Polygonal Numbers

The mathematicians patterns, like the painters or the poets must be beautiful; the ideas, like the colors or the words must t together in a harmonious way. Beauty is the rst test: there is no permanent place in this world for ugly mathematics. -G. H. Hardy[Har92]

Contents
Abstract 1 The 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 denition of polygonal numbers Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Introduction and history . . . . . . . . . From triangular to all polygonal numbers Other general formulas . . . . . . . . . . 1 3 3 3 4 7

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2 Explorations using polygonal numbers 2.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 The sum of some polygonal numbers . . . . . 2.3 Sum of cubic numbers and the partition of the 2.4 Relations of square and triangular numbers . . Summary Acknowledgments Bibliography

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Abstract
Polygonal numbers are gurate numbers with a very old and rich history. They were rst used by the ancient Greeks to group numbers together by representing them with gures of regular polygons, especially triangles and squares. Since then, polygonl numbers have occupied the works of many important mathematicians and their eorts in the eld of number theory. This study begins with the gure of the triangular number and from here we dene all polygonal numbers and explore dierent ideas using them.

1 The denition of polygonal numbers

1.1 Overview
This chapter focuses on polygonal numbers in general. It begins with the denition of the oldest and most basic polygonal number and from here builds up to a general formula dening any polygonal number. From this rst general formula we then make a table of values and explore other general formulas and relationships between the polygonal numbers.

1.2 Introduction and history

Polygonal numbers have a history that dates back to the era of ancient Greek mathematics. Lacking a good number system, the ancient Greeks needed ways to group numbers to better understand their properties and nd inspiration for new ideas. Therefore, they took objects such as pebbles and grouped them into basic regular polygons. This is the beginning of the use of polygonal numbers. The Pythagoreans assigned special properties and superstitions to these numbers, especially triangular and square numbers. This elevated these numbers to a special status that led to the further research and developments in elementary number theory. It was after this that Hypsicles in 175 B.C. dened all polygonal numbers. This was alluded to by Diophantus around 250 B.C. in one of his books which is now lost, titled Polygonal Numbers. Diophantus is well known for his method of writing mathematics in a syncopated form that made it easier to understand. This stems from the same need for better notation that led to polygonal numbers in the rst place.[Hea10] Inspired by Diophantus work Fermat claimed one of his famous theorems without proof named the polygonal number theorem stating that all positive integers are the sum of at most n, n-gonal numbers[Nat96]. Gauss proved the triangular case which is often called the Eureka theorem after his notes upon discovering the proof. Euler continued work on the square case and while he did not complete his work, it was used by Lagrange. Lagrange and Jacobi then discovered the proof independently in 1772. It was nally proved in its entirety in 1813 by Cauchy[Weia]. And nally Euler used

polygonal numbers in the beautiful expansion of

(1 xk ) which is named the

k=1

Chapter 1

The denition of polygonal numbers

pentagonal number theorem[Weib]. Because of their simplicity and yet broad relavance they are still used in many mathematical texts to illustrate elemetary number theory topics such as arithmetic progressions[Nat96].

1.3 From triangular to all polygonal numbers

This study begins with only the gures of the numbers themselves. Starting at this point serves as a link between the algebraic nature of modern number theory and the geometric roots of polygonal numbers. The triangular numbers are the lowest degree of polygonal numbers and are the building blocks of polygonal numbers in general.

Figure 1.1: [Mel]

Examining the gure we observe a few characteristics that dene polygonal numbers. First we see that the rst degree triangular number is one. All polygonal numbers begin with one dot. Secondly, each triangular gure is a regular triangle. Similarly, all polygonal numbers are the arangement of dots into regular polygons. The nal observation is that each successive triangular number is the previous gure in addition to the number of dots needed to make a regular triangle with a side length of one more dot. This pattern also carries over to all other polygonal numbers. These observations give us the needed geometric properties to dene a progression that we can evaluate for any value of n, the number of dots of a side of the polygon. Being the rst of the polygonal numbers, triangular numbers are the simplest. Each successive triangular number only needs one row of dots one dot greater than the last. From this we can dene the sequence {1, 2, 3, 4, ...an }where an = n. To evaluate the sum of this series we observe that this is the sum of the integers 1 to n. From this we use the anecdote of young Gauss who observed when adding the integers 1 to 100 that the terms can be paired into (1 + 100), (2 + 99), (3 + 98), ..., (50 + 51) which all add to 101. Therefore, he simplied the process to the sum of the pairs which is

