-ied7 like the bewarah@i@'anoi that was collected at the time of the 3indu thread ceremony< a vera was le-ied on the =an2is F+easant casteG at the time of widow marriages< the =an2i community allowed widow remarriage termed dhariwa$ The vera on dhariwa was reali4ed at the rate of one ru+ee four ru+ees +er marriage$ %eo+le attending such marriages also were re8uired to +ay four annas +erson as naBrana to the Sarsubah7 the darogah of *atra Parcha and the fau'dar@i@gard$ %eo+le coming from outside the city to attend the marriage had to +ay ten annas for the coconut$&&&

In the rural areas on the other hand7 it was the girasias who e9tracted ransom money from their neigh2ouring -illages in the name of toda@giras$ Toda@giras literally means a +ayment collected at the entrance of a -illage$ It was7 howe-er7 +rotection money +aid to safeguard a -illage from +lunder 2y the girasias$ This vera was known in different areas of u!arat 2y different namesB vol7 pol7 rakhopa7 etc$&&* (a!as of (a!+i+la and Mand-i7 were the 2iggest amongst the girasias$ The toda@giras of the Mand-i (a!a amounted to (s$ '#7### from &#/ -illages annually$&&6 This le-y was7 at times7 recei-ed in kind in the form of goats7 animal hides7 etc and it was rarely recei-ed in the form of land grants$&&0

443 444

445 446 447

I2id$ %$&*1$ I2id$ %$'11$ It seems that there is +rinting mistake in the English translation of the #irat as it states that four annas was le-ied on such marriages whereas +eo+le attending such marriages were re8uired to +ay four ru+ees$ The re-erse seems more +ro2a2le$ State GaBetteer of -aroda U II7 %+$ .#",.#/$ I2id$ I2id$

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E-ery section of society had to +ay vera of one or the other ty+e$ Thus7 karam vero was reali4ed on 2oth the agriculturists and non, agriculturists<&&' pani pidha no vero7 literally a cess on drinking water was le-ied on those who +aid no other ta9 and it a++ears to 2e a ta9 for allowing +eo+le to li-e in a -illage< mansa7 Fcess on oil or 2utterG< sal@vero Floom ta9 on wea-ersG< bambh@vero Fcess on leather dressersG< hal@vero F+lough cessG< dharala@vero Fcess on carrying armsG< kasab@ vero Fcess on artisansG< betheli@vero Fcess le-ied on idlersG7 and hadia@vero Fcess le-ied to su++ort the family of a +erson who died defending his -illage 2y making land grants for its su2sistenceG$ Other cesses include gulal Freali4ed at 3oli timeG and a cess reali4ed at the time of Dussehra$ It is am+ly clear from the list of ta9es cited a2o-e that the rulers were trying to augment their resources o-er and a2o-e the esta2lished forms of ta9ation$

LOCAL LEADERSHIP

In a situation of +olitical uncertainty as it e9isted in the .'th century u!arat7 the role of community leaders 2ecame -ery im+ortant$ Thus7 the Nagarsheths and Maha!ans whose social influence was on the increase from the .0th century7 came to de-elo+ a clout of their own$ Their increased im+ortance during the +eriod has 2een recognised 2y scholars$&&1 The influence that they e9ercised o-er the administration can 2e gauged from the instances cited in the contem+orary sources$ In .0"/7 on the re+resentation of the Maha!ans and the inha2itants of the town7 the Mutsaddi and Aau!dar of Surat7 Momin =han was remo-ed from the charge of kotwal Fchabutra
448 449

I2id$ M$N$%earson7 #erchants and ulers in Gu'arat7 Delhi7 .106< Aarhat 3asan7 o+$cit$

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kotwaliG$ Certain other officials like the naib,thanedar of Chaurasi pargana in Surat was remo-ed on the charges of o++ression made 2y the merchants$&*#

It seems that the Maha!ans since the early .'th Century had started +laying im+ortant role in the administration$ Thus7 for instance in .0"* the #utasaddi of Surat had entrusted the le-ying of cess on each mohalla to the Maha!an of the !ewellers6 community as he needed resources for the +ayment of salaries to the soldiers$&*. Due to the acti-e +artici+ation of the merchant class in administration7 they sometimes were drawn in factional fights$ Aor e9am+le the tussle that took +lace 2etween =a+ur Chand )hansali7 the Nagarsheth of Ahmeda2ad and Anu+ Singh )handari7 the Nai2,Na4im7 who was notorious for harassing the traders on account of collection of -ewarah$ =a+ur Chand as the Nagarsheth7 had em+loyed around *## sibandis and used them to safeguard the traders from the harassment of )handari6s men$ It was 2ecause of this that Anu+ Singh )handari later assassinated =a+ur Chand$&*"

The main duty of the Nagarsheth was to +rotect the interests of the trading community$ The mem2ers of the trading communities elected a Nagarsheth as their re+resentati-e in their dealings with the State$ 3owe-er due to the unsettled conditions and the factional fights the +ost of Nagarsheth ceased to 2e electi-e and instead the Na4ims a++ointed men of their choice to this +ost7 ser-ing their own interests$ The a++ointment of angadas 2y Sar2uland =han and that of Ahmad )ohra 2y A!it Singh as
450 451 452

Mirat,ul,3a8ai8 ff$ "/6FaG L "/6F2G$ I2id$ f$/&F2G$ #irat7 %$/''$

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Nagarsheths +oints towards this de-elo+ment$&*/ This situation also led to conflicts in some cases$

Throughout the Century7 the merchants acting as leaders took the onus of sa-ing the towns from the +lunder of the Marathas and other distur2ers$ They took the lead in negotiations with the Marathas in settling the amount of khandani to sa-e the towns from 2eing +lundered$

The situation remained the same in .0'# when

eneral

oddard took

o-er Ahmada2ad from the %eshwa6s Sarsubah$ The local leaders7 a++rehending the sacking of the city 2y the )ritish troo+s7 +etitioned 2efore oddard asking him to desist from such an act$ The translation of the document 2y en$ oddard assuring the +eo+le of Ahmeda2ad at the 2ehest of the influential +eo+le of the +lace was as followsB M)mir@ud@,aulah, General Goddard -ahadur, 2ateh +ung, the servant of Shah )lam, bahadur GhaBi, year %%D= ". -e it known to 3athusha 3agaresheth, Sheikh #uhammad Saleh, the AaBi, #ia #irBa )mu, the -adshahi ,iwan, and the residents and the people of )hmadabad, that at present they should dwell in their homes with entire composure of mind7 and they should not have the slightest anxiety or fear in their hearts for any reason whatsoever7 and they should engage themselves in their usual avocations, because no one shall trouble them or interfere with them in any way. This in'unction should be considered peremptory and should be acted upon. /ritten on the >th day of the month of Safar in the year %%D= )"., corresponding to the EGrd year of the accession 0%% febrauary %F&?1.
453

I2id$ %+$ &'0,&'1$

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@Thomas Goddard.K=>=

As can 2e seen7 the local leaders including Nathu Shah7 the Nagarsheth7 the local @a4i and others7 along with the im+erial Diwan +erformed the role of leaders safeguarding the city against +ossi2le +lunder$ A similar incident had taken +lace earlier when =ushal Chand was the sole Nagarsheth of Ahmada2ad and the Marathas came to +lunder the city$ This was in .0"* following the death of (ustam Ali =han$ =ushal Chand also had dissuaded the Marathas from +lundering the city$ 3e seems to ha-e +aid money to the Marathas to sa-e the city from +lunder$ The Maha!ans in gratitude +romised in writing to gi-e four annas for e-ery hundred ru+ees worth of goods that entered the city7 in +er+etuity to the Nagarsheth and his descendants$&** Su2se8uently7 the city was sa-ed from the Maratha +lunder7 e-en though the -illages could not 2e sa-ed$

>hile the rulers and high functionaries of the +eriod in the region were +reoccu+ied with augmentation of their resources7 some of them also undertook +u2lic welfare works like construction of wells and tanks$ (a!a (aghunath Das7 the ,iwan of Mui4,ud,Dawlah7 is credited with constructing a ste+,well ad!acent to the %anch =uwa at Ahmeda2ad$ %eo+le could o2tain sweet +ota2le water from there$&*6 Similarly7 Ca!eram7 the peshkar of Na!m, ud,Dawlah constructed a ste+,well near Damal+ur gate$&*0 During the flood of .0"' in ri-er Ta+ti7 Nawa2 )ehram =han undertook relief work amongst the distressed +o+ulation of Surat$ 3e distri2uted loa-es of 2read amongst the
454 455 456 457

M$S$ Commissariate7 Col$III7 o+$cit$7 %$ 01"$ I2id$ Col$ II7 o+$cit$7 +$ &"#$ The author has re+roduced the document in Modi Scri+t$ #irat7 %$ &#'$ #irat7 %$ 6./$

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Muslims and fried grams amongst the 3indus$&*' Similarly7 ;allu2hai7 the diwan of )haruch7 distri2uted grain in all the -illages of )haruch during the drought$ 3e was also credited with construction of +u2lic tanks and rest houses for tra-ellers7 digging of se-eral wells and a bawli Flarge wellG with hewn stone$&*1

The tradition of +u2lic welfare acti-ities 2y the rulers and administrators continued e-en in the nineteenth century7 which has 2een recorded in the English sources$ Thus7 in .'#/ we find Aateh Mohammad7 the regent of =utch o+ening fair +rice sho+s in )hu! in times of scarcity following lack of rains$ Again in .'./7 he offered work on Desalsar ;ake to the famine stricken +eo+le7 wages 2eing +aid in grains$ rain sho+s with +ro+er guards were also o+ened at )hu!7 Mundra7 Mand-i and An!ar$&6# During the many famines of .'th Century the Maharaos of =utch distri2uted large 8uantities of cooked food to the famine stricken +eo+le$&6. During the famine of .'./ the chieftains of %alan+ur and (adhan+ur o+ened u+ grain stores$ The +eo+le were em+loyed on +u2lic works and rural watch was increased$&6" The aekwad chief also em+loyed +eo+le on construction work and thus +ro-ided relief$&6/

Thus we can say that though the social conditions of the +eriod were not conduci-e to +ros+erity7 economic or otherwise7 the society was a2le to de-ice mechanisms
458 459 460 461 462 463

for sur-i-al$

#irat7 %$ &*'$ ;riental #emoirs7 -ol$ III7 o+$cit$7 %$ "*# $ -omb. Pres. GaB@6utch7 %$ .#'$ I2id$ -om. Pres. GaB@Palanpur7 %$ /.*$ >alter 3amilton7 o+$cit$7 %$ 0#.$

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MERCENARY SYSTEM
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In this cha+ter an attem+t has 2een made to analy4e the nature and com+osition of the militia in .'th century u!arat$ The 2reak down of the mansab system and the colla+se of the Mughal Em+ire necessitated changes in the nature and character of the army$ Thus7 in the a2sence of a system of regular maintenance of contingents as was done 2y the mansabdars7 the role of the mercenaries 2ecame im+ortant during this +eriod$ The mercenary system de-elo+ed its own +eculiarities in the course of time$ The indi-idual soldier during this +eriod came to 2e called as sibandi$ The sibandis were organi4ed into different grou+s7 each headed 2y a +ama8dar$ The term sibandi for soldiers came to 2e used e9tensi-ely during this +eriod in the sources +ertaining to u!arat7 as in the rest of India$ In the %ersian sources the infantry is referred to as sibandi pyadah and the ca-alry as sibandi sawar$ E-en the )ritish sources occasionally used the word 5sibandi6 for the sepoy$ The e9+ansionist acti-ities of the -arious .'th Century chieftains led to an increase in the demand for soldiers$ In order to meet the challenge of the fre8uent Maratha attacks in u!arat in the early .'th centuries as also to meet the challenge of the recalcitrant grou+s like the girasias7 kathis and kolis7 the local chiefs had to maintain suita2le military contingents that were com+osed of the sibandis$ The demand for sibandis a++ears to 2e on the increase during this +eriod as the thanas also had to 2e +ro+erly garrisoned$ These thanas were manned 2y the sibandis$ These soldiers were also em+loyed the girasias for collection of re-enue from their -illages7 es+ecially when their re-enue claims were officially acce+ted$ In Dholka for instance7 the girasia chief of =ounte had in his ser-ice a force of two
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thousand sibandis and .*# horsemen7 the latter acted as the guards of -illages7 2esides +rotecting the (a!a$&6& >e also find a num2er of Ara2s em+loyed as sibandis 2y not only the -arious chieftains of the region 2ut also 2y the 5fringe6 grou+s$ Dee-a )asawa7 a -hil 5marauder6 controlling (a!+i+la during .'.#,.* had in his em+loyment Ara2 and Sindhi sibandis$&6*

