Introduction To Geology Plate Tectonics, Structural Geology

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition
by Stephen Marshak 2011 W.W. Norton & Company
Chapter 2 Journey to the Center of the Earths
Lecture 2: Journey to the Centre of the Earth
Prepared by:
Ronald Parker, Senior Geologist

Fronterra Geosciences, Denver, Colorado Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak
2011, W. W. Norton
Chapter 2: Journey to the Center of the Earth
Earths Surface
Our experience with Earth is limited to its surface. Dramatic elevation changes changesmountains, canyons canyonsare tiny scratches on this surface. Our Earth is much more vast and complex than the surface suggests.
Chapter 2 Opener
Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak
2011, W. W. Norton
A Journey through Space

A probe to Earth from an extraextra-solar planet, would:
Traverse the profound vacuum of interstellar space. Encounter the diffuse edge of the Solar System, which is:
Defined by the faint pull of the Suns gravity. Populated by fragments of ice and rock, the Oort Cloud. 50,000 AUs from the Sun. (One AU, an astronomical unit, is the distance between Earth and the Sun, 93 million miles).
Chapter 2 Another View

2011, W. W. Norton
PowerPoint slides prepared by Ronald L. Parker, Fronterra Geosciences, 700 17th Street, Suite 900, Denver, CO, 80202

The Solar System

The boundary of the heliosphere is 200 AU from the Sun.
This is the outer reach of the solar wind.
The Kuiper Belt is an diffuse band of icy objects.

Some are up to 1,200 km across. Comets originate here. Neptune is the inner edge.
Neptunes orbit defines interplanetary space.
Fig. 2.1
2011, W. W. Norton
The Planets
All planetary orbits lie on the same plane (the ecliptic). Eight planets constitute the Solar System.
Outer iceice-giant planets (Neptune and Uranus) GasGas -giant planets (Saturn and Jupiter) Terrestrial planets (Mars, Earth, Venus, and Mercury)
The asteroid belt lies between Jupiter and Mars.
Fig. 2.5
2011, W. W. Norton
Asteroids
Asteroids: small bodies of rock or metal orbiting the Sun.
Planetesimals that were never part of a larger planet. Fragmented larger planetesimals. Most occur in a belt between Jupiter and Mars. Range in size.
Up to 30 km across Millions >1km in diameter Too small to be reshaped by gravity
Asteroids can strike Earth.
Fig. Bx2.1a
2011, W. W. Norton

Comets
Comets: icy planetesimals that orbit the Sun.
They traverse highly elliptical orbits around the Sun. When approaching the Sun, they develop a long coma (tail).
The tail is comprised of evaporating gas and dust. The tail always points away from the Sun.
Short-period comets originate in the Kuiper Belt. ShortLonger period comets may derive from the Oort Cloud. Dirty snowballs made of:
H2O, CO2, CH4, NH3 Other volatiles Organic compounds Dust
Comets can strike Earth.

Fig. Bx2.1b
2011, W. W. Norton
Magnetic Field
Space visitors would notice Earths magnetic field. Earths magnetic field is like a giant dipole bar magnet.
The field has north and south ends. The field grows weaker with distance. The magnetic flux is directional.
Flows from S pole to N pole along the bar magnet Flows from N to S along field lines outside the bar
Fig. 2.3a
2011, W. W. Norton
Magnetic Field
Earths magnetic field is like a giant dipole bar magnet. The N pole of the bar is near Earths geographic S pole.
A compass needle aligns with the field lines. The N compass arrow points to the bar magnet S pole.
Opposites attract.
Magnetic field lines:

Extend into space. Weaken with distance. Form a shield around Earth (magnetosphere).
Fig. 2.3b
2011, W. W. Norton

Magnetic Field
The solar wind distorts the magnetosphere.
Shaped like a teardrop Deflects most of the solar wind, protecting Earth
The strong magnetic field of the Van Allen belts arrests deadly cosmic radiation.
Fig. 2.3c
2011, W. W. Norton
Magnetic Field
The magnetic field is revealed by spectacular aurorae.
Some charged particles make it past the Van Allen belts. These are channeled along magnetic field lines. They cause atmospheric gases in polar regions to glow.
Northern lights: aurora borealis. Southern lights: aurora australis.
Fig. 2.3d
2011, W. W. Norton
The Atmosphere
Our atmosphere is mostly nitrogen (N2) and oxygen (O2). The remaining gases, (totaling less than 1%) include:
Argon (0.93%), carbon dioxide (0.039%), neon (0.0018%) Other, less common, gases (helium, methane, krypton).
The atmosphere thins away from Earth. Atmospheric layers have distinct characteristics.
Pressure, temperature, density, moisture composition
Fig. 2.4a,b
2011, W. W. Norton

