Flowering Plants or Angiospermae [phylum] are the dominant plants on earth at this time and have been for

the last 100 million years. Traditionally they have been divided into two divisions [classes] called onocotyledons [one seed! leaf] and "icotyledons [# seed leaves] based on the number of food stores contained in the seeds. onocots also have parallel venation while the others have comple$ netted venation. Apart from some other structural features of importance% the classification of Angiosperms rests mostly upon the structure of the flower% which is undoubtedly their most distinctive feature. This is mainly because it is the flower which shows such remar&able plasticity of form. This variability of the structure of the flower in turn reflects the intimate adaptive association of flowers with insects% whose evolution they have closely paralleled. 'ndeed% such a phenomenon is often given as an e$ample of co!evolution because of the strength and longevity of the contact between the two groups% and the diverse ways they have mutually influenced each other in structure and in life!cycles.
("uring the first )0 million years of angiospermous evolution all the &nown flowers were radially symmetrical. 't is only in the Tertiary *++., to 1.+ million years ago- during the late Paleocene and early .ocene *+/.+ to 0# million years ago- that the first evidence of bilaterally symmetrical flowers is found. The evolution of bilateral flowers% as% for e$ample% those of the legumes and orchids% is an adaptation for speciali1ed pollinators such as social insects *bees- and some birds. The sterile organs *sepals% petals- are modified to present a certain flower orientation to the pollinator% enabling the pollinator to enter the flower where the pollen organs and pollen!receptive tissue are positioned to ma$imi1e effective pollination. "uring the early Tertiary% the bilateral organi1ation of floral organs coevolved with animal behaviour independently at different times and in various groups of angiosperms.( [.ncyclopedia 2rittanica]

There is within the Angiosperms a general trend from primitive beetle and fly pollinated flowers towards more advanced pollination by butterflies% moths and bees. Flowers pollinated by bees show the greatest degree of nectar% scent% coloration diversity and pollen production% as well as diverse specialisation of flower structure. Primitive flowers tend to be trumpet or saucer shaped [e$amples include Ranunculus, Hibiscus, Magnolia, Malva, Lavatera, Cucurbita and Papaver]% while more advanced flowers maybe tubular [e$amples li&e Symphytum, Digitalis, Lamium, Erica, Datura and Nicotiana]% or 1ygomorphic. .$amples of the latter include Orchis, ntirrhiunum, Pisum, Lobelia, !iola, "entiana, #isteria, Mimulus, Lonicera and $egonia. There are thus two directions of adaptation3 from polypetaly [many petals] to oligopetaly [fewer petals] and from separate petals to sympetaly [fused petals] 4owever% simple flowers% as in Commelinidae [5rasses% 6edges and 7ushes and Euphorbiales] may not be primitive% but derived from more comple$ forms in the Liliales. This% their simplicity is secondary and a form of structural degeneracy rather than a primitive feature.

Another important trend is away from single flowers [li&e Papaver, Ranunculus, Nelumbo] towards multiple flowers in racemes% spi&es% whorls% and heads [eg. Lamium, Scrophularia, "enitaiana, $orago, Laburnum, Plantago, chillea, Sali%]. This trend reaches its height of perfection in the Dipsacales% the Umbelliferae [Apiales] and above all in the Asterales. The Asteraceae compound flowers are really a spi&e or whorl of flowers that has failed to e$pand vertically and all the flowers are pac&ed side by side instead on a flat head [capitulum]. 8ou can still trace the spiral patterns in Helianthus heads% for e$ample% where the whorl! li&e pattern of the raceme would have unfolded if it had elongated vertically. The inflorescence of daisies therefore give the appearance of a raceme that has been compressed downwards forcing all the individual flowers to become pressed tightly into a side by side arangement on a flat head [e.g. $ellis, chillea]. The dome shape of the Dipsacales flowers is similar% li&e an early version of this arrangement% but in the umbels of the Umbelliferae each individual flower still retains its own separate stal& and bracts.

The flowering plants *angiosperms-% also &nown as Angiospermae or Magnoliophyta% are the most diverse group of land plants. Angiosperms are seed!producing plants li&e the gymnosperms and can be distinguished from the gymnosperms by a series of synapomorphies *derived characteristics-. These characteristics include flowers% endosperm within the seeds% and the production of fruits that contain the seeds. The ancestors of flowering plants diverged from gymnosperms around #,09#0# million years ago% and the first flowering plants &nown to e$ist are from 1,0 million years ago. They diversified enormously during the :ower ;retaceous and became widespread around 100 million years ago% but replaced conifers as the dominant trees only around +0!100 million years ago.

