Compressor Performance Characteristics

Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional
Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.

Warning: The material contained in this document was developed for Saudi
Aramco and is intended for the exclusive use of Saudi Aramcos employees.
Any material contained in this document which is not already in the public
domain may not be copied, reproduced, sold, given, or disclosed to third
parties, or otherwise used in whole, or in part, without the written permission
of the Vice President, Engineering Services, Saudi Aramco.

Chapter : Mechanical For additional information on this subject, contact
File Reference: MEX-212.03 PEDD Coordinator on 874-6556

Engineering Encyclopedia
Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards

COMPRESSOR
PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS

Engineering Encyclopedia Compressors

Compressor Performance Characteristics

Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards i
Section Page

INFORMATION............................................................................................................... 3
INTRODUCTION............................................................................................................. 3
DETERMINING DYNAMIC COMPRESSOR PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS ... 4
Thermodynamics of Compression........................................................................ 4
Isothermal Process............................................................................................... 8
Isentropic Process................................................................................................ 8
Polytropic Process.............................................................................................. 12
Compressibility ................................................................................................... 15
DETERMINING POSITIVE-DISPLACEMENT COMPRESSOR PERFORMANCE
CHARACTERISTICS .................................................................................................... 58
WORK AIDS.................................................................................................................. 62
WORK AID 1A: CALCULATION PROCEDURES AND CHARTS FOR
DETERMINING DYNAMIC COMPRESSOR PERFORMANCE
CHARACTERISTICS.......................................................................... 62
WORK AID 1B: CHARTS FOR DETERMINING COMPRESSOR
PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS............................................. 65
WORK AID 2: CALCULATION PROCEDURES FOR DETERMINING POSITIVE-
DISPLACEMENT COMPRESSOR PERFORMANCE
CHARACTERISTICS.......................................................................... 69
GLOSSARY .................................................................................................................. 71



Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards ii

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1. Relationship Between Isentropic Efficiency and Polytropic Efficiency Based
on an Ideal Gas...................................................................................................... 15
Figure 2. Compressibility Factors at Low Reduced Pressures..................................... 20
Figure 3. Psychometric Chart for Normal Temperatures.............................................. 31
Figure 4. Mollier Diagram for Propane ......................................................................... 41
Figure 5. Basic Head Versus Flow Performance Curve ............................................... 43
Figure 6. Centrifugal Compressor Impeller and Vector Diagram.................................. 44
Figure 7. Effect of Impeller Blade Angle on Head and Efficiency ................................. 46
Figure 8. Dynamic Compressor Surge Line ................................................................. 49
Figure 9. Dynamic Compressor Stonewall ................................................................... 50
Figure 10. Graphical Representation of the Effect of Molecular Weight on Compressor
Head Versus Flow Curves...................................................................................... 51
Figure 11. Typical Head Curve..................................................................................... 56
Figure 12. Typical Horsepower Curve.......................................................................... 57
Figure 13. Pressure Volume Cycle............................................................................... 60

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Critical Constants of Gases............................................................................ 18
Table 1. Critical Constants of Gases (Contd) .............................................................. 19
Table 2. Computation of the Physical Characteristics of a Sales Gas/Fuel Gas Mixture23
Table 3. Water Content of Air in Gallons Per 1000 ft
3
at Various Relative Humidities. 32
Table 4. Water Content of Saturated Air in Gallons per 1000 ft
3
at Various
Temperatures and Pressures with 100% Relative Humidity........................... 34
Table 5. Critical Constants of Gases............................................................................ 65


Saudi Aramco DeskTop Standards 3
INFORMATION

INTRODUCTION
Compressor performance characteristics can be described as
the operating characteristics that define the ratings of a
compressor. An understanding of compressor performance
characteristics is important when determining compressor
requirements for a system and when evaluating compressor
operation. This module describes compressor performance
characteristics and the methods of determining the compressor
performance characteristics for dynamic and positive-
displacement compressors.


DETERMINING DYNAMIC COMPRESSOR PERFORMANCE
CHARACTERISTICS
The major performance characteristics of a dynamic
compressor are flow, head, and efficiency. To determine these
performance characteristics, the Mechanical Engineer must
understand the following subjects:
Thermodynamics of Compression
Properties of Gas Mixtures
Volumetric Flow
Mollier Diagrams
Dynamic Compressor Characteristics
Thermodynamics of Compression
No gas exactly conforms to the Ideal Gas Law, which show the
relationship between the volume, the absolute pressure, and the
absolute temperature of an ideal gas. Most gases, however,
conform to these laws with sufficient accuracy to yield sound
engineering answers relevant to engineering problems. To
understand and to calculate the thermodynamics of
compression, the Mechanical Engineer uses the following
fundamental laws:
Boyles Law
Charles Law
Daltons Law
Avogadros Law

As explained below, these gas laws combine to form the Ideal
Gas Law.
Boyles Law states that when the temperature of a gas is kept
constant, the volume of an enclosed mass of gas is inversely
proportional to varying pressure upon the gas. Another way to
state Boyles Law is that the product of the pressure multiplied
by the volume remains constant at a constant temperature. The
relationship between pressure and volume can be conveniently
expressed as the following equation:
t tan cons is e temperatur when ; V P V P
2 2 1 1
=


Where: V = Volume
P = Pressure
Although Boyles Law assumes the condition of constant
temperature; constant temperature is seldom the case in actual
industrial situations. Temperature continually changes, and
such changes in temperature affect the volume of a given mass
of gas.
Charles Law states that, if constant pressure is maintained, the
volume of gas is directly proportional to its absolute
temperature. The relationship between volume and absolute
temperature can be conveniently expressed as the following
equation:
1
2
1
2
T
T
V
V
= when pressure is constant
Where: V = Volume
T = Temperature

Daltons Law states that, in a mixture of gases, the summation
of partial pressures is equal to the total pressure of the mixture.
A partial pressure is defined as the pressure that a specific gas
in a gas mixture would exert if the gas alone occupied the total
volume occupied by the mixture at the mixture temperature.
The relationship between partial pressures can be conveniently
expressed as the following equation:
Pn P3 P2 P1 P T
.P . . . P P P P P + + = =
Where: P
T
= Total pressure
P
P
= Partial pressure
= Summation
n = Number of component gases
Avogadros Law states that all gases have the same number of
moles in the same volume and at the same pressure and
temperature. This relationship can be stated through the
following equation:


t tan Cons
T
PV
=
Where: P = Pressure
V = Volume
T = Temperature

As pointed out above, Boyles Law, Charles Law, Daltons Law,
and Avogadros Law combine to form the Ideal Gas Law, which
shows the relationship between the volume, the absolute
pressure, and the absolute temperature of an ideal gas. The
Ideal Gas Law can be expressed with either of the two following
formulas:
=
P
RT

or
=
RT
P

Where: = Specific volume (ft
3
/lbm)
= Density (lbm/ ft
3
)
R = Gas constant =R
univ
/MW
= 1545.32 ft-lbf/lbm-Mol-R/MW
R
univ
=

Universal Gas constant
= 1.98587 Btu/lbm-Mol-R
= 1545.32 ft-lbf/lbm-Mol-R
= 8.3143 Joules/gm-Mol-R
= 10.73 psia-ft
3
/ lbm-Mol-R
MW = Gas molecular weight (lbm/mole)
P = Absolute pressure (lbf/in
2
)
T = Absolute temperature (R, where R =
F + 460


The General Gas Law derives from simplification of the Ideal
Gas Law applied to a fixed mass. The General Gas Law relates
the properties of an ideal gas in response to varying
temperatures and volumes, with pressure held constant:
2
2 2
1
1 1
T
V P
T
V P
=
Where: V = Volume
P = Pressure
T = Temperature
Variation in temperature is a function of the specific heat (C) of
a gas, or the amount of energy that is required to raise the
temperature of one pound of gas one degree Fahrenheit. If the
volume of the gas is kept constant while the heat is added, all of
the heat is used to increase the temperature of the gas. The
specific heat at a constant volume is denoted C
V
. If the
pressure is kept constant and if the volume is allowed to vary
while the heat is added, an increased amount of heat will be
required. The increased amount of heat is required because, in
addition to increasing the temperature, the gas expands and
thus performs external work. The specific heat at constant
pressure is denoted C
P
.
The external work that is done when a unit mass of gas is
heated at constant pressure is equal to the gas constant (R).
The external work can be shown by the following formula:
J
R
C C
V P
=
Where: C
P
= Specific heat at constant pressure (Btu/F/lb)
C
V
= Specific heat at constant volume (Btu/F/lb)
R = Specific gas constant (ftlb/R)
J = Joules constant, a ratio of the mechanical
work done to the heat that is produced (equal
to 778 ft-lb/Btu)
The following reversible (Ideal) compression processes can be
applied to compressors:


