1. Phonetics as a branch of linguistics. Phonetics and other disciplines. Applications of phonetics. 2. Branches of phonetics. 3.

Aspects of the sound matter of language. 4. Components of the phonetic system of language. 5. National and regional pronunciation ariants in !nglish. ". British and American pronunciation models. #. $ost distincti e features of BBC !nglish and Net%or& !nglish. '. (he articulatory classification of !nglish o%els. ). (he articulatory classification of !nglish consonants. 1*.Phoneme as many+sided dialectic unity of language. (ypes of allophones. ,istincti e and irrele ant features of the phoneme. 11.$ain phonological schools. 12.(he system of o%el phonemes in !nglish. Problem of diphthongs. 13.(he system of consonant phonemes in !nglish. Problem of affricates. 14.$odifications of !nglish consonants and o%els in speech. 15.Alternations of speech sounds in !nglish. 1".(heories on syllable di ision and formation. 1#.(he structure and functions of syllable in !nglish. 1'.-ord stress in !nglish. 1)..ntonation and prosody/ definition0 functions0 components0 spheres of application. 2*.(he structure of !nglish tone+group. 21.(he phonological le el of intonation. 22.$ethods of phonetic analysis. 23.Phonostylistics. (ypes and styles of pronunciation in !nglish. 24.Phonetics of the spo&en discourse.

Lecture !"tr#$uct%#" &ut'%"e ( 0( 3( 5( )*#"et%c+ ,+ , -r,"c* #. '%"/u%+t%c+ 1+2ect+ ,"$ u"%t+ #. 2*#"et%c+ 4r,"c*e+ #. 2*#"et%c+ 6et*#$+ #. 2*#"et%c ,",'7+%+ ( )*#"et%c+ ,+ , -r,"c* #. '%"/u%+t%c+ -e begin our study of language by e1amining the in entory0 structure and functions of the speech sounds. (his branch of linguistics is called phonetics. Phonetics is an independent branch of linguistics li&e le1icology or grammar. (hese linguistic sciences study language from three different points of ie%. 2e1icology deals %ith the ocabulary of language0 %ith the origin and de elopment of %ords0 %ith their meaning and %ord building. 3rammar defines the rules go erning the modification of %ords and the combination of %ords into sentences. Phonetics studies the outer form of language4 its sound matter. (he phonetician in estigates the phonemes and their allophones0 the syllabic structure the distribution of stress0 and intonation. 5e is interested in the sounds that are produced by the human speech+organs insofar as these sounds ha e a role in language. 2et us refer to this limited range of sounds as the phonic medium and to indi idual sounds %ithin that range as speech+ sounds. -e may no% define phonetics as the study of the phonic medium. Phonetics is the study of the %ay humans ma&e0 transmit0 and recei e speech sounds. Phonetics occupies itself %ith the study of the %ays in %hich the sounds are organi6ed into a system of units and the ariation of the units in all types and styles of spo&en language. Phonetics is a basic branch of linguistics. Neither linguistic theory nor linguistic practice can do %ithout phonetics. No &ind of linguistic study can be made %ithout constant consideration of the material on the e1pression le el. 0( 1+2ect+ ,"$ u"%t+ #. 2*#"et%c+ 5uman speech is the result of a highly complicated series of e ents. 2et

us consider the speech chain0 %hich may be diagrammed in simplified form li&e this/
7pea&er8s brain 1 linguistic 7pea&er8s ocal tract 2 articulatory (ransmission of sounds through air 3 acoustic 2istener8s ear 4 auditory 2istener8s brain 5 linguistic

(he formation of the concept ta&es place in the brain of a spea&er. (his stage may be called psychological. (he message formed %ithin the brain is transmitted along the ner ous system to the speech organs. (herefore0 %e may say that the human brain controls the beha iour of the articulating organs %hich effects in producing a particular pattern of speech sounds. (his second stage may be called physiological. (he mo ements of the speech apparatus disturb the air stream thus producing sound %a es. Conse9uently0 the third stage may be called physical or acoustic. :urther0 any communication re9uires a listener0 as %ell as a spea&er. 7o the last stages are the reception of the sound %a es by the listener8s hearing physiological apparatus0 the transmission of the spo&en message through the ner ous system to the brain and the linguistic interpretation of the information con eyed. . different aspects/ ;a< the articulatory aspect4 ;b< the acoustic aspect4 ;c< the auditory ;percepti e< aspect4 ;d< the functional ;linguistic< aspect. No% it is possible to sho% the correlation bet%een the stages of the speech chain and the aspects of the sound matter. Articulation comprises all the mo ements and positions of the speech organs necessary to pronounce a speech sound. According to their main sound+ producing functions0 the speech organs can be di ided into the follo%ing four groups/ ;1< the po%er mechanism4 ;2< the ibration mechanism4 ;3< the resonator mechanism4 ;4< the obstruction mechanism. (he sound phenomena ha e

(he functions of the po%er mechanism consist in the supply of the energy in the form of the air pressure and in regulating the force of the air stream. (he po%er mechanism includes/ ;1< the diaphragm0 ;2< the lungs0 ;3< the bronchi0 ;4< the %indpipe0 or trachea. (he glottis and the supra+glottal ca ities enter into the po%er mechanism as parts of the respiratory tract. (he ibration mechanism consists of the laryn10 or oice bo10 containing the ocal cords. (he most important function of the ocal cords is their role in the production of oice. (he pharyn10 the mouth0 and the nasal ca ity function as the principal resonators thus constituting the resonator mechanism. (he obstruction mechanism ;the tongue0 the lips0 the teeth0 and the palate< forms the different types of obstructions. (he acoustic aspect studies sound %a es. (he basic ibrations of the ocal cords o er their %hole length produce the fundamental tone of oice. (he simultaneous ibrations of each part of the ocal cords produce partial tones ;o ertones and harmonics<. (he number of ibrations per second is called fre9uency. :re9uency of basic ibrations of the ocal cords is the fundamental fre9uency. :undamental fre9uency determines the pitch of the oice and forms an acoustic basis of speech melody. .ntensity of speech sounds depends on the amplitude of ibration. (he auditory ;sound+perception< aspect0 on the one hand0 is a physiological mechanism. -e can percei e sound %a es %ithin a range of 1" 56+2*.*** 56 %ith , difference in 3 56. (he human ear transforms mechanical ibrations of the air into ner ous and transmits them to brain. (he listener hears the acoustic features of the fundamental fre9uency0 formant fre9uency0 intensity and duration in terms of perceptible categories of pitch0 9uality0 loudness and length. =n the other hand0 it is also a psychological mechanism. (he point is that repetitions of %hat might be heard as the same utterance are only coincidentally0 if e er0 acoustically identical. Phonetic identity is a. theoretical ideal. Phonetic similarity0 not phonetic identity0 is the criterion %ith %hich %e operate in the linguistic analysis. :unctional aspect. Phonemes0 syllables0 stress0 and intonation are linguistic phenomena. (hey constitute meaningful units ;morphemes0 %ords0

%ord+forms0 utterances<. 7ounds of speech perform different linguistic functions. 2et8s ha e a loo& at the correlation of some phonetic terms discussed abo e.
,rt%cu',t#r7 c*,r,cter%+t%c+

,c#u+t%c 2r#2ert%e+ fundamental fre9uency formant fre9uency intensity duration

,u$%t#r782erce2t%-'e
9 :u,'%t%e+

'%"/u%+t%c 2*e"#;e",

ibration of the ocal cords different positions and mo ements of speech organs the amplitude of ibrations the 9uantity of time during %hich the sound is pronounced

melody 9uality ;timbre< loudness length

pitch phoneme stress tempo0 rhythm0 pauses

(he phonetic system of language is a set of phonetic units arranged in an orderly %ay to replace each other in a gi en frame%or&. Phonetics is di ided into t%o ma>or components ;or systems</ segmental phonetics0 %hich is concerned %ith indi idual sounds ;i.e. ?segments? of speech< and suprasegmental phonetics dealing %ith the larger units of connected speech/ syllables0 %ords0 phrases and te1ts. 1. 2. 7egmental units are sounds of speech ; o%els and consonants< 7uprasegmental0 or prosodic0 units are syllables0 accentual %hich form the ocalic and consonantal systems4 ;rhythmic< units0 intonation groups0 utterances0 %hich form the subsystem of pitch0 stress0 rhythm0 tempo0 pauses. No% %e may define phonetics as a branch of linguistics that studies speech pauses<. 2et us consider the four components of the phonetic system of language. (he first and the basic component of the phonetic structure of language is the system of its segmental phonemes e1isting in the material form of their allophones. (he phonemic component has 3 aspects0 or manifestations/ 1. 2. the system of its phonemes as discrete isolated units4 the distribution of the allophones of the phonemes4 sounds in the broad sense0 comprising segmental sounds0 suprasegmental units and prosodic phenomena ;pith0 stress0 tempo0 rhythm0

3.

the methods of >oining speech sounds together in %ords and at their

>unction0 or the methods of effecting @C0 C@0 CC0 and @@ transitions. (he second component is the syllabic structure of %ords. (he syllabic structure has t%o aspects0 %hich are inseparable from each other/ syllable formation and syllable di ision. (he third component is the accentual structure of %ords as items of ocabulary ;i.e. as pronounced in isolation<. (he accentual structure of %ords has three aspects/ the physical ;acoustic< nature of %ord accent4 the position of the accent in disyllabic and polysyllabic %ords4 the degrees of %ord accent. (he fourth component of the phonetic system is the intonational structure of utterances. (he four components of the phonetic system of language ;phonemic0 syllabic0 accentual and intonational< all constitute its pronunciation ;in the broad sense of the term<. 3( 4r,"c*e+ #. 2*#"et%c+ -e &no% that the phonic medium can be studied from four points of ie%/ the articulatory0 the acoustic0 the auditory0 and the functional. -e may consider the branches of phonetics according to these aspects. Articulatory phonetics is the study of the %ay the ocal organs are used to produce speech sounds. Acoustic phonetics is the study of the physical properties of speech sounds. Auditory phonetics is the study of the %ay people percei e speech sounds. =f these three branches of phonetics0 the longest established0 and until recently the most highly de eloped0 is articulatory phonetics. :or this reason0 most of terms used by linguists to refer to speech+ sounds are articulatory in origin. Phoneticians are also interested in the %ay in %hich sound phenomena function in a particular language. .n other %ords0 they study the abstract side of the sounds of language. (he branch of phonetics concerned %ith the study of the functional ;linguistic< aspect of speech sounds is called phonology. By contrast %ith phonetics0 %hich studies all possible sounds that the human ocal apparatus can ma&e0 phonology studies only those contrasts in sound %hich ma&e differences of meaning %ithin language. Besides the four branches of phonetics described abo e0 there are other

di isions of the science. -e may spea& of general phonetics and the phonetics of a particular language ;special or descripti e phonetics<. 3eneral phonetics studies all the sound+producing possibilities of the human speech apparatus and the %ays they are used for purpose of communication. (he phonetics of a particular language studies the contemporary phonetic system of the particular language0 i.e. the system of its pronunciation0 and gi es a description of all the phonetic units of the language. ,escripti e phonetics is based on general phonetics. 2inguists distinguish also historical phonetics %hose aim is to trace and establish the successi e changes in the phonetic system of a gi en language ;or a language family< at different stages of its de elopment. 5istorical phonetics is a part of the history of language. Closely connected %ith historical phonetics is comparati e phonetics %hose aims are to study the correlation bet%een the phonetic systems of t%o or more languages and find out the correspondences bet%een the speech sounds of &indred languages. Phonetics can also be theoretical and practical. At the faculties of :oreign 2anguages in this country0 t%o courses are introduced/ 1. Practical0 or normati e0 phonetics that studies the substance0 the material form of phonetic phenomena in relation to meaning. 2. (heoretical phonetics0 %hich is mainly concerned %ith the functioning of phonetic units in language. (his dichotomy is that %hich holds bet%een theoretical and applied linguists. Briefly0 theoretical linguistics studies language %ith a ie% to constructing theory of its structure and functions and %ithout regard to any practical applications that the in estigation of language might ha e. Applied linguistics has as its concerns the application of the concepts and findings of linguistics to a ariety of practical tas&s0 including language teaching. All the branches of phonetics are closely connected not only %ith one another but also %ith other branches of linguistics. (his connection is determined by the fact that language is a system %hose components are inseparably connected %ith one another.