Angiosperm derived characteristics

Flowers

The flowers% which are the reproductive organs of flowering plants% are the most remar&able feature distinguishing them from other seed plants. Flowers aid angiosperms by enabling a wider range of adaptability and broadening the ecological niches open to them. This has allowed flowering plants to largely dominate terrestrial ecosystems.

6tamens with two pairs of pollen sacs

6tamens are much lighter than the corresponding organs of gymnosperms and have contributed to the diversification of angiosperms through time with adaptations to speciali1ed pollination syndromes% such as particular pollinators. 6tamens have also become modified through time to prevent self!fertili1ation% which has permitted further diversification% allowing angiosperms eventually to fill more niches.

7educed male parts% three cells

The male gametophyte in angiosperms is significantly reduced in si1e compared to those of gymnosperm seed plants. The smaller pollen decreases the time from pollination < the pollen grain reaching the female plant < to fertili1ation of the ovary= in gymnosperms fertili1ation can occur up to a year after pollination% while in angiosperms the fertili1ation begins very soon after pollination. The shorter time leads to angiosperm plants setting seeds sooner and faster than gymnosperms% which is a distinct evolutionary advantage.

;losed carpel enclosing the ovules *carpel or carpels and accessory parts may become the fruit-

The closed carpel of angiosperms also allows adaptations to speciali1ed pollination syndromes and controls. This helps to prevent self!fertili1ation% thereby maintaining increased diversity. >nce the ovary is fertili1ed% the carpel and some surrounding tissues develop into a fruit. This fruit often serves as an attractant to seed!dispersing animals. The resulting cooperative relationship presents another advantage to angiosperms in the process of dispersal.

7educed female gametophyte% seven cells with eight nuclei

The reduced female gametophyte% li&e the reduced male gametophyte% may be an adaptation allowing for more rapid seed set% eventually leading to such flowering plant adaptations as annual herbaceous life cycles% allowing the flowering plants to fill even more niches.

.ndosperm

.ndosperm formation generally begins after fertili1ation and before the first division of the 1ygote. .ndosperm is a highly nutritive tissue that can provide food for the developing embryo% the cotyledons% and sometimes for the seedling when it first appears. These distinguishing characteristics ta&en together have made the angiosperms the most diverse and numerous land plants and the most commercially important group to humans. The ma?or e$ception to the dominance of terrestrial ecosystems by flowering plants is the coniferous forest.

Evolution
Further information3 .volutionary history of plants@Flowers

Flowers of Malus sylvestris *crab apple:and plants have e$isted for about ,#0 million years.[/] .arly land plants reproduced se$ually with flagellated% swimming sperm% li&e the green algae from which they evolved. An adaptation to terrestriali1ation was the development of upright meiosporangia for dispersal by spores to new habitats. This feature is lac&ing in the descendants of their nearest algal relatives% the ;harophycean green algae. A later terrestrial adaptation too& place with retention of the delicate% avascular se$ual stage% the gametophyte% within the tissues of the vascular sporophyte. This occurred by spore germination within sporangia rather than spore release% as in non!seed plants. A current e$ample of how this might have happened can be seen in the precocious spore germination in Sellaginella% the spi&e!moss. The result for the ancestors of angiosperms was enclosing them in a case% the seed. The first seed bearing plants% li&e the gin&go% and conifers *such as pines and firs-% did not produce flowers. 'nterestingly% the pollen grains *males- of "in&go and cycads produce a pair of flagellated% mobile sperm cells that (swim( down the developing pollen tube to the female and her eggs. The apparently sudden appearance of relatively modern flowers in the fossil record posed such a problem for the theory of evolution that it was called an (abominable mystery( by ;harles "arwin.[,] 4owever% the fossil record has grown since the time of "arwin% and recently discovered angiosperm fossils such as rchae'ructus% along with further discoveries of fossil gymnosperms% suggest how angiosperm characteristics may have been acAuired in a series of steps. 6everal groups of e$tinct gymnosperms% particularly seed ferns% have been proposed as the ancestors of flowering plants but there is no continuous fossil evidence showing e$actly how flowers evolved. 6ome older fossils% such as the upper Triassic Sanmiguelia% have been suggested. 2ased on current evidence% some propose that the ancestors of the angiosperms diverged from an un&nown group of gymnosperms during the late Triassic *#,09#0# million years ago-. A close relationship between angiosperms and gnetophytes% proposed on the basis of morphological evidence% has more recently been