FUNCTIONS OF THE SIBANDIS

The Sibandis +erformed many duties during this +eriod$ Airstly7 they worked as soldiers in the militia of -arious +rinci+alities$ As -arious chiefs were constantly trying to e9+and their authority at the e9+ense of another7 there was always a demand for the sibandis to 2e em+loyed as soldiers 2y them$ They were gi-en em+loyment for short durations and were dismissed after their need was o-er after +aying them their wages$ The second im+ortant function +erformed 2y the Sibandis was to guard the towns$ In the +re-ailing +olitical situation in the .'th century7 towns and .asbas needed to 2e +rotected from de+redations$ It is due to this that -arious towns in u!arat and Saurashtra and =utch were fortified during this time$ The Sibandis were gi-en the control of the city,gates and fortifications$ Similarly7 sibandis were em+loyed to man the gates and look after general +rotection of the towns$ It was a -ery im+ortant !o2 and the sibandis7 who were headed 2y a 'amadar were thus men of influence and +ower$ The charge of the city gate was gi-en only to the 'amadars of trust
464 465

/alker@Selections IIIII, %+$ .",./$ >alter 3amilton7 o+$cit$7 %$0./$

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and confidence$ In .0*"7 after the Maratha occu+ation of Ahmeda2ad7 Sham2huram7 Mohammad ;al (ohilla and anga Dat7 the confidant of (aghu7 the Nai2,Su2ah7 FSarsu2ahdarG got this charge$&66 3ow im+ortant was it to secure the gates of the city can 2e gauged from an incident of .0"* regarding )haruch$ %ila!i (ao aekwad had con8uered )haruch and left a de+uty there to administer it$ After a +eriod of nine months the de+uty left the town on the recei+t of false news regarding the death of %ila!i (ao aekwad$ 3e left the defences of the town in the hands of the local @as2ati troo+s$ On disco-ering that the news of %ila!i6s death was a rumour7 he returned 2ut could not gain entry into )haruch town$ The @as2ati troo+s refused to admit the Marathas$ They instead handed o-er the fort to A2dullah )eg7 the Mughal Aau!dar$ The Marathas could ne-er take com+lete control of the +lace thereafter$&60 The sibandis at times used their strategic +osition to 2argain for their demands like +ayment of un+aid salaries 2y 2esieging the authorities$ In .06. Sulaiman7 an Ara2 Damadar im+risoned Nawa2 Maha2at =han of Dunagadh in the fort of :+arkot$ Sulaiman was acting on 2ehalf of the 2rothers of the Nawa27 Mu4affar =han and Aathya2 =han7 who were demanding +art of the territories for their su2sistence$ It was then arranged with the Damadar to gi-e a 'agir consisting of (an+ur and Dhandhuka7 along with '& -illages to them$&6' Many other instances of sibandis taking control of Dunagadh are mentioned in the Tarikh@i@Sorath$&61 The sibandis were also used in the mulkgiri7 the re-enue collection e9+editions$ Since most of the areas in .'th century
466 467 468 469

u!arat had 2ecome

#irat7 %$0'"$ G;- II7 %$06$ Tarikh@i@Sorath7 %$ .&*$ I2id$ %assim$

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Bortalabi or mewasi7 the chieftains had to de+loy sibandis to collect re-enues$ The Sibandis were also em+loyed 2y the -illage to safeguard the residents and their fields against de+redations of their neigh2ours$ They were +aid from the resources of the -illage$&0# Similarly7 merchants and other men of wealth also em+loyed the si2andis to +rotect themsel-es against the harassment of the officials such as the fau'dars and the 3aBims who tried to fleece such +eo+le on the flimsiest of +rete9t$ =a+ur Chand )hansali7 the 3agarsheth of Ahmeda2ad around .0.1,"#&0. and =ushal Chand7 3agarsheth during around .0//7&0" according to the #irat@i@)hmadi em+loyed sibandis to +rotect themsel-es against the Nai2,Na4im6s harassment$ Similarly7 in Surat Mohammad Ali&0/ em+loyed thousands of sibandis and Ahmed Chela+i maintained around "### Ara2 and (umi Sibandis as 2odyguards$&0&

ORGANISATION

A contingent of sibandis was headed 2y a 'amadar. The 'amadars were of -arious ethnic grou+sB Ara2s7 (ohillas7 Sindhis7 Sidis etc$ 3owe-er7 it was not always necessary that the contingent of a 'amadar may also 2e com+osed of mem2ers of the same community$ A 'amadar 2eing the head of the contingent was res+onsi2le for many things$
470

&0*

3e negotiated the salary

471 472 473 474 475

Mountsuart El+hinstone7 Territories con.uered from the PeshwaH ) eport7 D$C$Shri-asta-a FedG7 Delhi7 .10/7 %$ "'.$ #irat7 %$/1'$ I2id$7 %$*.6$ I2id$ %+$ &*0,&*'$ #irat7 %$*""$ 3e is called the 5!o22er,Commander6 2y =olff and ommans who also trace the origin of the 'amadars as +laying a +rominent role in the military la2our market to the time of

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and the terms and condition of ser-ice of the sibandis$ Thus he acted as the re+resentati-e of the sibandis and looked after their interests$ The em+loyer dealt with indi-idual sibandis only through him$ The 'amadar also ensured +ayment of salaries to the sibandis$ This is attested to 2y se-eral instances where the Damadars stood guarantees to the Sibandis ensuring +ayment of their salary$&06 A 'amadar6s sibandi contingent consisted of .## to .*# men$ The 'amadars were inducted through the agency of the Cakil of the +rinci+ality who would a++roach 'amadar and enroll him 2y +aying some amount of money$ The 'amadar would then raise the contingent of the sibandis and re+ort for duty$ This +rocess is e9+lained 2y Mr$;am2ert7 )ritish commercial resident at Cam2ay in a letter dated Surat7 "/rd Se+tem2er7 .0*0B eceived duplicates of letters from #r.:ambert at 6ambay. The bearer of 0the letters1 is a +emmedar *alee *han to whom I have given a commission to enlist at -roach and the ad'acent villages, where he is ac.uainted, a company of sepoys, 5 for this purpose have on proper security advanced him E?? rupees. "is agreement is, that on his arrival with you, such of the people as he brings with him whom you like not, may be re'ected, 5 the remainder you may entertain. Their pay is to commence, at the rates mentioned in the enclosed paper from the time you enrol them.=FF The 'amadar was res+onsi2le for his sibandis$ It is clearly 2rought out 2y -arious instances cited in our sources$ #irat@i@)hmadi has narrated an
Sher Shah$ See Introduction in Dos D$ ;$ ommans and Dirk 3 $A$ =olff FedsG7 /arfare and /eaponry in South )sia7 O9ford7 "##.7 %$ .'$ Tarikh@i@Sorath7 %$ .'0$ The Ara2 !amadars Eu2aidi7 Salih A2dullah7 Mohammad Mohsin and 3amid Nasir had in -arious instances stood security to the troo+s 2y the Nawa2 of Dunagadh$ $>$Aorrest7Col$ I7 o+$cit$7 %$ /"1$

476

477

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incident of the time of Momin =han$ >hen the Marathas from Ahmeda2ad ousted Momin =han in .0*',*1 and the latter set out for Cam2ay7 one of his 'amadars7 Mohammad ;al (ohilla7 who was the leader of the (ohilla sibandis 'amadars at Ahmeda2ad7 +ut forth claims of (s$ '#7### 2efore Momin =han as arrears of salaries of the sibandis under his command$ 3e +ro+osed to Momin =han that if the latter was una2le to +ay the whole amount7 he would reduce the lia2ility to (s$ &#7### 2y Momin =han7 out of which he would raise (s$ "#7### himself 2y selling his +ersonal 2elongings while the remaining (s$ "#7### should 2e +aid 2y Momin =han$ Mohammad ;al (ohilla (ohilla7 howe-er7 had to lea-e Cam2ay on +ercei-ing a threat to his life$ The incident indicates the concern and a sense of res+onsi2ility that the 'amadars felt for their sibandis$

COMPOSITION

The Sibandis in the region were of heterogeneous grou+s$ They could 2e 2roadly classified into the local and indigenous7 such as .asbatis7 kolis7 rabaris7 'utts etc$7 and those who came from outside Fnon,indigenousG to seek em+loyment in u!arat such as Ara2s7 Marwaris7 Sindhis7 )aluchis7 osains etc$ )y the middle of the u!arat in greater num2ers$ A (ohillas7 Sidis7 %ura2iyas7 Ma-las7

Century the latter grou+s seem to ha-e outnum2ered the locals as they were recruited in all the ma!or +rinci+alities in ma!or difference 2etween the two categories of sibandis was that the local sibandis were tied down to land while the non,indigenous sibandis were mo2ile$

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Amongst the non,indigenous sibandis the most sought after ethnic grou+ was of that of the Ara2 who a++ears to ha-e made their a++earance in u!arat from the first 8uarter of the .'th century$ The first mention of an Ara2 2eing em+loyed as a Sibandis in our sources is in relation to the contingent of Meher Ali =han7 a mansabdar&0' ;ater7 Shu!a5at =han7 the Nai2 Na4im had in his em+loyment se-en to eight thousand sawar and pyadah including such categories as the @as2atis7 Ara2s and Dakhanis$&01 Momin =han I of Cam2ay had a +arty of Ara2 and (ohilla soldiers$&'# During the +eriod when se-eral functionaries of the state were trying to augment their military strength7 they in-ited se-eral re+uted Damadars to !oin their ser-ice$ Mohammad Shah2a4 (ohilla was one such Damadar who had come to the region with /## horsemen and infantry to u!arat during the Ni4amat of Momin =han I Na!,ud,Daula$ 3e 2ecame close to Muftakhir =han&'. and later to Dawan Mard =han$ Dawan Mard =han a++ointed him as the Aau!dar of Dholka$&'" Similarly7 Mohammad (ashid )eg7 a Damadar discharged 2y Nadir Shah was in-ited 2y Momin =han II to !oin him at Cam2ay$&'/ Earlier7 two Damadars7 Mir Nathu and Muhammad Sala2at7 were in-ited 2y Asaf Dah to !oin 3amid =han in his fight against Shu!a5at =han$ They had earlier ser-ed Ni4am,ul,Mulk while the Ni4am was in Malwa$ &'& The Marathas too em+loyed these sibandi grou+s$ Shri+at (ao was said to
478

479 480 481 482 483 484

#irat7 %$&#"$ Meher Ali =han was a resident of Ahmeda2ad$ >ith the a++ointment of Mahara!a A!it Singh as the Na4im in .0.0 he 2ecame unem+loyed$ )y this time we can see a trend where the Na4ims themsel-es a++ointed Aau!dars and other officials of their own faction and mansa2dars of other factions were left to fend for themsel-es$ Meher Ali =han is said to ha-e em+loyed Ara2 si2andis against the +ossi2le harassment 2y )handari7 the Nai2,Na4im$ I2id$ %$&.0$ I2id$ %$6#.$ 3e later ado+ted the title Momin =han II$ #irat7 %$0..$ I2id$ %$0*&$ I2id$ %$&.1$

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ha-e a contingent of Ara2 and Sindhi sibandis$&'* Towards the end of the Century some instances of osains 2eing em+loyed in u!arat has come to our notice$&'6 There is one instance of %athans7&'0 Afghans and )aluch sibandis&'' Fthere is one instance of Sikh sibandisG&'1 finding em+loyment in u!arat$ Marwadi sibandis were em+loyed in =utch and %alan+ur$&1# The Marwadis are not re+orted in other areas of were close to Marwar$ It a++ears that the non,indigenous sibandis were regarded to 2e more efficient than the local ones$ This is e-ident of from the re+ly of Ali Mohammad =han to his father6s 8uery as to who will win in the war 2etween Shu!a5at =han and 3amid =han$ Ali Mohammad =han had re+lied that Shu!a5at =han had an army consisting of u!arati Aasbatis who would ne-er array themsel-es in a war nor remain steady in their su++ort and would run away when confronted with the Marathas< (ustam Ali =han had Ara2s and other such Sibandis who ha-e se-eral times faced %ila!i (ao in the +ast and had ado+ted their mode of warfare$&1. Thus im+lied in the re+ly was the acknowledgement of the su+eriority of non,indigenous sibandis. ;ater7 e-en Ale9ander >alker7 in his o2ser-ations on Saurashtra reiterates this sentiment$ 3e saysB JIndependently, however, of the indigenous soldiery of the country, there are many troops of mercenaries employed among the
485 486 487

u!arat 2esides %alan+ur and

=utch where they were found em+loyed +ossi2ly 2ecause these two areas

488 489

490

491

I2id$ %$0*/$ "S-S I(7 ;t$ .67 %$ &01$ G;- I(7 %$ /"6$ The %athans were "### in num2er and were armed with swords and s+ears$ They also had *# muskets and only / guns$ Tarikh@i@Sorath7 %$.1/$ G;- I(7 %$ .1'$ >hile )aroda6s 2attle with Malhar (ao was +roceeding &## horsemen and /## foot of the Sikh tri2e entered into )a2a!i6s ser-ice on the Ara2 Damadars6 security$ Dames )urnes7 a 3arrative of a visit to the 6ourt of Sinde7 ) Sketch of the "istory of 6utch, Edin2urgh7 .'/.7 %$.'/$ #irat7 %$&.'$