Isothermal Process
Isentropic Process
Polytropic Process
Although they describe ideal gases and are not commercially
attainable, these processes are used as a basis for calculations
and comparisons. The variance of a gas from laws and
processes for an ideal gas is referred to as compressibility. The
reversible (ideal) compression processes and compressibility
are discussed below. The discussions will focus on head and
efficiency in the ideal compression processes and in the actual
compression process.
Isothermal Process
The isothermal compression process is compression that takes
place at a constant temperature. Because large amounts of
heat transfer area must be supplied to keep the temperature
constant, isothermal compression is not common in the actual
operation of machinery.
The equation for isothermal efficiency is as follows:
t tan Cons V P V P
2 2 1 1
= =
Where: P = Pressure
V = Volume
Isentropic Process
The isentropic compression process follows a path of constant
entropy. In the isentropic process, heat is neither added to nor
removed from the gas during compression. The fact that heat is
neither added nor removed does not mean that the temperature
is constant. Because of the work of compression that is
performed on the gas, temperature increases as the pressure
increases. In compressor theory, the terms isentropic
(constant entropy) and adiabatic (no heat transfer) are
interchangeably used. This interchangeability is valid for the
context in which the terms are used. The actual definition of an
isentropic process is an adiabatic, reversible process.
The following equation shows the relationship between pressure
and volume for isentropic compression:


t tan Cons PV
k
=
Where: P = Pressure
V = Volume
k = Isentropic exponent
The isentropic exponent (
k
) is the ratio of the specific heat at a
constant pressure (C
P
) to the specific heat at constant volume
(C
V
). The isentropic exponent is equal to C
P
/C
V
.
The following equations are used to calculate the total work
(Work
isen
) that is done on a unit mass of gas in the isentropic
compression process:
Work
isen:

(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
=
1
1
/ 1
1
1
k k
r
P
P
k
k
P
1
1 r p
V
) T (T C

or
Work
isen:

( )
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
=

1
P
P
1 k
k
RT
1/k k
i
f
i

Where: C
P
= Specific heat at constant temperature
T
f
= Final temperature (R)
T
i
= Initial temperature (R)
V
i
= Initial volume (ft
3
)
P
f
= Final pressure (psia)
P
i
= Initial pressure (psia)
R = Gas constant


As listed above, for all gases, the gas constant (R) is equal to
the universal gas constant (R
univ
) divided by the gas molecular
weight (MW), or 1545.32/MW. By definition, the air has a
uniform molecular weight of 28.966; therefore, the specific
gravity (sg) of any gas, relative to air, of molecular weight MW is
equal to MW/28.966. The gas constant (R) for any gas can now
be defined as 1545.32/MW, or 53.34/sg.
The energy (lbf) of the compression of a gas can be thought of
as lifting a given weight of gas (lbm) at inlet pressure and
temperature to a height (feet) at which the gas is discharged at
the same pressure and temperature. The unit for head is as
follows:
|
.
|
\
|
lbm
lbf ft
mass pound per force pound Foot
Head (H
p
) is frequently expressed as feet, which relates to the
height of the gas column at which the gas is discharged at the
same pressure and temperature as the inlet gas.
Head (H
p
) is a fundamental property of a compressor. Head is a
function of the compressor design and of the compressor
speed. Head is not affected by the nature of the compressed
gas, the thermodynamic properties of the gas, or the addition or
subtraction of heat as the gas flows through the compressor.
The following equation for head is usually stated in terms of
molecular weight:
( )
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
=

1
P
P
1 k
k
MW
1545.32T
Head
1/k k
i
f i
isen

Where: Head = ft-lbf/lbm
T = R
P = psia

The efficiency of a compressor is the ratio of the theoretical
energy output of the system to the actual energy input of the
system. For an isentropic process, the theoretical energy output
is the isentropic work output. To determine the efficiency in the
isentropic process ( ), the isentropic process must be
understood. Because of the second law of thermodynamics, the
ideal adiabatic compression occurs at constant entropy.


Efficiency in isentropic compression, as shown in the following
equation, can then be defined as the ratio of isentropic work to
actual work:
Work Actual
Work Isentropic
=
The overall efficiency in isentropic compression (also referred to
as isentropic efficiency) is used as a measure of the overall
performance of a compressor.
A variation of the isentropic process occurs when compression
with intercooling is used. Multi-stage compressors may use
intercoolers between stages to lower the gas temperature.
Compression with intercooling results in an isothermal
approximation of an isentropic process. When intercooling is
used, the compressor head can be approximated through use of
the following isothermal head equation:
( )
1 2
i
iso
/P P ln
MW
RT
H =
Where: H
iso
= Isothermal head
R = Gas constant (1545.32 ft-lbf/lbm - Mol - R)
T
i
= Initial temperature in R
ln = Log to base e
MW = Gas molecular weight
P
1
= Initial pressure in psia
P
2
= Final pressure in psia


Polytropic Process
Polytropic compression is the compression path that closely
follows the compression path in a real centrifugal compressor.
Centrifugal compression is not an ideal thermodynamic process.
The inefficiency of the compression process results in excess
heat input to the process gas, which causes the temperature to
increase faster than it would in isentropic compression.
Because of the temperature increase, the volume at the end of
polytropic compression is larger than the volume at the end of
isentropic compression.
The following equation shows the relationship between pressure
and volume for polytropic compression:
t tan Cons PV
n
=
Where: P = Pressure
V = Volume
n = Polytropic exponent
In terms of required energy, all compressors operate closest to
the polytropic process. In any gas compression, the actual work
input is greater than the polytropic work input. In a polytropic
process, the temperature rise occurs at a faster rate than it does
in an isentropic process. The faster rise in temperature is
accounted for mathematically by the substitution of the
polytropic exponent (n) for the isentropic exponent (k) in the
following polytropic head equation:
( )
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
=

1
P
P
1 n
n
RT Head
1/n n
i
f
i poly

The following equation for head is usually stated in terms of
molecular weight:
( )
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
=

1
P
P
1 n
n
MW
1545.32T
Head
1/n n
i
f i
poly



The following equation shows the relationship between the
polytropic exponent (n) and the isentropic exponent (k):
n 1
n
k 1
k

1
p

Where:
p
= Polytropic efficiency
The equation that shows the relationship between the polytropic
exponent (n) and the isentropic exponent (k) indicates that when
p
is equal to 100%,
k
1 k
n
1 n
=
and the process becomes

isentropic (adiabatic). As mentioned in compressor theory, the
terms isentropic (no heat transfer) and adiabatic (no entropy
change) are used interchangeably.
If the proper mathematical substitution is performed, the
following equation for polytropic efficiency results:
1 k
k
1 n
n
=
The polytropic exponent for Ideal Gases can be obtained
independent of polytropic efficiency by the following equation,
which relates suction and discharge temperature and pressure:
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
1
2
n
1
2
n
P
P
L
T
T
L
n
1 n

Polytropic efficiency is a characteristic of each compressor.
Polytropic efficiency is equal to the reversible work divided by
the total work applied to the gas. Because of the various losses
that are caused by the gas as it passes through the impellers
and diffusers at high velocity, reversible work and total work are
different. For centrifugal compressors, the polytropic efficiency
is usually between 60% and 85%. For axial compressors,
efficiencies can be as high as 92%.


The polytropic exponent (n) is always larger than the isentropic
exponent (k). For the same actual performance, the value of
the polytropic efficiency will be higher than the value of the
isentropic efficiency.
The ratio of any reversible (Ideal) process, isothermal,
isentropic, or polytropic, is equal to the actual work (energy) as
illustrated in the following equation:
poly
poly
isen
isen
iso
iso
Head
Head
Head
Work Actual = = =
The relationship between isentropic efficiency and polytropic
efficiency (based on a perfect gas) is shown in Figure 1. If the
inlet and outlet pressure of the compressor are known, Figure 1
can be used to convert isentropic efficiency to polytropic
efficiency, or polytropic efficiency to isentropic efficiency. To
convert known efficiency to the unknown efficiency, a
temperature rise factor (X) must be calculated. The following
equation is used to calculate the temperature rise factor (X):
( )
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
=

1
P
P
X
1/k k
1
2

Where: X = Temperature rise factor
P
2
= Discharge pressure
P
1
= Inlet pressure
Once the temperature rise factor (X) has been calculated, the
line that corresponds to the temperature rise factor (X) is used
to convert the known efficiency to unknown efficiency. The
point on the unknown efficiency axis that corresponds to the
intersection of the known efficiency and the temperature rise
factor (X) is the unknown efficiency. This point is called
equivalent efficiency.



Figure 1. Relationship Between Isentropic Efficiency and
Polytropic Efficiency Based on an Ideal Gas

Compressibility
The relationship of specific volume to pressure and temperature
for an ideal gas can be defined by the equation (P)() = (R)(T).
However, most gases that are encountered in industrial
compression do not exactly obey the Ideal Gas Law equation.
Deviation from the Ideal Gas Law is referred to as
compressibility. Compressibility is specifically defined as the
degree to which any given gas varies from the Ideal Gas Law.