Phonetics is also connected %ith many other sciences. Acoustic phonetics is connected %ith physics and mathematics. Articulatory phonetics is connected %ith physiology0 anatomy0 and anthropology. 5istorical phonetics is connected %ith general history of the people %hose language is studied4 it is also connected %ith archaeology. Phonology is connected %ith communication ;information< theory0 mathematics0 and statistics. 5( 6et*#$+ #. 2*#"et%c ,",'7+%+ -e distinguish bet%een sub>ecti e0 introspecti e methods of phonetic in estigation and ob>ecti e methods. (he oldest0 simplest and most readily a ailable method is the method of direct obser ation. (his method consists in obser ing the mo ements and positions of one8s o%n or other people8s organs of speech in pronouncing arious speech sounds0 as %ell as in analy6ing one8s o%n &inaesthetic sensations during the articulation of speech sound in comparing them %ith auditory impressions. =b>ecti e methods in ol e the use of arious instrumental techni9ues ;palatography0 laryngoscopy0 photography0 cinematography0 A+ray photography and cinematography and electromyography<. (his type of in estigation together %ith direct obser ation is %idely used in e1perimental phonetics. (he ob>ecti e methods and the sub>ecti e ones are complementary and not opposite to one another. No%adays %e may use the up+to+date comple1 set to fi1 the articulatory parameters of speech + so called articulograph. Acoustic phonetics comes close to studying physics and the tools used in this field enable the in estigator to measure and analy6e the mo ement of the air in the terms of acoustics. (his generally means introducing a microphone into the speech chain0 con erting the air mo ement into corresponding electrical acti ity and analy6ing ;BCDEF0 GHI CJIKI L BMNCO PDMDQ RsS0 EI0 TI+ UIDUL0 HLH R6S< the result in terms of fre9uency of ibration and the amplitude of ibration in relation to time. (he spectra of speech sounds are in estigated by means of the apparatus called the sound spectrograph. Pitch as a component of intonation can be in estigated by intonograph. (he acoustic aspect of speech sounds is in estigated not only %ith the help of

sound+analy6ing techni9ues0 but also by means of speech+synthesi6ing de ices.

Lecture 0 <e/%#",' ,"$ +t7'%+t%c =,r%et%e+ #. >"/'%+* 2r#"u"c%,t%#" &ut'%"e ( ?2#@e" ,"$ Ar%tte" ',"/u,/e 0( B',++%.%c,t%#" #. 2r#"u"c%,t%#" =,r%,"t+ %" >"/'%+*( 4r%t%+* ,"$ 1;er%c," 2r#"u"c%,t%#" ;#$e'+ 3( C72e+ ,"$ +t7'e+ #. 2r#"u"c%,t%#" ( ?2#@e" ,"$ Dr%tte" ',"/u,/e -e don8t need to spea& in order to use language. 2anguage can be %ritten0 broadcast from tapes and C,s0 and produced by computers in limited %ays. Ne ertheless0 speech remains the primary %ay humans encode and broadcast language. 7pea&ing and %riting are different in both origin and practice. =ur ability to use language is as old as human&ind is. .t reflects the biological and cogniti e modification that has occurred during the e olution of our species. -riting is the symbolic representation of language by graphic signs. .t is comparati ely recent cultural de elopment. 7po&en language is ac9uired %ithout specific formal instruction0 %hereas %riting must be taught and learned through deliberate effort. (he origins of the %ritten language lie in the spo&en language0 not the other %ay round. . (he %ritten form of language is usually a generally accepted standard and is the same throughout the country. But spo&en language may ary from place to place. 7uch distinct forms of language are called dialectsV (he arieties of the language are conditioned by language communities ranging from small groups to nations. 7pea&ing about the nations %e refer to the national ariants of the language. According to A.,. 7ch%eit6er national language is a historical category e ol ing from conditions of economic and political concentration %hich characteri6es the formation of nation. .n the case of !nglish there e1ists a great di ersity in the reali6ation of the language and particularly in terms of pronunciation. (hough e ery national ariant of !nglish has considerable differences in pronunciation0 ocabulary and grammar4 they all ha e much in common %hich gi es us ground to spea& of one and the same language W the !nglish language.

! ery national ariety of language falls into territorial or regional dialects. ,ialects are distinguished from each other by differences in pronunciation0 grammar and ocabulary. -hen %e refer to arieties in pronunciation only0 %e use the term accent. 7o local accents may ha e many features of pronunciation in common and are grouped into territorial or area accents. :or certain reasons one of the dialects becomes the standard language of the nation and its pronunciation or accent + the standard pronunciation. (he literary spo&en form has its national pronunciation standard. A standard may be defined as ?a socially accepted ariety of language established by a codified norm of correctness? ;X. $acanalay<. 7tandard national pronunciation is sometimes called ?an orthoepic norm88. 7ome phoneticians ho%e er prefer the term ?literary pronunciation?. 0( B',++%.%c,t%#" #. 2r#"u"c%,t%#" =,r%,"t+ %" >"/'%+*( 4r%t%+* ,"$ 1;er%c," 2r#"u"c%,t%#" ;#$e'+( No%adays t%o main types of !nglish are spo&en in the !nglish+spea&ing %orld/ British !nglish and American !nglish. According to British dialectologists ;P. (rudgill0 Y. 5annah0 A. 5ughes and others<0 the follo%ing ariants of !nglish are referred to the !nglish+based group/ !nglish !nglish0 -elsh !nglish0 Australian !nglish0 Ne% Zealand !nglish4 to the American+based group/ [nited 7tates !nglish0 Canadian !nglish. 7cottish !nglish and .reland !nglish fall some%here bet%een the t%o0 being some%hat by themsel es. According to $. 7o&olo a and others0 !nglish !nglish0 -elsh !nglish0 7cottish !nglish and Northern .rish !nglish should be better combined into the British !nglish subgroup0 on the ground of political0 geographical0 cultural unity %hich brought more similarities + then differences for those pronunciation. ariants of

(eaching practice as %ell as a pronouncing dictionary must base their recommendations on one or more models. A pronunciation model is a carefully chosen and defined accent of a language. .n the nineteenth century \ecei ed Pronunciation ;\P< %as a social mar&er0 a prestige accent of an !nglishman. ?\ecei ed? %as understood in the sense of ?accepted in the best society?. (he speech of aristocracy and the court phonetically %as that of the 2ondon area. (hen it lost its local characteristics and %as finally fi1ed as a ruling+class accent0 often referred to as ?Xing8s !nglish?. .t %as also the accent taught at public schools. -ith the spread of education cultured people not belonging to upper classes %ere eager to modify their accent in the direction of social standards. .n the first edition of !nglish Pronouncing ,ictionary ;1)1#<0 ,aniel Yones defined the type of pronunciation recorded as ?Public 7chool Pronunciation? ;P7P<. 5e had by 1)2"0 ho%e er0 abandoned the term P7P in fa our of ?\ecei ed Pronunciation? ;\P<. (he type of speech he had in mind %as not restricted to 2ondon and the 5ome Counties0 ho%e er being characteristic by the nineteenth century of upper+class speech throughout the country. (he !ditor of the 14th !dition of the dictionary0 A.C. 3imson0 commented in 1)## ?7uch a definition of \P is hardly tenable today?. A more broadly+based and accessible model accent for British !nglish is represented in the 15 th ;1))#< and the 1" th ;2**3< editions ] ^^_ !nglish. (his is the pronunciation of professional spea&ers employed by the BBC as ne%sreaders and announcers. =f course0 one finds differences bet%een such spea&ers + they ha e their o%n personal

characteristics0 and an increasing number of broadcasters %ith 7cottish0 -elsh and .rish accents are employed. =n this ground Y.C. -ells ;2ongman Pronunciation ,ictionary0 33rd edition + 2***< considers that the term BBC pronunciation has become less appropriate. According to Y.C. -ells0 in !ngland and -ales \P is %idely regarded as a model for correct pronunciation0 particularly for educated formal speech. :or American !nglish0 the selection ;in !P,< also follo%s %hat is fre9uently heard from professional oices on national. net%or& ne%s and information programmes. .t is similar to %hat has been termed 3eneral American0 %hich refers to a geographically ;largely non+coastal< and socially based set of pronunciation features. .t is important to note that no single dialect + regional or social + has been singled out as an American standard. ! en national media ;radio0 tele ision0 mo ies0 C,+\=$0 etc.<0 %ith professionally trained oices ha e spea&ers %ith regionally mi1ed features. 5o%e er0 Net%or& !nglish0 in its most colourless form0 can be described as a relati ely homogeneous dialect that reflects the ongoing de elopment of progressi e American dialects. (his ?dialect? itself contains some ariant forms. (he ariants in ol e o%els before `ra0 possible differences in %ords li&e cot and caught and some o%els before `la. .t is fully rhotic. (hese differences largely pass unnoticed by the audiences for Net%or& !nglish0 and are also reflecti e of age differences. -hat are thought to be the more progressi e ;used by educated0 socially mobile0 and younger spea&ers< ariants are considered as first ariants. Y.C. -ells prefers the term 3eneral American. (his is %hat is spo&en by the ma>ority of Americans0 namely those %ho do not ha e a noticeable eastern or southern accent. 3( C72e+ ,"$ +t7'e+ #. 2r#"u"c%,t%#" 7tyles of speech or pronunciation are those special forms of speech suited to the aim and the contents of the utterance0 the circumstances of communication0 the character of the audience0 etc. As ,. Yones points out0 a person may pronounce the same %ord or se9uence of %ords 9uite differently under different circumstances. (hus in ordinary con ersation the %ord and is fre9uently pronounced `na

%hen unstressed ;e.g. in bread and butter `8bredn 8butGa0 but in serious con ersation the %ord0 e en %hen unstressed0 might often be pronounced `bnda. .n other %ords0 all spea&ers use more than one style of pronunciation0 and ariations in the pronunciation of speech sounds0 %ords and sentences peculiar to different styles of speech may be called stylistic ariations. 7e eral different styles of pronunciation may be distinguished0 although no generally accepted classification of styles of pronunciation has been %or&ed out and the peculiarities of different styles ha e not yet been sufficiently in estigated. ,. Yones distinguishes among different styles of pronunciation the rapid familiar style0 the slo%er collo9uial style0 the natural style used in addressing a fair+si6ed audience0 the ac9uired style of the stage0 and the ac9uired style used in singing. 2.@. 7hcherba %rote of the need to distinguish a great ariety of styles of speech0 in accordance %ith the great ariety of different social occasions and situations0 but for the sa&e of simplicity he suggested that only t%o styles of pronunciation should be distinguished/ ;1< collo9uial style characteristic of people8s 9uiet tal&0 and ;2< full style0 %hich %e use %hen %e %ant to ma&e our speech especially distinct and0 for this purpose0 clearly articulate all the syllables of each %ord. (he &ind of style used in pronunciation has a definite effect on the phonemic and allophonic composition of %ords. $ore deliberate and distinct utterance results in the use of full o%el sounds in some of the unstressed syllables. Consonants0 too0 uttered in formal style0 %ill sometimes disappear in collo9uial. .t is clear that the chief phonetic characteristics of the collo9uial style are arious forms of the reduction of speech sounds and arious &inds of assimilation. (he degree of reduction and assimilation depends on the tempo of speech. 7.$. 3aiduchic distinguishes e eryday fi e phonetic styles/ and solemn familiar

;HIMcDCHKDEEOd<0 ?scientific business ;ENLPEI+eDJIKId<0 official business ;IfghgNJFEI+eDJIKId<0 ;iOHIKId<0

;EDTMgELceDEEOd<. As %e may see the abo e+mentioned phonetic styles on the %hole correlate %ith functional styles of the language. (hey are differentiated on the basis of spheres of discourse. (he other %ay of classifying phonetic styles is suggested by Y.A. ,ubo s&y %ho discriminates the follo%ing fi e styles/ informal ordinary0 formal neutral0 formal official0 informal familiar0 and declamatory. (he di ision is based on different degrees of formality or rather familiarity bet%een the spea&er and the listener. -ithin each style subdi isions are obser ed. $.7o&olo a and other8s approach is slightly different. -hen %e consider the problem of classifying phonetic styles according to the criteria described abo e %e should distinguish bet%een segmental and suprasegmental le el of analysis because some of them ;the aim of the utterance0 for e1ample< result in ariations of mainly suprasegmental le el0 %hile others ;the formality of situation0 for e1ample< re eal segmental found. (he style+differentiating characteristics mentioned abo e gi e good grounds for establishing intonational styles. (here are fi e intonational styles singled out mainly according to the purpose of communication and to %hich %e could refer all the main arieties of the te1ts. (hey are as follo%s/ 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. .nformational style. Academic style ;7cientific<. Publicistic style. ,eclamatory style ;Artistic<. Con ersational style ;:amiliar<. But differentiation of intonation according? to the purpose of communication is not enough4 there are other factors that affect intonation in arious situations. Besides any style is seldom reali6ed in its pure form. arieties. 7o it seems preferable to consider each le el separately until a more ade9uate system of correlation is

Lecture 3 B',++%.%c,t%#" #. >"/'%+* +2eec* +#u"$+ &ut'%"e ( 1rt%cu',t#r7 c',++%.%c,t%#" #. >"/'%+* c#"+#","t+ 0( 1rt%cu',t#r7 c',++%.%c,t%#" #. >"/'%+* =#Ae'+ ( 1rt%cu',t#r7 c',++%.%c,t%#" #. >"/'%+* c#"+#","t+ (here are t%o ma>or classes of sounds traditionally distinguished in any language + consonants and o%els. (he opposition ? o%els s. consonants? is a linguistic uni ersal. (he distinction is based mainly on auditory effect. Consonants are &no%n to ha e oice and noise combined0 %hile o%els are sounds consisting of oice only. :rom the articulatory point of ie% the difference is due to the %or& of speech organs. .n case of o%els no obstruction is made0 so on the perception le el their integral characteristic is tone0 not noise. .n case of consonants arious obstructions are made. 7o consonants are characteri6ed by a complete0 partial or intermittent bloc&age of the air passage. (he closure is formed in such a %ay that the air stream is bloc&ed or hindered or other%ise gi es rise to audible friction. As a result consonants are sounds %hich ha e noise as their indispensable characteristic. \ussian phoneticians classify consonants according to the follo%ing principles/ i< degree of noise4 ii< place of articulation4 iii< manner of articulation4 i < position of the soft palate4 < force of articulation. ;.< (here are fe% %ays of seeing situation concerning the classification of !nglish consonants. According to @.A. @assilye primary importance should be gi en to the type of obstruction and the manner of production noise. =n this ground he distinguishes t%o large classes/ a< occlusi e0 in the production of %hich a complete obstruction is formed4 b< constricti e0 in the production of %hich an incomplete obstruction is formed. !ach of t%o classless is subdi ided into noise consonants and sonorants.