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principal chieftains, who are generally composed of the adventurers from the Sea@coast of )rabia, #akran and Sind. These are the bravest and best armed, and the most formidable description of troops@ they compose, indeed, the only infantry in the 6ountry, unless #hers and #eenas may be styled such7 and generally comprise the principal part of the standing garrisons in the fortresses.K=DE The indigenous sibandis7 referred to as .asbatis7&1/ in em+loyment with -arious +rinci+alities in the region lacked organi4ation and skills$ These @as2atis were to 2e found in the whole of century 2y Mughal fau'dars$ u!arat 2ut were most acti-e in Saurashtra$ In the mainland7 the @as2atis were em+loyed from early in the radually7 howe-er7 the non,indigenous sibandis re+laced them and they were confined only to the interiors of Saurashtra$ They were most +owerful in Dholka7 Dhandhuka parganas7 where they also acted as manotidars$ Amongst the @as2atis of Dholka we find the mention of one )awa Miah who e9tended su++ort to the later hel+ed the )ritish army against Malhar (ao of =adi in .'#/$&1& aekwad army in .'## with "## followers to oust A2a Shelukar from Ahmada2ad$ 3e

492 493

494

/alker@Selections IIIII7 %$ "1"$ There is some am2iguity as to the actual meaning of the term @as2ati$ The .1th century )ritish sources translate the term Aasbatis as the 5Muslim residents of the towns6$ This would lead one to conclude that the nature of the indigenous soldiery during this +eriod was not rural as suggested 2y Dirk =olff 2ut was ur2an$ 3owe-er7 here we need to +onder o-er the meaning of the term Aasba itself$ A .asba was wholesale market in a pargana$ Sur+lus +roduce from the -illages were 2rought here for sale and retailers from cities would also come here to 2uy it$ Thus .asbas de-elo+ed as im+ortant centres in the sur+lus distri2ution network$ )ut a .asba was essentially rural$ Thus7 it is +ossi2le that the .asbatis soldiers were also +easants$ This also e9+lains why they were not mo2ile -is,a,-is the non,indigenous sibandis$ The 8as2atis who also worked as manotidars indicates that they were +easants with resources and therefore in-ested in manotidari or standing surety for re-enue +ayments from the ryots. This also suggests that the @as2atis were +easants with greater resources$ A$=$Aor2es7 o+$cit$7 %$66$

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In Saurashtra the @as2atis are also referred to as Patanis6 though we do not know the reason for naming them so$ (anchod!i Amar!i7 the author of Tarikh@i@Sorath7 says that the @as2atis of the region of Somnath,%atan were con-erted to Islam in some foregone times and since then they were called %atanis$&1* In the .'th century7 these %atanis seem to ha-e s+read within Saurashtra finding work as Sibandis in the -arious chieftaincies$ Thus7 they were to 2e found at Dunagadh7 Nawanagar7 )ha-nagar7 etc$ The s+ecific names of the %atani and @as2ati Damadars mentioned in se-eral instances do not always indicate their religious affiliations$ Names like Atta!i7 3anso!i7 Chand Cha-da7 etc only indicates their local origins$ %erha+s these were one of the many grou+s that were only +artially assimilated into Islam during the medie-al times which was so common in u!arat$ Another term that is used in the conte9t of the @as2atis is %ura2iya$ Early in the Century s+oradic mention of the %ur2iyas as a martial grou+ is made in our sources$ #irat also mentions %ur2iyas along with the Ara2s and the (ohillas in generali4ed terms$ Around .0"* Shu!a5at =han and I2rahim @uli =han 2oth are mentioned as ha-ing a s8uadron of %ur2iya Sibandis$ 3owe-er in the course of the Century the use of %ur2iya as a distinct martial grou+ in the sources is re+laced 2y its use in an am2iguous way$ This is es+ecially true of Saurashtra$ One Aakirchand %ur2iya garrisoning the fort of De-ra in Nawanagar is referred as @as2ati$&16 )asant (ai %ur2iya is again referred to as a @as2ati of Dunagadh$&10 It is +ossi2le that the Damadars a2o-e referred to were 2asically %ur2iyas ha-ing a @as2ati following$ Anyway 2y the mid Century the %ur2iyas as a distinct martial grou+ is no more referred to in our sources$
495 496 497

Tarikh@i@Sorath7 %$ 66$ I2id$ %$.0.$ /alker@Selections RRRIR7 %$.'#$

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)esides the a2o-e,mentioned grou+s the local grou+s armed with local wea+ons like swords and sa2res$ They were +otential soldiers who were em+loyed 2y the local +olities on a smaller scale$ They otherwise li-ed on +lunder$ Amongst them were #hers and abaris of %or2andar$ The Mher soldiers were gi-en the charge of the defence of -illages in %or2andar along with the (a2aris$&1' They could muster three to four thousand men in times of need$&11 Their area of o+eration was howe-er confined to %or2andar only$ The Patanwadia *olis of north u!arat also worked as sibandis 2ut otherwise fre8uently took to free2ooting$ The early )ritish officers found them to 2e 5untamea2le +lunderers67 mostly acti-e in the (ann of =utch and on the 2anks of Mahi ri-er$*## The +huts from the town of >arye in north u!arat also worked as si2andis and could muster from '## to .### horsemen well mounted and with sa2res and s+ears$*#. There area of o+eration was around the Dassada and Adriana stretch in North u!arat$ They usually had to confront the #alliks of Dassada who had esta2lished a degree of so-ereign authority in this locality$ Similarly7 the #eenas and Sodhas in =utch were used as sibandis in case of need$*#" Otherwise they sur-i-ed on +lundering the areas of /agad in =utch and around (adhan+ur on the mainland$ The =olis also fall in this category$ They were em+loyed fre8uently 2y all the chieftains of in lieu of remuneration$*#/
498 499 500 501

u!arat to increase the num2ers in an

army$ The kolis were generally not +aid in cash 2ut were allowed to +lunder

502 503

/alker@Selections RRRIR7 %$.6'$ >alter 3amilton7 o+$cit$7%$ 666$ -om. Pres. GaB. Population@"indus7 %+$ "&.,"&"$ Dames MacMurdo7 5Dournal of a route through the +eninsula of u4erat in the year .'#1, .'.#67 +u2lished as Suresh Chandra hosh FedG7 The Peninsula of Gu'arat in the early %Dth century7 New Delhi7 %$ 1&$ Dames )urness7 o+$cit$7 %+$ ./*,./6$ #irat$ %assim$

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It is im+ortant here to take notice of a trend in the com+osition of the different categories of sibandi grou+s$ The categori4ation was done on the 2asis of the ethnicity of a grou+ like Ara27 Sindhi7 @a2ati7 etc$ 3owe-er within the grou+ there does not seem to 2e a water,tight regulation regarding the sibandis enrolled$ Aor instance7 amongst the Ara2 sibandis discharged at )aroda in .'#"7 one,third of the sibandis were 3industanis$*#& Amongst the Ara2s at )aroda the Sibandi com+osition did not always consist only of the Ara2s from Ara2ia$ It also included such Ara2s who were said to ha-e 2een migrated to India in some remote time and mingled with the local +o+ulation here$ The Damadar in the control of the ;ehri+ura gate in )aroda was one such Ara2$*#* >e also find a greater differentiation 2eing made within these categories in our sources as the century +roceeded$ Earlier in the Century the Ara2s were referred to only as Ara2s7 while 2y the end of the Century the distinction 2etween Mas8ati7 Kemeni7 etc is made$ Similarly amongst the Sindhis7 the Makranis are es+ecially mentioned as a distinct category$

WEAPONS5 ETC

Our sources in this regard only gi-e s+oradic information7 2ut some idea of the forms of wea+ons and artillery and the accessi2ility of the local %olities to ad-anced forms of artillery can 2e had from the information that we come across in the sources$ During the Mughal times manufacture of guns was +rohi2ited in the Su2ahs$ The Mughal go-ernment had mono+oli4ed the manufacture of muskets and +ercei-a2ly its use as well$
504 505

O) C7 %$"/#$ I2id$ %+$.0#,.0.$

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Since the 2eginning of the Maratha rule7 howe-er7 +ermission for making guns was o+enly granted on a charge of half a ru+ee as ta9$ Twenty such sho+s were o+ened in the city of Ahmeda2ad with kolis taking to musket manufacture$*#6 During Aatehsing (ao aekwad6s rule one Mahad!i (a-andal was manufacturing arrows7 muskets7 etc for him$*#0 It seems that arrows7 swords and s+ears were the common form of and e9tensi-ely used wea+ons and muskets were costly$ The indigenous wea+onry howe-er did not fulfill the demands of the local chieftaincies$ The Euro+ean artillery and war material was considered to 2e su+erior$ The local chiefs often asked for such material from the Euro+eans es+ecially the English$ This demand for Euro+ean artillery also ga-e the Euro+eans a hold o-er the local +rinci+alities to some e9tent$ Thus7 in .0&# Tegh )akht =han of Surat re8uested the English chief of Surat for " 2arrels of gun+owder and .* mounds of lead$ 3e was a++rehending Maratha attack on Surat$*#' At the same time he also asked the English Chief to not send any warlike material to the %orts under Ganim control as that could +ro-e dangerous to him$ The English consented to this re8uest$*#1 The Nawa2 of Cam2ay made similar re8uests for artillery and gun+owder to the )ritish at times$*.# The aekwads too turned to the English com+any in case of need for

war material$ Aatehsing (ao7 while fighting his uncle =hande (ao his uncle7 had asked for .# guns and "### iron shots and good +owder$ In addition he also asked the Surat Chief to em+loy "## young and 2ra-e Euro+eans7 as
506 507 508 509 510

#irat7 %$0*#$ "S-S II7 ;t$ 6/7 %$ .1'$ G;- I7 %$&.$ I2id$ G;- II, %$ .*.$

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soldiers$ 3e left the matters of +ay and other terms to the discretion of English Chief of Surat$*.. During the struggle for +ower 2etween Aatehsing (ao and o-ind (ao aekwad 2oth 2rothers made re+eated o-ertures to the aekwad English to su++ly them artillery and men$*." In .01. Mana!i (ao

asked his chauthia of Surat Dayaram =ashi to +urchase .## English guns at that +ort for the use of sibandis under one Shaikh Ismail Damadar$*./ Three months later 3e again re8uested .oo maunds of English gun+owder and lead worth (s$ &### through the same channel$*.& Thus7 although the information in this regard is not enough to reach a conclusion 2ut it can 2e +ro+osed that the Euro+ean artillery and war material was considered to 2e su+erior and was in demand amongst the local +olities including the Marathas$ According to an o2ser-ation made 2y Ale9ander >alker the chieftains of Saurashtra were not interested in the ad-anced ty+es of war materials$ 3e mentions that the general o2!ecti-e of these chiefs was to safeguard the towns and cities against the local +redators than to com2at troo+s +ro-ided with artillery$ The forts of Dunagadh7 )ha-nagar7 Nawanagar7 Mor2i7 etc contained a large amount of artillery 2ut were unfamiliar with its use$*.* %ossession of wea+ons seems to 2e one of the criteria for em+loyment of the Sibandis$ This is attested 2y a statement made 2y Ma!or Dames Aor2es7 an English officer in charge of Da2hoi$ 3e 8uotes a letter from an English officer in the em+loyment of an Indian rulerB JI was yesterday not a little surpised to be solicited by several -engal sepoys to give them employ. 4pon
511 512 513 514 515

G;- III7 %$.6.$ G;- II7 %$ .01 for Aatehsing(ao6s re8uest and I2id$ %$.'# for o-ind(ao6s re8uest$ "S-S II7 ;t$*7 %B "1#$ I2id$ ;t$/.7 %B /.'$ /alker@Selections RRRIR7 %$ "1"$

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en.uiry I found out to my utter astonishment, they were all deserters, lately arrived from -engal, with their arms and accoutrements complete. 4pwards of fifty are already come 5 they expect more to 'oin them shortlyM )t this rate the #arathas will have very little occasion to purchase <uropean firelocks from any other nation, when they are so well supplied by your own people7 In this respect they may bid you defiance in case of any future rupture7 for to my certain knowledge they have now upwards of F?,??? of <nglish arms in different depots belonging to the sarkarMK.*.6 Ale9ander >alker also found the 8uality and ty+e of wea+ons to 2e a deciding factor in fi9ing the salaries of the sibandis$*.0 The arms7 accoutrements and clothing of the Sibandis were their +ersonal +ro+erty$*.'