Compressibility is stated as a ratio of actual gas volume at a
given pressure and temperature to the volume that is calculated
by theoretical law. The compressibility modifies the equation for
relationship of specific volume to pressure and temperature for
an ideal gas from P = RT to:
( )( ) ( )( )( ) T R Z P =
Where: Z = Compressibility factor
P = Pressure
= Specific volume
R = Gas constant
T = Temperature
The compressibility factor (Z) is a dimensionless factor that is
independent of the quantity of gas. The compressibility factor
(Z) is determined by the type, the temperature, and the pressure
of the gas. The compressibility factor (Z) can be derived from
the rule of corresponding states through the use of reduced
temperature and pressure. The reduced values of temperature
and pressure are ratios of actual conditions to critical constants
as shown in the following formulas:
c
r
T
T
T =
Where: T
r
= Reduced temperature in R
T
c
= Critical temperature in R
T = Temperature actual in R
c
r
P
P
P =
Where: P
r
= Reduced pressure in lbf/in
2

P
c
= Critical pressure in lbf/in
2

P = Actual pressure in lbf/in
2



Values of the critical constants, T
c
and P
c
, for individual gases
are given in Table 1. The following example shows how to
determine the compressibility factor of propane gas with
pressure (P) of 300 psia and temperature (T) of 140F. Table 1
is used to determine the following critical constants of propane:
R 666.2 = T
psia 617.4 = P
c
c

To calculate the reduced temperature (T
r
), the temperature of
the propane (140F) must be converted to degrees Rankine as
follows:
R 600
460 140
R 460 T T
=
+ =
+ =

The reduced temperature (T
r
) is calculated by dividing the
temperature (T) of the propane (600R) by the critical
temperature constant (T
c
) for propane (666.2R).
0.9006
666.2
600
T
T
T
c
r
=
=
=

The reduced pressure (P
r
) is calculated by dividing the pressure
(P) of the propane (300 psia) by the critical pressure constant
(P
c
) for the propane (617.4 psia).
0.4859
617.4
300
P
P
P
c
r
=
=
=



Table 1. Critical Constants of Gases
C
p
and C
p
/C
r

at 14.7 psia and
60F

Critical Constants

Compound

Formula
Mol. Wt.
M

C
p

C
p
/C
r

Pressure
psia P
c

Temp. R
T
c

Mc
p
at 60F
Mc
p
at
100F
Mc
p
at
200F
Acetylene C
2
H
2
26.036 0.3966 1.238 905.0 557.4 10.33 10.69 11.53
Air N+O
2
28.966 0.2470 1.395 547.0 238.7 6.96 6.96 6.99
Ammonia NH
3
17.032 0.5232 1.310 1,657.0 731.4 8.91 8.57 9.02
Benzene C
6
H
6
78.108 0.2404 1.118 714.0 1,013.0 18.78 20.47 24.46
1,2-Butadiene C
4
H
6
54.088 (0.3458) (1.120) 653.0 799.0 18.70
1,3-Butadiene C
4
H
6
54.088 (0.3412) 1.120 628.0 766.0 18.45
N-Butane C
4
H
10
58.120 0.3970 1.094 550.7 765.6 23.07 24.51 26.16
Isobutane C
4
H
10
58.120 0.3872 1.097 529.1 734.9 22.50 23.96 27.62
N-Butene C
4
H
6
56.104 0.3703 1.105 583.0 755.6 20.77 22.09 25.18
Isobutene C
4
H
6
56.104 0.3701 1.106 579.8 752.5 20.76
Butylene C
4
H
6
56.104 0.3703 1.105 583.0 755.6 20.78 21.94 24.86
Carbon dioxide CO
2
44.010 0.1991 1.300 1,073.0 548.0 8.76 9.00 9.35
Carbon
monoxide
CO 28.010 0.2484 1.403 510.0 242.0 6.96 6.96 6.98
Chlorine Cl
2
70.914 0.1149 1.366 1,120.0 751.0 8.15
Ethane C
2
H
4
30.068 0.4097 1.193 708.3 550.1 12.32 12.96 14.68
Ethyl alcohol C
2
H
5
OH 46.069 0.3070 1.130 927.0 629.6 14.14
Ethylene C
2
H
4
28.052 0.3622 1.243 742.1 509.8 10.16 10.68 12.08
N-Hexane C
6
H
14
86.172 0.3984 (1.062) 439.7 914.5 34.33 36.23 41.08
Helium He 4.003 1.2480 1.6598 480.0 510.0 5.00
Hydrogen H
2
2.016 3.408 1.408 188.0 60.2 6.87 6.90 6.95
Hydrogen
sulfide
H
2
S 34.076 0.254 1.323 1,306 672.7 8.66 8.18 8.36
Methane CH
4
16.042 0.5271 1.311 673.1 343.5 8.46 8.65 9.30
Methyl alcohol CH
3
OH 32.042 0.2700 1.203 1,157.0 924.0 8.65
Nitrogen N
2
28.016 0.2482 1.402 492.0 227.2 6.95 6.96 6.963
N-Octane C
8
H
18
114.224 0.3998 (1.046) 362.1 1,025.2 45.67
Oxygen O
2
32.00 0.2188 1.401 730 278.2 7.00 7.03 7.120


Table 1. Critical Constants of Gases (Contd)
C
p
and C
p
/C
r

at 14.7 psia and
60F Critical Constants

Compound Formula
Mol. Wt.
M
C
p
C
p
/C
r

Pressure
psia P
c

Temp. R
T
c

Mc
p
at 60F
Mc
p
at 100F
Mc
p
at 200F
N-Pentane C
5
H
12
72.146 0.3972 1.074 489.5 845.9 28.66 30.30 34.41
Isopentane C
5
H
12
72.146 0.3880 1.075 483.0 830.0 27.99 29.90 34.44
Propane C
3
H
8
44.094 0.3885 1.136 617.4 666.2 17.13 18.21 20.90
Propylene C
3
H
6
42.078 0.3541 1.154 667 657.4 14.90 15.77 17.88
Sulfur dioxide SO
2
64.060 0.1470 1.246 1.142 775.0 9.42
Toluene C
7
H
8
92.134 0.2599 1.091 611 1,069.5 23.95
Water H
2
O 18.016 0.4446 1.335 3,206 1,165.4 8.01 8.03 8.12
Hydrogen
chloride
HCl 36.465 0.1939 1.410 1,199.2 584.5 7.07

The compressibility factor curves are graphs of reduced
pressure (P
r
) versus compressibility factor (Z) for various
reduced temperatures (T
r
). The compressibility factor (Z) shown
in Figure 3 is for low reduced pressure. As shown in Figure 2, a
compressibility factor curve is used in conjunction with the
calculated reduced temperature (T
r
) and reduced pressure (P
r
)
to determine the compressibility factor (2) determined by
locating the point at which the reduced temperature (T
r
=
0.9006) and the reduced pressure (P
r
= 0.4859) intersect and,
then, by reading horizontally to find the compressibility factor (Z
= 0.675).



Figure 2. Compressibility Factors at Low Reduced Pressures



In our previous discussion of the isentropic process and the
polytropic process, the equations for work or head were only
true for the Ideal Gas Law equation. The compressibility factor
is used to account for the deviation of a gas from the Ideal Gas
Law equations. To correct for deviation from Ideal Gas Law, the
compressibility factor must be used in the work or head
equations.
The compressibility factor will vary from compressor inlet
conditions to compressor outlet conditions. In most cases, the
compressibility factor remains fairly constant over the range of
compression, and an average value for the compressibility
factor can be used. The average compressibility factor can be
determined through use of the following calculation:
2
Z Z
Z
1 2
avg

=
Where: Z
avg
= Average compressibility factor
Z
2
= Compressibility factor at discharge
conditions
Z
1
= Compressibility factor at inlet conditions
If the proper mathematical substitutions are made to the
isentropic and polytropic head equations, the following
isentropic and polytropic head equations would result:
Isentropic:
( )
( )
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
1
P
P
1 k
k
MW
T 1545.32Z
1
P
P
1 k
k
RT Z Head
1/k k
i
f
i avg
1/k k
i
f
i avg isen



Polytropic:
( )
( )
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
(
(
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
1
P
P
1 n
n
MW
T 1545.32Z
1
P
P
1 n
n
/T R Z Head
1/n n
i
f
i avg
1/n n
i
f
i avg poly

Properties of Gas Mixtures
Many of the gases that are involved in engineering systems are
physical mixtures of either the permanent gases or one or more
of these gases with superheated or saturated vapors. For
example, atmospheric air is a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen
with traces of other gases, with superheated or saturated water
vapor or, at times, with saturated vapor and liquid. This section
discusses the properties of the following gas mixtures:
Dry Gas Mixtures
Wet Gas Mixtures
Dry Gas Mixtures
The procedures that are required to individually consider the
properties of each constituent of a dry gas mixture are very
complex. Experience has demonstrated that a mixture of dry
gases may be regarded as an equivalent gas. The properties of
the equivalent gas depend upon the types of gases and the
proportion of each of the gases that make up the equivalent
gas.
If the chemical composition of a dry gas mixture is known, it is
possible to determine the gas characteristics that are necessary
to perform compressor calculations. The following are the
properties of a dry gas mixture that are required for adiabatic
compressor calculations:
Gas constant (dependent on molecular mass MW)
k, specific heat ratio and adiabatic exponent


P
1
, T
1
, V
1
, and P
2

Critical pressure , P
C

Critical temperature, T
C

Compressibility factor, Z
Of the above properties, MW, C
P
, C
V
, P
C
, and T
C
are calculated
by addition of the products of the individual mol fraction of each
of the constituents of the gas mixture multiplied by the specific
properties of the individual gas. An application of the individual
mol fraction calculations is shown in Table 2, which presents the
computation of the physical characteristics of a typical sales
gas/fuel gas mixture. The composition is known on the
volumetric basis.