Another point of ie% is shared by a group of \ussian phoneticians. (hey suggest that the first and basic principle of classification should be the degree of noise. 7uch consideration leads to di iding !nglish consonants into t%o general &inds/ a< noise consonants4 b< sonorants. (he term ?degree of noise? belongs to auditory le el of analysis. But there is an intrinsic connection bet%een articulatory and auditory aspects of describing speech sounds. .n this case the term of auditory aspect defines the characteristic more ade9uately. 7onorants are sounds that differ greatly from other consonants. (his is due to the fact that in their production the air passage bet%een the t%o organs of speech is fairly %ide0 that is much %ider than in the production of noise consonants. As a result0 the auditory effect is tone0 not noise. (his peculiarity of articulation ma&es sonorants sound more li&e o%els than consonants. Acoustically sonorants are opposed to all other consonants because they are characteri6ed by sharply defined formant structure and the total energy of most of them is ery high. (here are no sonorants in the classifications suggested by British and American scholars. ,aniel Yones and 5enry A. 3leason0 for e1ample0 gi e separate groups of nasals `m0 n0 ja0 the lateral `1a and semi+ o%els0 or glides `%0 r0 > ;y<a. Bernard Bloch and 3eorge (rager besides nasals and lateral gi e trilled `ra. According to \ussian phoneticians sonorants are considered to be consonants from articulatory0 acoustic and phonological point of ie%. ;..< (he place of articulation. (his principle of consonant classification is rather uni ersal. (he only difference is that @.A. @assilye 0 3.P. (orsue 0 =... ,i&ushina0 A.C. 3imson gi e more detailed and precise enumerations of acti e organs of speech than 5.A. 3leason0 B. Bloch0 3. (rager and others. (here is0 ho%e er0 contro ersy about terming the acti e organs of speech. (hus0 \ussian phoneticians di ide the tongue into the follo%ing parts/ ;1< front %ith the tip0 ;2< middle0 and ;3< bac&. :ollo%ing 2.@. 7hcherba8s terminology the front part of the tongue is subdi ided into/ ;a< apical0 ;b< dorsal0 ;c< cacuminal and ;d< retrofle1ed according to the position of the tip and the blade of the tongue in relation to the

teeth ridge. k._. 3imson8s terms differ from those used by \ussian phoneticians/ apical is e9ui alent to forelingual4 frontal is e9ui alent to mediolingual4 dorsum is the %hole upper area of the tongue. 5.A. 3leason8s terms in respect to the bul& of the tongue are/ ape1 + the part of the tongue that lies at rest opposite the al eoli4 front + the part of the tongue that lies at rest opposite the fore part of the palate4 bac&0 or dorsum + the part of the tongue that lies at rest opposite the elum or the bac& part of the palate. ;...< A.2. (ra&htero 0 3.P. (orsye 0 @.A. @assilye and other \ussian scholars consider the principle of classification according to the manner of articulation to be one of the most important and classify consonants ery accurately0 logically and thoroughly. (hey suggest a classification from the point of ie% of the closure. .t may be/ ;1< complete closure0 then occlusi e ;stop or plosi e< consonants are produced4 ;2< incomplete closure0 then constricti e consonants are produced4 ;3< the combination of the t%o closures0 then occlusi e+ constricti e consonants0 or affricates0 are produced4 ;4< intermittent closure0 then rolled0 or trilled consonants are produced. A.C. 3imson0 5.A. 3leason0 ,. Yones and other foreign phoneticians include in the manner of noise production groups of lateral0 nasals0 and semi+ o%els + subgroups of consonants %hich do not belong to a single class. \ussian phoneticians subdi ide consonants into unicentral ;pronounced %ith one focus< and bicentral ;pronounced %ith t%o foci<0 according to the number of noise producing centers0 or foci. According to the shape of narro%ing constricti e consonants and affricates are subdi ided into sounds %ith flat narro%ing and round narro%ing. ;.@< According to the position of the soft palate all consonants are subdi ided into oral and nasal. -hen the soft palate is raised oral consonants are produced4 %hen the soft palate is lo%ered nasal consonants are produced. ;@< According to the force of articulation consonants may be fortis and lenis. (his characteristic is connected %ith the %or& of the ocal cords/ oiceless consonants are strong and oiced are %ea&.

0( C*e ,rt%cu',t#r7 c',++%.%c,t%#" #. >"/'%+* E#Ae'+ (he first linguist %ho tried to describe and classify o%els for all languages %as ,. Yones. 5e de ised the system of ' Cardinal @o%els. (he basis of the system is physiological. Cardinal o%el No. 1 corresponds to the position of the front part of the tongue raised as closed as possible to the palate. (he gradual lo%ering of the tongue to the bac& lo%est position gi es another point for cardinal o%el No.5. (he lo%est front position of the tongue gi es the point for cardinal o%el No.4. (he upper bac& limit for the tongue position gi es the point for cardinal No.'. (hese positions for Cardinal o%els %ere copied from A+ray photographs. (he tongue positions bet%een these points %ere A+rayed and the e9uidistant points for No.20 30 "0 # %ere found. (he .PA symbols ;.nternational Phonetic Alphabet< for the ' Cardinal @o%els are/ 1 +i0 2 + e0 3 + l0 4 + a0 5 + a/0 " + 0 # + o0 ' + u.

(he system of Cardinal @o%els is an international standard. .n spite of the theoretical significance of the Cardinal @o%el system its practical application is limited. .n language teaching this system can be learned only by oral instructions from a teacher %ho &no%s ho% to pronounce the Cardinal @o%els.

\ussian phoneticians suggest a classification of o%els according to the follo%ing principles/ 1< stability of articulation4 2< tongue position4 3< lip position4 4< character of the o%el end4 5< length4 "< tenseness. 1. 7tability of articulation. (his principle is not singled out by British and American phoneticians. (hus0 P. \oach %rites/ ?British !nglish ;BBC accent< is generally described as ha ing short o%els0 long o%els and diphthongs?. According to \ussian scholars o%els are subdi ided into/ a< monophthongs ;the tongue position is stable<4 b< diphthongs ;it changes0 that is the tongue mo es from one position to another<4 c< diphthongoids ;an intermediate case0 %hen the change in the position is fairly %ea&<. ,iphthongs are defined differently by different authors. A.C. 3imson0 for e1ample0 distinguishes 2* ocalic phonemes %hich are made of o%els and o%el glides. ,. Yones defines diphthongs as unisyllabic gliding sounds in the articulation of %hich the organs of speech start from one position and then elide to another position. (here are t%o o%els in !nglish `i/0 u/a that may ha e a diphthongal glide %here they ha e full length (be, do), and the tendency for diphthongi6ation is becoming gradually stronger. 2. (he position of the tongue. According to the hori6ontal mo ement \ussian phoneticians distinguish fi e classes/ 1< front4 2< front+retracted4 3< central4 4< bac&4 5< bac&+ad anced. British phoneticians do not single out the classes of front+retracted and bac&+ ad anced o%els. 7o both `i/a and `ia are classed as front0 and both `u/a and `ma are classed as bac&. (he %ay British and \ussian phoneticians approach the ertical mo ement of the tongue is also slightly different. British scholars distinguish three classes of o%els/ high ;or close<0 mid ;or half+open< and lo% ;or open< o%els. \ussian phoneticians made the classification more detailed distinguishing t%o subclasses in each class0 i.e. broad and narro% ariations of the three ertical positions. Conse9uently0 si1 groups of o%els are distinguished.

!nglish o%els and diphthongs may be placed on the Cardinal @o%el 9uadrilateral as sho%n in :igs. 20 30 4.

3. Another feature position. (raditionally positions are spread0 neutral0 ta&es place rather due to than to any other. Any

of !nglish o%els is lip three lip distinguished0 that is rounded. 2ip rounding physiological reasons bac& o%el in

!nglish is produced %ith rounded lips0 the degree of rounding is different and depends on the height of the raised part of the tongue4 the higher it is raised the more rounded 4. o%el end. depends on the articulatory o%el to a transition ;@C< closed in \ussian. As a result all !nglish short o%els are chec&ed %hen stressed. (he degree of chec&ness may ary and depends on the follo%ing consonants ;n oiceless + oiced + sonorant +<. 5. -e should point out that o%el length or 9uantity has for a long time been the point of disagreement among phoneticians. .t is a common &no%ledge that a o%el li&e any sound has physical duration. -hen sounds are used in the lips are. Character of the (his 9uality &ind of the transition from a consonant. (his is ery !nglish unli&e

connected speech they cannot help being influenced by one another. ,uration of a o%el depends on the follo%ing factors/ 1< its o%n length4 2< the accent of the syllable in %hich it occurs4 3< phonetic conte1t4 4< the position in a rhythmic structure4 5< the position in a tone group4 "< the position in an utterance4 #< the tempo of the %hole utterance4 '< the type of pronunciation. (he problem the analysts are concerned %ith is %hether ariations in 9uantity are meaningful ;rele ant<. 7uch contrasts are in estigated in phonology. (here is one more articulatory characteristic that needs our attention0 namely tenseness. .t characteri6es the state of the organs of speech at the moment of o%el production. 7pecial instrumental analysis sho%s that historically long o%els are tense %hile historically short are la1.

Lecture 5 )*#"e;e ,+ , u"%t #. ',"/u,/e &ut'%"e ( Fe.%"%t%#" #. t*e 2*#"e;e ,"$ %t+ .u"ct%#"+ 0( C72e+ #. ,''#2*#"e+ ,"$ ;,%" .e,ture+ #. t*e 2*#"e;e 3( 6et*#$+ #. t*e 2*#"e;%c ,",'7+%+ 5( 6,%" 2*#"#'#/%c,' +c*##'+ ( Fe.%"%t%#" #. t*e 2*#"e;e ,"$ %t+ .u"ct%#"+( (o &no% ho% sounds are produced is not enough to describe and classify them as language units. -hen %e tal& about the sounds of language0 the term ?sound? can be interpreted in t%o different %ays. :irst0 %e can say that `ta and `da0 for e1ample0 are t%o different sounds in !nglish/ e.g. ten-den, seat-seed. But on the other hand0 %e &no% that `ta in let us and `ta in let them are not the same. .n both e1amples the sounds differ in one articulatory feature only. .n the second case the difference bet%een the sounds has functionally no significance. .t is clear that the sense of ?sound? in these t%o cases is different. (o a oid this ambiguity0 linguists use t%o separate terms/ phoneme and allophone. (he phoneme is a minimal abstract linguistic unit reali6ed in speech in the form of speech sounds opposable to other phonemes of the same language to distinguish the meaning of morphemes and %ords. 2et us consider the phoneme from the point of ie% of its aspects. :irstly0 the phoneme is a functional unit. .n phonetics function is usually understood as a role of the arious units of the phonetic system in distinguishing one morpheme from another0 one %ord from another or one utterance from another. (he opposition of phonemes in the same phonetic en ironment differentiates the meaning of morphemes and %ords/ e.g. bath-path, light-like. 7ometimes the opposition of phonemes ser es to distinguish the meaning of the %hole phrases/ He was heard badly - He was hurt badly. (hus %e may say that the phoneme can fulfill the distincti e function. 7econdly0 the phoneme is material0 real and ob>ecti e. (hat means it is reali6ed in speech in the form of speech sounds0 its allophones. (he phonemes constitute the material form of morphemes0 so this function may be called