1.3 From triangular to all polygonal numbers 50 101 since there are 50 pairs. This generalizes to the formula
n

k=
k=1

n (n + 1). 2

This is the formula for the nth triangular number, denoted Tn . An obvious formula can be based on the structure of the square numbers as each square number is n rows of dots by n columns of dots so the nth square number is n n = n2 . We can dene the square numbers recursively as we did the triangular numbers. Each successive square number is an added row of n 1 dots and an added column of n 1 dots with 1 more added for the corner.

Figure 1.2: This leads to the recursive denition as S1 = 1, and Sn = Sn1 + 2(n 1) + 1 = Sn1 +2n 1. Since each successive square number is the sum of the previous square number and the next odd, Sn is also the sum of the odd numbers from 1 to 2n 1. For the next stage, we seek a recursive denition of the successive pentagonal numbers. We also need a more ecient way of notating the polygonal numbers. From here on, any polygonal number other than the triangular or square numbers will be represented by the function P (x, n) where x is the number of sides and n is the order of the polygonal number.

Figure 1.3:

Chapter 1

The denition of polygonal numbers

Now, examining the gure of the pentagonal number, the growth can be expressed in terms of n for the nth pentagonal number. Each successive polygonal number is the addition of a number of dots to the previous number, in order to make a regular polygon with a length of n dots. From gure 1.3 we can see that by adding 3 sides of (n 1) dots you connect 2 sides of the previous gure and we nd that we have 1 dot left to add (see gure 1.3.) So the dierence of the P (5, n 1) and P (5, n) is 3(n 1) + 1 (3(n 2) + 1) = 3. Since the dierence is a constant, we can label this series an arithmetic series. An arithmetic series can be denoted as: S = a1 + (a1 + d) + (a1 + 2d). . . + (a1 + (n 2)d + an where a1 is the initial term, S is the sum of the series, d is the constant dierence and an = a1 + (n 1)d is the nth term. It can also be denoted as: S = (an (n 1)d) + (an (n 2)d). . . + (an 2d) + (an d) + an Since (an (n 1)d) = a1 and because the portion of each term multiplied by d is the negation of the same term in the other equation, then the addition of these two equations yields 2S = na1 + nan na1 + nan S= . 2 In the case of the pentagonal numbers, we have already shown d = 3 and in all polygonal numbers a1 = 1 so then an = 1 + (n 1)3 = 3n 2. Hence P (5, n) = 2 n+n(3n2) = 3n 2n . 2 This same logic can be applied to every polygonal number. Each polygonal number will need to add (x 2) sides (where x is the number of sides) of (n 1) dots then add 1 nal dot to nish the polygon to from the previous gure. So the dierence of P (x, n) and P (x, n 1) is (x 2)(n 1) + 1 ((x 2)(n 2) + 1) = x 2. So then the evaluation of any polygonal number is, where x is the number of sides and n is the order of the polygonal number is the sum of another arithmetic series P (x, n) = = n + n(1 + (n 1)(x 2)) 2

n + n(1 + xn 2n x + 2) n + 3n + xn2 2n2 xn = 2 4n + xn2 2n2 xn P (x, n) = 2 we then simplify this by factoring out common terms and we have a much more intuitive formula P (x, n) = (x 2)n2 + (4 x)n . 2

1.4 Other general formulas

1.4 Other general formulas

Now that we have a general equation we can compile some numerical data to nd patterns. Using the polygonal number formula, the following x by n table results. 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30 33 4 5 10 15 16 25 22 35 28 45 34 55 40 65 46 75 52 85 58 95 64 105