Table 2. Computation of the Physical Characteristics of a
Sales Gas/Fuel Gas Mixture

Gas
Component
Mol
Fraction
(y)
Molecular
Weight
(MW)

(y)x
(MW)

MC
P
at
100F

(y) x MC
P
at 100F
Critical
Pressure
P
c

(y) x P
c

Critical
Temperature
T
c

(y) x T
c
Methane
Ethane
Propane
i-Butane
N-butane
i-pentane
0.922
0.048
0.019
0.004
0.006
0.001
16.04
30.07
44.09
58.12
58.12
72.15
14.78
1.44
0.84
0.23
0.35
0.07
8.65
12.96
18.21
23.96
24.51
29.90
7.975
0.622
0.346
0.096
0.147
0.030
673.1
708.3
617.4
529.1
550.7
483.0
620.6
34.0
11.7
2.1
3.3
0.5
343.5
550.1
666.2
734.9
765.6
830.0
316.7
26.4
12.7
2.9
4.6
0.8
Total 1.00 MW = 17.71 Mc
p
= 9.216 P
cmix
= 672.2 T
cmix
= 364.1
MC
v
= MC
P
- 1.986 = 7.230 k = MC
P
/MC
v



Several individual equations are used to calculate the individual
properties of a dry gas mixture. The molecular weight of a gas
mixture is determined from the following equation:
) )(MW (X MW
i i
=
Where: X
i
= Mol fraction of the individual component of
the mixture
MW
i
= Molecular weight of the individual
component of the mixture
MW = Molecular weight of the mixture

= Sum
The premise for the calculation of MW is the following equation:
MW
R
R
univ
=
Where: R
univ
= Universal gas constant
R = Gas constant of mixture
Given that MW X MW
i i
= ( )( ) , it follows that:
) )(MW (X
R
R
i i
univ
=
The k value of a gas mixture is determined from the following
equation:
( )( )
( )( ) 1.986 c M
c M
k
pi i
pi i

=
For metric values (C
pi
in kJ/KmolK), the k value of a mixture is
determined from the following equation:
( )( )
( )( ) 8.32 c M
c M
k
pi i
pi i

=
Where: M
i
= Molecular weight of the individual


component of the mixture
C
pi
= Specific heat at constant pressure of the
individual component of the mixture
The pressure of a gas mixture can be calculated from the
following equation:
) )(P (X P
i i
=
Where: P = Pressure of the mixture
X
i
= Mol fraction of the individual component
P
i
= Pressure of the individual component
The temperature of a gas mixture can be calculated from the
following equation:
( )( )
i i
T X T =
Where: T = Temperature of the mixture
X
i
T
i
= Temperature of the individual component
The specific volume of a gas mixture can be calculated from the
following equation:
mix
= (X
i
)(
i
)
Where:
mix
= Specific volume of the mixture
X
i

i
= Specific volume of the individual component
The critical pressure of a gas mixture can be calculated from the
following equation:
)
ci i mix c
)(P (X P =


Where: P
cmix
= Critical pressure of the mixture
X
i
P
ci
= Critical pressure of the individual
component
The critical temperature of a mixture can be calculated from the
following equation:
) )(T X ( T
i mix c ci
=
Where: T
cmix
= Critical temperature of the mixture
X
i
T
ci
= Critical temperature of the individual
component
The compressibility factor (Z) of the mixture is determined by
the calculation of the reduced temperature (T
r
) and the reduced
pressure (P
r
) through the use of the following equations:
cmix
r
T
T
T =
cmix
r
P
P
P =
Where: T
r
= Reduced temperature of the gas mixture
T
cmix
= Critical temperature of the mixture
P
r
= Reduced pressure of the gas mixture
P
cmix
= Critical pressure of the mixture
T = Temperature of the gas in R
P = Pressure of the gas in psia
The compressibility factor for the inlet condition (Z
1
) is
determined through the use of inlet pressure (P
1
) and
temperature (T
1
). The compressibility factor for the outlet
condition (Z
2
) is determined through the use of outlet pressure


(P
2
) and temperature (T
2
).
The calculated values of reduced pressure and reduced
temperature for the gas mixture are then used with the curves of
compressibility factors at low reduced pressure that were
previously shown in Figure 2 to determine the compressibility
factor (Z) of the gas mixture.
Wet Gas Mixtures
Compressor performance is affected by compressing wet gas
(gases that contain water vapor). As the gas pressure is
increased during compression, the gas reaches the water vapor
saturation point. The weight of a cubic foot of gas at standard
temperature and pressure and when entering the compressor
will be more than the weight of a cubic foot of gas at standard
temperature and pressure and when leaving the compressor.
Compressor inlet flow rate is typically rated for dry air
conditions. The compressor inlet flow rate must be corrected to
reflect the capacity at wet gas conditions. Gas density and the
polytropic exponent (n) must also be adjusted for the effect of
water vapor.
The amount of water vapor that is contained in the air is
measured in two ways: specific humidity and relative humidity.
Specific humidity is the ratio of the mass of water vapor present
in a gas to mass of dry gas. Relative humidity is the ratio of the
amount of water vapor that is actually present in the gas to the
amount of water vapor that would be present if the air were
saturated.
Specific humidity is also known as absolute humidity, or the
humidity ratio. Specific humidity can be expressed by the
following equation:
a
v
s
m
m
=
Where:
s
= Specific humidity
m
v
= Mass of water vapor in kg or lbm
m
a
= Mass of dry air in kg or lbm


The specific humidity can also be expressed by the following
equations:
a v
v a
a
a
v
v
a
a
v
v
a
v
s
P R
P R
R
P
R
P
T R
V P
T R
V P
m
m
= = = =
or
( )
v v
v a
s
P P R
P R
=
Where:
s
= Specific humidity
P
v
= Partial pressure of the water vapor
P
a
= Partial pressure of the dry gas
P = Total pressure of the gas mixture
R
v
= Gas constant of the gas-water vapor
mixture
R
a
= Gas constant for the dry gas
T = Absolute temperature
Relative humidity can be determined from the following
equation:
g
v
v
g
v
v
g
v
P
P
T R
V P
T R
V P
m
m
= = =
Where: = Relative humidity as a decimal fraction
P
v
= Partial pressure of the water vapor
P
g
= The saturation pressure at the gas
temperature
R
v
= Gas constant of the gas-water vapor mixture


T = Absolute temperature
The effect of humidity on compressor flow rate can be shown by
the following scenario for an air compressor:
Compressor design conditions:
Dry air inlet capacity at 60F: 62,000 cfm
Molecular weight of air: 28.95
Inlet temperature: 80F
Inlet pressure: 14.7 psia
Relative humidity: 48%
Discharge pressure: 250 psig
Saturation pressure at 80F: 0.507 psia
Partial pressure of the water
vapor at 48% RH: 0.48 x 0.507 = 0.243 psia
Partial pressure of air: 14.7 - 0.243 = 14.56 psia

The weight flow of dry air at the inlet can be calculated by the
following equation:
lbm/min 4735
520 53.3
144 14.7 62,000
T R
144 QP
(W) Air Dry of Flow Weight
a
1
=

=
=

The volume flow rate of air and water vapor at the inlet
conditions can be calculated by the following equation:


cfm 62,593
144 14.56
520 53.3 4735
144 P
WRT
Qi
a
i
=

=
=

The example shows the effect of humidity on the air compressor
flow rate.
The specific humidity of process gases can be determined by
sampling and analyzing the gas stream at the compressor
suction. The relative humidity for air compressors can be
determined by using a sling psychrometer.
The sling psychrometer consists of two identical thermometers
that are mounted on a light frame. One thermometer, which is
called the wet bulb (WB), is covered with a wick that is saturated
with water before a reading is taken. The other thermometer,
which is called the dry bulb (DB), has no wick. The sling
psychrometer is whirled or slung through the air. As the sling
psychrometer is whirled through the air, the water evaporates
from the wick. The amount of evaporation depends on the
degree of saturation of the surrounding air with water vapor.
The evaporation cools the bulb of the wet-bulb thermometer and
causes its temperature reading to fall below the temperature
reading of the dry-bulb thermometer. The difference between
the two temperature readings is called the wet-bulb depression.
The wet-bulb depression is a measure of the relative humidity.
The cooling effect of the wet bulb depends on the evaporation
rate from the wick, which depends on the degree of saturation in
the surrounding air.
The properties of air are normally presented in a graphical form
that is called a psychometric chart. Figure 3 shows a portion of
a psychometric chart for normal temperatures. To determine
the relative humidity of the atmosphere with a sling
psychrometer, the wet-bulb temperature and the dry-bulb
temperature are determined. For example, the dry-bulb
temperature is found to equal 85F, and the wet-bulb
temperature is found to equal 77F. The dry-bulb temperature
(85F) is found on the psychometric chart. A vertical line is
followed upward until the line intersects with the 77F axis for


wet-bulb temperature. This intersection is located on the 70%
relative humidity curve (Point A).

Figure 3. Psychometric Chart for Normal Temperatures

Relative humidity is expressed as a percentage of saturation.
Air is said to be saturated with water vapor when the air
contains as much water as it can possibly hold at a specific
temperature. At saturation, the relative humidity is 100%, while
absolutely dry air has a relative humidity of 0%. Table 3 lists the
water content of air (in gallons per 1000 ft
3
) at various
temperatures (F) and relative humidities (%RH)


The temperature has a major effect on the ability of air at a
given pressure to hold vapor content. As the temperature
increases, the amount of water vapor that can be mixed with the
air before saturation occurs also increases. For example, at
80F and with a relative humidity of 100%, 1000 ft
3
of air would
contain 0.2046 gallons of water. At 120F and with a relative
humidity of 100%, 1000 ft
3
of air would contain 0.7460 gallons of
water. Conversely, as the air temperature decreases, the airs
capacity to hold water vapor also decreases.