constituti e function. (hirdly0 the phoneme performs the recogniti e function0 because the use of the right allophones and other phonetic units facilitates normal recognition. -e may add that the phoneme is a material and ob>ecti e unit as %ell as an abstract and generali6ed one at the same time. 0( C72e+ #. ,''#2*#"e+ ,"$ t*e ;,%" .e,ture+ #. t*e 2*#"e;e 2et us consider the !nglish phoneme `da. .t is occlusi e0 forelingual0 apical0 al eolar0 lenis consonant. (his is ho% it sounds in isolation or in such %ords as door0 darn0 do%n0 etc0 %hen it retains its typical articulatory characteristics. .n this case the consonant `da is called principal allophone. (he allophones %hich do not undergo any distinguishable changes in speech are called principal. Allophones that occur under influence of the neighboring sounds in different phonetic situations are called subsidiary0 e.g./ a. deal, did + it is slightly palatali6ed before front o%els b. bad pain, bedtime + it is pronounced %ithout any plosion C. sudden, admit + it is pronounced %ith nasal plosion before `na0 `ma d. dry + it becomes post+al eolar follo%ed by `ra. .f %e consider the production of the allophones of the phoneme abo e %e %ill find out that they possess three articulatory features in common + all of them are forelingual lenis stops. Conse9uently0 though allophones of the same phoneme possess similar articulatory features they may fre9uently sho% considerable phonetic differences. Nati e spea&ers do not obser e the difference bet%een the allophones of the same phoneme. At the same time they reali6e that allophones of each phoneme possess a bundle of distincti e features that ma&es this phoneme functionally different from all other phonemes of the language. (his functionally rele ant bundle is called the in ariant of the phoneme. All the allophones of the phoneme `da instance0 are occlusi e0 forelingual0 lenis. .f occlusi e articulation is changed for constricti e one `da %ill be replaced by `6a/ e. g. breed - breeze, deal zeal, the articulatory features %hich form the in ariant of the phoneme are called distincti e or rele ant. (o e1tract rele ant features of the phoneme %e ha e to oppose it to some

other phoneme in the phonetic conte1t. .f the opposed sounds differ in one articulatory feature and this difference brings about changes in the meaning this feature is called rele ant/ for e1ample0 port W court, `pa and `&a are consonants0 occlusi e0 fortis4 the only difference being that `pa is labial and `ta is lingual. (he articulatory features %hich do not ser e to distinguish meaning are called non+distincti e0 irrele ant or redundant. :or e1ample0 it is impossible to oppose an aspirated `pha to a non+aspirated one in the same phonetic conte1t to distinguish meaning. -e &no% that anyone %ho studies a foreign language ma&es mista&es in the articulation of sounds. 2.@. 7hcherba classifies the pronunciation errors as phonological and phonetic. .f an allophone is replaced by an allophone of a different phoneme the mista&e is called phonological. .f an allophone of the phoneme is replaced by another allophone of the same phoneme the mista&e is called phonetic. 3( 6et*#$+ #. t*e 2*#"e;%c ,",'7+%+ (he aim of the phonological analysis is0 firstly0 to determine %hich differences of sounds are phonemic and %hich are non+phonemic and0 secondly0 to find the in entory of phonemes of the language. As it %as mentioned abo e0 phonology has its o%n methods of in estigation. 7emantic method is applied for phonological analysis of both un&no%n languages and languages already described. (he method is based on a phonemic rule that phonemes can distinguish %ords and morphemes %hen opposed to one another. .t consists in systematic substitution of one sound for another in order to find out in %hich cases %here the phonetic conte1t remains the same such replacing leads to a change of meaning. (his procedure is called the commutation test. .t consists in finding minimal pairs of %ords and their grammatical forms. :or e1ample/ pen `pena Ben `bena gain `gaina cane `&aina ten `tena den`dena

$inimal pairs are useful for establishing the phonemes of the language. (hus0 a phoneme can only perform its distincti e function if it is opposed to another phoneme in the same position. 7uch an opposition is called phonological.

2et us consider the classification of phonological oppositions %or&ed out by N.7. (rubet6&oy. .t is based on the number of distincti e articulatory features underlying the opposition. 1. .f the opposition is based on a single difference in the articulation of t%o speech sounds0 it is a single phonological opposition0 e.g. `pa+`ta0 as in `pena+`tena4 bilabial s. forelingual0 all the other features are the same. 2. .f the sounds in distincti e opposition ha e t%o differences in their articulation0 the opposition is double one0 or a sum of t%o single oppositions0 e.g. `pa+`da0 as in `pena+`dena0 1< bilabial s. forelingual 2< oiceless+fortis s. oiced+ lenis 3. .f there are three articulatory differences0 the opposition is triple one0 or a sum of three single oppositions0 e.g. `pa+ `oa0 as in `peia+` oeia/ 1< bilabial forelingual0 2< occlusi e s. constricti e0 3< oiceless+fortis s. oiced+lenis. American descripti ists0 %hose most 6ealous representati e is0 perhaps0 Zellig 5arris0 declare the distributional method to be the only scientific one. At the same time they declare the semantic method unscientific because they consider recourse to meaning e1ternal to linguistics. ,escripti ists consider the phonemic analysis in terms of distribution. (hey consider it possible to disco er the phonemes of a language by the rigid application of a distributional method. .t means to group all the sounds pronounced by nati e spea&ers into phoneme according to the la%s of phonemic and allophonic distribution/ 1. Allophones of different phonemes occur in the same phonetic conte1t. .n this case their distribution is contrasti e. 2. Allophones of the same phoneme;s< ne er occur in the same phonetic conte1t. .n this case their distribution is complementary. (here is0 ho%e er0 a third possibility0 namely0 that the sounds both occur in a language but the spea&ers are inconsistent in the %ay they use them0 for e1ample0 !"#-$ !"#, and `peiqG + pDrcGa. .n such cases %e must ta&e them as free ariants of a single phoneme. -e could e1plain the case on the basis of sociolinguistics. (hus0 there are three types of distribution/ contrasti e0 complementary and free ariation. s.

5(

6,%" 2*#"#'#/%c,' +c*##'+

2et us consider the phrase `EN JLrL sIC EDHa and %ords `KkJO a0 `CkUNa. 2ogically0 there can only be three ans%ers to the 9uestion/ %hich phonemes are represented by the consonant sound `ca in `sICa and by the o%el sound `ka in `KkJOa/ $ ;1< .f `sICa and `KkJOa are grammatical forms of the %ords !% and &! respecti ely0 then the consonant `ca represents phoneme tQt, %hile the o%el `ka is an allophone of the phoneme tot. .f `sICa and `KkJOa are grammatical forms of the %ords !' and & respecti ely0 then the consonant `ca belongs to the phoneme tCt, %hile the o%el `ka should be assigned to the phoneme tNt. _u ;2< (he consonant `ca in `sICa belongs to the phoneme (d no matter %hether it is a form of !% or that of !', %hile the o%el `ka in `KkJOa represents the phoneme tat no matter %hether it is a form of &! or that of & . u ;3< (he consonant `ca represents neither phoneme tQt0 nor phoneme (d, %hile the o%el `ka in `KkJOa does not belong either to the phoneme tat or to the phoneme tIt. 7ince there are three possible ans%ers to the abo e 9uestions0 there are three schools of thought on the problem of identifying phonemes. (hose linguists %ho gi e the first ans%er belong to the so+ called morphological ;$osco% phonological< school ;\... A aneso 0 @.N. 7idoro 0 P.7. Xu6netso 0 A.A. \eformats&y0 and N.:. ma&o le <. (he e1ponents of this school maintain that t%o different phonemes in different allomorphs of the same morpheme may be represented on the synchronic le el by one and the same sound0 %hich is their common ariant and0 conse9uently0 one and the same sound may belong to one phoneme in one %ord and to another phoneme in another %ord. .n order to decide to %hich phoneme the sounds in a phonologically %ea& ;neutral< position belong0 it is necessary to find another allomorph of the same morpheme in %hich the phoneme occurs in the strong position0 i.e. one in %hich it retains all its distincti e features. (he strong position of a \ussian consonant phoneme is that before a o%el sound of the same %ord0 %hereas the strong position of a o%el phoneme is that under stress. (he consonant `ca in !' belongs to the phoneme (d because in the strong position in such allomorphs of the same

morpheme as in !', !') the phoneme is definitely tCt. .n !% the same sound `ca is a ariant of the phoneme tQt because in the strong position0 as in !%, !%), the phoneme is definitely tQt. (he o%el `ka in & ) is an allophone of the phoneme tat because the phoneme occurs in the strong position in & %hile the same o%el `ka in &! ) is a ariant of the phoneme tot because this phoneme is found in the strong position in &! . According to this school of thought0 the neutral o%el sound in original should be assigned to the !nglish phoneme tvt because this phoneme occurs in the strong position in such %ord as origin. (he second school of thought0 originated by 2.@. 7hcherba0 ad ocates the autonomy of the phoneme and its independence from the morpheme. ,ifferent allomorphs of a morpheme may differ from each other on the synchronic le el not only in their allophonic0 but also in their phonemic composition. According to the 2eningrad ;Petersburg< phonological school ;2.@. 7hcherba0 2.\. Zinder0 $... $atuse ich<0 speech sounds in a phonologically neutral position belong to that phoneme %ith %hose principal ariant they completely or nearly coincide. (hus0 the sound `ca in `sICa should be assigned to the phoneme tCt because it fully coincides %ith the latter8s principal ariant0 %hich is free from the influence of neighboring speech sounds. (he o%el `ka in `KkJOa should be assigned to the phoneme tat because it nearly coincides %ith the latter8s principal ariant `aa. (he o%el `wa in `KwekKICa does not e en resemble either `oa or `aa or `ka but it is still assigned to the tat phoneme because both tot and tat are reduced to `wa. According to the third school of thought0 there e1ist types of phonemes higher than the unit phoneme. ,ifferent linguists call them differently. =ne of the terms for them introduced by Prague 2inguistic Circle0 namely by N.7. (rubet6&oy and \. Yacobson0 is archiphoneme. According to them0 the archiphoneme is a combination of distincti e features common to t%o phonemes. (hus each of the speech sounds `ca0 `Qa represents the phonemes tct0 tQt. (hese t%o phonemes differ from each other only in matter of oice0 %hile both of them possess the other t%o distincti e features/ ;1< forelingual ;2< fricati e articulation. (hese t%o features together constitute the archiphoneme to %hich both `ca and `Qa belong. (his archiphoneme is0 therefore0 neither oiceless nor oiced. .t designated by \ussian

capital letter C. (he sound `ca in `sICa in both * +$+ !' ,-. and * +$+ !% ,-. belongs to this archiphoneme and not to the phoneme tct or tQt. (he phoneme tNt and tIt belong to archiphoneme %hich is reali6ed in the sound `Aa0 as in `KkJOa meaning both & ) and &! ).

