CHAPTER 3 Motion and Dynamics

3.1 Making sense of dynamic equilibrium

The concept of dynamic equilibrium lies behind many types of engineering analyses and design of rotating equipment. Some key definition points are: Formally, an object is in a state of equilibrium when the forces acting on it are such as to leave it in its state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line. In terms of dynamic equilibrium, this means that it is moving at constant velocity with zero acceleration (or deceleration). Figure 3.1 shows the difference between dynamic equilibrium and nonequilibrium. The concept of dynamic equilibrium is used to design individual components of rotating equipment.

3.2 Motion equations

Uniformly accelerated motion
Bodies under uniformally accelerated motion follow the general equations v = u + at s = ut + at2
s= u+v t 2

t = time (s) a = acceleration (m/s2) s = distance travelled (m) u = initial velocity (m/s) v = final velocity (m/s)

v2 = u2 + 2as

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Dynamic equilibrium

b
All parts of the mechanism are moving with constant angular velocities

c
Dynamic non-equilibrium

a=d/dt
No parts of the mechanism are moving with constant velocity

Accelerating or decelerating torque

Fig. 3.1 Dynamic equilibrium and non-equilibrium

Angular motion
=
2 N 60

t = time (s)

2 = 1 +
2 t = 1 2

= angle moved (rad) = angular acceleration (rad/s2)

N = angular speed (rev/min)

22 = 12 + 2s 1 = initial angular velocity (rad/s) = 1t + 2 2 = final angular velocity (rad/s)

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General motion of a particle in a plane

v = ds/dt a = dv/dt = d2s/dt2 v = adt s = vdt s = distance t = time v = velocity a = acceleration

3.3 Newtons laws of motion

First law Second law A body will remain at rest or continue in uniform motion in a straight line until acted upon by an external force. When an external force is applied to a body of constant mass it produces an acceleration that is directly proportional to the force, i.e. force (F) = mass (m) acceleration (a). Every action produces an equal and opposite reaction.

Third law

Table 3.1 shows the comparisons between rotational and translational motion. Table 3.1 Comparisons: rotational and translational motion
Translation Linear displacement from a datum x Linear velocity Linear acceleration Kinetic energy Momentum Newtons second law v a = dv/dt KE = mv /2 mv F = md x/dt
2 2 2

Rotation Angular displacement Angular velocity Angular acceleration Kinetic energy Momentum

= d/dt
KE = I /2 I
2 2 2

Newtons second law M = d /dt

3.4 Simple harmonic motion

A particle moves with simple harmonic motion when it has constant angular velocity, , and follows a displacement pattern 2 Nt x = x0 sin 60 The projected displacement, velocity, and acceleration of a point P on the xy axes are a sinusoidal function of time, t. See Fig. 3.2.

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Fig. 3.2 Simple harmonic motion

x0 = amplitude of the displacement Angular velocity = 2N/60, where N is in r/min Periodic time T = 2/ Velocity, v, of point A on the x axis is v = ds/dt = r sin t Acceleration a = d2s/dt2 = dv/dt = 2r cos t

3.5 Understanding acceleration

The dangerous thing about acceleration in rotating components is that it represents a rate of change of speed or velocity. When this rate of change is high, it puts high stresses on the components, causing them to deform and break. In practice, the components of engineering machines experience acceleration many times the force of gravity, so they have to be designed to resist the forces that result. These forces can be caused as a result of either linear or angular accelerations, and there is a comparison between the two as shown below: Linear acceleration v u a= m/s 2 t Angular acceleration 1 = 2 rad/s 2 t

When analysing (or designing) any machine or mechanism, think about linear accelerations first they are always important.

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3.6 Dynamic forces and loadings

The design of rotating equipment is heavily influenced by the need to resist dynamic loads in use. Dynamic forces can be classified into three main groups: suddenly applied loads and simple impact forces; forces due to rotating masses; forces due to reciprocating masses. In order to be able to chose design parameters, three factors have to be considered: the energy to be absorbed; the elastic modulus, E, of the material of the impacted member; the elastic limit, Re, or the appropriate fatigue endurance limit, of the material. A basic rule of thumb equation for impact situations is
2 EX V

2 =
where

= maximum generated stress E = Youngs modulus of elasticity X = Energy to be absorbed V = Effective volume of the impacted member.
This equation uses the basic assumption that the impacted member is infinitely rigidly supported and so absorbs all the energy, hence giving the most severe stress conditions. In practical rotating equipment design factors of approximately three to eight on static stress may be necessary to allow for dynamic loadings. For a situation where components are subjected to fatigue conditions, the maximum permissible working stress must be adjusted according to the desired life of the structure related to the frequency of the dynamic load cycle. A long-life component (i.e. long life relative to number of cycles, say 107) requires an additional safety factor. As a guide, the factor should be equal to at least 2.2 for stresses that fluctuate between zero and a maximum in one direction, and at least 3.2 for stresses operating between equal positive and negative stress maxima (e.g. tension and compression in a shaft rotating under a bending moment). If a rapid loading or impact cycle is repeated at relatively high uniform frequency, then resonant or harmonic vibration may be set up in a structure, causing severe overloading.

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3.7 Forces due to rotating masses

Forces due to rotating masses are another significant factor in rotating equipment design. The two main stresses generated are: stresses caused by centrifugal force; stresses resulting from inherently unbalanced rotating masses. A basic formula is Centrifugal force F = where W = weight of revolving body v = velocity at radius k g = acceleration due to gravity n = r/min The radius of gyration k is defined as the distance from the axis of swing to the centre at which the whole rotating or oscillating mass may be regarded as being concentrated, without involving any change in the moment of inertia. (In this case, this is the true moment of inertia, and not the second moment of area.) If I is the moment of inertia, then
I= Wk 2 g Wv 2 4Wk 2 n2 = gk 3600 g

or Ig k = W It is unusual for the centre of gyration (i.e. the point at which a mass may be regarded as being concentrated) to coincide with the centre of gravity of the mass, but they do coincide approximately if the radial depth of the mass is small compared to the radius of gyration. In such a case, the radius of swing of the centre of gravity may be used for calculation purposes instead of the radius of gyration. A similar reasoning may be applied to calculations for the rim of a wheel if the rim thickness is relatively small and the mass of the rim is regarded as acting through the centroid of its area of cross-section.

3.8 Forces due to reciprocating masses

For simple analysis of rotating masses, it is usually assumed that the reciprocation follows basic simple harmonic motion, see Fig. 3.2.