PAYMENT AND TERMS OF EMPLOYMENT

Information on this as+ect is again not directly a-aila2le in our sources 2ut they gi-e us some idea of the nature of remuneration and the conditions of em+loyment that were current in .'th century u!arat$ It must 2e mentioned that 2ecause of the mercenary nature of military there were no set regulations$ Indeed its organi4ation was o+en ended$ The terms of em+loyment were ar2itrary7 the immediate need of the Sibandi grou+s and the +aying ca+acity of the em+loyer 2eing the main considerations$ The function assigned to the Si2andis was also a deciding factor$ Aor instance in case of mulkgiri e9+editions the sibandis were +aid more as it was a
516 517 518

;riental #emoirs III7 %+$ &/',&/1$ G;- (I, %$ .'6$ 2all of the #ughal <m+ire II7 %$ "#'$

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tem+orary ser-ice$ In addition there were +ros+ects of +lunder7 the +lundered articles 2elonging to the soldiers$ On the other hand the Sibandis guarding the city,gates were +aid less 2ut their +ros+ect of em+loyment was relati-ely more steady$ ;et us consider some statistics that is a-aila2le with us$ In the aekwad army a bargir7 a horseless soldier7 was +aid from (s$ 6 to (s$ ' +er month$*.1 In .0'" 3amid Damadar was +aid (a$"&7### for guarding the gates of Ahmeda2ad for four months$*"# The num2er of Sibandis em+loyed under the Damadar and other information is not mentioned in our sources$ The gunners entertained 2y the %eshwa in .06& were +aid salaries ranging from (s$ ./ to (s$ '* +er month$ *". Clearly there is a lot of difference in the salaries from one gunner to another in this instance$ According to another document dealing with the %eshwa a detachment of Ca-alry under (amo!i )hosle was +aid as follows for the year .0&",&/B There were 1# )argirs including && musketteers and s+earsmen who were +aid H (s$&./ com2ined for a month and a half$ This comes to (s$ & Q +er soldier$ In addition there were 6.# Sawars and their com2ined monthly salary came to (s$ &'## i$e7 around (s$' +er sawar +er month$*"" During .00&,0* when the English laid siege to Salsette the %eshwa asked his sardars to recruit around .### men H (s$ ' each for a soldier and (s$ .* to "# for a Damadar$ A similar order was gi-en to the Sarsubah of Ahmeda2ad A++a!i anesh$ 3e further made known his +reference for the Ara2 Sibandis as they were considered to 2e good soldiers$*"/ Thus on the 2asis of the meager information it seems that the salary of a single Sibandi sawar generally amounted to around (s$ 6 to ' and that of a horseless sawar or an
519 520 521 522 523

-aroda State GaBetteer I7 %+$ 6/*,6/6$ "S-S II7 ;t$ ./"7 %$ "&1$ $S$Sardesai7 Peshwa ,aftar, &*7 o+$cit$7 %$"#*$ I2id III7 %$ "66$ $C$Cad L =$)$Marathe7 Peshwa ,aftar, Sawai #adhav ao Peshwa7 Col$ CI7 %t$II7 %+$ /,&$

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infantryman was ranged from & to 6 ru+ees$ The statement of Ale9ander >alker also su++orts our calculation$ 3e states that the +ay of the Sibandis is regulated 2y the caste of the +eo+le F2y caste he +ro2a2ly means the ethnic categoryG7 the 8uality of their arms and also the re+utation of their chief7 the Damadar$ The +ay of each sibandi is 2etween (s$6 to (s$ .# and that of the Damadar from .## to .*#$*"& In many cases the sibandis em+loyed locally were not +aid salaries as such 2ut were allowed to +lunder the areas in-aded$ This was true mostly for the =olis and later +indaris$ Some times when a ruler could not +ay his sibandis due to +aucity of resources he would take his sibandis on +lundering e9+editions in the countryside to satisfy their demands of arrears of +ay$ It must 2e 2orne in mind that the salaries +aid in cash were o-er and a2o-e the food and other 2asic emoluments that were customary to 2e +ro-ided to the sibandis$ This is attested from a statement made 2y Charl$ ray7 ma!or Command of 0*th (egiment of the )ritish troo+s7 while cam+ing near )aroda on se+t7 .#th .'#"$ 3e saysB JM The representation without fully explaining to your "on!able -oard, the difference of the pay of the natives in -aroda, and the pay of our troops, and followers, will appear no doubt glaring7 but it is to be considered, that under all native governments, the fluctuation in the priBes of -aBaar articles, makes no difference to them, as they invariably receive their pay 0atleast a greater part1 in grain and cloths.K

524

G;- (I7 %$ .'6$

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In case of )aroda*"* the sibandis were em+loyed for two years at a time$ :+on a++ointment a sibandi was gi-en .?/rd of his total two years +ay7 which was called oBi$ The remaining "?/rd was gi-en u+on the e9+iration of the said two years$ At this time the sibandis had the o+tion of either taking their discharge or continuing in the same way$*"6 It seems that em+loyment for at least four months was a custom adhered to 2y these +olities$ It ensured some sta2ility to the Sibandis$ Another +iece of information lets us glean into the terms of Em+loyment$ In a letter from o+ika)ai of Sankheda to Aatehsing (ao aekwad dated .0'#7 she asks Aatehsing (ao to talk to the Damadars in her em+loyment making it clear to them that the wea+ons lost or 2roken are ne-er made good 2ut only the loss of 3orses are re+laced$ aekwad ordered his men to com+ensate one Damadar
*"0

>hether

Aatehsing (ao interfered or not is not known 2ut in .01. Saya!i (ao ulhala for the loss of men and 3orses which was according to the +ractice$ 3e further ordered to +ay u+ for the loss of wea+ons as well$*"' Thus one can say that the terms were rather ar2itrarily decided and were su2!ect to change according to situation rather than following a set of regulations as such$ In this atmos+here the salaries of the Sibandis were often not +aid to them$
525

Sometimes the +rete9t of non,+ayment was the failure of their

526 527 528

The Si2andis at )aroda had to forego a large chunk of their salaries as deductions under -arious heads$ Mal+atti was deducted for the maintenance of the wrestlers7 Dharmadaya +atti for the maintenance of the )rahmanas7 Aher %atti charged when the dar2ar was held on aus+icious occasion7 Chandela +atti was gi-en when the heir was formally acknowledged7 Na4rana amounting to an year6s salary7 was gi-en when the son of a si2andi succeeded to his +ost$ Aor deductions were made as allowance for high officers like =hasgiwale7 Ma!mudar7 Aadnis7 )akshi7 Dasuds7 etc$ -aroda State GaBetteer, %+$ 6/6,6/0$ G;- (, %+$ .0&,.0* "S-S II7 ;t$ ..67 %$"/*$ "S-S III7 ;t$ 17 %$"1/$

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e9+edition$ Many recorded instances +oint towards this trend$ Most .'th century +rinci+alities faced the +ro2lem of not 2eing a2le to +ay the outstanding salaries to the Sibandis$ The acute +aucity of resources seems to 2e the 2asic reason for this$ In .0*6,*0 the salaries of the Sibandis em+loyed 2y )hagwant (ao to con8uer Cam2ay were in arrears$ )hagwant(ao failed to con8uer Cam2ay and in the su2se8uent negotiations it was decided that the Sibandis should 2e gi-en 2ills on Momin =han II in settlement of their claims$ 3owe-er this amount could not 2e reco-ered des+ite the endea-ours of Sadashi- Damodar7 the Sarsubah of Ahmeda2ad and his peshkar7 Tuko!i$*"1 The Nawa2s of Dunagadh7 )ahadur =han7 Maha2at =han and 3amid =han were re+eatedly 2esieged and confined within the darbar on their failure to +ay the Sibandis$ Maha2at =han once in-ited the Sindhis and =hants in ousting the Ara2 Sibandis who had turned -iolent demanding their salaries$*/# They had to 2e +acified once the Ara2 sibandis took to +lundering$ ;ack of resources with these rulers was a constant +ro2lem and Nawa2s of Dunagadh se-eral times took loans from their Diwan7 mem2ers of the Amar!i family7 to +ay the Sibandis$ The Nai2,Na4im also faced the same +ro2lem$ The )ritish officers fre8uently accuse the Ara2 si2andis of changing sides on the non,+ayment of salaries$ Aor instance in .00& when Aatehsing (ao aekwad was defeated 2y o-ind (ao aekwad at Shuklatirth near )haruch he fled with only a small +arty of soldiers$ The remaining sibandis consisting mainly of Ara2 and Sindh sibandis negotiated terms for themsel-es and took to
529 530 531

o-ind (ao6s ser-ice$*/. ;ater they were similarly o-ind (ao could not +ay their arrears$ They

entertained 2y (agho2a when

#irat7 %$00'$ Tarikh@i@Sorath7 o+$cit7 %$ .'0$ G;- III, %$ .'"$

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howe-er remained inacti-e in the decisi-e 2attle 2etween (agho2a and the %oona forces which (agho2a took to mean treachery on their +art$ This was again on account of arrears of salaries$*/" They were then engaged 2y %oona$ Similarly the aekwad troo+s consisting of Sindhis refused to mo-e into a 2attle while the second Anglo,Maratha war was 2eing fought$ Aor this Ale9ander >alker contem+ti2ly states that the only o2!ect of these troo+s is to sell their ser-ices at the highest +rice$*// There are -arious such instances of 5treacheous conduct6 on +art of the sibandis$ The +riority of the troo+s undou2tedly was their +ay$ Infact this is 2orne 2y a con-ersation through letters 2etween Mohammad A2ud7 one of the +rinci+al Damadars of )aroda and Ale9ander >alker$ Through an agreement made 2y the Ara2 si2andis with the English A2ud had agreed to lea-e of the u!arat and not !oin any enemy aekwad who had re2elled aekwads after the English takeo-er of )aroda$ 3e defied this aekwad chieftain$ >hen asked to fulfill the terms

agreement and attem+ted to !oin =anho!i (ao against Anand (ao7 the

of the agreement A2ud re+liedB JMas I am a sepoy, should any one give me a seer of -a'ri, with him will I proceed7 and if you have any employment for me, I am ready to serve youMK.>G= This howe-er does not rule out loyalty$ O-er and a2o-e the +ayment of their salaries the Sibandis always ser-ed their masters loyally$ In case of (anchod!i Amar!i the Ara2s always sided with him in factional fights at Dunagadh 2ecause he always +aid their salaries +rom+tly$ The uncertainty of 2eing +aid 2y the chiefs concerned was the reason for the clamour for +ay amongst the Sibandis$ It should also 2e 2orne in mind that the Sibandis es+ecially the Ara2s and Sindhis used to migrate to u!arat in the ho+e of +rocuring em+loyment and making money7 therefore
532 533 534

I2id$ %$ "&"$ G;- (I7 %$"/*$ G;- (, %+$.#",.#/$

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+ayment in this case 2ecame im+ortant for them$ After certain years of ser-ice they used to go 2ack to their country$

NON$INDIGENOUS SIBANDIS AND BRITISH CONFRONTATION

Amongst all the grou+s of Sibandis the Ara2 sibandis were +articularly sought after 2y the rulers of .'th Century u!arat$ Their efficiency and -alour comes to the fore in an incident of struggle for the region 2etween 3amid =han and Shu!a5at =han$ >hile %ila!i was in alliance with 3amid =han he looted the 2elongings of (ustam Ali =han$ Only the su++lies ke+t under the guard of the Ara2 s8uadron was safe$*/* )y the mid century their demand o-er the other grou+s had risen considera2ly$ The Marathas7 local chieftains and English all sought to enlist Ara2 Sibandis$ At )haruch the regular army consisted of +ermanent and tem+orary si2andis di-ided into small units known as -aira.s$ Each )aira8 was under the command of a +amadar$ The +ermanent sibandis were mostly Ara2s$*/6 In .0*' when the Cam2ay Chief was asked to enlist some Ara2s as soldiers for Surat factory7 the English found their demands 5-ery unreasona2le6$ The Cam2ay chief was ordered to discharge these soldiers in the most frugal manner and em+loy some nati-e soldiers in their stead$*/0 A year earlier Surat chief com+lained to )om2ay regarding the im+ortance gi-en 2y the Nawa2s of Surat7 Cam2ay and the Marathas to 5all sorts of +eo+le who are in
535 536 537

#irat7 %$&/#$ #, III ;t$ /&7 0&7 .&/7 .1/7 .167 "#"7 "#0 L "//7 in ";-7 %$ ./&$ G;- I7 %$ ."6$

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the least ac8uainted with the use of arms6 which made those soldiers enhance their +rices and the English could hardly recruit any with their +rice$*/' Another English tra-eller7 an English officer in early .1th Century makes a fleeting remark that the Ara2s ha-e esta2lished their influence throughout =athiawad and =utch$*/1 >hen the )ritish attem+ted to esta2lish their hegemony in u!arat$ Amongst all the %rinci+alities7 +erha+s )aroda e9hi2ited the highest concentration of the Ara2 Sibandis$ ;et us take a closer look at the configuration of the aekwad army$ The army consisted of two +arts F.G the regular army and F"G the Sibandis$ The regular army consisted of different pagas$ paga is something like a regiment with a pagadar as its head$ These pagas consisted of Maratha soldiers who had followed %ila!i (ao and Dama!i (ao and settled down in u!arat$ The ain!huBurat Paga, huBurat o-ernment pagas there chandi paga and the patki paga were considered to 2e im+ortant and maintained 2y the go-ernment$*&# Other than the were Silahdars who had their own Pagas maintained 2y different no2les$*&. The second category of the )aroda army included the Sibandis$ This section consisted of mercenaries from -arious ethnic grou+s7 Chief among them 2eing the Ara2s and the Sindhis$ The Ara2s came to 2e em+loyed regularly and on a large scale during the reign of Aatehsing (ao and o-ind (ao increased their num2ers$ The Ara2s in )aroda mainly consisted of two grou+s di-ided on the 2asis of the tri2es to which they 2elonged -i4$7 Kafees
538 539 540 541

u!arat the most formida2le o++osition came from the

Ara2 sibandis +laying an im+ortant +art in all the ma!or +rinci+alities of

I2id$ %$..*$ Suresh Chandra7 o+$cit7 %$6&$ -aroda State GaBetteer7 %$6/*$ I2id$ %$6/6$