Lecture G C*e +7+te; #. t*e >"/'%+* 2*#"e;e+ &ut'%"e ( C*e +7+te; #. c#"+#","t 2*#"e;e+( )r#-'e; #. ,..r%c,te+ 0( C*e +7+te; #. =#Ae' 2*#"e;e+( )r#-'e;+ #. $%2*t*#"/+ ,"$ =#Ae' 'e"/t* ( C*e +7+te; #. c#"+#","t 2*#"e;e+( )r#-'e; #. ,..r%c,te+ (he phonological analysis of !nglish consonant sounds helps to distinguish 24 phonemes/ `p0 b0 t0 d0 &0 g0 f0 0 x0 o0 s0 60 q0 c;ED ENyJN EgPDrI JLPyD <0 h0 tq0 dc0 m0 n0 z0 %0 r0 10 >a. Principles of classification suggested by \ussian phoneticians pro ide the basis for establishing of the follo%ing distincti e oppositions in the system of !nglish consonants/ 1. ,egree of noise bake - make, /eal - wheel 2. Place of articulation a. labial s. lingual pain W cane b. lingual s. glottal 0oam home, care hair, 1im - him 3. $anner of articulation 3.1 occlusi e s. constricti e pine -0ine, bat + that, bee - thee 3.2 constricti e s. affricates 0are chair, 0ail -2ail 3.3 constricti e unicentral s. constricti e bicentral same 3 shame 4. -or& of the ocal cords and the force of articulation 4.1 oiceless fortis s. oiced lenis pen W 4en, ten - den, coat + goal 5. Position of the soft palate 5.1 oral s. nasal pit pin, seek seen (here are some problems of phonological character in the !nglish

consonantal system4 it is the problem of affricates + their phonological status and their number. (he 9uestion is/ %hat &ind of facts a phonological theory has to e1plain. 1< Are the !nglish `tq0 dca sounds monophonemic entities or biphonemic combinations ;se9uences0 clusters<{ 2< .f they are monophonemic0 ho% many phonemes of the same &ind e1ist in !nglish0 or0 in other %ords0 can such clusters as `tr0 dra and `tx0 doa be considered affricates{ (o define it is not an easy matter. =ne thing is clear/ these sounds are comple1es because articulatory %e can distinguish t%o elements. Considering phonemic duality of affricates0 it is necessary to analy6e the relation of affricates to other consonant phonemes to be able to define their status in the system. (he problem of affricates is a point of considerable contro ersy among phoneticians. According to \ussian specialists in !nglish phonetics0 there are t%o affricates in !nglish/ `tq0 dca. ,. Yones points out there are si1 of them/ `tq0 dca0 `ts0 d6a0 and `tr0 dra. A.C. 3imson increases their number adding t%o more affricates/ `tx0 toa. \ussian phoneticians loo& at !nglish affricates through the eyes of a phoneme theory0 according to %hich a phoneme has three aspects/ articulatory0 acoustic and functional0 the latter being the most significant one. As to British phoneticians0 their primary concern is the articulatory+acoustic unity of these comple1es. Before loo&ing at these comple1es from a functional point of ie% it is necessary to define their articulatory indi isibility. According to N.7. (rubet6&oy8s point of ie% a sound comple1 may be considered monophonemic if/ a< its elements belong to the same syllable4 b< it is produced by one articulatory effort4 c< its duration should not e1ceed normal duration of elements. 2et us apply these criteria to the sound comple1es. 1. 7yllabic indi isibility butcher `butq +|a mattress `mbtr+isa curtsey `&Q/+tsia eighth `eitxa lightship `lait+qipa 0ootrest out-set `fut+resta `aut+seta

whitethorn `%ait+xo/na

.n the %ords in the left column the sounds `tqa0 `tra0 `tsa0 `txa belong to one syllable and cannot be di ided into t%o elements by a syllable di iding line. 2. Articulatory indi isibility. 7pecial instrumental analysis sho%s that all the sound comple1es are homogeneous and produced by one articulatory effort. 3. ,uration. -ith 3.P. (orsuye %e could state that length of sounds depends on the position in the phonetic conte1t0 therefore it cannot ser e a reliable basis in phonological analysis. 5e %rites that the length of !nglish `tqa in the %ords chair and match is different4 `tqa in match is considerably longer than }t} in mat and may be e en longer than `qa in mash. (his does not pro e0 ho%e er0 that `tqa is biphonemic. According to morphological criterion a sound comple1 is considered to be monophonemic if a morpheme boundary cannot pass %ithin it because it is generally assumed that a phoneme is morphologically indi isible. .f %e consider `tqa0 `dca from this point of ie% %e could be secure to grant them a monophonemic status0 since they are indispensable. As to `tsa0 `d6a and `txa0 `doa comple1es their last elements are separate morphemes `sa0 `6a0 `xa0 `oa so these elements are easily singled out by the nati e spea&er in any &ind of phonetic conte1t. (hese comple1es do not correspond to the phonological models of the !nglish language and cannot e1ist in the system of phonemes. (he case %ith `tra0 `dra comple1es is still more difficult. By %ay of conclusion %e could say that the t%o approaches ha e been adopted to%ards this phenomenon are as follo%s/ the finding that there are eight affricates in !nglish `tqa0 `dca0 `tra0 `dra0 `tsa0 `d6a0 `toa0 `dxa is consistent %ith articulatory and acoustic point of ie%0 because in this respect the entities are indi isible. (his is the %ay the British phoneticians see the situation. =n the other hand0 \ussian phoneticians are consistent in loo&ing at the phenomenon from the morphological and the phonological point of ie% %hich allo%s them to define `tqa0 `dca as monophonemic units and `tra0 `dra0 `tsa0 `d6a0 `toa0 `dxa as biphonemic comple1es. 5o%e er0 this point of ie% re eals the possibility of ignoring the articulatory and acoustic indi isibility. 0( C*e +7+te; #. =#Ae' 2*#"e;e+( )r#-'e;+ #. $%2*t*#"/+ ,"$ =#Ae' 'e"/t*

(he follo%ing 2* o%el phonemes are distinguished in BBC !nglish ;\P</ `i/0 a/0 o/0 u/0 Q/0 i0 e0 b0 v0 ~0 J;HgTN sMOysN eIUgsN<0 |4 ei0 ai0 oi0 N~0 e~0 ~|0 i|a. Principles of classification pro ide the basis for the establishment of the follo%ing distincti e oppositions/ 1. 7tability of articulation 1.1. monophthongs s. diphthongs bit + bait, kit + kite, 5ohn - 2oin, debt doubt 1.2. diphthongs s. diphthongoids bile - bee, boat boot, raid - rude 2. Position of the tongue 2.1. hori6ontal mo ement of the tongue a< front s. central cab curb, bed W bird b< bac& s. central pull 3 pearl, cart - curl, call - curl 2.2. ertical mo ement of the tongue a< close ;high< b< open 3. ;lo%< s. mid+open ;mid< s. mid+open ;mid< bid W bird, week + work lark - lurk, call curl, bard-bird Position of the lips rounded s. unrounded don darn, pot - part (he !nglish diphthongs are0 li&e the affricates0 the ob>ect of a sharp phonological contro ersy0 %hose essence is the same as in the case of affricates are the !nglish diphthongs biphonemic sound comple1es or composite monophonemic entities{ ,iphthongs are defined differently by different authors. =ne definition is based on the ability of a o%el to form a syllable. 7ince in a diphthong only one element ser es as a syllabic nucleus0 a diphthong is a single sound. Another definition of a diphthong as a single sound is based on the instability of the second element. (he 3d group of scientists defines a diphthong from the accentual point of

ie%/ since only one element is accented and the other is unaccented0 a diphthong is a single sound. ,. Yones defines diphthongs as unisyllabic gliding sounds in the articulation of %hich the organs of speech start from one position and then glide to another position. N.7. (rubet6&oy states that a diphthong should be ;a< unisyllabic0 that is the parts of a diphthong cannot belong to t%o syllables4 ;b< monophonemic %ith gliding articulation4 ;c< its length should not e1ceed the length of a single phoneme. .n accordance %ith the principle of structural simplicity and economy American descripti ists li9uidated the diphthongs in !nglish as unit phonemes. (he same phonological criteria may be used for >ustifying the monophonemic treatment of the !nglish diphthongs as those applicable to the !nglish affricates. (hey are the criteria of articulatory0 morphophonological ;and0 in the case of diphthongs0 also syllabic< indi isibility0 commutability and duration. Applied to the !nglish diphthongs0 all these criteria support the ie% of their monophonemic status. Problem of length. (here are long o%el phonemes in !nglish and short. 5o%e er0 the length of the o%els is not the only distincti e feature of minimal pairs li&e 6ete -pit, beet + bit, etc. .n other %ords the difference bet%een i/ i. u/ + ~ is not only 9uantitati e but also 9ualitati e0 %hich is conditioned by different positions of the bul& of the tongue. :or e1ample0 in %ords bead- bid not only the length of the o%els is different but in the `i/a articulation the bul& of the tongue occupies more front and high position then in the articulation of `ia. ualitati e difference is the main rele ant feature that ser es to differentiate long and short o%el phonemes because 9uantitati e characteristics of long o%els depend on the position they occupy in a %ord/ ;a< they are the longest in the terminal position/ bee, bar, her7 ;b< they are shorter before oiced consonants/ bead, hard, cord7 ;c< they are the shortest before oiceless consonants/ beet, cart.

Lecture H 1'ter",t%#"+ ,"$ ;#$%.%c,t%#"+ #. +2eec* +#u"$+ %" >"/'%+* &ut'%"e ( C*e "#t%#" #. ,'ter",t%#" ,"$ %t+ t72e+ 0( B#"teItu,' ,'ter",t%#"+ %" >"/'%+* 3( 6#$%.%c,t%#"+ #. +#u"$+ %" >"/'%+* ( C*e "#t%#" #. ,'ter",t%#" ,"$ %t+ t72e+ (he sound ariations in %ords0 their deri ati es and grammatical form %ords0 are &no%n as sound alternations. :or e1ample/ the dar& `la in spell alternate %ith the clear `la in spelling4 combine (n) `p&vmbaina0 combine `&|mbaina %here `na in the stressed syllable of the noun alternates %ith the neutral sound. .t is perfectly ob ious that sound alternations of this type are reduction in speech. caused by the assimilation0 accommodation and (o approach

matter from the phonological ie%point0 it is important to differentiate phonemic and allophone alternations. 7ome sound alternations are traced to the phonemic changes in earlier periods of the language de elopment and are &no%n as historical. 5istorical alternations mar& both o%els and consonants0 though the alternating sounds are not affected by the phonemic position or conte1t. (he sounds changes0 %hich occurred in the process of historical de elopment of the language0 are reflected in present+day !nglish as alternations of phonemes differentiating %ords0 their deri ati es and grammatical forms. (he follo%ing list of e1amples presents the types of alternations/ 1. @o%el alternations. 1.1 ,istinction of irregular erbal forms `i/+e+ea mean - meant - meant7 `i+b+ Aa sing - sang - sung7 `i+ei+ia gi/e - ga/e - gi/en7 1.2 ,istinction of causal erbal forms/ `i+ea sit - set4 `ai+eia rise - raise4 `o + ea 0all-0ell 1.3 ,istinction of parts of speech in etymologically correlated %ords `a/ + ba class - classi0y0 `o/ + ea long - length4 `ei + ba nation - national 2. Consonants alternations 2.1 ,istinction of irregular erbal forms `d + ta send - sent 2.2 distinction of parts of speech `s + 6a ad/ice - ad/ise4 `& + tqa speak -

speech4 3. @o%el and consonant alternations `i + aia n ` + fa li e + life4 `a/ + aea n `x + oa bath - bathe. 0( B#"teItu,' ,'ter",t%#"+ %" >"/'%+* Alternations are also %idely spread on the synchronic le el in the present+ day !nglish and are &no%n as conte1tual. .n connection %ith conte1tual sound alternations there arises a problem of phonemic identification of alternated sounds. (he study of the relationship bet%een phonemes and morphemes is called morphophonemics. (he interrelation of phonology and morphology is also &no%n as morphophonology Ir mIrMhInIlogy %hich is actually the phonology of morphemes. $orphonology studies the %ay in %hich sounds can alternate in different reali6ations of one and the same morpheme. -e are interested in the sound in its %ea& position. 7cholars of different trends are not unanimous in sol ing the problem. (he so+called morphological ;$osco% phonological< school supports the theory of neutrali6ation of phonemes. (he concept of neutrali6ation deri es originally from the Prague 7chool of phonology. Neutrali6ation occurs %hen t%o or more closely related sounds0 %hich are in contrast %ith each other in most positions0 are found to be non+contrasti e in certain other positions. (hat means that there are en ironment %here the t%o sounds do not contrast %ith each other0 e en though they normally do. -hen this happens0 the opposition bet%een the t%o sounds is said to be neutrali6ed. (he loss of one or more distincti e feature;s< of a phoneme in the %ea& position is called phonemic neutrali6ation. (he $osco% philologists claim that interchange of sounds manifests close connection bet%een phonetics and morphology. Alternations are obser ed in one and the same morpheme and actuali6e the phonemic structure of the morpheme. (hus0 phonemic content of the morphemetis constant. .t should be noted here that alternations of morphemes cannot be mista&en for the oppositions of minimal pairs in different stems of %ords. 2ets us compare some e1amples/ postman `|a `ba0 si8pence `|a `ea. (hus0 one and the same sound may belong to different phonemes (he supporters of the morphological trend define the phoneme as follo%s