disputed on the basis of molecular evidence that suggest gnetophytes are instead more closely related to other gymnosperms. The earliest &nown macrofossil confidently identified as an angiosperm% rchae'ructus liaoningensis% is dated to about 1#0 million years 2P *the ;retaceous period-%[0] while pollen considered to be of angiosperm origin ta&es the fossil record bac& to about 1/0 million years 2P. 4owever% one study has suggested that the early!middle Burassic plant Schmeissneria% traditionally considered a type of gin&go% may be the earliest &nown angiosperm% or at least a close relative.[+] Additionally% circumstantial chemical evidence has been found for the e$istence of angiosperms as early as #00 million years ago. >leanane% a secondary metabolite produced by many flowering plants% has been found in Permian deposits of that age together with fossils of gigantopterids.[)][C] 5igantopterids are a group of e$tinct seed plants that share many morphological traits with flowering plants% although they are not &nown to have been flowering plants themselves. 7ecent "DA analysis based on molecular systematics [E][10] showed that mborella trichopo(a% found on the Pacific island of Dew ;aledonia% belongs to a sister group of the other flowering plants% and morphological studies [11] suggest that it has features that may have been characteristic of the earliest flowering plants. The great angiosperm radiation% when a great diversity of angiosperms appears in the fossil record% occurred in the mid!;retaceous *appro$imately 100 million years ago-. 4owever% a study in #00) estimated that the division of the five most recent *the genus Ceratophyllum% the family ;hloranthaceae% the eudicots% the magnoliids% and the monocots- of the eight main groups occurred around 1,0 million years ago.[1#] 2y the late ;retaceous% angiosperms appear to have dominated environments formerly occupied by ferns and cycadophytes% but large canopy!forming trees replaced conifers as the dominant trees only close to the end of the ;retaceous +0 millions years ago or even later% at the beginning of the Tertiary.[1/] The radiation of herbaceous angiosperm occurred much later.[1,] 8et% many fossil plants recogni1able as belonging to modern families *including beech% oa&% maple% and magnoliaappeared already at late ;retaceous.

Two bees on a flower head of ;reeping Thistle% Cirsium arvense 't is generally assumed that the function of flowers% from the start% was to involve mobile animals in their reproduction processes. That is% pollen can be scattered even if the flower is

not brightly colored or oddly shaped in a way that attracts animals= however% by e$pending the energy reAuired to create such traits% angiosperms can enlist the aid of animals and thus reproduce more efficiently. 'sland genetics provides one proposed e$planation for the sudden% fully developed appearance of flowering plants. 'sland genetics is believed to be a common source of speciation in general% especially when it comes to radical adaptations that seem to have reAuired inferior transitional forms. Flowering plants may have evolved in an isolated setting li&e an island or island chain% where the plants bearing them were able to develop a highly speciali1ed relationship with some specific animal *a wasp% for e$ample-. 6uch a relationship% with a hypothetical wasp carrying pollen from one plant to another much the way fig wasps do today% could result in both the plant*s- and their partners developing a high degree of speciali1ation. Dote that the wasp e$ample is not incidental= bees% which apparently evolved specifically due to mutualistic plant relationships% are descended from wasps. Animals are also involved in the distribution of seeds. Fruit% which is formed by the enlargement of flower parts% is freAuently a seed!dispersal tool that attracts animals to eat or otherwise disturb it% incidentally scattering the seeds it contains *see frugivory-. Fhile many such mutualistic relationships remain too fragile to survive competition and to spread widely% flowering proved to be an unusually effective means of reproduction% spreading *whatever its origin- to become the dominant form of land plant life. Flower ontogeny uses a combination of genes normally responsible for forming new shoots. [10] The most primitive flowers are thought to have had a variable number of flower parts% often separate from *but in contact with- each other. The flowers would have tended to grow in a spiral pattern% to be bise$ual *in plants% this means both male and female parts on the same flower-% and to be dominated by the ovary *female part-. As flowers grew more advanced% some variations developed parts fused together% with a much more specific number and design% and with either specific se$es per flower or plant% or at least (ovary inferior(. Flower evolution continues to the present day= modern flowers have been so profoundly influenced by humans that some of them cannot be pollinated in nature. any modern% domesticated flowers used to be simple weeds% which only sprouted when the ground was disturbed. 6ome of them tended to grow with human crops% perhaps already having symbiotic companion plant relationships with them% and the prettiest did not get pluc&ed because of their beauty% developing a dependence upon and special adaptation to human affection.