A few patterns can be observed. First it appears that every polygonal number is the sum of the previous polygonal number and the previous order triangular number. That is, P (x, n) = P (3, n 1) + P (x 1, n). To prove this we start with the general formula for P (x, n). P (x, n) = (x 2)n2 + (4 x)n xn2 2n2 + 4n xn xn2 3n2 + n2 + 5n n xn = = 2 2 2

(x 3)n2 + (5 x)n n2 n ((x 1) 2)n2 + (4 (x 1))n (n 1)2 + (n 1) = + = + 2 2 2 2 = P (x 1, n) + P (3, n 1) as desired. The second pattern we notice is related to the rst. Every polygonal number also seems to be a sum of a multiple of the previous order triangular number and the triangular number of the same order, otherwise denoted as P (x, n) = aP (3, n 1) + P (3, n) Where a is an natural number. Proof: P (x, n) = (x 2)n2 + (4 x)n xn2 2n2 + 4n xn xn2 3n2 + n2 + 3n + n xn = = 2 2 2

(x 3)(n2 n) n2 + n (n 1)2 + (n 1) n2 + n + = (x3) + = (x3)P (3, n1)+P (3, n). 2 2 2 2 Hence, every polygonal number is the sum of a triangular number of the same order and (x 3) triangular numbers of the previous order.

2 Explorations using polygonal numbers

2.1 Overview
Since a thorough understanding of polygonal numbers in general has been established, this chapter turns to an exploration of specic relations using polygonal numbers. It begins with the sums of polygonal numbers and the sum of cubes. After these we generalize and expand on some other results found in certain mathematical texts.[Nat96, Bur09, RK03]

2.2 The sum of some polygonal numbers

A topic commonly found in mathematical texts concerning polygonal numbers is their sum. The sum of triangular numbers, denoted tn , are known as tetrahedral numbers and the sum of squares, denoted sn , are often called pyramidal numbers. tn = n(n + 1)(n + 2) 6

sn=

n(n + 1)(2n + 1) 6

These two examples are well known and therefore their mention is sucient for this paper. We explore this idea with the evaluation of the sum of the pentagonal numbers from 1 to P (5, n). We start out by listing the sums when n = 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5.
1 2 3

P (5, i) = 1,
i=1 i=1

P (5, i) = 6,
i=1

P (5, i) = 18

P (5, i) = 40,
i=1 i=1

P (5, i) = 75

Chapter 2

Explorations using polygonal numbers

Looking back at the table in chapter one (p. 7), we can see that these numbers are the diagonal starting at P(5,1) continuing downwards. From this observation the following theorem can be proved.
n

P (5, i) = P (4 + n, n)
i=1

Proof: Let n = 1, then 1 i=1 P (5, i) = 1 = P (5, 1) = P (4 + n, n) as desired, so the base case is true. If the statement is true for some n then,
n+1

P (5, i) = P (4 + n, n) + P (5, n + 1) =
i=1

[(4 + n) 2]n2 + [4 (4 + n)]n 3(n + 1)2 (n + 1) + = 2 2 1 (2n2 + n3 n2 + 3n2 + 6n + 3 n 1) = 2 1 3 (n + 4n2 + 5n + 2) = 2 1 [(n + 1)(n2 + 3n + 2)] = 2 1 2 [(n + 4n + 3)(n + 1) + (1 n)(n + 1))] = 2 1 [(n + 3)(n + 1)(n + 1) + (1 n)(n + 1)] = 2 1 [(n + 3)(n + 1)2 + (1 n)(n + 1)] = 2 1 {[(5 + n) 2](n + 1)2 + [4 (5 + n)](n + 1)} = 2 P (5 + n, n + 1) as desired. Thus, by mathematical induction the conjecture is proved.