The Atmosphere
The atmosphere is more dense closer to Earth. SeaSea -level atmospheric pressure:
14.7 pounds per square inch (psi) 1.01 bar
With increasing elevation:

Pressure decreases. Density decreases. Oxygen content decreases.
Fig. 2.4c
2011, W. W. Norton
The Atmosphere
Atmospheric layers are separated by pauses.
Troposphere (0 (011 km):
The lower mixing layer. Weather is confined to this layer. Temperature decreases upward.
Stratosphere (12 (1247 km):

No mixing occurs. Temperature increases upward.
Mesosphere (47 (4782 km):

Temperature decreases upward.
Thermosphere (82 km+):

Outermost layer. Temperature increases upward.
Fig. 2.4d
2011, W. W. Norton
The Earth System

Orbiting around Earth, space visitors would notice:
Atmospherethe gaseous envelope. Atmosphere Hydrosphere Hydrosphere the blue liquid water. Cryosphere Cryosphere the frozen world. Biosphere Biosphere the wealth of life. Lithosphere Lithosphere the solid Earth.
Interaction of these components comprises the Earth System. Earth is in the habitable zone. Only Earth has liquid water, and hence, life.
interactions,
Fig. 2.2
2011, W. W. Norton

Earths Surface
Land and water are the most prominent surface features. Icecaps and living organisms are also in evidence.
Fig. 2.6
2011, W. W. Norton
Hypsometric Curve
Most land lies within 1 km of sea level. Most ocean floors are close to 5 km in depth. Extreme highs or lows of depth or height are rare. The two dominant levels reflect continental vs. oceanic crust.
Fig. 2.7
2011, W. W. Norton
Elemental Composition
91.2% of Earth is comprised of just four elements.
Iron (Fe) (Fe)32.1% Oxygen (O) (O)30.1% Silicon (Si) (Si)15.1% Magnesium (Mg) (Mg)13.9%
The remaining eightyeighty-eight are naturally occurring elements: 8.8% These ratios differ for Earths crust.
Fig. 2.8
2011, W. W. Norton

Earth Materials
Elements combine in a variety of Earth materials.
Organic compounds compoundscarboncarbon-containing compounds.
Most are residue from onceonce-living creatures. These include wood, peat, lignite, coal, and oil. Geologically rare (organic in contact with oxygen).
2011, W. W. Norton
Earth Materials
Minerals Minerals naturally naturally-occurring crystalline solids.
Crystala single coherent mineral with geometric faces. Crystal Grain Grain an irregularly shaped fragment of a larger crystal. Minerals comprise rocks and, therefore, most of the earth.
Glasses Glasses noncrystalline solids.

Glasses form by rapid cooling coolingtoo fast for crystal growth.
2011, W. W. Norton
Earth Materials
Rocks Rocks aggregates of minerals, grains, and/or glass.
Igneouscooled from a liquid (melt). Igneous Sedimentary Sedimentary debris cemented from preexisting rock. Metamorphic Metamorphic rock altered by pressure and temperature.
Rocks may be made of a single mineral.
2011, W. W. Norton

Earth Materials
Sediment Sediment an accumulation of loose mineral grains.
Weathered and eroded from preexisting rocks. Precipitated from evaporating water.
Metals Metals solids composed of metal atoms (Al, Fe, Cu, Sn).
Metals have high density, are shiny and conduct electricity.
2011, W. W. Norton
Earth Materials
Melts Melts rocks that have been heated to a liquid.
Magma Magma molten rock beneath the surface. Lavamolten rock at the surface. Lava
Volatiles Volatiles materials that turn into gas at the surface.

H2O, CO2, CH4 and SO2 Volatiles are released from volcanic eruption.
2011, W. W. Norton
Earth Materials
Most rocks on Earth are silicates (based on Si and O). There are four fundamental silicate igneous rock types. Vary by silica (SiO4) to iron (Fe) and magnesium (Mg).
Felsicmost SiFelsic Si-rich, Fe and Mg Mg-poor. Ex: Granite Intermediate Mafic Ultramafic Ultramafic most Si Si-poor, Fe and MgMg-rich. Ex: Peridotite
2011, W. W. Norton

A Layered Earth
How do we know that the Earth has a layered interior? Early speculations sought to explain:
The source of lava. Gem and mineral enrichment. Spring waters. Earthquakes.
Early guesses were wrong.