RHI

fLEshgIENJFEN

DegEghN0

TMDeCHNKJDEEN

MeIU

TIQghgIEEI

PDMDeLgC QKLsIKS ;.^. uNEIK<. (he notion of RfIEDHgPDCsgd MeS0 suggested by \... A aneso 0 demonstrates positionally determined reali6ations of the phoneme. Positionally alternating sounds are grouped into one phoneme %hether they are similar or ha e common features ;that is common allophones< %ith other phonemes. (he \ussian preposition C n noun may ha e the follo%ing reali6ations/ C BIJDd W `ca0 C gUIyDd W `c8a0 C NJDd W `Qa0 C gUId W `Q8a0 C ypod W `ya. C DEDd W `ca0 C LsNMU W `y8a. .n the morphological conception the alternations of the phonemes are not analy6ed apart from the morpheme0 as form and content ma&e dialectical unity. (he phonetic system is not isolated from the grammatical and le1ical structure of the language0 and the unity bet%een the form and the content cannot be destroyed. met as an ans%er to the problem is not entirely satisfactory since ordinary spea&ers are in no doubt that the sound %hich occurs in a %ord li&e $9#: is `Ta not `ia0 and in !nglish %ord speak ;pha is nothing but `pa. (he perception of the listeners ma&es us find the morphological conception too discrepant and confiding. (he so+called 2eningrad ;Petersburg< school asserts that the phoneme is independent of the morpheme. (he supporters of this conception claim that the phoneme cannot lose any of its distincti e features. .n the line of %ords of the same root morpheme ;$9#: - $9#:)< the sound `Ta is an allophone of the phoneme tTt and the sound `ia manifests the phoneme tit. Conse9uently0 the consonants `"a and `Ta do not lose any their distincti e features and represent different phonemes. .t seems that according to this point of ie% the unity bet%een the form and the content is destroyed0 thus phonology is isolated from morphology. According to N.7. (rubet6&oy0 an archiphoneme is defined as a combination of distincti e features common to t%o phonemes. .t consists of the shared features of t%o or more closely related phonemes but e1cludes the feature %hich distinguishes them. :or e1ample/ archiphoneme `ua consists of the features/ bilabial0 plosi e0 but e1cludes oicing %hich separates them. =ne of the disad antages in e1tending the notion of an archiphoneme is that

the Prague 7chool phonologists limited neutrali6ation to closely related phonemes. A neutrali6ation can be said to occur only if there is uncertainty about the identity of the sound in the position of neutrali6ation. Before t%o phonemes can be neutrali6ed0 they must ha e common 9ualities %hich do not occur in other phonemes. (hus `pa0 `ba can neutrali6e because they are the only labial plosi es in the language0 they share these t%o features0 but no other sounds share them. 5o%e er0 `na and `za cannot neutrali6e0 so any neutrali6ation of nasals must in ol e all the three of them + `na0 `za0 `ma. 3( 6#$%.%c,t%#"+ #. +#u"$+ %" >"/'%+* 7ounds in actual speech are seldom pronounced by themsel es. (o pronounce a %ord consisting of more than one sound0 it is necessary to >oin the sounds together in the proper %ay. (here e1ist se eral types of >unction0 some of %hich are common to all or many languages0 %hile others are characteristic of indi idual languages. .n order to master these specific types of >unction it is necessary to understand the mechanism of >oining sounds together. (his mechanism can only be understood after analy6ing the stages in the articulation of a speech+sound pronounced in isolation. ! ery speech+sound pronounced in isolation has three stages of articulation. (hey are ;1< the on+glide0 or the initial stage0 ;2< the retention+stage0 or the medial stage0 and ;3< the off+glide ;release<0 or the final stage. (he on+glide0 or the beginning of a sound0 is the stage during %hich the organs of speech mo e a%ay from a neutral position to la&e up the position necessary for the pronunciation of a consonant or a o%el. (he on+glide produces no audible sound. (he retention+stage or the middle of a sound is the stage during %hich the organs of speech are &ept for some time either in the same position necessary to pronounce the sound ;in the case of non+comple1 sounds< or mo e from one position to another ;%ithin comple1 sounds0 such as diphthongoids0 diphthongs and affricates<. :or the retention+stage of a stop consonant the term stop+stage may also be used. (he off+glide0 or the end of a sound0 is the stage during %hich the organs of speech mo e a%ay to a neutral position. (he off+glide of most sounds is not audible0 the e1ception being plosi es %hose off+glide produces the sound of plosion before a o%el and in a %ord+final position before a

pause. .n !nglish there are t%o principal %ays of lin&ing t%o ad>acent speech sounds/ .. $erging of stages. ... .nterpenetration of stages. (he type of >unction depends on the nature of the sounds that are >oined together. As all !nglish sounds come under the classification of consonants and o%els %e may spea& of >oining/ ;a< a consonant to a follo%ing o%el ;C n @<0 as in the %ord `mi/a me4 ;b< a o%el to a follo%ing consonant ;@ n C<0 as in the %ord `vna on4 ;c< t%o consonants ;C n C<0 as in the %ord `bl|~a blow< ;d< t%o o%els ;@ n @<0 as in the %ord `ribl|tia reality. $erging of stages0 as compared %ith interpenetration of stages0 is a simpler and looser %ay of >oining sounds together. .t usually ta&es place if t%o ad>acent sounds of a different nature are >oined together. .n this case the end of the preceding sound penetrates into the beginning of the follo%ing sound. .n other %ords0 the end of the first sound and the beginning of the second are articulated almost simultaneously. .nterpenetration of stages usually ta&es place %hen consonants of a similar or identical nature are >oined. .n this case the end of the first sound penetrates not only into the beginning but also into the middle part of the second sound0 as in `b&ta act0 `begda begged. (he modifications are obser ed both %ithin %ords and %ord boundaries. (here are the follo%ing types of modification/ assimilation0 accommodation0 reduction0 elision0 and inserting. (he adapti e modification of a consonant by a neighbouring consonant in a speech chain is assimilation. Accommodation is used to denote the interchanges of @C or C@ types. \eduction is actually 9ualitati e or 9uantitati e %ea&ening of o%els in unstressed positions. !lision is a complete loss of sounds0 both addition. $=,.:.CA(.=N7 =: C=N7=NAN(7 1. Assimilation 1.1. Place of articulation t0 d dental before `o0 xa/ eighth, at the, said that t0 d post+al eolar before `ra/ tree, true, dream, the third room o%els and consonants. .nserting is a process of sound

= = = =

s0 6 post+al eolar before `qa/ this shop, does she t0 d affricates before `>a/ graduate, could you m labio+dental before `fa/ symphony n dental before `xa/ se/enth n elar before `&a/ thank loss of plosion/ glad to see you, great trouble nasal plosion/ sudden, at night, let me see lateral plosion/ settle, at last oiced oiceless/ newspaper, gooseberry ;and in grammatical < has0 is0 does `sa4 o0, ha/e > `fa

1.2. $anner of articulation

1.3. -or& of the ocal cords

Notice/ .n !nglish typical assimilation is oiced oiceless4 oiceless oiced is not typical. 1.4. ,egree of noise sonorants are partially de oiced after `p0 t0 &0 sa 2. Accommodation 2.1. 2ip position consonant n bac& o%el/ pool, rude, who ;rounded< consonant n front o%el/ tea, sit, keep ;spread<

3. !lision 3.1. 2oss of `ha in personal and possessi e pronouns and the forms of the au1iliary erb ha/e. 3.2. `la lends to be lost %hen preceded by `o/a/ always, already, all right 3.3. .n cluster of consonants/ ne8t day, 2ust one. mashed potatoes 4. .nserting of sounds 4.1. 2in&ing `ra ;potential pronunciation of `ra</ car owner 4.2. .ntrusi e `ra/ `ra is pronounced %here no r is seen in the spelling china and glass< it is not recommended to foreign learners.

$=,.:.CA(.=N =: @=-!27 1. \eduction 1.1. 1.2. uantitati e ualitati e

2. Accommodation 2.2 Positional length of o%els/ knee - need - neat 2.3. Nasali6ation of o%els/ preceded or follo%ed by `n0 ma/ ne/er0 then, men

C*e +7'',-%c +tructure %" >"/'%+* &ut'%"e ( C*e#r%e+ #" +7'',-'e .#r;,' %#" ,"$ $%=%+%#"( 0( C*e +tructure ,"$ .u"ct%#"+ #. +7'',-'e+ %" >"/'%+* ( C*e#r%e+ #" +7'',-'e .#r;,t%#" ,"$ $%=%+%#" 7peech can be bro&en into minimal pronounceable units into %hich sounds sho% a tendency to cluster or group. (hese smallest phonetic groups arc generally gi en the name of syllables. Being the smallest pronounceable units0 syllables form morphemes0 %ords and phrases. !ach of these units is characteri6ed by a certain syllabic structure. (hus a meaningful language unit phonetically may be considered from the point of ie% of syllable formation and syllable di ision. (he syllable is a complicated phenomenon and li&e a phoneme it can be studied on four le els + articulatory0 acoustic0 auditory and functional. (he comple1ity of the phenomenon ga e rise to many theories. -e could start %ith the so+called e1piratory ;chest pulse or pressure< theory by \.5. 7tetson. (his theory is based on the assumption that e1piration in speech is a pulsating process and each syllable should correspond to a single e1piration. 7o the number of syllables in an utterance is determined by the number of e1pirations made in the production of the utterance. (his theory %as strongly critici6ed by \ussian and foreign linguists. 3.P. (orsuye 0 for e1ample0 %rote that in a phrase a number of %ords and conse9uently a number of syllables can be pronounced %ith a single e1piration. (his fact ma&es the alidity of the theory doubtful. Another theory of syllable put for%ard by =. Yespersen is generally called the sonority theory. According to =. Yespersen0 each sound is characteri6ed by a certain degree of sonority %hich is understood us acoustic property of a sound that determines its perceptibility. According to this sound property a ran&ing of speech sounds could be established/ the least sonorous fricati es oiced plosi es oiceless plosi es oiced

oiced fricati es sonorants close o%els

open o%els the most sonorous. .n the %ord plant for e1ample %e may use the follo%ing %a e of sonority/ `pla/nta. According to @.A. @asssilye the most serious dra%bac& of this theory is that it fails to e1plain the actual mechanism of

syllable formation and syllable di ision. Besides0 the concept of sonority is not ery clearly defined. :urther e1perimental %or& aimed to description of the syllable resulted in lot of other theories. 5o%e er the 9uestion of articulatory mechanism of syllable in a still an open 9uestion in phonetics. -e might suppose that this mechanism is similar in all languages and could be regarded as phonetic uni ersal. .n \ussian linguistics there has been adopted the theory of syllable by 2@ 7hcherba. .t is called the theory of muscular tension. .n most languages there is the syllabic phoneme in the centre of the syllable %hich is usually a o%el phoneme or0 in some languages0 a sonorant. (he phonemes preceding or follo%ing the syllabic pea& are called marginal. (he tense of articulation increases %ithin the range of pre ocalic consonants and then decreases %ithin the range of post ocalic consonants. \ussian linguist and psychologist N... Zhin&in has suggested the so+called loudness theory %hich seems to combine both production and perception le els. (he e1periments carried out by N... Zhin&in sho%ed that the arc of loudness of perception le el is formed due to ariations of the olume pharyngeal passage %hich is modified by contractions of its %alls. (he narro%ing of the passage and the increase in muscular tension %hich results from it reinforce the actual loudness of a o%el thus forming the pea& of the syllabic. 7o the syllable is the arc If loudness %hich correlates %ith the arc of articulatory effort on the speed production le el since ariations in loudness are due to the %or& of all speech mechanisms. .t is perfectly ob ious that no phonetician has succeeded so far in gi ing an ade9uate e1planation of %hat the syllable is. (he difficulties seem to arise from the arious possibilities of approach to the unit. (here e1ist t%o points of ie%/ 1. 7Ime linguists consider the syllable to be a purely articulatory unit %hich lac&s any functional alue. (his point of ie% is defended on the ground that the boundaries of syllables do not al%ays coincide %ith those of morphemes. 2. 5o%e er the ma>ority of linguists treat the syllable as the smallest pronounceable unit %hich can re eal some linguistic function. (rying to define the syllable from articulatory point of ie% %e may tal&

about uni ersals. -hen %e mean the functional aspect of the syllable it should be defined %ith the reference to the structure of one particular language. (he definition of the syllable from the functional point of ie% tends to single out the follo%ing features of the syllable/ a< a syllable is a chain of phonemes of arying length4 b< a syllable is constructed on the basis of contrast of its constituents ;%hich is usually of o%el + consonant type<4 c< the nucleus of a syllable is a o%el0 the presence o0 consonants is optional4 there are no languages in %hich o%els are not used as syllable nuclei0 ho%e er0 there are languages in %hich this function is performed by consonants4 d< the distribution of phonemes in the syllabic structure follo%s by the rules %hich are specific enough for a particular language. 0( C*e +tructure ,"$ .u"ct%#"+ of syllables in !nglish 7yllable formation in !nglish is based on the phonological opposition o%el + consonant. @o%els are usually syllabic %hile consonants are not %ith the e1ceptions of `la0 `ma0 `na0 %hich become syllabic in a final position preceded by a noise consonant/ bottle `bvtla0 bottom `bvtma0 button `bttna and `ra ;in those accents %hich pronounce `ra< perhaps `prbpsa. (he structure of !nglish syllables can be summari6ed as follo%s/ = $any syllables ha e one or more consonants preceding the me0 so, plow. consonants0 follo%ing the $any syllables ha e one or more nucleus. (hese ma&e up the syllable onset/

nucleus. (hey ma&e up the syllable coda. (hey are traditionally &no%n as closed syllables/ cat0 2ump. = (he combination of nucleus and coda has a special significance0 ma&ing up the rhyming property of a syllable.