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and the 3arthees$ )esides these there e9isted a -ariety of inferior and inde+endent chieftains$*&" On the e-e of the esta2lishment of )ritish hegemony at )aroda there were 07ooo Ara2 sibandis7 horse and foot in )aroda town and 67### horse and &### foot with )a2a!i *&/$ They were under the command of four +rinci+al Damadars , sultan Daffir and Kahya )in Ahmad 2elonging to the Kafees tri2e and Mohammad Ma4kur and Mohammad A2ud 2elonging to the 3arthees grou+$ The yafees were considered to 2e mild in tem+erament while the 3arthees were aggressi-e$ >ith the death of o-ind (ao aekwad and the im+risonment of

=anho!i (ao7*&& the Ara2 sibandis 2ecame -ery +owerful in the kingdom$ They made (ao!i A++a!i F(ao2aG diwan7 increased the num2er of sibandis under their command and took control of the town,gates and fortifications in all im+ortant towns of the chieftaincy$ They also ke+t the charge of =anho!i (ao as a check on (ao2a$ The chieftains during this +eriod did not +ay the Sibandis directly$ Their salaries were discharged 2y the shroffs F2ankersG$ These shroffs in turn were farmed the re-enues corres+onding to the amount of the salaries they defrayed$ In fact all the re-enues of the )aroda +rinci+ality were farmed out on one or the other +rete9t$ Thus the whole e9+enditure of the administration was defrayed 2y the shroffs instead of the rulers$ There were mainly fi-e shroffs during this time called potedars or State financers who defrayed all the e9+enses of the administration$ Amongst these fi-e7 two had taken +recedence o-er the others -i4$7 Shamal %arikh and Mangal Das$ They were also the vakils of the Ara2 sibandis
542 543 544

G;- (7 %$.&1$ )a2a!i was the 2rother of (ao2a and the mulkgiri commander of )aroda army$ =anho!i (ao was the regent of Anand (ao aekwad7 the successor of o-ind (ao aekwad$ The ruler was of a weak dis+osition$ =anho!i (ao attem+ted to reduce the num2er of Ara2 Si2andis and therefore the Ara2 Damadars de+osed and im+risoned him$ They 2rought (ao2a as diwan who undertook the administration on 2ehalf of the chief$

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which made their +ower formida2le$ The Ara2 sibandis were known to 2e under the influence of these two shroffs$*&* The two shroffs interfered much in the administration of the +rinci+ality as well$ The Ara2s at )aroda were +u2licly distinguished as 2elonging to each of the two shroffs$*&6 The re2ellion of Malhar (ao of =adi*&0 +ro-ided a +rete9t where2y (ao2a 2rought the )ritish troo+s into )aroda$ The )ritish7 on their +art7 had territorial interests in the region$ They were gi-en chaurasi pargana and the aekwad share of Surat chauth 2y o-ind (ao 2efore his death$ The (ao2a administration was delaying its cession under some +rete9t$ The )ritish decided to su++ort (ao2a u+on recei-ing the a2o-e mentioned territories$ The )ritish were a++roached 2y 2oth +arties7 =anho!i (ao and (ao2a7 2ut the )ritish choose to su++ort (ao2a u+on considering the weak dis+osition of the chief and the amount of de+endence the diwan would always ha-e on the English to secure his own +osition$*&' (ao2a and the )om2ay %resident also secretly agreed to reduce the strength of the Ara2s after dealing with Malhar (ao$ Initially the English tried to allay the a++rehensions of the Ara2 sibandis through 5Idrussi syed7 the religious head of the Ara2 sibandis in u!arat who had considera2le influence with them$*&1 :+on his arri-al7 Ale9ander >alker7 the first )ritish resident at )aroda7 found that the e9+enses of maintaining the Ara2 sibandis were (s$
545 546 547

548 549

G;- (, %+$ .6& L .60$ G;- I(7 %$.60$ Malhar(ao of =adi was called as the Dagirdar of =adi7 a +arallel line of the aekwads 2ut su2ordinate to )aroda$ =adi was a district in North u!arat which was gi-en as Dagir 2y Dama!i(ao aekwad to =hande(ao aekwad7 his 2rother$ The Dagirdar was lia2le to +ay a tri2ute Na4rana to the aekwad chief of )aroda$ )ecause of the usur+ation of regency 2y (ao2a and =anho!i6s im+risonment Malhar(ao refused to gi-e Na4rana due for three successi-e years and also raised distur2ances in the northern districts of the aekwads$ This e+isode is referred to as =adi re2ellion in the )ritish sources$ G;- I(7 %$.#&$ I2id$ %+$ .',.1$

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/6 lakhs$ 3e further o2ser-ed that to esta2lish com+lete )ritish hegemony the Ara2s were the only 5material o2stacle6 and ad-ised that they should not only 2e reduced 2ut com+letely discharged$**# >ith the end of the =adi war in may .'#"7 the e9ercise of discharging the Ara2s was 2egun$ The reduction of the Ara2s took +lace in two +hases in which the Com+any ad-anced .* lakhs in the first +hase and 6 lakhs in the second +hase to the aekwad administration as it was una2le to collect the re8uired amount to +ay the outstanding salaries of the sibandis$ >alker also induced the local shroffs to ad-ance (s$ * lakhs in the first +hase and (s$ 6 lakhs in the second +hase on the security of the Com+any towards the same o2!ecti-e$ >hile this was in +rocess7 >alker also demanded to 2e handed o-er the charge of all city,gates in the control of the Ara2 +amadars as well as the charge of =anho!i (ao to the )ritish residency$ This alarmed the sibandis who +ercei-ed a threat to their +ower$ They su2se8uently confined Anand (ao7 the aekwad chief in his darbar and released =anho!i (ao$ Three of the Ara2 +amadars7 Kahya7 A2ud and Dafar also refused to hand o-er the charge of the city,gates7 des+ite recei-ing their discharge$ Anand(ao was 2eing confined more se-erely since "1th No-7 .'#" and the sibandis in other towns also were creating distur2ance$ Thus7 the )ritish 2egan armed action and attacked ;ehri+ura gate**. where all the Ara2s had gathered to fight the )ritish$ The +amadars reali4ed their end and agreed to >alker6s terms$ The )ritish troo+s took control of the fort and the chief was set free$ An agreement was reached with the Ara2s on "'th Decem2er7 .'#"7 where2y they were re8uired to F.G a-oid all contacts with the domestic enemies of the aekwads< F"G ;ea-e
550 551

u!arat u+on recei-ing their outstanding salaries and

I2id$ %$.61< G;- (7 %$.'*$ G;- (, %+$ "#" L .01$

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F/G Surrender the control of all city,gates under their charge to the )ritsh troo+s$ )y the middle of Danuary .'#/ all Ara2 Damadars7 e9ce+t a few that were retained7 left im+ortant at )aroda$ Su2se8uently7 in .'#1 we find the )ritish authorities wanting to dis2and the remaining num2er of Ara2s from )aroda in what was termed as the 5reforms6 at )aroda$ Ma!or >alker was against it and the reason in his own words wasB Jthey are undoubtedly the best infantry in the service, and a few of them are probably necessary to give some degree of respectable efficiency to that part of the Gaekwad establishment where actual service may be expected, particularly in *athiawad where also from their dispersed among the different chieftains of the country they are considerable use as mediators. There will however be no occasion to encourage their employment and without discovering any perceptible wish for the discharge of the few who are no longer formidable, they will be found gradually to disappear from the serviceK.>>E At Nawanagar7**/ Dam Dasa!i7 the chief of Nawanagar was unha++y with the im+osition of )ritish o-er lordshi+ and 2eing su2!ect to )ritish ar2itration in dis+utes with =utch$ 3e resisted these attem+ts 2y the )ritish and refused to acknowledge the security for re-enue settlements gi-en earlier to Ale9ander >alker$ The Ara2 sibandis in Dam6s ser-ice also were antagonistic of the )ritish$ The confrontation of the )ritish with the sibandis of Dam took +lace in two incidents$ This kind of animosity 2etween the )ritish soldiers and the Ara2s was seen first in case of )aroda$ >hile the
552 553

u!arat$ Only A2ud did not com+ly 2y the agreement and

later !oined =anho!i (ao$ Since then the Ara2 sibandis ceased to 2e

G;- (III7 %+$.'6,.'0$ A ma!or +rinci+ality in the North of Saurashtra$

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=adi e+isode was in +rogression two incidents took +lace where an Ara2 soldier killed an English officer$**& )y this time this animosity seems to ha-e increased$ 3ere an English officer was attacked near Mur+ur7 a fort in Nawanagar7 2y some Ara2 soldiers guarding the fort$*** The fort had around "*# Ara2s$ E-en after re+eated com+laints the Dam refused to hand o-er the said Ara2s$ >hile things were in this situation the Dam attem+ted to take the 2ond of fail $amini undertaken on his 2ehalf 2y one Na!i7 an Ara2 Damadar of some im+ortance$ Na!i stood security towards its +erformance 2y the Dam and in return recei-ed the charge of one of the gates through )ritish influence$**6 The Dam now forced Na!i to gi-e away the 2ond to him as that would destroy the e-idence of the Dam ha-ing undertaken such an agreement in the first +lace$ The Damadar refused to com+ly with the Dam6s orders since he 2elie-ed it not in accord with the Ara26s character to 2ack on a Security gi-en and lessen his conse8uence with the )ritish and the aekwads$**0 (aghunath!i7 the diwan of Dunagadh7 who also had considera2le influence at Nawanagar7 mediated and settled the issue7 2ut it +ro-ed to 2e tem+orary$ >ith the renewal of dissensions with the )ritish the Dam again asked the same thing of Na!i$ Thus7 Na!i left Dam6s ser-ice and went to Dhrol on the ad-ice of Dames$Carnac$**' In the armed struggle that followed the Dam could not com+ete with the su+erior strength of the )ritish and acce+ted their authority$ Then the )ritish asked the Dam to discharge the Ara2s7 the Sindhis7 Makranis and other foreign sibandis in his em+loyment$**1 3e was allowed only to kee+ /## chela or Ara2 2odyguards$*6# The )ritish also took
554 555 556 557 558 559 560

G;- (, %+$ .*1,.6#$ G;- (III7 %+$ /1',/11$ I2id$ %$&/.$ I2id$ I2id$ %$&&6$ G;- (III7 %$&*"$ I2id$ %$&6"$

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o-er the +ort of Sayla from the Dam$ Around a2out the same time another such incident took +lace at %helan where a Sindhi sibandi attacked another of the English officers$ It was later found that the Dam was not a +arty to the incident and the Sindhi was not a regular +art of his army$ The sibandi escaped and the )ritish did not +ursue the matter further$*6. In the final settlement with the !oint aekwad,)ritish sarkar the Dam re8uested to kee+ in his em+loyment "# 2aracks consisting of .# to ." Ara2s and others 3industanis in each 2arrack to administer his e9tensi-e dominions$*6" It was granted 2y the English on the condition that the aekwad chief shall 2e authori4ed to monitor the troo+s and in case of the si2andis 2eing not re8uired they would discharge them$*6/ This agreement took +lace in .'."$ In case of Dunagadh the )ritish had to confront the Sindhi sibandis 2efore they could esta2lish com+lete hegemony$ In .'.. )ahadur =han Nawa2 died leading to a succession struggle$ On the one side was an alleged 5s+urious6*6& son of the Nawa2 who was su++orted 2y the Amar!i family$ (aghunath!i was the diwan 2ut has lost all his influence in the darbar$ 3e had the su++ort of some inferior Ara2 'amadars$ On the other hand was the illegitimate son of the deceased Nawa2 and the acce+ted heir$ 3e ascended the throne with the title of )ahadur =han II$ It seems that illegitimacy was not an im+ediment to so-ereignty in case of Dunagadh$*6* 3e had the su++ort of an im+ortant Ara2 Damadar :mar Mukhasan who had Sindhi following$
561 562 563 564

565

I2id$ %+$ &00,&0'$ I2id$ %$&'"$ I2id$ %$&'/$ )ahadur =han II who e-entually succeded to the masnad of Dunagadh was not alegitimate son of the deceased Nawa2 3amid =han$ On the other hand the su++osed legitimate son was found not to ha-e 2een 2orn to the Nawa2 in the Nawa26s lifetime itself7 therefore his +retensions to the masnad were set aside$ O) CIII7 Dunagdh Succession issue7 %+$ //", //6$ G;- (III7 %$ /&.$ Illegitimacy was not a +ro2lem 2ecause of esta2lished +ractice of illegitimate offs+ring succeeding to the masnad in case of no legitimate offs+ring 2eing there$