Open caverns to the interior Flowing lava, air, water
Fig. 2.9
2011, W. W. Norton
A Layered Earth
The first key to understanding Earths interior: density.
A plumb bob is deflected by a nearby mountain mass. Degree of deflection can be used to calculate Earths mass. The density from this method (4.5 g/cm3) is much higher than the density of the thin outer crust (2.5 g/cm3). This suggests that density must increase with depth.
Fig. 2.10
2011, W. W. Norton
A Layered Earth
The first key to understanding Earths interior: density.
In 1896, Emil Wiechert made important contributions.
He determined that metal must be present in Earths interior. He deduced that the metal must occur at the Earths center.
We now know he was correct. His ideas led to a model:

Earth is like an egg.
Thin, light crust (eggshell) Thicker, more dense mantle (eggwhite) Innermost, very dense core (yolk)
Other density observations:

The land doesnt have large tides, hence Earth must be solid.
Fig. 2.11
2011, W. W. Norton

A Layered Earth
Earthquakes: seismic energy from fault motion.
Seismic waves provide insight into Earths interior.
Seismic wave velocities change with density. We can determine the depth of seismic velocity changes. Hence, we can tell where densities change in Earths interior.
Fig. 2.12
2011, W. W. Norton
A Layered Earth
Changes with depth.
Pressure (P)
The weight of overlying rock increases with depth.
Temperature (T)
Heat is generated in Earths interior. T increases with depth.
Geothermal gradient
The rate of T changes with depth. The geothermal gradient varies.
High of 50 C per km Low of 15 C per km Determined by tectonic setting
2011, W. W. Norton
Fig. 2.13
Layer Compositions
Geologists strived to understand the nature of the layers.
Studied meteorites as analogues for core and mantle. Conducted laboratory experiments.
Density measurements of rocks from the interior Characteristics of mantlemantle-derived rocks and minerals Determined high P and T stability field of rocks and minerals
Fig. Bx.2.2c
2011, W. W. Norton
10

Layer Compositions
End result of a century of investigation?
We know much about the nature of Earths interior. This knowledge continues to evolve.
Earths layers consist of the crust, upper, transitional, and lower mantles, and liquid outer and solid inner cores. Much complexity characterizes even these layers.
Geology at a Glance
2011, W. W. Norton
The Crust
The outermost skin of our planet; highly variable.
Thickest under mountain ranges (70 km or 40 miles). Thinnest under midmid-ocean ridges (7 km or 4 miles).
Relatively as thick as the membrane of a toy balloon. The Mohorovii discontinuity (Moho) is the base.
Seismic velocity change between crust and upper mantle. The crust is the upper part of a tectonic plate.
Fig. 2.14a
2011, W. W. Norton
The Crust
There are two kinds of crust: continental and oceanic.
Continental crust underlies the continents.
Average density of ~2.7 g/cm3 Average thickness 35 3540 km Felsic (granitic) to intermediate in composition.
Oceanic crust underlies the ocean basins.

Average density of ~3.0 g/cm3 Average thickness 7 710 km Mafic (basaltic and gabbroic) in composition.
Fig. 2.14a
2011, W. W. Norton
11

The Crust
There are two kinds of crust: continental and oceanic. Crustal density controls surface position.
Continental crust
Less dense: floats higher
Oceanic crust
More dense: floats lower
Fig. 2.14c
2011, W. W. Norton
Crustal Composition
98.5% of the crust is comprised of just eight elements. Oxygen is the most abundant element in the crust.
This reflects the importance of silicate (SiO4) minerals. Oxygen is large. It occupies ~93% of crustal volume.
Fig. 2.15
2011, W. W. Norton
The Mantle
Solid rock, 2,885 km thick, 82% of Earths volume. The mantle is entirely the ultramafic rock peridotite. Convection below 100 km mixes the mantle.
Like oatmeal on a stove: hot rises, cold sinks. Convection aids tectonic plate motion.
Upper, transitional, and lower.
Fig. Bx2.3c
Geology at a Glance
2011, W. W. Norton
12

The Core
An ironiron-rich sphere with a radius of 3,471 km. Seismic waves segregate two radically different parts.
The outer core is liquid; inner core solid. Outer core
Liquid ironiron-nickel nickel-sulfur 2,255 km thick Density is 10 1012 g/cm3
Inner core
Solid ironiron-nickel alloy Radius of 1,220 km Density is 13 g/cm3
Outer core flow generates Earths magnetic field.