(he !nglish language has de eloped the closed type of syllable as the fundamental one %hile in \ussian it is the open type that forms the basis of syllable formation. (he other aspect of this component is syllable di ision. (he problem of syllable di ision in case of inter ocalic consonants and their clusters0 li&e in such %ords as city, e8tra, standing and others. 2et us consider the first %ord `8sit.ia. (here e1ist t%o possibilities/ a< the point of syllable di ision is after the inter ocalic consonant/ b< the point of syllable di ision is inside the consonant. .n both cases the first syllable remains closed because the shot o%el should remains chec& (he result of instrumentally analyses sho%0 that the point of syllable di ision in such %ords is inside the inter ocalic consonant. !P, indicates the point of di ision after the consonant. (he second case. (here are t%o syllables in the %ord e8tra but %here should the boundary bet%een them fall{ 1< `e + &str|a. .t is unli&e that people %ould opt for a di ision bet%een `ea and `&str|a because there are no syllables in !nglish %hich begin %ith consonant se9uence `&stra. 2< 7imilarly0 a di ision bet%een `e&stra and `|a %ould be unnatural. 3< `e& + str|a0 `e&s + tr|a0 `e&st + r|a are possible. People usually prefer either of the first t%o options here0 but there no ob ious %ay of deciding bet%een them. .n some cases %e may ta&e into account the morphemic structure of %ords. :or e1ample0 standing consists of t%o syllables4 on phonetic grounds `stbn + diz<. on grammatical grounds `stbnd + iza. No% %e shall consider t%o functions of the syllable. (he first is constituti e function. .t lies in its ability to be a part of a %ord itself. (he syllables form language units of greater magnitude that is %ords0 morphemes0 and utterances. .t this respect t%o things should be emphasi6ed. :irst0 the syllable is the unit %ithin %hich the relations bet%een distincti e features of phonemes and their acoustic correlates are re ealed. 7econd0 %ithin a syllable ;or syllables< prosodic characteristics of speech are reali6ed0 %hich form the stress pattern of a %ord and the intonation structure of an utterance. .n sum0 the syllable

is a specific minimal structure of both segmental and suprasegmental features. (he other function is distincti e one. .n this respect the syllable is characteri6ed by its ability to differentiate %ords and %ord+forms. =ne minimal pare has been found in !nglish to illustrate the %ord distincti e function in the syllabic/ nitrate night-rate. (here analogical distinction bet%een %ord combinations can be illustrated by many more e1amples/ an aim - a name7 an ice house - a nice house, etc. 7ometimes the difference in syllable di ision may be the basic ground for differentiation in such pairs as ( saw her rise.- ( saw her eyes7 ( saw the meat ( saw them eat.

Lecture J D#r$ +tre++ %" >"/'%+* &ut'%"e ( K,ture #. A#r$ +tre++ 0( )',ce #. A#r$ +tre++ %" >"/'%+*( Fe/ree+ #. +tre++ 3( Lu"ct%#"+ ,"$ te"$e"c%e+ #. t*e >"/'%+* +tre++ 5( C72#'#/7 #. ,cce"tu,' +tructure+ ( K,ture #. A#r$ +tre++ (he se9uence of syllables in the %ord is not pronounced identically. (he syllable or syllables %hich are uttered %ith more prominence than the other syllables of the %ord are said to be stressed or accented. 7tress in the isolated %ord is termed %ord stress4 stress in connected speech is termed sentence stress. 7tress is defined differently by different authors. B.A. Bogorodits&y0 for instance0 defined stress as an increase of energy0 accompanied by an increase of e1piratory and articulatory acti ity. ,. Yones defined stress as the degree of force0 %hich is accompanied by a strong force of e1halation and gi es an impression of loudness. 5. 7%eet also stated that stress0 is connected %ith the force of breath. According to A.C. 3imson0 the effect of prominence is achie ed by any or all of four factors/ force0 tone0 length and o%el colour. .f %e compare stressed and unstressed syllables in the %ords contract `8&vntrb&ta0 to contract `&|n8trb&ta0 %e may note that in the stressed syllable/ ;a< the force is greater0 %hich is connected %ith more energetic articulation4 ;b< the pitch of oice is higher0 %hich is connected %ith stronger tenseness of the ocal cords and the %alls of the resonance chamber4 ;c< the 9uantity of the o%el `ba in `&|n8trb&ta is greater0 the o%el becomes longer4 ;d< the 9uality of the o%el `ba in the stressed syllable is different from the 9uality of this o%el in the unstressed position0 in %hich it is more narro% than `8ba. =n the auditory le el a stressed syllable is the part of the %ord %hich has a special prominence. .t is produced by a greater loudness and length0 modifications in the pitch and 9uality. (he physical correlates are/ intensity0 duration0 fre9uency

and the formant structure. All these features can be analy6ed on the acoustic le el. -ord stress can be defined as the singling out of one or more syllables in a %ord0 %hich is accompanied by the change of the force of utterance0 pitch of the oice0 9ualitati e and 9uantitati e characteristics of the sound0 %hich is usually a o%el. .n different languages one of the factors constituting %ord stress is usually more significant than the others. According to the most important feature different types0 of %ord stress are distinguished in different languages. 1< .f special prominence in a stressed syllable or syllables is achie ed mainly through the intensity of articulation0 such type of stress is called dynamic0 or force stress. 2< .f special prominence in a stressed syllable is achie ed mainly through the change of pitch0 or musical tone0 such accent is called musical0 or tonic. .t is characteristic of the Yapanese0 Xorean and other oriental languages. 3< .f special prominence in a stressed syllable is achie ed through the changes in the 9uantity of the o%els0 %hich are longer in the stressed syllables than in the unstressed ones0 such type of stress is called 9uantitati e. 4< ualitati e type of stress is achie ed through the changes in the 9uality of the o%el under stress. !nglish %ord stress is traditionally defined as dynamic0 but in fact0 the special prominence of the stressed syllables is manifested in the !nglish language not only through the increase of intensity0 but also through the changes in the o%el 9uantity0 consonant and o%el 9uality and pitch of the oice. \ussian %ord stress is not only dynamic but mostly 9uantitati e and 9ualitati e. (he length of \ussian o%els al%ays depends on the position in a %ord. No% %e should li&e to distinguish the notions of %ord stress and sentence stress. (hey are first of all different in their sphere of application as they are applied to different language units/ %ord stress is naturally applied to a %ord0 as a linguistic unit0 sentence stress is applied to a phrase. 7econdly0 the distinction of the rhythmic structure of a %ord and a phrase is clearly obser ed in the cases %hen the %ord stress in notional %ords is omitted in a phrase0 e.g. ( ?don?t think he is ?right or %hen the rhythmic structure of the isolated %ord does not coincide %ith

that of a phrase0 e.g. ?@i0teen. ?Aoom @i0teen. ?@i0teen ?pages. 7o in a speech chain the phonetic structure of a %ord obtains additional characteristics connected %ith rhythm0 melody0 and tempo. (hough the sentence stress falls on the syllable mar&ed by the %ord stress it is not reali6ed in the stressed syllable of an isolated %ord but in a %ord %ithin speech continuum. 7ince the spheres of %ord stress and sentence stress fall apart their functions are actually different. 7entence stress organi6es a sentence into a linguistic unit0 helps to form its rhythmic and intonation pattern0 and performs its distincti e function on the le el of a phrase. 7tress difficulties peculiar to the accentual structure of the !nglish language are connected %ith the o%el special and inherent prominence. .n identical positions the intensity of !nglish o%els is different. (he highest in intensity is ta/t0 then go tI/0 Q/0 i/0 u/0 b0 v0 e0 ~0 it. All !nglish o%els may occur in accented syllables0 the only e1ception is t|t0 %hich is ne er stressed. !nglish o%els ti0 g0 | ~t tend to occur in unstressed syllables. 7yllables %ith the syllabic t10 m0 nt are ne er stressed. [nstressed diphthongs may partially lose their glide 9uality. .n stressed syllables !nglish stops ha e complete closure0 fricati es ha e full friction0 and features of fortistlenis distinction are clearly defined. 0( )',ce #. A#r$ +tre++ %" >"/'%+*( Fe/ree+ #. +tre++ 2anguages are also differentiated according to the place of %ord stress. (he traditional classification of languages concerning place of stress in a %ord is into those %ith a fi1ed stress and those %ith a free stress. .n languages %ith a fi1ed stress the occurrence of the %ord stress is limited to a particular syllable in a polysyllabic %ord. :or instance0 in :rench the stress falls on the last syllable of the %ord ;if pronounced in isolation<0 in :innish and C6ech it is fi1ed on the first syllable0 in Polish on the one but last syllable. .n languages %ith a free stress its place is not confined to a specific position in the %ord. .n one %ord it may fall on the first syllable0 in another on the second syllable0 in the third %ord W on the last syllable0 etc. (he free placement of stress is e1emplified in the !nglish and \ussian languages0 e.g. !nglish/ ?appetite - be?ginning - ba?lloon7 \ussian/ !%-9! B!$!C - D! !!.

(he %ord stress in !nglish as %ell as in \ussian is not only free but it may also be shifting0 performing the semantic function of differentiating le1ical units0 parts of speech0 grammatical forms. .n !nglish %ord stress is used as a means of %ord+building4 in \ussian it mar&s both %ord+building and %ord formation0 e.g. ?contrast W con?trast7 ?habit W habitual ?music W mu?sician7 C!D W C!D7 E+C,F W E+C,F, &!C) W &!C). (here are actually as many degrees of stress in a %ord as there are syllables. (he opinions of phoneticians differ as to ho% many degrees of stress are linguistically rele ant in a %ord. (he British linguists usually distinguish three degrees of stress in the %ord. A.C. 3imson0 for e1ample0 sho%s the distribution of the degrees of stress in the %ord e8amination. (he primary stress is the strongest0 it is mar&ed by number 10 the secondary stress is the second strongest mar&ed by 2. All the other degrees are termed %ea& stress. [nstressed syllables are supposed to ha e %ea& stress. (he American scholars B. Bloch and 3. (rager find four contrasti e degrees of %ord stress0 namely/ loud0 reduced loud0 medial and %ea& stresses. =ther American linguists also distinguish four degrees of %ord stress but term them/ primary stress0 secondary stress0 tertiary stress and %ea& stress. (he difference bet%een the secondary and tertiary stresses is ery subtle and seems sub>ecti e. (he criteria of their difference are ery ague. (he second pretonic syllables of such %ords as libe?ration, recog?nition are mar&ed by secondary stress in Br!0 in Am! they are said to ha e tertiary stress. .n Am! tertiary stress also affects the suffi1es -ory, -ary, -ony of nouns and the suffi1es 3ate, -ize, -y of erbs0 %hich are considered unstressed in Br!0 e.g. ?territory, ?ceremony, ?dictionary7 ?demonstrate, ?organize, ?simpli0y. British linguists do not al%ays deny the e1istence of tertiary stress as a tendency to use a tertiary stress on a post+tonic syllable in \P is also traced. 3( Lu"ct%#"+ ,"$ te"$e"c%e+ #. t*e >"/'%+* stress -ord stress in a language performs three functions. 1. -ord stress constitutes a %ord0 it organi6es the syllables of a %ord into a language unit ha ing a definite accentual structure0 that is a pattern of relationship among the syllables4 a %ord does not e1ist %ithout the %ord stress (hus the %ord stress performs the constituti e function. 7ound continuum becomes a phrase

%hen it is di ided into units organi6ed by %ord stress into %ords. 2. -ord stress enables a person to identify a succession of syllables as a definite accentual pattern of a %ord. (his function of %ord stress is &no%n as identificatoiy;L EDrI HNs K JDshgg< ;or recogniti e<. Correct accentuation helps the listener to ma&e the process of communication easier0 %hereas the distorted accentual pattern of %ords0 misplaced %ord stresses pre ent normal understanding. 3. -ord stress alone is capable of differentiating the meaning of %ords or their forms0 thus performing its distincti e function. (he accentual patterns of %ords or the degrees of %ord stress and their positions form oppositions0 e.g. ?import W im?port, ?billow W below. (he accentual structure of !nglish %ords is liable to instability due to the different origin of se eral layers in the $odern !nglish %ord+stoc&. .n 3ermanic languages the %ord stress originally fell on the initial syllable or the second syllable0 the root syllable in the !nglish %ords %ith prefi1es. (his tendency %as called recessi e. $ost !nglish %ords of Anglo+7a1on origin as %ell as the :rench borro%ings ;dated bac& to the 15th century< are sub>ected to this recessi e tendency. [nrestricted recessi e tendency is obser ed in the nati e !nglish %ords ha ing no prefi10 e.g. mother, daughter, brother, swallow, 0in assimilated :rench borro%ings0 e.g. reason, colour, restaurant. \estricted recessi e tendency mar&s !nglish %ords %ith prefi1es0 e.g. 0oresee, begin, withdraw, apart. A great number of %ords of Anglo+7a1on origin are monosyllabic or disyllabic0 both notional %ords and form %ords. (hey tend to alternate in the flo% of speech0 e.g. ?don?t be?lie/e he?s ?right. (he rhythm of alternating stressed and unstressed syllables ga e birth to the rhythmical tendency in the present+day !nglish %hich caused the appearance of the secondary stress in the multisyllabic :rench borro%ings0 e.g. re/olution, organi?sation, assimilation, etc. .t also e1plains the placement of primary stress on the third syllable from the end in three+ and four+syllable %ords0 e.g. ?cinema, ?situate, ar?ticulate. (he interrelation of both the recessi e and the rhythmical tendencies is traced in the process of accentual assimilation of the :rench+ borro%ed %ord personal on the diachronic le el0 e.g. perso?nal W ?perso?nal W ?personal.