Table 3. Water Content of Air in Gallons Per 1000 ft
3
at Various
Relative Humidities
Temperature, F
%RH 35 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
.0019
.0039
.0058
.0078
.0098
.0117
.0137
.0156
.0176
.0195
.0215
.0235
.0254
.0274
.0294
.0313
.0333
.0353
.0372
.0392
.0024
.0047
.0071
.0095
.0119
.0143
.0166
.0190
.0214
.0238
.0262
.0286
.0310
.0334
.0358
.0382
.0406
.0430
.0454
.0478
.0035
.0069
.0104
.0139
.0174
.0209
.0244
.0279
.0314
.0349
.0384
.0419
.0454
.0490
.0525
.0560
.0596
.0631
.0666
.0702
.0050
.0100
.0150
.0200
.0251
.0301
.0351
.0402
.0453
.0503
.0554
.0605
.0656
0.707
.0758
.0810
.0861
.0913
.0964
.1016
.0071
.0142
.0213
.0284
.0356
.0427
.0499
.0571
.0644
.0716
.0789
.0861
.0934
.1007
.1081
.1154
.1228
.1302
.1376
.1450
.0099
.0198
.0298
.0398
.0498
.0599
.0700
.0801
.0903
.1005
.1107
.1210
.1313
.1417
.1521
.1625
.1730
.1835
.1940
.2046
.0136
.0273
.0411
.0549
.0689
.0828
.0969
.1110
.1251
.1394
.1537
.1681
.1825
.1970
.2116
.2263
.2410
.2559
.2707
.2857
.0186
.0372
.0561
.0750
.0940
.1132
.1325
.1519
.1715
.1912
.2110
.2310
.2511
.2713
.2917
.3122
.3328
.3536
.3745
.3956
.0250
.0501
.0755
.1012
.1270
.1531
.1794
.2060
.2328
.2598
.2871
.3146
.3424
.3705
.3988
.4273
.4562
.4853
.5147
.5443
.0332
.0668
.1007
.1351
.1699
.2051
.2407
.2768
.3133
.3502
.3876
.4254
.4637
.5025
.5418
.5816
.6219
.6627
.7041
.7460


Pressure also has a major effect on the ability of air to hold
vapor content. The capacity of air at a given temperature to
hold moisture in vapor form decreases as the air pressure
increases. Table 4 lists the water content of saturated air
(relative humidity of 100 percent) at given temperatures and
pressures. For example, if 1000 ft
3
of saturated air is
compressed from 0 to 200 psig while the temperature is
maintained constant at 100F, the ability of the air to hold
moisture in vapor form decreases. The moisture would
condense. The amount of moisture that will condense is the
difference between the amount of moisture that air can hold at
the two pressures, 0.3956 gallons at 0 psig minus 0.0254
gallons at 200 psig, or 0.3701 gallons.



Table 4. Water Content of Saturated Air in Gallons per 1000 ft
3
at Various
Temperatures and Pressures with 100% Relative Humidity
Temperature, F
psig 35 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
200
.0392
.0233
.0165
.0128
.0165
.0089
.0077
.0068
.0060
.0055
.0050
.0046
.0043
.0040
.0037
.0035
.0033
.0031
.0029
.0028
.0027
.0479
.0283
.0201
.0156
.0128
.0108
.0093
.0082
.0074
.0067
.0061
.0056
.0052
.0048
.0045
.0042
.0040
.0038
.0036
.0034
.0032
.0702
.0416
.0295
.0229
.0187
.0158
.0137
.0121
.0108
.0098
.0089
.0082
.0076
.0071
.0066
.0062
.0058
.0055
.0052
.0050
.0048
.1016
.0600
.0426
.0330
.0269
.0228
.0197
.0174
.0155
.0140
.0128
.0118
.0109
.0102
.0095
.0089
.0084
.0080
.0075
.0072
.0068
.1450
.0854
.0605
.0469
.0383
.0323
.0280
.0246
.0220
.0199
.0182
.0167
.0155
.0144
.0135
.0126
.0119
.0113
.0107
.0102
.0097
.2046
.1200
.0849
.0657
.0536
.0452
.0391
.0345
.0308
.0279
.0254
.0234
.0216
.0201
.0188
.0177
.0167
.0158
.0149
.0142
.0136
.2857
.1667
.1176
.0909
.0741
.0625
.0540
.0476
.0425
.0385
.0351
.0323
.0298
.0278
.0260
.0244
.0230
.0217
.0206
.0196
.0187
.3956
.2290
.1612
.1213
.1012
.0853
.0737
.0649
.0580
.0524
.0478
.0439
.0407
.0378
.0354
.0332
.0313
.0296
.0281
.0267
.0254
.5443
.3119
.2186
.1682
.1367
.1152
.0995
.087
.078
.0706
.0644
.0592
.0548
.0509
.0476
.0447
.0421
.0398
.0378
.0359
.0342
.7460
.4217
.2939
.2256
.1830
.1540
.1329
.1169
.1043
.0942
.0858
.0789
.0729
.0678
.0634
.0595
.0561
.0530
.0503
.0478
.0455


Volumetric Flow
A compressor is typically specified by the required volumetric
flow. Volumetric flow is the gas flow rate through the
compressor at specified conditions. Standard cubic feet per
minute (SCFM) is a common method of describing the capacity
of a compressor; however, the specified standard conditions
that define volumetric flow may vary. For example, one source
defines SCFM conditions as 14.7 psia at 60F (15.5C) and 0%
relative humidity, while another source defines SCFM conditions
as 14.7 psia at 68F (20C) and 36% relative humidity. The
metric standard for volumetric flow conditions, standard cubic
meter per hour (SCMH), is defined as 1 atmosphere at 0C
(32F) and 0% relative humidity. Compressor manufacturers
frequently define the volumetric flow of a compressor by the
actual volume used to obtain the actual gas velocity. Inlet cubic
feet per minute (ICFM) or inlet cubic meter per hour (ICMH)
indicates the actual volumetric flow of gas entering the
compressor at the expected operating conditions. The inlet
cubic feet per minute is also referred to as the actual cubic feet
per minute (ACFM). Likewise, the inlet cubic meter per hour is
also referred to as the actual cubic meter per hour (ACMH).
The manufacturers curves for the performance of a compressor
are based on the actual volumetric flow at the inlet of the
compressor (ACFM). As the following equation shows,
calculations of the value of actual volumetric flow can be
determined from the standard flow (SCFM).
Actual Volumetric Flow = Standard Volumetric
Flow
1
std
1
1
std
Z
T
T
P
P

Where:
Actual Volumetric Flow = Volumetric flow in actual cubic
feet per minute for English units or actual cubic meter per
hour for metric units.
Standard Volumetric Flow = Volumetric flow in standard
cubic feet per minute for English units or standard cubic
meter per hour for metric units.



P
1
= Inlet pressure, psia
P
std
= 14.7 psia in English units, 1 atmosphere in metric
units
T
1
= Inlet temperature, R
T
std
= Standard temperature, 520R
Z
1
= Inlet compressibility factor
The following example shows how to use this equation to
calculate the inlet flow of a centrifugal compressor that delivers
5000 SCFM of natural gas. The inlet pressure (P
1
) is 25 psia,
the inlet temperature (T
1
) is 560R, and the inlet compressibility
factor (Z
1
) is 0.95. The inlet compressibility factor would
normally need to be calculated as previously discussed in this
module.
ACFM 3008 0.95
520
560
25
14.7
SCFM 5000 ACFM in , Inlet at Flow Volumetric Actual
= |
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
=

Mechanical Engineers should note that, for this example
calculation, the inlet temperature was given in degrees Rankine
(R) and that the inlet pressure was given in pounds per square
inch absolute (psia). In actual field calculations, these values
must be obtained from installed instrumentation, which normally
indicates the inlet temperature in degrees Fahrenheit (F) and
the inlet pressure in pounds per square inch gauge (psig). The
suction temperature (in F) and the inlet pressure pounds per
square inch gauge (psig) must be converted to R and psia
before they can be used in the ACFM calculation of actual
volumetric flow at the inlet. The following equation is used to
convert temperatures in F to temperature in R:
R = F + 460
The following equation is used to convert pressures in psig to
pressure in psia:
PSIA = PSIG + 14.7



Actual volumetric flow can also be determined from mass flow
through the use of the following equation:
ACFM = W x V
Where: W = Weight flow in lb/min (kg/min)
V = Inlet specific volume in ft
3
/lb (m
3
/lb)
Inlet specific volume may be determined through the use of the
following equation:
1
1 1
P 144
RT Z
V =
Where: V = Inlet specific volume in ft
3
/lb
Z
1
= Compressibility factor at inlet conditions
R = Gas constant from
Weight Molecular
1545.32
MW
R
univ
=
T
1
= Temperature at inlet conditions, R
P
1
= Pressure at inlet conditions, psia
For metric calculations:
R = 8.3143
R mol gm
Joules
and 144 is replaced

with 18.129

Mollier Diagrams
Compressor performance cannot be accurately predicted
without detailed knowledge of how a gas or gases will behave
when compressed. The behavior of a wide variety of gases in
any conceivable mixture can be accurately computed, plotted,
and offered to the process engineer in the form of a pressure-
enthalpy diagram, which is called a Mollier diagram. A Mollier
diagram is a graphical representation of the relationship
between the pressure, the temperature, the volume, the
enthalpy, and the entropy of a gas. Mollier diagrams are readily


available for most pure gases at conventional pressures and
temperatures, but Mollier diagrams are not readily available for
gas mixtures. Because most of the gases that are used at
Saudi Aramco are gas mixtures, Mollier diagrams are not that
widely used in Saudi Aramco. The Saudi Aramco applications
for which Mollier diagrams are useful are the refrigerant gases,
namely, propane and freon.
From the Mollier diagram, enthalpy and specific volume can
then be directly determined. The use of a Mollier diagram
enables calculation of head, efficiency, and specific volume
(ft
3
/lbm).
Mollier diagrams display gas properties. The process of gas
compression is easy to visualize when plotted on a Mollier
diagram. The phase change, the expansion, and the
compression process can be seen, and it is easier to
comprehend the overall process and the effect of process
changes.
On a Mollier diagram, as shown in Figure 4, the pressure is
taken as the ordinate, and enthalpy is taken as the abscissa.
Lines of constant entropy and constant volume slope upward
from left to right. Lines of constant temperature slope
downward from left to right. The area on the diagram that is
enclosed by the saturated vapor line represents the liquid-vapor
region of the gas. The critical point represents the top-most part
of the saturated vapor line. Above the critical point, a gas
cannot be liquefied.
The following equation is used to calculate isentropic head:
1 2is is
h h H =
Where: H
is
= Isentropic head
h
2is
= Isentropic discharge enthalpy
h
i
= Inlet enthalpy