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Immediately7 Damadar :mar Mukhasan took charge of all the forts of Dunagadh chieftaincy and em+loyed .# to .* thousand new sibandis$ )oth +arties turned to the aekwad to decide the issue of succession$ Su2se8uently7 Dames Carnac7 the (esident of )aroda7 o2ser-ed that the mahals and towns were 2eing managed 2y the Sindhi sibandis$*66 The )ritish +olicy found it im+erati-e to dis+ossess the Sindhis of +ower7 since their 2eing in +ower would de+ri-e the Nawa2 of his 5rightful6 authority$*60 Although we are not informed as to the +recise way in which this was done7 2ut 2y .'.& the Sindhis were dis+ossessed of the control of the forts and lands they held as security to the +ayment of their arrears of salaries$ The forts of )ucor and Mewar held 2y +amadars :mardura Sindhi and Mohammad :mar Ara2 was handed o-er to the o-ernment of Dunagadh without any struggle$ Similar negotiations were 2eing carried on for the surrender of forts of :na and Delwada$ Their arrears were settled in a similar way as that of the )aroda Sibandis and were discharged$*6' In .'.&,.* Damadar :mar Mukhasan was dis+ossessed of his +osition in the darbar allegedly as he attem+ted to harm to the Nawa2 and was e9+elled from the town of Dunagadh$*61 Thus7 the )ritish eliminated another +owerful section of the non,)ritish soldiers and their hegemony was com+lete in Dunagadh as well$ 3owe-er following these de-elo+ments a last attem+t was made 2y the Ara2s to undermine the )ritish authority with the su++ort of Triam2ak (ao Danglia7 the %eshwa6s sarsubah$ In .'.& %eshwa refused to gi-e i'ara of his share of re-enues in
566 567 568 569

u!arat as done earlier to the

aekwads and sent

G;- (III7 %+$ /&6,/&0$ I2id$ %$ /&0$ I2id$ %+$ /&',/&1$ Statistical account of +unagadh7 o+$cit$7 %+$*&,**$

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his own sarsubah$ 3owe-er a tacit agreement was reached to the effect that the English would collect the re-enues from Saurashtra and North u!arat on 2ehalf of the %eshwa7 as settled in the re-enue settlement agreements$ It was also +ro+osed that the Sarsubah should not inter-ene in the affairs of Saurashtra$ The e9act terms and conditions were still under negotiations$ Danglia who was a staunch o++onent of the English7 attem+ted to sto+ the )ritish from accruing the 2enefits of the re-enue settlements$ In .'.& the Dam Dasa!i of Nawanagar died and was succeeded 2y his son$ 3e was antagonist of the )ritish authority in his kingdom$ Danglia 2efriended the Dam$ The Ara2 Damadars who were discharged from the -arious +rinci+alities were also gi-en ser-ice 2y Danglia$ This came to the notice of the )ritish officers through certain letters interce+ted 2y them$ 3e induced the Mas8ati Ara2s in the %eninsula to re2el against the )ritish aggression$*0# The Ara2s guarding the towns of 3ariana7 =ondorna and %ardhari forts in Saurashtra re2elled$ The )ritish undertook armed action against them and e9+elled them$ They later took refuge in Dodiya 2andar$ Dodiya was 2eing go-erned 2y the descendants of Mehraman =hawas7*0. who also enlisted a large num2er of Ara2s discharged 2y 3usain Mian of Cutch$*0" The chief of >ankaner also !oined in this league against the )ritish and ousted the aekwad officers in his +rinci+ality$ 3e further enlisted a num2er of Ara2s and declared war against the aekwad$*0/ Danglia directed his adherents to collect all Mus8atis$*0& E-en in Duly .'.* the Mas8atis were encam+ed at Dodiya and the )ritish were contem+lating attack on that area$*0* Nothing
570 571 572 573 574 575

G;- II, %$ ...$ Mehraman =hawas was the diwan of Damanagar and en!oyed much influence there$ G;- II7 %+$ ..#,...$ I2id$ %$ ...$ I2id$ %+$ &*,&6$ I2id$ %$.""$ Also "S-S I(, ;t$ '"7 %$ 0"0$ Cithal(ao De-a!i7 aekwad Sarsu2ah of =athiawad7 informs Anand(ao aekwad a2out the 8uelling of the re2ellion 2y the Mas8atis 2y the English forces$

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howe-er seems to ha-e resulted from these +re+arations as Danglia was recalled to %oona 2y the %eshwa and soon got in-ol-ed in the contro-ersial murder of angadhar Shastri$ Our documentation does not +ro-ide any further information as to how the )ritish dealt with this situation$ )ut it could 2e con!ectured that large num2er of them7 if not the whole7 must ha-e 2een discharged$ A general idea of the )ritish +olicy towards these +owerful foreign sibandis can 2e had from certain o2ser-ations made 2y the )ritish officers$ During the second Anglo,Maratha war F.'#/G eneral >ellesley ad-ised Ale9ander >alker7 to em+loy Sibandis in his esta2lishment$ This was for two reasons$ In the territories 2elonging to the Marathas there were many grou+s of +eo+le whose only mode of su2sistence was military ser-ice$ >ith the esta2lishment of the )ritish rule in -arious +arts of %eshwa6s dominions these +eo+le were left with no other o+tion 2ut that of +lundering as re2els or seeking em+loyment in other +rinci+alities who were the enemies of the )ritish$ >ith their local knowledge they could +ro-e to 2e dangerous enemies$ Secondly7 the regular disci+lined )ritish troo+s were needed in the war against the Marathas$ (e+lacing them with the sibandis for the mundane ser-ices would sa-e e9+enses for the Com+any$*06 Immediate to dis2anding the Ara2 Sibandis and re+lacing them with the )ritish 2attalions7 Ma!or >alker was of the o+inion that the )ritish should 8disgust them 0the Gaekwads1 with their own troops or render them useless and contemptible! 2y +ro-iding the military assistance +rom+tly7 li2erally and e9tensi-ely on e-ery occasion$ 3e also a++rehended that if there was any dissatisfaction on the +art of the chiefs they could still em+loy other sources of military hel+ -i47 the Sibandis$ In this case the influence of the Com+any would 2e
576

G;- (I, %+$ .*',.*1$

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endangered$*00 3e further says that e-en if the +ro+osed measure was not fair7 it would certainly 2enefit the )ritish in this region$*0'

SOCIAL ROLE OF THE SIBANDIS

It has already 2een mentioned that the Damadars es+ecially Ara2 and Sindhi stood as securities in monetary and non,monetary transactions$ Such transactions were 2etween +ri-ate +ersons as well as 2etween the go-ernment and the +eo+le and at times 2etween two +rinci+alities$ The Ara2 Damadars7 not only of )aroda 2ut also of other chieftaincies7 se-eral times stood security safeguarding the interests of the +ri-ate +arties in transactions with the go-ernment$ Airst mention of a Damadar standing security to enforce an agreement is made in connection of one hulam 3usain =han who got the +ost of @a4i at Ahmeda2ad on the +ayment of (s$ "### to Momin =han II in .0*6,*0$ 3e got the document attested 2y Mohammad 3ashim )akshi and Mohammad ;al (ohilla Damadar$*01 At )aroda a sanad was granted 2y Anand (ao aekwad to shanker!i 2in Sunder!i7 desai of pargana )alesar on "0th A+ril7 .'#.7 granting the desaigiri rights to him7 the Bamin was gi-en 2y Kahya F3uyaG 2en Nasir Damadar7 :maid 2en 3amid7 Mohammad A2ud Damadar and Sultan Dafar all four %rinci+al Damadars of )aroda$*'# In the 2attle with Malhar (ao a grou+
577 578 579 580

I2id$ %$.6/$ I2id$ #irat7 %+$'..,'."$ )itchison, (ol@(I7 o+$cit$7 %$//*$

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of Sikh Sibandis re8uested em+loyment with the )aroda army$ They were taken into )a2a!i6s ser-ice on Ara2 Damadars6 security$*'. In .'#" a +arwana dated 0th August was gi-en to the Nawa2 of Cam2ay 2y Anand(ao aekwad assuring the Nawa2 that no account of the aekwad troo+s will in-ade his territories on hasdana$ This +arwana was signed 2y aekwad claim of

Ara2 Damadars Mu2arak )en Said and Mohammad A2ud$*'" At )haruch the documents of securities gi-en 2y )haruch Nawa2s was counter signed 2y the Ara2 and @as2ati Damadars as witnesses$*'/ Similarly the Ara2 Damadars of Dunagadh also stood securities ensuring timely +ayment of salaries$*'& Damadar :mar Mukhasan stood security to an amount of money to 2e +aid 2y the Nawa2 of Dunagadh to the shroffs of the aekwad army$*'* 3e also undertook to secure the +ro-isions made for )i2i =amal )akht7 wife of Nawa2 3amid =han of Dunagadh for her maintenance$*'6 In the agreement concluded 2etween the Amar!i family and Nawa2 Maha2at =han of Dunagadh the Sindhi and Ara2 Damadars stood security to see its terms fulfilled$*'0 Similarly in .'#" Aatehsing (ao II7 a younger 2rother of Anand (ao7 who had left )aroda due to some +ro2lem earlier7 was in-ited to come 2ack$ 3e was +romised safety and the office of regent which agreement had the security of se-en Ara2 Damadars$*'' It was this role at the social le-el that ga-e a certain degree of +ower to the Damadars to dictate terms to the rulers and there2y augment their im+ortance$ It also reflects the amount of trust -ested in these Damadars and their a2ility to enforce the sti+ulated terms of a transaction$ These conditions contri2uted towards making the Sibandis an
581 582 583 584 585 586 587 588

G;- I(, %$.1'$ G;- (III7 %$ &1&$ #, III :t$.16 in ";-7 %$ ./&$ Tarikh@i@Sorath7 %$.'0$ G;- (III7 %$/&"$ I2id$ %$/&"$ Tarikh@i@Sorath7 %$.0*$ "S-S I(, ;t$ *"7 %$ *#1.

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im+ortant +ower grou+ in the region$

CONCLUSION

The decline of the Mughal authority in the Su2ah of

u!arat had

2egun in the reign of Aurang4e2 itself$ The +rinci+les on which the sta2ility of the Mughal Em+ire rested were com+romised to a large e9tent during the latter half of the .0th century$ The Mughal +olicy of not com2ining Dagirdari and Aau!dari rights in the same +erson was com+romised to a great e9tent$ Many instances of Aau!dars 2eing gi-en charge of their own Dagir ha-e come to our notice$ Many administrati-e la+ses could not 2e checked effecti-ely$ In addition7 Shi-a!i6s attack and sack of Surat twice had a dee+ effect on the

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trade and commerce of

u!arat$ Aurang4e26s death only accentuated the

+ro2lem$ The Marathas7 who were ho-ering on the fringes of the region ha-ing already con8uered the smaller forts of strategic im+ortance7 entered the region with full -igour$ Aactors like the infighting and the +ower struggle amongst the 2ig no2les added to the +rocess of decline$ The am2itions for +ersonal aggrandi4ement of wealth and +ower of the no2les a++ointed as the Na4ims and Aau!dars of u!arat led to the cree+ing in of the mal+ractices in the administration$ This cou+led with their ina2ility to check the Maratha in-asions led to com+lete 2reakdown of the Mughal im+erial authority in the region$

The infighting +ercolated to the le-el of local no2les as well leading to a situation of constant warfare in the region$ Many factions had emerged amongst the regional no2les as well$ Mainly two factions that of Shu!a5at =han7 +rotJgJs of 3aider @uli =han and 3amid =han7 the +rotJgJ of Ni4am,ul,Mulk7 had 2ecome +rominent 2y .0"*$ >ith the defeat of Shu!a5at =han6s faction the sem2lance of Mughal authority in u!arat was lost$ The region came to 2e shared half,to,half with the Marathas who had hel+ed 3amid khan against Shu!a5at =han$ )y .0&# the Su2ah had disintegrated com+letely and many +rinci+alities of different statures had come into e9istence$

The most -isi2le characteristic following the decline was the constant flu9 in the fortunes of almost all the +rinci+alities of u!arat$ There was constant warfare amongst these +rinci+alities for territorial e9+ansion$ In this

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case the diwans of the -arious +rinci+alities +layed an im+ortant +art$ The case of (ancho!i Amar!i of Dunagadh has 2een e9+lored in this study$ Amongst the main 2eneficiaries of this uncertain situation were the desais and patels$ It has 2een found that the desais could accumulate greater amounts of wealth and +ower locally$ >e also see the rise of i'aradari simultaneously$ It seems that the offices of fau!dar7 etc were also 2eing gi-en on i'ara$ >ith the coming of the Marathas i'ara was institutionali4ed known as *amavisdari$ This institution also hel+ed the desais in their aggrandi4ement$ #anotidari7 gi-ing monetary sureties for re-enue +ayment 2y the +easants7 also contri2uted towards the same$ The desais themsel-es took i'ara and in +laces where they were not *amavisdars they 2ecame #anotidars$