Classification
There are eight groups of living angiosperms3

mborella < a single species of shrub from Dew ;aledonia Dymphaeales < about C0 species[1E] < water lilies and 4ydatellaceae Austrobaileyales < about 100 species[1E] of woody plants from various parts of the world ;hloranthales < several do1en species of aromatic plants with toothed leaves

agnoliidae < about E%000 species%[1E] characteri1ed by trimerous flowers% pollen with one pore% and usually branching!veined leaves < for e$ample magnolias% bay laurel% and blac& pepper onocotyledonae < about )0%000 species%[1E] characteri1ed by trimerous flowers% a single cotyledon% pollen with one pore% and usually parallel!veined leaves < for e$ample grasses% orchids% and palms Ceratophyllum < about + species[1E] of aAuatic plants% perhaps most familiar as aAuarium plants .udicotyledonae < about 1)0%000 species%[1E] characteri1ed by ,! or 0! merous flowers% pollen with three pores% and usually branching!veined leaves < for e$ample sunflowers% petunia% buttercup% apples and oa&s

The e$act relationship between these eight groups is not yet clear% although there is agreement that the first three groups to diverge from the ancestral angiosperm were Amborellales% Dymphaeales% and Austrobaileyales.[#0] The term basal angiosperms refers to these three groups. The five other groups form the clade esangiospermae. The relationship between the three largest of these groups *magnoliids% monocots and eudicots- remains unclear. 6ome analyses ma&e the magnoliids the first to diverge% others the monocots.[1C]. Ceratophyllum seems to group with the eudicots rather than with the monocots.

ascular anatomy
The amount and comple$ity of tissue!formation in flowering plants e$ceeds that of gymnosperms. The vascular bundles of the stem are arranged such that the $ylem and phloem form concentric rings. 'n the dicotyledons% the bundles in the very young stem are arranged in an open ring% separating a central pith from an outer corte$. 'n each bundle% separating the $ylem and phloem% is a layer of meristem or active formative tissue &nown as cambium. 2y the formation of a layer of cambium between the bundles *interfascicular cambium- a complete ring is formed% and a regular periodical increase in thic&ness results from the development of $ylem on the inside and phloem on the outside. The soft phloem becomes crushed% but the hard wood persists and forms the bul& of the stem and branches of the woody perennial. >wing to differences in the character of the elements produced at the beginning and end of the season% the wood is mar&ed out in transverse section into concentric rings% one for each season of growth% called annual rings. Among the monocotyledons% the bundles are more numerous in the young stem and are scattered through the ground tissue. They contain no cambium and once formed the stem increases in diameter only in e$ceptional cases.

!he flower" fruit" and seed

The characteristic feature of angiosperms is the flower. Flowers show remar&able variation in form and elaboration% and provide the most trustworthy e$ternal characteristics for establishing relationships among angiosperm species. The function of the flower is to ensure fertili1ation of the ovule and development of fruit containing seeds. The floral apparatus may

arise terminally on a shoot or from the a$il of a leaf *where the petiole attaches to the stem-. >ccasionally% as in violets% a flower arises singly in the a$il of an ordinary foliage!leaf. ore typically% the flower!bearing portion of the plant is sharply distinguished from the foliage! bearing or vegetative portion% and forms a more or less elaborate branch!system called an inflorescence. The reproductive cells produced by flowers are of two &inds. icrospores% which will divide to become pollen grains% are the (male( cells and are borne in the stamens *or microsporophylls-. The (female( cells called megaspores% which will divide to become the egg!cell *megagametogenesis-% are contained in the ovule and enclosed in the carpel *or megasporophyll-. The flower may consist only of these parts% as in willow% where each flower comprises only a few stamens or two carpels. Gsually other structures are present and serve to protect the sporophylls and to form an envelope attractive to pollinators. The individual members of these surrounding structures are &nown as sepals and petals *or tepals in flowers such as Magnolia where sepals and petals are not distinguishable from each other-. The outer series *caly$ of sepals- is usually green and leaf!li&e% and functions to protect the rest of the flower% especially the bud. The inner series *corolla of petals- is generally white or brightly colored% and is more delicate in structure. 't functions to attract insect or bird pollinators. Attraction is effected by color% scent% and nectar% which may be secreted in some part of the flower. The characteristics that attract pollinators account for the popularity of flowers and flowering plants among humans. Fhile the ma?ority of flowers are perfect or hermaphrodite *having both male and female parts in the same flower structure-% flowering plants have developed numerous morphological and physiological mechanisms to reduce or prevent self!fertili1ation. 4eteromorphic flowers have short carpels and long stamens% or vice versa% so animal pollinators cannot easily transfer pollen to the pistil *receptive part of the carpel-. 4omomorphic flowers may employ a biochemical *physiological- mechanism called self!incompatibility to discriminate between self! and non!self pollen grains. 'n other species% the male and female parts are morphologically separated% developing on different flowers.