The following equation is used to calculate isentropic efficiency:
1 2
1 2is
is
h h
h h
=
Where:
is
= Isentropic efficiency
h
2
= Discharge enthalpy
The following example illustrates how to use the Mollier diagram
that is shown in Figure 4 to find the inlet and discharge specific
volume, the enthalpy, and the isentropic discharge enthalpy.
Figure 4 is a section of the Mollier diagram for propane. The
compressor gas inlet pressure is 14.7 psia at a temperature of
40F. The compressor gas discharge pressure is 310 psia at a
temperature of 315F.
The inlet pressure, 14.7 psia (P
1
), is located on the ordinate. A
line is horizontally followed from P
1
until it intersects with the
temperature line that corresponds to the given inlet temperature
of 40F (T
1
). This intersection is labeled point 1.
The specific volume for point 1 (v
1
) is estimated from the two
adjacent constant volume lines. For this example, v
1
is
approximately 8.25 cubic feet per pound.
A line is vertically followed from point 1 down to the abscissa.
This point on the abscissa is the inlet enthalpy (h
i
). For this
example, inlet enthalpy is approximately 128 BTUs per pound.
The given discharge pressure, 310 psia (P
2
), is located on the
ordinate. A line is horizontally followed from P
2
until it intersects
with the temperature line that corresponds to the discharge
temperature, 315F (T
2
). This intersection point is labeled point
2.
The specific volume for point 2 (v
2
) is estimated at 0.57 cubic
feet per pound from the two adjacent constant volume lines.
A line is vertically followed from point 2 up to the abscissa. This
point on the abscissa is the actual discharge enthalpy (h
2
).


The isentropic discharge enthalpy (h
2is
) is located by following a
constant entropy line from point 1 to point 2 until the discharge
pressure line (P
2
) is intersected. This intersection is point 2
is
. A
line is vertically followed from point 2
is
down to the abscissa.
This point on the abscissa is the isentropic discharge enthalpy
(h
2is
). For this example, h
2is
is approximately 206 BTUs per
pound.
The isentropic efficiency is the ratio of ideal (isentropic) energy
to actual energy.



Figure 4. Mollier Diagram for Propane


Dynamic Compressor Characteristics
This section of the module examines the following areas that
Saudi Aramco Engineers must consider when determining the
operation of dynamic compressors:
Cause of the Performance Curve (Velocity Triangles)
Performance Curves
Performance Characteristics
Use of Fan Laws to Find Operating Points at Different
Speeds
Cause of the Performance Curve (Velocity Triangles)
A performance curve is a plot of the expected compressor
operating characteristics. For example, a performance curve
can be plotted as compressor head, volumetric flow rate, power,
or efficiency. A performance curve usually sets the volumetric
flow rate as the abscissa and either head, power, or efficiency
as the ordinate.
A compressor head versus volumetric flow performance curve
provides important compressor operating information. There
are three important aspects of a compressor head versus
volumetric flow performance curve: slope of the curve, surge,
and stonewall (also called choke). Figure 5 illustrates a head
versus volumetric flow diagram.
The change in compressor head for the change in gas
volumetric flow defines the slope of the performance curve. The
slope of the performance curve is defined by the gas velocities
at the compressor impeller. A vector analysis of gas velocity
and impeller blade tip speed can be graphically shown as a
compressor velocity triangle.
The impeller design and the inlet design combine to greatly
affect the gas velocity distribution in the impeller. The design of
the impeller has a higher impact on the velocity triangle than
does the design of the compressor inlet; therefore, the design of
the impeller, such as blade angle, will be discussed.




Figure 5. Basic Head Versus Flow Performance Curve

As shown in Figure 6, there are three blade profile
configurations: forward leaning, radial, and backward leaning.
The impeller blade profile influences the velocity of the gas as it
travels through the impeller and exits at the blade tip. Figure 6
illustrates the shape and impeller-exit velocity diagrams and the
resulting head curves for the three conventional types of blades.
The gas stream moves through the impeller blades with a
relative velocity (V
r
) while, at the same time, the impeller
rotation imparts a tangential velocity (V
b
) to the gas stream. The
gas stream possesses the resultant velocity (V) as it exits the
impeller. The resultant velocity is the vector sum of the relative
velocity (V
r
) and the tangential velocity (V
b
). The length of the
vectors and the magnitude of the exit angle are determined by
the design of the impeller blades. The magnitude of the vectors
is determined by the tip speed of the impeller blade and by the
gas velocity relative to the blade.



Figure 6. Centrifugal Compressor Impeller and Vector Diagram


Forward Leaning Blades - Forward leaning blades produce a
significant increase in the resultant velocity (V) when compared
to radial and backward leaning blades. The increase of the
resultant velocity is due to the coordinating vector sum of its
components, relative velocity (V
r
), and tangential velocity (V
b
).
The direction of the relative velocity (V
r
) allows all flow changes
to dramatically affect the magnitude of the resultant velocity (V).
Forward leaning blades produce a head versus flow
performance curve that does not continuously rise with a
decrease in compressor flow. As a result of the saddle-shaped
performance curve, forward leaning blades produce inconsistent
head versus volumetric flow, which results in operational
instability. The operational instability is the reason that forward
leaning blades are not used for centrifugal compressor
applications.
Radial Blades - The increase in the resultant velocity (V) in the
radial blades due to relative velocity (V
r
) change is so small that
the resultant velocity (V) is never appreciably different than
tangential velocity (V
b
), which results in nearly horizontal
performance curves. Any increase in head that is required by
the process will significantly reduce throughput and could easily
surge the compressor. Some older, open impellers were
designed with radial blades because of the ease in
manufacturing.
Backward Leaning Blades - In contrast to forward leaning
blades, backward leaning blades produce the lowest pressure
rise for a given impeller tip speed. The direction of the relative
velocity (V
r
) of backward leaning blades is such that it
decreases the magnitude of the resultant velocity (V).
The performance curve of a backward leaning blade impeller is
a concave curve declining toward the right side of the plot.
Because they produce the stable performance curves with the
highest efficiency, backward leaning bladed impellers are the
preferred choice for most compressor applications. The typical
standard for conventional closed impellers is 25 to 35 degrees
of backward lean. A good design practice is to have a
backward leaning impeller blades exit angle preferably between
15 to 35 degrees. Typically, impellers that use a radial or near
radial blade design should not be used for process gas
centrifugal compressors.


Performance Curves
Figure 7 shows the effect of the impeller blade angle on head
and efficiency as compressor gas flow increases.

Figure 7. Effect of Impeller Blade Angle on Head and Efficiency

Because the magnitude of the resultant velocity that exits the
impeller produces the characteristics of the head curve, the
forward leaning bladed impeller produces a greater head than
backward lean or radial blade impellers when all other factors
are the same. The forward leaning blades provide a positive
sloping head curve with the maximum head output. Although
the head profile is a positive attribute, the efficiency of the


forward lean is the lowest of the three.
A radial bladed impeller has a theoretically constant head curve
because tangential velocity does not effectively change with
flow. The fact that the head is reduced on increasing flow due
to a decrease in efficiency is attributable to higher friction
losses. When going from design flow to minimum flow, the
resulting basic slope normally shows a 2% to 3% head rise.
Overall stage efficiency is highest for backward leaning
impellers. The characteristics of the backward leaning blade
are such that, for a constant blade speed, the tangential velocity
increases as flow decreases, which is due to a lower relative
velocity. These factors result in an increased head output when
flow is decreased. When compared to forward leaning and
radial blades, a backward leaning blade has the greatest head
rise, which results in the most stable performance curve of all
blade profiles. The effect of the blade angle is not proportional
in regard to head, and the effect of backward lean on head
output is minimized at low flow; therefore, a high backward
leaning impeller will produce almost as much head at minimum
flow as a low backward leaning impeller running at the same tip
speed. As design flow is approached, however, the head
difference greatly changes. Because longer angles decrease
the slip factor, an increase in the backward lean angle to about
45 degrees reduces the head that is produced, which partially
cancels out any positive effects of a greater backward lean. Slip
is a consequence of the nonuniform velocity distribution across
the impeller channels, boundary-layer accumulation, and flow
separation.
Performance Curve Limits
Operation in some areas of a performance curve may be
detrimental to the operation of the compressor. The design of a
compressor is controlled to minimize the likelihood of such
occurrences; however, operation of a compressor outside the
design operating region may cause damage due to the
phenomena that are known as surge and stonewall.
Surge - An important characteristic of a dynamic compressor is
its surge point or surge limit. At some point on the operating
curves for both centrifugal compressors and axial compressors,
as shown in Figure 8, a condition of minimum flow exists in
which the developed head is insufficient to overcome the head