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2.3 Sum of cubic numbers and the partition of the odd integers

2.3 Sum of cubic numbers and the partition of the odd integers
Another result that involves polygonal numbers is their connection to the sum of perfect cubes.[Bur09] This stems from the beautiful fact that the odd numbers can be partitioned into sets whose summation of the terms in each set is the cube of the cardinality of the set. Shown mathematically: 1 = 13 , 3 + 5 = 23 , 7 + 9 + 11 = 33 , 13 + 15 + 17 + 19 = 43 , .... This result is proven as follows and will be used as a lemma for the sum of the cubes. Lemma 1: j 3 = [j (j 1) + 1] + [j (j 1) + 3]. . . +[j (j 1) + (2j 1) Proof of Lemma 1: We know from the square numbers that the sum of the odd integers 1 to 2j 1 is j 2 so then the series conjectured can be written as j [j (j 1)] + j 2 = j (j 2 j ) + j 2 = j 3 j 2 + j 2 = j 3 as desired. Now by Lemma 1 we can show this pattern for the sum of the cubes. 13 = 1 23 = 3 + 5 33 = 7 + 9 + 11 43 = 13 + 15 + 17 + 19 Examining the shape of these terms arranged in this way, we see that this is a triangular number of terms. Also we see that these terms are the series of odd numbers 1 to 2n 1 which is n2 . This can also be shown algebraically. The last term of this series of odds can be rewritten as such: n(n 1) + 2n 1 = n2 n + 2n 1 = n2 + n 1 =
2

2(n2 + n) 1 2

+n) Observe that if we let (n 2 = k then the sum of the series, since it is a sum of consecutive odds starting with one, is k 2 . Finally, we see that k is also of the form of a triangular number of order n or

k=

(n2 + n) = Tn 2

so then the sum of the cubes from 1 to n3 is (Tn )2 = P (4, Tn ).

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Chapter 2

Explorations using polygonal numbers

2.4 Relations of square and triangular numbers

The next few results were inspired by three exercises in chapter two section three of Burtons History of Mathematics[Bur09]. The rst exercise asked for a proof of the statement that the square of the product of three and any odd positive integer was a dierence of two triangular numbers. Denoted: (3(2n + 1))2 = T9n+4 T3n+1 We begin with the goal of generalizing this statement with the very broad search for a square of the product of any two numbers being the dierence of two triangular numbers. This would yield the conclusion that any square is the dierence of two triangular numbers. To nd this we use a table of values given by the square of the product of two numbers. Trying to nd a pattern manually proved to be inecient and revealed no immediate results. Upon that discovery, we simplied the search to the square of the product of two odds being the dierence of two triangular numbers. Noting when the square of the inner product of ve and another odd matched a dierence of two triangular numbers, we compile a sequence of numbers in which to nd a pattern. Using the smallest of these results a linear pattern was quickly observed. From this the conjecture can be made that the square of the product of ve and another positive odd was the dierence of two triangular numbers denoted: (5(2n + 1))2 = T15n+7 T5n+2 To prove this conjecture we use algebra for the proof that follows: (5(2n + 1))2 = 100n2 + 100n + 25

200n2 + 200n + 50 2

225n2 + 210n + 49 + 15n + 7 (25n2 + 20n + 4 + 5n + 2) 2

(15n + 7)2 + (15n + 7) (5n + 2)2 + (5n + 2) 2 2

= T15n+7 T5n+2

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2.4 Relations of square and triangular numbers Using a similar method we found and proved a very similar equation for the square of the product of seven and another positive odd denoted: (7(2n + 1))2 = T21n+10 T7n+3 From the examination of the subscripts of the two cases now found with the one mentioned by Burton, the following conjecture was made for the square of the product of any two odds: [(2k + 1)(2n + 1)]2 = T(2k+1)3n+3k+1 T(2k+1)n+k The proof is algebraic. [(2k + 1)(2n + 1)]2 = (4kn + 2k + 2n + 1)2 = 16k 2 n2 + 16k 2 n + 4k 2 + 16kn2 + 16kn + 4k + 4n2 + 4n + 1 = 32k 2 n2 + 32k 2 n + 8k 2 + 32kn2 + 32kn + 8k + 8n2 + 8n + 2 2