Fertilization and embryogenesis

"ouble fertili1ation refers to a process in which two sperm cells fertili1e cells in the ovary. This process begins when a pollen grain adheres to the stigma of the pistil *female reproductive structure-% germinates% and grows a long pollen tube. Fhile this pollen tube is growing% a haploid generative cell travels down the tube behind the tube nucleus. The generative cell divides by mitosis to produce two haploid *n- sperm cells. As the pollen tube grows% it ma&es its way from the stigma% down the style and into the ovary. 4ere the pollen tube reaches the micropyle of the ovule and digests its way into one of the synergids% releasing its contents *which include the sperm cells-. The synergid that the cells were released into degenerates and one sperm ma&es its way to fertili1e the egg cell% producing a diploid *#n- 1ygote. The second sperm cell fuses with both central cell nuclei% producing a triploid */n- cell. As the 1ygote develops into an embryo% the triploid cell develops into the endosperm% which serves as the embryoHs food supply. The ovary now will develop into fruit and the ovule will develop into seed.

Fruit and seed

As the development of embryo and endosperm proceeds within the embryo!sac% the sac wall enlarges and combines with the nucellus *which is li&ewise enlarging- and the integument to form the see()coat. The ovary wall develops to form the fruit or pericarp% whose form is closely associated with the manner of distribution of the seed. FreAuently the influence of fertili1ation is felt beyond the ovary% and other parts of the flower ta&e part in the formation of the fruit% e*g* the floral receptacle in the apple% strawberry and others. The character of the seed!coat bears a definite relation to that of the fruit. They protect the embryo and aid in dissemination= they may also directly promote germination. Among plants with indehiscent fruits% the fruit generally provides protection for the embryo and secures dissemination. 'n this case% the seed!coat is only slightly developed. 'f the fruit is dehiscent and the seed is e$posed% the seed!coat is generally well developed% and must discharge the functions otherwise e$ecuted by the fruit.

Economic importance
Agriculture is almost entirely dependent on angiosperms% either directly or indirectly through livestoc& feed. >f all the families plants% the Poaceae% or grass family% is by far the most important% providing the bul& of all feedstoc&s *rice% corn < mai1e% wheat% barley% rye% oats% pearl millet% sugar cane% sorghum-. The Fabaceae% or legume family% comes in second place. Also of high importance are the 6olanaceae% or nightshade family *potatoes% tomatoes% and peppers% among others-% the ;ucurbitaceae% or gourd family *also including pump&ins and melons-% the 2rassicaceae% or mustard plant family *including rapeseed and the innumerable varieties of the cabbage species $rassica oleracea-% and the Apiaceae% or parsley family. any of our fruits come from the 7utaceae% or rue family% and the 7osaceae% or rose family *including apples% pears% cherries% apricots% plums% etc.-. 'n some parts of the world% certain single species assume paramount importance because of their variety of uses% for e$ample the coconut *Cocos nuci'era- on Pacific atolls% and the olive *Olea europaea- in the editerranean region. Flowering plants also provide economic resources in the form of wood% paper% fiber *cotton% fla$% and hemp% among others-% medicines *digitalis% camphor-% decorative and landscaping plants% and many other uses. The main area in which they are surpassed by other plants is timber production.

#ntroduction to e$amples of angiosperms The angiosperms are flowering plants and biggest group in plant &ingdom with at least #+0%000 living species grouped under ,0/ families. They bear true roots% leaves% stems% flowers% and seed. The seeds are formed in the ovary present within a flower. Angiosperms flower contains the male andIor female parts of the plant. Angiosperm seeds are covered with fruit% which is a characteristic feature of these plants.