Geology at a Glance
2011, W. W. Norton
Summarizing Earths Layers

Earth has a layered interior.
Crust
Continental Oceanic
Mantle
Upper Transitional Lower
Core
Outer Outer liquid Innersolid Inner
These layers are subdivided on the basis of seismic waves.

Fig. 2.14b
2011, W. W. Norton
LithosphereLithosphere -Asthenosphere
We can also regard layering based on rock strength.
Lithosphere Lithosphere the outermost 100 100150 km of Earth.
Behaves rigidly, as a nonflowing material. Comprised of two components: crust and upper mantle. This is the material that makes up tectonic plates.
Asthenosphere Asthenosphere upper mantle below the lithosphere.

Shallow under oceanic lithosphere; deeper under continental. Flows as a soft solid.
Fig. 2.16
2011, W. W. Norton
13

Resources
Read Marshak Chapter 2 NASA Solar System Exploration http://solarsystem.nasa.gov/index.cfm AGU Geomagnetism and Paleomagnetism http://www.agu.org/sections/geomag/background.html NOAA Weather and Atmosphere http://www.education.noaa.gov/Weather_and_Atmosphere/ USGS Earthquake Hazards Program http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/ NESTA Structure of the Interior of the Earth http://www.windows2universe.org/earth/Interior_Structure/interior.html British Geological Survey earthquake database http://www.earthquakes.bgs.ac.uk/
2011, W. W. Norton
14

Introduction To Geology Plate Tectonics, Structural Geology

Transféré par

Informations du document

Titre original

Copyright

Formats disponibles

Partager ce document

Partager ou intégrer le document

Options de partage

Avez-vous trouvé ce document utile ?

Ce contenu est-il inapproprié ?

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

Introduction To Geology Plate Tectonics, Structural Geology

Transféré par

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition

by Stephen Marshak 2011 W.W. Norton & Company

Chapter 2 Journey to the Center of the Earths

Lecture 2: Journey to the Centre of the Earth

Ronald Parker, Senior Geologist

Chapter 2: Journey to the Center of the Earth

Chapter 2: Journey to the Center of the Earth

A Journey through Space

Chapter 2 Another View

Chapter 2: Journey to the Center of the Earth

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition

Chapter 2 Journey to the Center of the Earths

The Solar System

The Kuiper Belt is an diffuse band of icy objects.

Neptunes orbit defines interplanetary space.

Chapter 2: Journey to the Center of the Earth

The asteroid belt lies between Jupiter and Mars.

Chapter 2: Journey to the Center of the Earth

Asteroids can strike Earth.

Chapter 2: Journey to the Center of the Earth

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition

Chapter 2 Journey to the Center of the Earths

Comets can strike Earth.

Chapter 2: Journey to the Center of the Earth

Chapter 2: Journey to the Center of the Earth

Magnetic field lines:

Chapter 2: Journey to the Center of the Earth

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition

Chapter 2 Journey to the Center of the Earths

Chapter 2: Journey to the Center of the Earth

Northern lights: aurora borealis. Southern lights: aurora australis.

Chapter 2: Journey to the Center of the Earth

Chapter 2: Journey to the Center of the Earth

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition

Chapter 2 Journey to the Center of the Earths

With increasing elevation:

Chapter 2: Journey to the Center of the Earth

Stratosphere (12 (1247 km):

Mesosphere (47 (4782 km):

Thermosphere (82 km+):

Chapter 2: Journey to the Center of the Earth

The Earth System

Chapter 2: Journey to the Center of the Earth

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition

Chapter 2 Journey to the Center of the Earths

Chapter 2: Journey to the Center of the Earth

Chapter 2: Journey to the Center of the Earth

Chapter 2: Journey to the Center of the Earth

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition

Chapter 2 Journey to the Center of the Earths

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 2: Journey to the Center of the Earth

Glasses Glasses noncrystalline solids.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 2: Journey to the Center of the Earth

Rocks may be made of a single mineral.

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 2: Journey to the Center of the Earth

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition

Chapter 2 Journey to the Center of the Earths

Earth: Portrait of a Planet, 4th edition, by Stephen Marshak

Chapter 2: Journey to the Center of the Earth

Volatiles Volatiles materials that turn into gas at the surface.