that is required by the system. This point or line is called the
surge point or surge line. When the compressor reaches the
surge point, flow separation (stall) occurs in the compressor
blades and/or stationary passages and the gas in the discharge
piping backflows into the compressor. As the required head
increases, the flow decreases to produce enough head to match
the system demand. When the highest point on the compressor
curve is reached, the compressor cannot increase the head
further. At this point, the head that is required by the system is
higher than the maximum head that is produced by the
compressor. The flow in the impellers becomes unstable and
reverses, which causes the discharge pressure to collapse. The
discharge pressure will subsequently rise again, and the cycle
repeats. As many as six surge cycles can occur in one second.
Surge occurs at a predictable flow rate that is shown on the
manufacturers curve as the surge point. The surge point on a
performance curve is specific to the speed of the compressor.
A surge point can be determined for various compressor
speeds. A plot of the surge points for each performance curve
at a given speed provides a parabolic curve called the surge
line. A complete surge line, down to the origin of the plot, is
needed to assess the possibility of surge during compressor
startup and shutdown. A control system is used to keep the
actual compressor flow rate above the minimum surge point
value.
The following are the most significant damaging effects of
surge:
Rapid temperature rise
Increased thrust
Variable pressure
Variable flow
Variable speed
These effects can cause catastrophic compressor failure if they
are allowed to continue. The protection system (as specified in
SAES-J-604) that is required by Saudi Aramco protects a
compressor from extensive damage by tripping the unit before
such damage can occur.



Figure 8. Dynamic Compressor Surge Line

Stonewall - Another important characteristic of dynamic
compressors is stonewall (or a choked flow condition), which is
shown in Figure 9. As the flow rate through the compressor
increases beyond the design value, the amount of head that is
produced decreases because the tangential velocity of the gas
decreases. As the flow rate increases, the rate at which the
produced head decreases is accelerated. At a certain point, the
head that is produced drops rapidly to zero. This point is called
the stonewall, or choked flow condition. The point at which
stonewall occurs is influenced by the Mach number.
The Mach number is the magnitude of the relative velocity
compared to the speed of sound (sonic velocity) of a particular
gas. When the Mach number equals one, the point at which
stonewall occurs is reached. Stonewall occurs when sonic
velocity is reached at any point in the compressor, but it is
normally considered as stonewall when sonic velocity is
reached at the compressor stage entrance. Once the sonic
velocity is reached, the flow through the compressor cannot be
increased. Because the system resistance is usually too great
to allow the compressor to reach this condition, stonewall or
choked flow is not usually reached in actual operation.


The following are the most significant damaging effects of
stonewall:
Temperature rise due to low efficiency.
Gas turbulence that can excite blade natural frequencies
(typically in axial compressors only).

Figure 9. Dynamic Compressor Stonewall

The molecular weight of the compressed gas also impacts the
point of stonewall. The following is the equation for determining
the Mach number:
sonic
rel
V
V
M =
Where: M = Mach number
V
rel
= The gas velocity relative to the blade
V
sonic
= Sonic velocity



The following equation is used for determining the sonic velocity
of a gas:
( )
MW
T 1545 Kg
V
sonic
=
Where: V
sonic
= Sonic velocity
K = Ratio of specific heats
g = Gravitational constant, 32 ft-lbm/lbf-sec
2

T = Temperature in R
MW = Molecular weight of the gas
Using the equations for V
sonic
and the Mach number, high
molecular weight gases result in low V
sonic
values and the Mach
number will quickly approach 1. Figure 10 shows a graphical
representation of the effect of molecular weight on compressor
head versus flow curves.

Figure 10. Graphical Representation of the Effect of Molecular Weight on
Compressor Head Versus Flow Curves


Use of Fan Laws to Find Operating Points at Different Speeds
The general laws for speed characteristics (fan laws) are the
same for centrifugal compressors as for centrifugal fans and
centrifugal pumps. The three basic fan laws are as follows:
Equation 1:
N
N
Q = Q
1
2
1 2

Equation 2:
2
1
2
1 2
N
N
H = H

Equation 3:
3
1
2
1 2
N
N
bhp = bhp
Where: Q
1
= Initial flow rate, cfm
Q
2
= Final flow rate, cfm
N
1
= Initial speed, rpm
N
2
= Final speed, rpm
H
1
= Initial head, ft-lbs/lbm
H
2
= Final head, ft-lbs/lbm
These equations show the relationship between the flow rate
(Q), the head (H), the horsepower (bhp), and the compressor
speed (N). Basically, the performance of a centrifugal
compressor at speeds other than the speed for which the
compressor is designed is such that the capacity or flow rate will
vary directly as the speed varies, as indicated in Equation 1.
The head that is developed will vary as the square of the speed,
as indicated in Equation 2. The horsepower will vary as the
cube of the speed, as indicated in Equation 3.



The fan laws can be used for estimation purposes; however, the
accuracy of the calculated results decreases with increasing
speed ratio. Because the change in energy in a fan is
significantly lower than in a compressor, the fan laws are more
accurate for fans than for compressors. Other factors that
contribute to the inaccuracies of the fan laws include the
following:
The higher the head, the greater the inaccuracy.
The heavier the gas, the greater the inaccuracy.
The greater the backward lean, the greater the
inaccuracy.
Typically, the discrepancies will not be great until a speed
change of 30 to 40 percent is reached (except in
multistage compressors, where a change of 10 percent
can affect the fan laws). The fan laws only accurately
apply to single-stage compressors with very low
compression ratios.
The following examples illustrate the application of the fan laws:
Assume that a multistage compressor delivers 10,000 cfm at a
head of 30,000
lbm
lbf ft
at an operational speed of 8000 rpm
with a required power input of 2200 bhp. The fan laws can be
used to determine the speed, the head, and the power that are
required from the same compressor system to deliver 11,000
cfm.
The first fan law states that speed is proportional to flow rate.
The required new speed can be found as follows:


rpm 8800 8000
10,000
11,000
N N
Q
Q
N
N
Q
Q
N
N
Q Q
2 1
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1 2
=
(
=
(
=
(
=

The new speed that is required to obtain 11,000 cfm is 8800
rpm.
The second fan law states that speed squared is proportional to
head. The required new head can be found as follows:
| |
lbm
lbf ft
36,300 H
1.21 30,000 H
8000
8800
lbm
lbf ft
30,000 H
N
N
H H
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
1 2
=
=
(
=
(
=

The new head that is required to obtain 11,000 cfm at a speed
of 8800 rpm is 36,300
lbm
lbf ft
.
The third fan law states that speed cubed is proportional to
brake horsepower. The new power required to obtain 11,000
cfm (at a speed of 8800 rpm and with a head of 36,300
lbm
lbf ft
)
can be found as follows:


[ ]
2928 = bhp
331 . 1 2200 = bhp
8000
8800
2200 = bhp
N
N
bhp = bhp
2
2
3
2
3
1
2
1 2

The new required brake horsepower input is 2928 bhp.
These equations are used to draw the head curves at speed N
2

if the curve at speed N
1
is known, as shown in Figure 11.
Starting with any point on the head curve at speed N
1
(point A
1
),
both the head (H
2
) and the flow rate (Q
2
) are calculated by
equations 1 and 2. Although the head is proportional to speed
squared, flow is proportional to speed; therefore, as point A
2

moves up to indicate the increase in head as speed increases,
point A
2
also moves to the right to indicate increase in flow as
speed increases. These calculations give equivalent operating
points on the curve for speed N
2
(point A
2
). A series of these
points defines the head curves for the speed N
2
. Similarly, for
the horsepower curve that is shown in Figure 12, the
horsepower (bhp
2
2
) for speed N
2
are
calculated from the horsepower (bhp
1
1
) at
speed (N
1
point A
1
) to obtain the equivalent operating point A
2
.



Figure 11. Typical Head Curve




Figure 12. Typical Horsepower Curve

In the fan law example, a flow increase of only 10 percent
requires a driver horsepower increase of 33 percent. Saudi
Aramco specifications 31-SAMSS-001 and 31-SAMSS-006 only
require that the compressor driver brake horsepower be rated
10 percent greater than the compressor rated horsepower. As a
result, the driver and the coupling power ratings are typically the
limiting factors when considering a design flow increase of a
compressor.



DETERMINING POSITIVE-DISPLACEMENT COMPRESSOR
This section discusses the following performance characteristics
for positive-displacement compressors:
Isentropic Process
Pressure Volume Cycle
Clearance Volume
Pressure Effect on Volume
Isentropic Process
The isentropic process of a positive-displacement compressor
varies little from that of the dynamic compressor. The theory is
the same, but other factors are taken into account that affect the
isentropic exponent.
The specific heat at constant pressure (C
p
) and the specific heat
at constant volume (C
) are affected by the variation in

temperatures commonly occurring in reciprocating compressors.
The temperature does not vary as much in centrifugal
compressors. These variations typically will increase the
specific heat constant.
The experimentally determined constant (n) in a polytropic
equation is typically less than the ratio of specific heat constant
(k) in the isentropic equation for a positive-displacement
compressor. The mechanical efficiency range also is slightly
higher than for centrifugal compressors. It is approximately
88% to 95% for positive-displacement compressors.
Pressure Volume Cycle
Figure 13 shows the pressure volume cycle of the reciprocating
type of positive-displacement compressor. The positions of the
piston (a, b, c, d) correspond to the labeled points on the
pressure volume diagram. As shown in Figure 13, the pressure
volume cycle includes:
Isentropic compression (the line between A and B). The
cylinder is filled with gas at the suction pressure with the


piston at position A. As the piston starts to move, the
suction valve closes. As the piston continues to move from
position A toward position B, the piston compresses the
gas isentropically until the pressure within the cylinder
reaches the discharge pressure. At this point, the
discharge valve is closed.
Constant-pressure discharge (the line between B and C).
At point B, the discharge valve opens and permits gas to
flow from the cylinder into the discharge line at a constant
pressure until the piston has reached the end of its stroke at
point C.
Isentropic expansion (the line between C and D).
Because it is impossible to build a compressor with zero
clearance volume, gas remains in the cylinders clearance
volume at the end of the discharge stroke. The gas in the
cylinder expands isentropically to the suction pressure as
the piston starts to move from point C to D. Both the
suction and discharge valves are closed.
Constant-pressure suction (the line between D and A).
When the pressure within the cylinder reaches the suction
pressure, the suction valve opens and permits gas at
suction pressure to enter the cylinder as the piston moves
from D to A.
Since points B and D are at some position during the
cycle, the cycle is made up of a suction stroke (C to A)
and a discharge stroke (A to C).