E$amples of Angiosperms % &ased on the 'umber of Cotyledons (resent

Monocots or monocotyledons) onocot seedlings contain only one cotyledon. E$amples of Monocots% rice% wheat% mai1e% orchids% sugar cane% bamboos% Arecaceae spp% usaceae spp% Jingiberaceae spp% lilies% daffodils% irises% amaryllis% orchids% ;aladium% 6pathiphyllum% Philodendron% Anthurium% cannas% bluebells% tulips% etc

Dicots or dicotcotyledons) "icot seedlings contains two cotyledons E$amples of dicots% Fater!lilies% groundnuts% sunflower% apple% cabbage% brin?al% mango% grapes% 4ornworts% 2uttercups K crowfoots% Poppies% Fumitories% .lms% 4ops% Dettles% 2og! myrtles% 2eeches K oa&s% 2irches% "ew!plants% 5oosefoots K oraches% Purslanes% ;ampions% Lnotweeds% Thrifts% Faterworts% allows% Pitcherplants% 6undews% Miolets K pansies% Fhite bryonies% Poplars K willows% ;rucifers% ignonettes% ;rowberries% 4eathers% Fintergreens% etc

E$amples of Angiosperms % &ased on the (hysical 'ature of the (lant*

1. 4erbs! Plants without stems above the ground. ..g. banana% grasses% mai1e% etc #. 6hrubs! A woody plant generally with multiple stems. ..g. rose% hibiscus% /. Trees! A perennial plant with single large stem. ..g. mango% neem% palm% etc

E$amples of Angiosperms % &ased on the Duration of Life +pan

1. Annuals% these plants complete their entire life cycle in one year. ..g. 6unflower% Pea% ustard% 2ean% 7ice% ai1e% etc. #. &iennials% plants that complete their entire life cycle in two years. ..g. ;arrot% 2eetroot% 7adish% Turnip% etc. /. (erennials% plants that live for several years. ..g.% ango% "ahlia% 7ose% 2amboo% etc.

Angiosperms represent the most advanced group of vascular plants. They are commonly called HFlowering plantsH. They e$ceed all other ma?or groups of living plants in number and diversity. Angiosperms grow in almost every &ind of habitat. They occur in very high altitudes% even in Antarctica% in deserts% in shallow waters and even on other plants as parasites. The adult plant body of an Angiosperm is a sporophyte with a well defined root% stem and leaves. The root may be a taproot or fibrous root. The stem may soft and green *herbaceousor hard and woody. The leaves may be simple or compound. The most important feature in angiosperms is that they e$hibit reproductive structures called flowers. The flowers contain certain structures arranged in four whorls. The outer whorls contain accessory structures such as sepals and petals and the two inner whorls containing essential structures such as stamens and carpels. The stamens represent microsporophylls. .ach stamen has an anther and a filament. The anther produces pollen grains containing the highly reduced male gametophyte. The carpels represent megasporophyll. They enclose ovules containing the egg cell which with the associated cells represent the female gametophyte. A characteristic feature of angiosperms is the occurrence of a phenomenon called double fertilisation one male gamete fuses with the egg cell to form a 1ygote while another male gamete fuses with a dipolid secondary nucleus% to form a triploid endosperm *triple fusion-. Following pollination and fertili1ation% the ovule transforms into the seed while the ovary that encloses the ovule% transforms into the fruit. Thus% seeds are enclosed in fruits.

Life Cycle of an Angiosperm

Life +tyles in Angiosperms

Angiosperms e$hibit a great diversity in form% si1e% structure and life span of the plant body. 2ased on the duration of life span% angiosperms are classified into annuals% biennials and perennials.

Annuals

are plants which complete their life cycle in one season. ustard% Pea% 2ean% 7ice% ai1e.

..g.% 6unflower%

&iennials

are plants that complete their life cycle in two years. 'n the second year of their life span they produce flowers% fruits and seeds.

..g.% ;arrot% 7adish% 2eetroot% Turnip.

(erennials

are plants that live for more than two years. .very year they produce flowers% fruits and seeds. ango% 7ose% "ahlia% 2amboo.

..g.%

2ased on the habit% nature and height of the stem and duration of life cycle% angiosperms can be distinguished into herbs% shrubs and trees.