36k 2 n2 + 36k 2 n2 + 9k 2 + 36kn2 + 36kn + 9k + 9n2 + 2 = 2 4k 2 n2 + 4k 2 n + k 2 + 4kn + n2 + n + k 2

(6kn + 3n + 3k + 1)2 + (6kn + 3n + 3k + 1) (2kn + n + k )2 + (2kn + n + k ) 2 2

= T6kn+3n+3k+1 T2kn+n+k = T(2k+1)3n+3k+1 T(2k+1)n+k as desired. The next step we take is to nd a generalization that applies to the square of a product of an even and an odd. [2k (2n + 1)]2 = Tr Ts Using a similar method as before several patterns emerged where 2k = 2, 4, 6, and 8. The most immediate results reveals a pattern where each value of k took two consecutive dierences to nd a common dierence. From the methods of nite dierences, this reveals a quadratic description of the sequence. This result is not

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Chapter 2

Explorations using polygonal numbers

as simple as desired so we return to the data. With a dierent order we found a linear pattern for each case. These four linear results were: [2(2n + 1)]2 = T9n+4 T7n+3 [4(2n + 1)]2 = T33n+16 T31n+15 [6(2n + 1)]2 = T73n+36 T71n+35 [8(2n + 1)]2 = T129n+64 T127n+63 The constant terms of the subscripts are the square of the even term in the product and the square of the even term less one. Also the coecients of the subscripts have a dierence of two between the positive triangular number and the negative one. Using again the method of nite dierences we nd that the coecients of the subscripts follow a quadratic sequence of specically 8k 2 + 1 and 8k 2 2. This produces a generalized equation to prove. [2k (2n + 1)]2 = T(8k2 +1)n+(2k)2 T(8k2 1)n+(2k)2 1 The proof is algebraic as follows. [2k (2n + 1)]2 = (4kn + 2k )2 32k 2 n2 + 32k 2 n + 8k 2 2 4 2 4 4 2 2 64k n + 64k n + 16k + 16k n + 16k 2 n + 4k 2 + n2 + n = 2 64k 4 n2 + 64k 4 n + 16k 4 16k 2 n2 16k 2 n 4k 2 + n2 + n 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 (8k n + n + 4k ) + (8k n + n + 4k ) (8k 2 n n + 4k 2 1)2 + (8k 2 n n + 4k 2 1) = 2 2 = T8k2 n+n+4k2 T8k2 nn+4k2 1 = T(8k2 +1)n+(2k)2 T(8k2 1)n+(2k)2 1 = 16k 2 n2 + 16k 2 n + 4k 2 = as desired. If we assume that n = 0 then the odd term in either product becomes one and, (2k + 1)2 = T3k+1 Tk (2k )2 = T4k2 T4k2 1 Hence the square of any positive odd number (except 1 since T0 is not dened) is a dierence of two triangular numbers. For the second general equation we see that the square of any positive even number is the dierence of two triangular numbers. Therefore, all square numbers greater than 1 can be represented by the dierence of two triangular numbers.

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2.4 Relations of square and triangular numbers The nal discovery of this study is related solely to triangular numbers. Burton asks for a proof that 9 times some triangular number plus one is also triangular. The proof asked for is simple and algebraic but again is a narrowly dened relation. To generalize this we ask for what multiples of a triangular number plus 1 do we nd that the result is also triangular. With a table of calculations we nd many cases and a few patterns. Focusing on the multiples we nd no patterns for values less than 630 and when examining the dierent triangular numbers only patterns for T1 and T2 emerge. Thus, we return to the original question to nd an alternate phrasing. Examining the question we have the equation 9Tn + 1 = T3n+1 . Looking at the details of this equation we observe that 9 is a square number and so is 1. We already know that there are no patterns for multiplying by a square number up to the 25th square number, so we then further examine the equation. Finally, we leave the idea of some multiple of a triangular number plus 1 and try adding dierent values. One is both a square and a triangular number. The immediate results for adding a square number yield no convention, but when we add triangular numbers we nd a pattern. p m n r 3 3 1 10 5 5 2 27 7 7 3 52 9 9 4 85 11 11 5 126 Table 2.1: p2 Tm + Tn = Tr