Another nota2le feature is the increased role of the bhats and charans in the newly emergent +olitical set,u+ as security holders or guarantors$ Aollowing the decline of effecti-e authority7 re-enue collection 2ecame ar2itrary and forceful$ The +easants also resisted its +ayment$ Thus7 the inter-ention of the third +arty 2ecame necessary$ It was here that the bhats acted as intermediaries 2etween the +arties for settling the +ayment issues$ Although their role as securities in re-enue collection +rocess has come to our notice for earlier times as well7 2ut during our +eriod of in-estigation their role seems to ha-e 2een enhanced$ The security system +er-aded other 2ranches of administration as well$ (eferred to as bandheri in %ersian sources and as bhandari in the )ritish sources7 securities were taken for 2oth monetary transactions safeguarding the share of each +arty and also for non, monetary acti-ities such as security against harassment 2y officers7 2oth
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Mughal and Maratha$ )y the end of the Century7 the )ritish officers found bandheri 2eing used in all the acti-ities of )aroda administration$ The case seems to ha-e 2een the same with other +rinci+alities as well$ The Ara2 sibandis also came to hold the same +osition as that of the bhats$ This ga-e them considera2le +ower o-er the administration and it was this +osition7 which the )ritish took from the Ara2 sibandis that +laced them in a formida2le +osition -is,O,-is the local administration$ The a2o-e de-elo+ments took +lace in the 2ack dro+ of acute

fragmentation of +olitical authority in the region$ The e9istence of multi+le authorities fre8uently led to conflicts and the nature of so-ereignty is not easily discerni2le$ The assertion of authority 2y -arious factions amongst the Mughals and Marathas created uncertain +olitical conditions$ Their authority e9tended only to the ur2an areas< rural areas were largely left to fend for themsel-es$ The Girassias were 2eneficiaries under such a situation$ They could e9tend their claim to re-enues o-er many -illages and recourse to force for its reali4ation$ These conditions also ga-e rise to new +ractices in the assertion of +olitical authority$ #ulkgiri was one such +ractice$ Many +rinci+alities undertook #ulkgiri e9+editions for collecting tri2ute from the su2ordinate +rinci+alities$ This +ractice has 2een e9+lained in detail in the fourth cha+ter$ >e also come across the +ractice of seeking +rotection 2y smaller +rinci+alities from the 2igger ones$ This +ractice hel+ed many +etty +rinci+alities sa-e itself from e9tinction$ Many indi-iduals also fre8uently sought +rotection from other +olitical +owers against official harassment$ Due to the rise and e9istence of multi+le authorities the offices of Peshkar and (akil and such other intermediaries 2ecame im+ortant$

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The study of the folk literature a-aila2le in the form of garbas reflects the different concerns of the common +eo+le$ It mainly reflects the concern of the +eo+le with the Maratha in-asions early in the century and the lack of im+erial +rotection to them$ ;ater7 the harassment of the su2!ects 2y the %eshwa6s Sarsubahdars forms the su2!ect of this literature$ This harassment led the 3agarsheths and merchants to act as +rotectors of local +o+ulation against harassment 2y officials$ Conse8uently7 the nagarseths rose in social esteem and 2ecame the -oice in their localities that had to 2e heard 2y the administration$ One of the ma!or changes of .'th century India7 is the rise of mercenary system of army$ In u!arat7 as in the rest of u!arat we can see the

mercenaries called si2andis 2eing assigned im+ortant functions like safeguarding towns and fortifications and undertaking #ulkgiri e9+editions$ These si2andis were organi4ed on ethnic 2asis$ >e see si2andis from di-erse ethnic 2ackground 2eing acti-e in the region 2ut the )rabs and the Sindhis after them were the most sought after$ They also emerged as a +ower grou+ in different +rinci+alities$ It was these )rab and Sindhi si2andis that the )ritish had to confront while they were esta2lishing their hegemony in the region$ The )ritish dis2anded the )rabs in large num2ers once they came to +ower$ )esides the non,indigenous si2andis the indigenous grou+s of si2andis known as Aasbatis were also em+loyed$ )ut it is clear that the non, indigenous si2andis were more in demand mainly due to their mo2ility and non,attachment to lands$ The Aasbatis were local soldiers leading one to suggest that they were indeed +easants who were attached to their lands and therefore unwilling to mo-e from their local areas$

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This +eriod also saw the rise of )ritish East India Com+any as a so-ereign authority$ :sing its +osition as a merchant 2ody in the economy of Surat the Com+any could ca+ture Surat6s castle in .0*17 its first con8uest in u!arat and mono+oli4e Surat6s trade to a great e9tent$ This was followed 2y the con8uest of )haruch$ It was an outright territorial con8uest and was +lanned in ad-ance with a -iew of territorial aggrandi4ement$ The )om2ay %residency6s attem+ts at con8uest of u!arat was a2orted in .0'. due to the failure of first Anglo,Maratha war 2ut "# years later due to their inter-ention in the internal crisis of )aroda they could esta2lish su2sidiary alliance with )aroda +rinci+ality$ Through )aroda6s o-er lordshi+ o-er the rest of the +rinci+alities in u!arat the Com+any could +enetrate into the interiors$ The Com+any used re-enue settlements or fi9ing of tri2ute to 2e +aid to the aekwads and the %eshwa 2y these +rinci+alities7 as an instrument towards esta2lishing their +resence in Saurashtra and the Mewasi regions of North u!arat$ In .'.' due to %eshwa6s defeat in the third Anglo,Maratha war the )ritish 2ecame +aramount authority in u!arat$ Though this study is not directly concerned with the economic as+ects of the +eriod there are indications in the sources that the economy of u!arat was indeed +ros+ering as suggested 2y many recent studies$ Infact the in-asions7 constant warfare and uncertain +olitical conditions do not seem to ha-e affected the economy of the region ad-ersely$ There were many tem+orary halts and distur2ances in trade and commercial acti-ity all through the Century7 2ut at the same time the merchants and rulers ado+ted different mechanisms to o-ercome the crisis and continue the trade$ The ur2an re-enues were mainly de+endant on the trade and commerce of the +lace and the new rulers 2eing in utmost need of the re-enues always made
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com+romises with the merchants in case of any distur2ances$ Therefore trade and commerce continued to 2e undertaken e-en if it was not smooth at all times$ The wealth with the desais and their taking of i'ara indicates that agricultural +roduction was high and was the main means of their wealth creation$ They made i'ara an instrument of further wealth creation$ Another im+ortant fact worth noticing is that the non,indigenous sibandis used to come to the region in search of em+loyment and were em+loyed in large num2ers$ They could also secure a +osition where2y they +layed an im+ortant +art in the +ower +olitics of different +rinci+alities$ Their main aim was to sa-e the salaries and return home after some years$ The region was a ma!or market for the military la2our$ These factors indicate that during this +eriod the region was dynamic7 to say the least$ These issues can 2e taken u+ 2y the students of .'th century u!arat6s history for further research that would lead to greater understanding of the +eriod and the region$

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BIBLIOGRAPHY PRIMARY SOURCES

PERSIAN AND URDU SOUCES Ali Mohammad =han7 Mirat,i,Ahmadi7 Syed Nawa2 Ali FedG7 II +arts7 aekwad6s Oriental Series no$ RRRIC7 Oriental Institute7 )aroda7 .1"0$ VVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVV7 engl transl 2y M$ A$ ;okhandwala7 Oriental series no$ .&67 Oriental Institute7 )aroda7 .16*$ VVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVV7#irat@i@)hmadi@Supplement, C$N$Seddon and Syed Nawa2 Ali Fed L translG7 Oriental Institute7 )aroda7 .1"'$

aekwad6s

Sara2hai Nagar7 )hwal@i@Gaekwad7 accession no$ ."17 )$D$Institute7 Ahmeda2ad$

Munshi A22as Ali7 Aissa@i@Ghamghin7 FedG Satish c$ Mishra7 de+artment of 3istory7 The Mahara!a Saya!i(ao :ni-ersity of )aroda7 .10*$

(anchod!i Amar!i7 Tarikh@i@Sorath7 transl 2y E$ (ehatsek7 ;ondon7 .''"$

Shah Nawa4 khan and A2dul 3ayy7 #atthir@ul@4mrah7 Fed L translG 3$ )e-eridge and )eni %rasad7 / Columes7 Calcutta7 .1&.$ =ishore Das Munshi7 #a'mua@e@,anish7 +arts I L II7 transl 2y Saeed 3asan7 Allaha2ad7 .1*0$

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ENGLISH SOURCES

Dames Aor2es7 ;riental #emoirsB Selected and a2ridged from a series of familiar letters written during se-enteen years residence in India7 & -olumes7 ;ondon7 .'./$

Ale9ander kinloch Aor2es7 asmalaH "indoo )nnals of the province of GooBerat, /estern India, FedG D$>$>atson7 II Columes7 (ichardson and Com+any7 O9ford7 .'0'$

Marriame %ostans7 6utch or andom Sketches taken during a residence in one of the northern provinces of /estern India7 interspersed with :egends and 6ustoms, Smith elder and co$ Cornhill7 ;ondon7 .'/'$

(enigald 3e2er7 3arrative of ) +ourney through the upper provinces of India from 6alcutta to -ombay %&E=@%&E>, / Columes7 )$ ($ %u2lishing cor+oration7 Delhi$

Dohn S+linter Sta-orinus7 (oyages to the <ast Indies, translated from ,utch by Samuel "ull /ilcock7 / Columes7 ;ondon7 .01'$

Dames Macmurdo7 +ournal of a oute through the peninsula of GuBerat in the year %&?D@%&%?7 edited 2y Suresh Chandra hosh and +u2lished as 8The Peninsula of Gu'arat in the early nineteenth 6entury!7 Sterling %u2lishers %-t ;td$7 New Delhi7 .100$

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>alter 3amilton7 ,escription of "indostan, ) general, Statistical and "istorical ,escription of "indostan and the ad'acent countries7 " Columes7 Delhi7 .10.$

Dames )urness7 ) 3arrative of a visit to the 6ourt of Sinde7 ) sketch of the "istory of 6utch7 Edin2urgh7 .'/.$

;t$ Col$ Calentine )lacker7 #emoirs of the -ritish during the #ahratta /ar %&%F@%&%D7 ;ondon7 .'".$

PUBLISHED DOCUMENTS AND REPORTS

D$3$ ense and D$($)ana!i FedG7 The Gaikwads of -arodaH <nglish ,ocuments, .# -olumes7 D$ )$ Tara+orewala sons L Co7 )om2ay7 %u2lished 2etween .1/*,.1&*$

,,,,,,,,,,7 The Third <nglish <mbassy to PoonaH comprising #ostyn!s ,iary. Sept %FFE@2eb %FF= and #ostyn!s letters, D$ )$ Tara+orewala sons L Co7 )om2ay7 .1/&$

Thomas Duer )roughton7 :etters from a #ahratta 6amp during the year %&?D, =$%$)agchi and Com+any7 Calcutta7 .11*$

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Mountstuart El+hinstone7 Territories 6on.uered from the PeshwaH ) eport7 introduced 2y D$C$ Shri-asta-a7 Oriental %u2lishers7 Delhi7 .10/$

Sir Charles Aawcett FedG7 <nglish ecords on Shiva'i %C>D@%C&EH Shi-a!i Tercentenary Memorial Ser-ice7 Colume CI7 Shi-a Charitra =aryalaya7 %oona7 .1/.$

Ale9ander >alker7 Selections from the -ombay Government, no. IIIII7 New Series7 %art,I7 )om2ay7 .'*6$

Ca+t$ D$ ($ =elly7 #emoirs of the #ahee *antha, in Selections from the ecords of -ombay Government, no. III7 New Series7 )om2ay7 .'*6$

Selections from the ecords of the -ombay Government no. II(I7 New Series7 )om2ay7 .'*6$

$>$ Aorrest FedG7 Selections from the :etters, ,espatches and other state papers, "ome series7 / -olumes7 .1."$

C$ $3atalkar FedG7 2rench records relating to the "istory of the #arathas7 Columes "7 )om2ay7 .10'$

$S$Sardesai FedG7 Poona esidency 6orrespondence, (olume II, #alet!s <mbassy7 )om2ay7 .1/6$

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,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,7 (olume IIII, <lphinstone!s <mbassy7 )om2ay7 .1*'$ C$ :$ Aitchison7 ) 6ollection of Treaties, <ngagements and Sanads, Colume CI7 Calcutta7 .1/"$

State (ecords De+artment7 "istorical Selections from the -aroda State ecords7 6 Columes7 +u2lished 2etween .1/& L.1&.$ )$ A$ u+te7 Selections from the "istorical records of the "ereditary minister!s of -arodaH consisting of the letters from -ambay, Poona and Satara Governments7 :ni-ersity of Calcutta7 .1""$ Selections from the Shastri ,aftar %FDD@%&GD7 State (ecords De+artment Fed L +u2lG7 )aroda7 FKear not knownG$

$ C$ Cad L D$ )$ %arasnis FedG7 Selections from

Satara a'a!s and Peshwa!s ,iaries,Colume III7 %eshwa )ala!i )a!i (ao7 %art I7 )om2ay7 .1#0$

$ C$ Cad L =$ N$ Sane FedG7 Selections from Satara

a'a!s and Peshwa!s ,iaries, Colume IR7 %eshwa Madha-(ao7 %art I7 )om2ay7.1..$

$ C$ Cad L =$ )$ Marathe FedG7 Selections from the

Satara a'a!s and Peshwa!s ,iaries, Colume CI7 Sawai Madha-(ao %eshwa7 %art II7 )om2ay7 .1#1$