Figure 13. Pressure Volume Cycle

Clearance Volume
In a reciprocating compressor, the piston does not travel
completely to the end of the cylinder at the end of the discharge
stroke. Some clearance volume is necessary. Clearance
volume includes the space between the end of the piston and
the cylinder head when the piston is at the end of its stroke.
The clearance volume also includes the volume that is in the
valve ports, the volume that is in the suction valve guards, and
the volume that is around the discharge valve seats.



The clearance volume is usually expressed as a percentage of
the piston displacement, and it is referred to as percent
clearance, or cylinder clearance (C), as indicated in the
following equation:
( ) 100
in nt, displaceme piston
in volume, clearance
C
3
3
=
For double-acting cylinders, the percent clearance is based on
the total clearance volume for both the head end and the crank
end of the cylinder. Because of the presence of the piston rod
in the crank end of the cylinder, these two clearance volumes
are not the same. Additional external clearance volume
occasionally is added (the volume of any volume pockets) to
reduce cylinder capacity. The design clearance volume varies
only slightly with the gas composition (MW).
Pressure Effect on Volume
A review of the gas laws shows how pressure affects volume.
Boyles Law states that when the temperature of a gas is kept
constant, the volume of an enclosed mass of gas varies
inversely with the absolute pressure that is applied. The
following formula shows the relationship between pressure and
volume when the temperature is held constant:
2 2 1 1
V P = V P
Where: P
1
= Inlet pressure
V
1
= Inlet volume
P
2
= Discharge pressure
V
2
= Discharge volume



WORK AIDS
WORK AID 1A: CALCULATION PROCEDURES AND CHARTS FOR
DETERMINING DYNAMIC COMPRESSOR
Use Work Aid 1 to perform Exercise 1.

P
1
= ( ) + ( ) = ( ) psia
P
2
= ( ) + ( ) = ( ) psia
T
1
= ( ) + ( ) = ( ) R
T
2
= ( ) + ( ) = ( ) R

Calculate Z
avg
, using Figure 14 and Figure 15.
At the inlet:

( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) ) 15 14 (
1
1
1
Figure and Figure Z
T
T
T
P
P
P
t
t
=
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
= =
=
|
|
.
|
\
|
= =



At the discharge:
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( ) =
+
=
=
= = =
= = =
2
Z
15) Figure and 14 (Figure Z

T
T
T
P
P
P
avg
2
c
r
c
r

Calculate (n-1)/n

T
T
P
P
( )
( )
( )
( )
(n 1)
n
1n( )
1n( )
( )
2
1
2
1
(n 1) / n
(n 1) / n
|
\
|
.
| =
|
\
|
.
|
|
\
|
.
| =
|
\
|
.
|
= =

Calculate H
p

H Z RT
n
n
P
P
ft lbf
lbm
P avg
n n
=
|
\
|
.
|
|
\
|
.
|
(
(
=
|
\
|
.
|
|
\
|
.
|
|
\
|
.
|
(
(
=

1
2
1
1
1
1
1
( / )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( )



Calculate the polytropic efficiency, using Figure 15.

( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) X
P
P
k
k
=
|
\
|
.
|
(
(
(
=
|
\
|
.
|
|

(
(
=

2
1
1
1 1
/

From Figure 15.
= ( )



WORK AID 1B: CHARTS FOR DETERMINING COMPRESSOR PERFORMANCE
CHARACTERISTICS
Use Table 5 and Figures 14, and 15 to perform the calculations.

Table 5. Critical Constants of Gases

Critical Constants

Compound

Formula Mol. Wt. M Pressure psia P
c
Temp. R T
c

Acetylene C
2
H
2
26.036 905.0 557.4
Air N+O
2
28.966 547.0 238.7
Ammonia NH
3
17.032 1,657.0 731.4
Benzene C
6
H
6
78.108 714.0 1,013.0
1,2-Butadiene C
4
H
6
54.088 653.0 799.0
1,3-Butadiene C
4
H
6
54.088 628.0 766.0
N-Butane C
4
H
10
58.120 550.7 765.6
Isobutane C
4
H
10
58.120 529.1 734.9
N-Butene C
4
H
6
56.104 583.0 755.6
Isobutene C
4
H
6
56.104 579.8 752.5
Butylene C
4
H
6
56.104 583.0 755.6
Carbon dioxide CO
2
44.010 1,073.0 548.0
Carbon Monoxide CO 28.010 510.0 242.0
Chlorine Cl
2
70.914 1,120.0 751.0
Ethane C
2
H
4
30.068 708.3 550.1
Ethyl alcohol C
2
H
5
OH 46.069 927.0 629.6
Ethylene C
2
H
4
28.052 742.1 509.8


Table 5. Critical Constants of Gases (Contd)

Critical Constants

Compound

Formula Mol. Wt. M

Compound

Formula
N-Hexane C
6
H
14
86.172 439.7 914.5
Helium He 4.003 480.0 510.0
Hydrogen H
2
2.016 188.0 60.2
Hydrogen sulfide H
2
S 34.076 1,306 672.7
Methane CH
4
16.042 673.1 343.5
Methyl alcohol CH
3
OH 32.042 1,157.0 924.0
Nitrogen N
2
28.016 492.0 227.2
N-Octane C
8
H
18
114.224 362.1 1,025.2
Oxygen O
2
32.00 730 278.2
N-Pentane C
5
H
12
72.146 489.5 845.9
Isopentane C
5
H
12
72.146 483.0 830.0
Propane C
3
H
8
44.094 617.4 666.2
Propylene C
3
H
6
42.078 667 657.4
Sulfur dioxide SO
2
64.060 1.142 775.0
Toluene C
7
H
8
92.134 611 1,069.5
Water H
2
O 18.016 3,206 1,165.4
Hydrogen chloride HCl 36.465 1,199.2 584.5




Figure 14. Compressibility Factors at Low Reduced Pressure



Figure 15. Efficiency Chart



WORK AID 2: CALCULATION PROCEDURES FOR DETERMINING
POSITIVE-DISPLACEMENT COMPRESSOR

Use Work Aid 2 to perform Exercise 2.

Calculate the total cylinder volume:

( ) ( )
=
3.14 =
L
2
d
= Volume
2
2

Calculate the piston displacement volume:

( ) ( )
=
=
stroke piston = h where
h = Volume
2
2
2
d

Calculate the clearance volume:

=
=
Volum nt Displaceme Piston Volume Cylinder Total = Volume Clearance e



Calculate clearance percentage:

( )
( )
( )% =
100 =
100
nt Displaceme Piston
Volume Clearance
= C



GLOSSARY
balance piston
A device that is installed on the shaft of a centrifugal
compressor and that reduces the forces on the thrust
bearing.
casing The outer containment vessel of a compressor.
clearance volume A volume in a reciprocating compressor cylinder that is not
swept by the piston.
crankshaft The rotating element that transmits power from the driver to
the connecting rods and that converts the rotary motion of
the prime mover into the reciprocating motion of the
pistons.
cross-head The mechanical element between the connecting rod and
the piston rod that absorbs the nonaxial forces from the
connecting rod and that transmits only axial forces to the
piston rod.
cylinder The principal component of a reciprocating compressor,
which contains the piston, the suction and discharge valves,
and the packing around the piston rod.
diffuser A component of centrifugal compressors that is located
after an impeller. The diffuser converts velocity head to
pressure head.
discharge volute Spiral-shaped casing that is designed to convert velocity
energy to pressure energy.
dynamic compression The compression of a gas with continuous flow due to the
interaction between a vane and a gas.
impeller The rotating element of a centrifugal compressor that
develops velocity head. Also called a wheel.
intercooler A gas cooler that is located between compressor stages.
piston The component that moves back and forth in the cylinder
and that compresses the gas.
positive-displacement
compression
Compression that occurs when a quantity of gas occupies a
space and is mechanically reduced. Such compression
results in a corresponding increase in pressure.

Compressor Performance Characteristics

Transféré par

Informations du document

Copyright

Formats disponibles

Partager ce document

Partager ou intégrer le document

Options de partage

Avez-vous trouvé ce document utile ?

Ce contenu est-il inapproprié ?

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

Compressor Performance Characteristics

Transféré par

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

Note: The source of the technical material in this volume is the Professional

Engineering Development Program (PEDP) of Engineering Services.

and the process becomes

and 144 is replaced

) are affected by the variation in

Vous aimerez peut-être aussi