,erbs

are small plants with a soft and green stem. They reach a height of not more than five feet and are mostly annuals or biennials.

+hrubs

are woody perennial plants that may reach a height of five to ten feet. Stem is often profusely branched giving a bushy appearance.

!rees

are woody perennials which reach considerable heights. The stem is hard, woody and is called trunk. It may be unbranched as in palm trees or extensively branched as in most others.

6ome trees li&e mulberry and oa&% shed all their leaves at the pea& summer or winter season. 6uch trees are described as deciduous. any other trees li&e mango and guava do not shed their leaves. 6uch trees are described as evergreen.

Ma-or groups of Angiosperms

Irrespective of any system of classification that is being used, angiosperms are divided into two natural groups called monocotyledons (or monocots) and dicotyledons (or dicots). This distinction is based on the number of embryonic leaves (or cotyledons) in the embryo. The following table summarises the differences between monocots and dicots.

Angiosperms represent the most advanced group of plants. The angiosperm plant body consists of an underground root system and an aerial shoot system. The shoot system contains vegetative parts and reproductive parts. The root serves two primary functions anchoring and absorption. There are two types of root system namely tap root system and fibrous root system. The root may show some modifications for performing specific functions. The modifications may be for storage of food or for providing mechanical support or for other vital functions. The main a$is of the shoot system is called a stem. 't is the ascending portion of the plant body. The stem bears distinct nodes and internodes. 2ranches% leaves and buds may arise at the nodal regions. The stem may be erect and strong or may be wea&. The wea& stem

may be of a prostrate% decumbent% creeping% twining or climbing type.

Apart from its regular functions% the stem may show modifications towards various other functions. :eaf is another ma?or part of the shoot system. 't is a lateral outgrowth of the main stem or a branch mainly meant for photosynthesis. The leaf has a stal& called petiole% a body called lamina% leaf ape$ and leaf margin. :eaves are mainly of two types simple leaves and compound leaves. 6imple leaves have undivided lamina. 'n compound leaves% the lamina is divided into leaflets. The compound leaves can be either pinnately compound or palmately compound. Pinnately compound leaves may be unipinnate or bipinnate or tripinnate.

The arrangement of leaves on the stem is &nown as phyllota$y. Three types are common alternate% opposite and whorled. :eaves may sometimes be modified into tendrils or spines. The collection of flowers in a cluster on the plant is &nown as inflorescence. 't is of two basic types racemose and cymose. 'n racemose type% there is an a$is which &eeps growing. 't does not end in a flower. Flowers are found in acropetal succession. ;ymose inflorescence has an a$is which does not grow infinitely. 't ends usually in a flower. Flowers are produced in basipetal succession. The racemose and cymose inflorescences can be distinguished into several types each. There are a few e$amples of inflorescences which are described as special types. Flower is the reproductive structure of a plant body. A flower has functional parts arranged in four whorls caly$% corolla% androecium and gynoecium. ;aly$ consists of leaf li&e structures called sepals while corolla consists of brightly coloured structures called petals. These two are together described as non!essential whorls of the flower which have a protective and complimentary role. 6ometimes the non!essential whorls may be represented by a single structure called perianth with units called tepals. The arrangement of sepals and petals in the bud condition% is &nown as aestivation. 't is of , different types such as valvate% contorted*twisted-% imbricate and Auincuncial. The essential whorls of a flower are represented by androecium and gynoecium. Androecium is the male whorl of the flower. 't consists of functional units called stamens containing anthers where pollen grains are formed. 5ynoecium is the female whorl of the flower. 't consists of functional units called carpels which enclose ovules. The manner of attachment of the ovules inside the ovary is called placentation. arginal% a$ile% parietal and basal types of placentation are very common. Pollination is the process by which pollen grains are transferred from the anther to the stigma of the same flower *self pollination- or another flower *cross pollination-. ;ross pollination is brought about by agents such as wind% water and animals% especially insects. Pollination is followed by fertilisation. 'n angiosperms it is described as double fertilisation and triple fusion.

After fertilisation the ovule is transformed into the seed and the ovary is transformed into the fruit. Angiosperm fruits can be distinguished into three types3 simple fruits% multiple fruits and composite fruits. 6imple fruits are those which develop from morocarpellary or polycarpellary syncarpous gynoecium. They can be either fleshy or dry. "ry fruits can be either dehiscent or indehiscent. ultiple fruits develop from polycarpellary% apocarpous gynoecium.