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224

$ S$ Sardesai FedG7 Selections from the Peshwa ,aftar, no$ "&,%eshwa6s commitments on the >est

Coast7 )om2ay7 .1/"$

VVVVVVVVVVVV7 no$ ./, )a!i (ao6s entry into Malwa and )undelkhand7 )om2ay7 .1/.$ %$ M$ Doshi FedG7 Selections from the Peshwa ,aftar, New Series7 Colume I7 E9+ansion of the Maratha %ower7 )am2ay7 .1*0$

VVVVVVVVV7 Colume III7 (e-i-al of Maratha %ower7 )om2ay .16"$

)$

$ %aran!+e7

<nglish

ecords on Shiva'i %C>D@%C&E7 Shi-a!i

Tercentenary Memorial Ser-ice7 Colume CI7 Shi-a!i Charitra =aryalaya7 %oona7 .1/.$ The -abi rulers of Sorath wit h a short account of their administration, Dunagadh State %ress7 Dunagadh7 .1#/$ Sir Te! )ahadur Sa+ru7 #emorandum of rights exercised by the -aroda Government before %&E? in the states tributary to them in *athiawad and #ahi *antha, )aroda7.1//$ ;allu2hai7 %ran-alla2hdas %arikh7 "andbook of Giras and Guarantee, )om2ay7 .''1$

AEATTEE(B

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Dames Cam+2ell FedG7 GaBetteer of -ambay Presidency@Gu'arat Series, Columes I to IR7 )om2ay7 +u2lished 2etween .'#& to .1#.$ >$ >$ 3unter7 The Imperial GaBetteer of IndiaH The Indian <mpire, & Columes7 Clarendon %ress7 O9ford7 .1#0$ D$>$ >atsonFedG7 Statistical )ccount of +unagadh7 )om2ay7 .''/$ VVVVVVVVVVVVV7 Statistical )ccount of -havnagar7 )om2ay7 .''/$ o-ind2hai$ 3$ Desai7 GaBetteer of -aroda State7 " Columes7

)om2ay7 .1"/$

SECONDARY SOURCES
IN ENGLISH (o2ert Orme7 "istorical fragments of the #ughal <mpire, of the #orattoes, and of the <nglish concerns in Indostan7 New Delhi7 .10&$ VVVVVVVVVV7 "istory of the #ilitary transactions of nation in Indostan from %F=>, Madras7 .'6.$

3olden Aur2er7 -ombay presidency in the #id@<ighteenth 6entury7 )om2ay7 .16/$ 3arilal Sa-ailalB ;ate Nai2,Dewan of )ha-nagar7 Samaldas C$ A$ =incaid7 The outlaws of *athiawad and other studies7

Parmananddas 0a -iography17 )om2ay7 .1."$

)om2ay7 .1#*$

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226

M$S$Commissariate7 "istory of Gu'arat7 / Columes7 u!arat Cidya Sa2ha7 Ahmeda2ad7 .1'#$ Syed Ma82ool Ahmad7 ) "istory of the 3awabs of -roach based on Persian manuscript #a'mu!a@e@,anish7 Delhi7 .1'*$

Surendra Nath Sen7 The military System of the #arathas7 )om2ay7 Orient ;ongmans7 .1*'$ VVVVVVVVVVVVVVV7 The )dministrative system of the #arathas7 Calcutta7 .106$ %$ Saran7 Provincial Government under the #ughals7 Allaha2ad7 .1&.$

Shailendra Nath Sen7 )nglo@#aratha relations during the administration of /arren "astings7 Calcutta7 .16.$ Dadunath Sarkar7 2all of the #ughal <mpire, & -olumes7 &th Edition7 Orient )lackswan7 .11.$ VVVVVVVVVVVVV7 The :ater #ughals7 & Columes7 Orient ;ongman7 &th edition7 ;ondon7 .1''$ rant Duff7 ) "istory of the #arathas, & Columes7 ;ondon7 .'"6$ A$ A$ 3$ Elliot7 The ulers of -aroda7 )aroda7 .1/&$ Edal!i Dosa2hai7 "istory of Gu'arat from the earliest to the present times, New Delhi7 .1'6$

$ S$ Sardesai7 3ew "istory of the #arathas7 / Columes7 )om2ay7 .1&'$ 3$D$Sankalia7 The )rcheology of Gu'aratH including *athiawad, )om2ay7 .1&.$

M$($Ma!mudar7 6ultural "istory of Gu'aratH from the early times to Pre@ -ritish period, %o+ular %rakashan7 )om2ay7 .16*$

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227

Satish Chandra7 Parties and Politics at #ughal 6ourt %F?F@%F=?, Aligarh7 .1*1$ VVVVVVVVVVVV7 #edieval India Part@II, #ughal <mpire7 Delhi7 "##0$ S$ C$ Mishra7 #uslim 6ommunities in Gu'aratH ) Preliminary survey, "nd edition7 New Delhi7 .1'*$ Mu4affar Alam7 6risis of the <mpire in #ughal 3orth India7 O:%7 Delhi7 .1'6$

VVVVVVVV L San!ay Su2rahmanyam FedsG7 The #ughal State %>EC@%F>?, O:%7 Delhi7 .11'$ C$ A$ )ayly7 (ulers7 Townsmen and -aBaarsH 3orth Indian Society in the )ge of -ritish <xpansion %FF?@%&F?7 O:%7 New Delhi7 "nd edition7 "##&$

Seema Ala-i7 The <ighteenth 6entury in India7 O:%7 Delhi7 "##"$

%$D$Marshall FedG7 The %&th century in Indian "istoryH <volution or evolutionL7 O:%7 New Delhi7 "##/$

>illiam Ir-ine7 The )rmy of the Indian #oghulsH Its organisation and administration7 ;u4ac7 .1#/$

A2dul A4i47 The #ansabdari System and the #ughal )rmy7 Delhi7 .10"$

(a! kumar %hul7 )rmies of the Great #ughals %>EC@%F?F, .10'$

C$ A$ Danaki7 Some )spects of the "istorical Geography of Surat, Mahara!a Saya!i(ao :ni-ersity of )aroda7 )aroda7 .10&$

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,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,7 The 6ommerce of 6ambay from the earliest period to the 3ineteenth 6entury7 Mahara!a Saya!i(ao :ni-ersity of )aroda7 )aroda7 .1'#$ Andre >ink7 :and and Sovereignty in India7 Orient ;ongman7 .1'6$

Dirk =olff7 3aukar, a'put and SepoyH The <thnohistory of the #ilitary :abour #arket in "industan, %=>?@%&>?7 C:%7 Cam2ridge7 .11#$

Stewart ordon7 The #arathas %C??@%&%&, C:%7 New Delhi7

(e+rint7 "##*$

Ashin Das u+ta7 Indian #erchants and the ,ecline of Surat 6. %F??@ %F>?, New Delhi7 .11&$

Aniruddha (ay7 Trade, politics and PlunderH The #arathas at 6ambay, 6. %FE>@%&E>, New Delhi7 "##6$ M$ N$ %earson7 #erchants and ulers in Gu'arat7 New Delhi7 .106$

M$ %$ Singh7 Town, #arket, #int and Port in #ughal <mpire %>>C@%F?F, New Delhi7 "##0$

A$ M$ Shah7 <xploring India!s ural PastH ) Gu'arat (illage in the early nineteenth century, O:%7 New Delhi7 "##"$

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229

>illiam +inch7 /arrior )scetics and Indian <mpires7 C:%7 New Delhi7 "##6$

(andolf $S$Coo+er7 The )nglo@#aratha 6ampaigns and the contest for India, C:%7 New Delhi7 "##*$

Dos$ D$ ;$ ommans L Dirk$ 3$ A$ =ollf FedG7 /arfare and /eaponry in South )sia7 O9ford7 "##.$

S$ 3asan Mahmud7 )n <ighteenth 6entury )grarian #anualH 9asin!s ,astur@i@#alguBari7 New Delhi7 "###$

N$A$Siddi8ui7 The land evenue )dministration under the #ughals7 New Delhi7 .1'1$

Aarhat 3asan7 State and locality in #ughal IndiaH Power relations in /estern India %>FE@%FG?7 Cu+7 "##6$

Achyut yagnik and Suchitra Sheth7 The Shaping of #odern

Gu'arat, %enguin )ooks7 New Delhi7 "##*$

IN GUJARATI

(atnamani )him(ao Ahmeda2ad7 .1"1$

Dote7

Gu'aratnu

Patnagar

)hmadabad7

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Maganlal >akhatchand Sheth7 )mdavad no Itihas7 Ahmeda2ad7 .'*.$

Ishwarlal Icharam Desai7 Surat Sona ni #urat7 Surat7 .1*'$

C$($Naik7 Gu'aratma 3agaron nu 2arsi -hasha ane Sahityanu *hedan7 u!arat Cidyasa2ha7 Ahmeda2ad7 .1*#$

: Doshi7 A (a-al L K Shukla FedsG7 Gu'arati Sahitya no Itihas7 Ahmeda2ad7 .106$

Man!ulal$ (7 Ma!mudar7 )acchu2hai (a-at L Manu2hai Doghani FedsG7 Gu'arati :oksahityamala7 Colume III7 Ahmeda2ad7 .16/$

Dayant adith7 Dayant =othari L Chandrakant Sheth FedsG7 Gu'arati Sahitya *osh7 %art,I Medie-al7 Ahmeda2ad7 .1'1$

IN MARATHI

C$ $ =ho2rekar7 Gu'aratentil #arathi a'vat %CC=@%&E?7 %oona7 .16"$

UNPUBLISHED DESSERTATIONS

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Shama Mahmood7 Subah Gu'arat under )urangBeb7 %h$D dissertation7 Maha(a!a Saya!i(ao :ni-ersity7 Cadodara7 .111$

Das+al =aur Dhot7 <conomy and Society of 3orthern Gu'arat with Special reference to *heda ,istrict %F>?@%&>?7 %h$D dissertation7 Mahara!a Saya!i(ao :ni-ersity7 Cadodara7 .1'6$

(a! =umar 3ans7 )grarian <conomy of -roach ,istrict during the first half of the nineteenth 6entury7 %h$D Dessertation7 M$S$:ni-ersity of Cadodara7 .1'0$

Ci2huti$ %$%arikh7 <conomy and Polity of Gu'arat during the <ighteenth 6entury7 %h$D dissertation7 M$S$ :ni-ersity of )aroda7 Cadodara7 "##*$

Iftikhar Ahmad =han7 Surat 6. %FD>H State, 6ommunity and Society, %h$d dissertation su2mitted to the Mahara!a Saya!irao :ni-ersity7 Cadodara7 "##0$

ARTICLES IN JOURNALS

Thomas Marshall7 MA Statistical Account of the %argana of Dam2usarP7 "6th Dec7 .'"#7 in The Transactions of the :iterary Society of -ombay, Colume III7 .'"/$

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MThe Nawa2shi+ of Teg )eg =han at SuratK in -ombay Auarterly eview, Col$ IC7 )om2ay7 .'*67 %$.1/$ Dames Mac Murdo7 MAn Account of Cutch and of the countries lying 2etween u4erat and the ri-er Indus7 from An!arP7 "1th Se+t7 .'.'7 Transactions of the :iterary Society of -ombay, Col$ II7 .'"#$ D$>$>atson7 M3istorical sketch of the town of )ha-nagarP7 Indian )nti.uary7 .'0&7

)$ ($ ro-er7 MThe %osition of desai in the +argana administration of Su2ah u!aratP7 Proceedings of Indian "istory 6ongress 0PI"61, Delhi7 .16.$ D$A$(ichards and C$ Narayan (ao7 M)anditry in Mughal IndiaB 3istorical and Aolk +erce+tionsP7 Indian <conomic and Social"istory eview 0I<S" 17 Col RCII7 No$ .7 .1'#$ Michel uglielmo Torri7 MMughal No2les7 Indian Merchants and the )eginning of the )ritish con8uest in western IndiaB The case of Surat .0*6,.0*1P, #odern )sian Studies 0#)S17 /"7 "7 .11'$ VVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVVV7 Ethnicity and Trade in Surat during the dual o-ernment era .0*1,.'##7 I<S" , "0 F&G7 .11#$ ;akshmi Su2rahmanian7 MCa+ital and crowd in a Declining Asian +ort cityB The Anglo,)ania order and the Surat riots of .01*7 #)S7 .1 F"G7 .1'*$ ordon7 MThe slow Con8uestB Administrati-e integration of

Stewart

Malwa into the Maratha Em+ire .0"#,.06#P7 #)S7 RI F.G7 .100$ A$ M$ Shah7 M%olitical Systems in .'th Century .16&$ u!aratP7 <n.uiry7 I F.G7

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(a!kumar 3ans7 MThe Manotidari System of the Agrarian Economy of the .'th century u!aratP7 PI"6, .1'.$ 3oward S+odek7 M(ulers7 Merchants and other grou+s in the CityStates of Saurashtra in India7 around .'##P7 6omparative Studies in Society and "istory 06SS"1, .6 F&G7 .10&$

233