It is from these results that we conjecture that (2n + 1)2 Tm + Tn = T(2n+1)m+n . The proof follows. (2n + 1)2 Tm + Tn = (4n2 + 4n + 1)(m2 + m) n2 + n + 2 2

1 = (4n2 m2 + 4n2 m + 4nm2 + 4nm + m2 + 2n + n2 + n) 2 [(2n + 1)m + n]2 + [(2n + 1)m + n] = 2 = T(2n+1)m+n . Therefore, any triangular number multiplied by an odd postive integer, of the form 2n + 1, squared added to a triangular number Tn is also triangular.

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Summary
This study started with the very basics of polygonal numbers. Working from the gures that the Pythagoreans rst used, we have few well dened formulas for all polygonal numbers. The insight gained from each result has led to ideas in several dierent areas ranging from the sum of pentagonal numbers to the dierence of two triangular numbers. In particular, we have found relations among triangular numbers, and between the square and triangular numbers. In general, we have found relations between the polygonal numbers. All of these relations and the processes used to nd them have led to the conclusion that the polygonal numbers still have an important place in number theory and mathematics in general. Despite the fact that we no longer need them because of a lack of an ecient number system, we still desire to use them in the introduction to number theory. This is because of the simplicity and elegance they contain that made them desirable in the rst place. But we also observe the fact shown by this study that continued eort is still valuable. We have explored the well known basics thoroughly and found the inspiration needed to discover new results. Future work is suggested by results of this study. Since we have shown that the squares are represented by both a sum of two individual triangular numbers and the dierence, then do pentagonal numbers hold a similar relation since they are the sum of one triangular number and a multiple of another? Would they possibly be a dierence of a triangular number and the multiple of another? We can pose this question for all polygonal numbers. Also, what about the sums of other polygonal numbers? Do their evaluations hold some other pattern? And nally, there is still opportunity to apply the methods of calculus to these numbers which has been outside the scope of this study.

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Acknowledgments

I would like to thank and acknowledge these people in the aid of writing and defending this thesis. Prof. Stuart Anderson - advisor, mentor, major contributor and inspiration for this research, and an excellent professor of mathematics. You have made an impact on my life as a student, teacher, and mathematician.

Associate Prof. and Dean of Honors College Dr. Raymond Green - committee member, dean of honors college, and led me through this thesis. Thank you for help and guidance through this process and through my undergraduate studies.

Prof. Charles Dorsett - committee member and another great math professor. Thank you for your encouragement and help.

Mrs. Amanda Pennington - Wife and best friend. Thank you for your support, encouragement, and tolerance during times when this task became dicult.

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Bibliography
[Bur09] D. Burton, History of Mathematics: An Introduction, 7th ed. Hill, 2009. McGraw Cam-

[Har92] G. Hardy, A Mathematicians Apology, ser. A Canto Book Series. bridge University Press, 1992. [Hea10] S. T. L. Heath, Diophantus of Alexandria. University Press, 1910. [Mel]

Melchoir. Trianglular numbers. [Online]. Available: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Triangular_number

[Nat96] M. B. Nathanson, Additive Number Theory: The Classical Bases. Springer, 1996. [RK03] Robert and E. Kaplan, The Art of the Innite. 2003. [Weia] Oxfort University Press,

E. W. Weisstein. Fermats polygonal number theorem. [Online]. Available: http://mathworld.wolfram.com/FermatsPolygonalNumberTheorem.html

[Weib] . Pentagonal number theorem. [Online]. Available: http://mathworld. wolfram.com/FermatsPolygonalNumberTheorem.html

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