(he appearance of the stress on the first syllable is the result of the recessi e tendency and at the same time adaptation to the rhythmical tendency. (he recessi e tendency being stronger0 the trisyllabic %ords li&e personal gained the only stress on the third syllable from the end0 e.g. ?0amily, ?library, 0aculty, ?possible. (he accentual patterns of the %ords territory, dictionary, necessary in Am! %ith the primary stress on the first syllable and the tertiary stress on the third are other e1amples illustrating the correlation of the recessi e and rhythmical tendencies. No%adays %e %itness a great number of ariations in the accentual structure of !nglish multisyllabic %ords as a result of the interrelation of the tendencies. (he stress on the initial syllable is caused by the diachronical recessi e tendency or the stress on the second syllable under the influence of the strong rhythmical tendency of the present day0 e.g. ?hospitable W ho?spitable, ?distribute W dis?tribute, ?aristocrat W a?ristocrat, ?laryngoscope W la?ryngoscope. A third tendency %as traced in the instability of the accentual structure of !nglish %ord stress0 the retenti e tendency/ a deri ati e often retains the stress of the original or parent %ord0 e.g. ?similar W as?simitate, recom?mend W recommen ?dation. 5( C72#'#/7 #. ,cce"tu,' +tructure+ (he numerous ariations of !nglish %ord stress are systemati6ed in the typology of accentual structure of !nglish %ords %or&ed out by 3.P. (orsuye . 5e classifies them according to the number of stressed syllables0 their degree or character ;the main and the secondary stress<. (he distribution of stressed syllables %ithin the %ord accentual types forms accentual structures of %ords. Accentual types and accentual structures are closely connected %ith the morphological type of %ords0 %ith the number of syllables0 the semantic alue of the root and the prefi1 of the %ord. (he accentual types are/ 1. `8a. (his accentual type mar&s both simple and compound %ords. (he accentual structures of this type may include t%o and more syllables0 e.g. ?0a0her, ?possibly, ?mother-in-law, ?gas-pipe. 2. ` 8 8 a. (he accentual type is commonly reali6ed in compound %ords0

most of them are %ith separable prefi1es0 e.g. ?radio-?acti/e, ?re?write, ?diso?bey. 3. ` 88 8 a and 4. `88 8 8a. (he accentual types are met in initial compound abbre iations li&e ?G?H?I, ?G?H?H?A. 5. `8 0a. (he type is reali6ed both in simple and compound %ords0 ery common among compound %ords0 e.g. ?hair-,dresser, ?substructure. ". `0 8a. (he accentual type mar&s a great number of simple %ords and some compound %ords as %ell. .n simple %ords the stresses fall onto/ 1. the prefi1 and the root/ maga?zine7 2. the root and the suffi1/ ,hospi?tality7 3. the prefi1 and the suffi1/ disorganization. (he other fi e types are rare and found in small number of %ords. (he data gi en abo e suggest an idea of the great ariability in the accentual structure of !nglish %ords. (he most %idely spread among the enumerated accentual types are supposed to be (ype 10 (ype 20 (ype 5 and (ype ". !ach type includes arieties of definite accentual structures %ith different numbers of syllables and mar&s thousands of %ords. 7o the four of them co er the main bul& of most common !nglish %ords and are therefore most typical for the !nglish ocabulary. (he ariability of the %ord accentual structure is multiplied in connected speech. (he accentual structure of %ords may be altered under the influence of rhythm0 e.g. In ?unpolished ?stone but/ 1he ?stone was un?polished. (he tempo of speech may influence the accentual pattern of %ords. -ith the 9uic&ening of the speed the carefulness of articulation is diminished0 the o%els are reduced or elided0 the secondary stress may be dropped0 e.g. organi?zation o0 the ?meeting was ?0aulty. 1he ?whole

Lecture M !"t#",t%#" %" >"/'%+* &ut'%"e ( 0( 3( !"t#",t%#"N $e.%"%t%#"O ,22r#,c*e+O .u"ct%#"+ B#;2#"e"t+ #. %"t#",t%#" ,"$ t*e +tructure #. >"/'%+* t#"eP/r#u2 C*e 2*#"#'#/%c,' ,+2ect #. %"t#",t%#"

( !"t#",t%#"N ,22r#,c*e+O $e.%"%t%#"+O .u"ct%#"+ .ntonation is a language uni ersal. (here are no languages %hich are spo&en %ithout any change of prosodic parameters but intonation functions in arious languages in a different %ay. (here are t%o main approaches to the problem of intonation in 3reat Britain. =ne is &no%n as a contour analysis and the other may be called grammatical. (he first is represented by a large group of phoneticians/ 5. 7%eet0 ,. Yones0 3. Palmer0 2. Armstrong0 .. -ard0 \. Xingdon0 Y. =8Connor0 A. 3imson and others. .t is traditional and %idely used. According to this approach the smallest unit to %hich linguistic meaning can be attached is a tone+group ;sense+group<. (heir theory is based on the assumption that intonation consists of basic functional ?bloc&s?. (hey pay much attention to these ?bloc&s? but not to the %ay they are connected. .ntonation is treated by them as a layer that is superimposed on the le1ico+grammatical structure. .n fact the aim of communication determines the intonation structure0 not ice ersa. (he grammatical approach to the study of intonation %as %or&ed out by $. 5alliday. (he main unit of intonation is a clause. .ntonation is a comple1 of three systemic ariables/ tonality0 tonicity and tone0 %hich are connected %ith grammatical categories. (onality mar&s the beginning and the end of a tone+group. (onicity mar&s the focal point of each tone+group. (one is the third unit in 5alliday8s system. (ones can be primary and secondary. (hey con ey the attitude of the spea&er. 5allyday8s theory is based on the syntactical function of intonation. (he founder of the American school of intonation X. Pi&e in his boo& R(he .ntonation of American !nglishS considers Rpitch phonemesS and RcontoursS to be the main units of intonation. 5e describes different contours and their

meanings0 but the %ord RmeaningS stands apart from communicati e function of intonation. (here is %ide agreement among \ussian linguists that on perception le el intonation is a comple10 a %hole0 formed by significant ariations of pitch0 loudness and tempo closely related. 7ome \ussian linguists regard speech timbre as the fourth component of intonation. Neither its material form nor its linguistic function has been thoroughly described. (hough speech timbre definitely con eys certain shades of attitudinal or emotional meaning there is no good reason to consider it alongside %ith the three prosodic components of intonation0 i.e. pitch0 loudness and tempo. $. 7o&olo a and others %rite that the term prosody embraces the three prosodic components and substitutes the term intonation. .t is %idely used in linguistic literature0 it causes no misunderstanding and0 conse9uently0 it is more ade9uate. (hey feel strongly that this term %ould be more suitable for their boo& too0 but0 unfortunately0 it has not been accepted in the teaching process yet. $any foreign scholars ;A. 3imson0 \. Xingdon< restrict the formal definition of intonation to pitch mo ement alone0 though occasionally allo%ing in ariations of loudness as %ell. According to ,. Crystal0 the most important prosodic effects are those con eyed by the linguistic use of pitch mo ement0 or melody. .t is clearly not possible to restrict the term intonation by the pitch parameters only because generally all the three prosodic parameters function as a %hole though in many cases the priority of the pitch parameter is 9uite e ident. (here is no general agreement about either the number or the headings of the functions of intonation %hich can be illustrated by the difference in the approach to the sub>ect by some prominent \ussian phoneticians. (.$. Ni&olaye a names three functions of intonation/ delimitating0 integrating and semantic. 2.X. (seplitis suggests the semantic0 syntactic and stylistic functions the former being the primary and the t%o latter being the secondary functions. N.@. Cheremisina singles out the follo%ing main functions of intonation/ communicati e0 distincti e ;or phonological<0 delimitating0 e1pressi e0 appellati e0 aesthetic0 integrating. =ther \ussian and foreign phoneticians also display some difference in heading the linguistic functions of intonation.

,. Crystal distinguishes the follo%ing functions of intonation. !motional function8s most ob ious role is to e1press attitudinal meaning +sarcasm0 surprise0 reser e0 impatience0 delight0 shoc&0 anger0 interest0 and thousands of other semantic nuances. 3rammatical function helps to identify grammatical structure in speech0 performing a role similar to punctuation. [nits such as clause and sentence often depend on intonation for their spo&en identity0 and se eral specific contrasts0 such as 9uestiontstatement0 ma&e systematic use of it. .nformational function helps dra% attention to %hat meaning is gi en and %hat is ne% in an utterance. (he %ord carrying the most prominent tone in a contour signals the part of an utterance that the spea&er is treating as ne% information. (e1tual function helps larger units of meaning than the sentence to contrast and cohere. .n radio ne%s+reading0 paragraphs of information can be shaped through the use of pitch. .n sports commentary0 changes in prosody reflect the progress of the action. Psychological function helps us to organi6e speech into units that are easier to percei e and memori6e. $ost people %ould find a se9uence of numbers0 for e1ample0 difficult to recall. (he tas& is made easier by using intonation to chun& the se9uence into t%o units. .nde1ical function0 along %ith other prosodic features0 is an important mar&er of personal or social identity. 2a%yers0 preachers0 ne%scasters0 sports commentators0 army sergeants0 and se eral other occupations are readily identified through their distincti e prosody. 0. B#;2#"e"t+ #. %"t#",t%#" ,"$ t*e +tructure #. >"/'%+* %"t#",t%#" /r#u2( 2et us consider the components of intonation. .n the pitch component %e may consider the distinct ariations in the direction of pitch0 pitch le el and pitch range. According to \. Xingdon the most important nuclear tones in !nglish are/ 2o% :all0 5igh :all0 2o% \ise0 5igh \ise0 and :all+\ise. (he meanings of the nuclear tones are difficult to specify in general terms. \oughly spea&ing the falling tone of any le el and range e1presses

certainty0 completeness0 and independence. A rising tone on the contrary e1presses uncertainty0 incompleteness or dependence. A falling+rising tone may combine the falling tone8s meaning of assertion0 certainty %ith the rising tone8s meaning of dependence0 incompleteness. At the end of a phrase it often con eys a feeling of reser ation4 that is0 it asserts something and at the same time suggests that there is something else to be said. At the beginning or in the middle of a phrase it is a more forceful alternati e to the rising tone0 e1pressing the assertion of one point0 together %ith the implication that another point is to follo%. (he falling+rising tone0 as its name suggests0 consists of a fall in pitch follo%ed by a rise. .f the nucleus is the last syllable of the intonation group the fall and rise both ta&e place on one syllable. .n !nglish there is often clear e idence of an intonation+group boundary0 but no audible nuclear tone mo ement preceding. .n such a circumstance t%o courses are open/ either one may classify the phenomenon as a further &ind of head or one may consider it to be the le el nuclear tone. 2o% 2e el tone is ery characteristic of reading poetry. $id+2e el tone is particularly common in spontaneous speech functionally replacing the rising tone. (here are t%o more nuclear tones in !nglish/ \ise+:all and \ise+:all+\ise. But adding refinement to speech they are not absolutely essential tones for the foreign learner to ac9uire. \ise+:all can al%ays be replaced by 5igh :all and \ise+:all+\ise by :all+\ise %ithout ma&ing nonsense of the utterance. According to ,. Crystal0 there are nine %ays of saying Jes as an ans%er to the 9uestion Kill you marry meL 1. 2o% fall. (he most neutral tone4 a detached0 unemotional statement of fact. 2. :ull fall. !motionally in ol ed4 the higher the onset of the tone0 the more in ol ed the spea&er4 choice of emotion ;surprise0 e1citement0 irritation< depends on the spea&er8s facial e1pression. 3. $id fall. \outine0 uncommitted comment4 detached and une1cited. 4. 2o% rise. :acial e1pression important4 %ith a 8happy8 face0 the tone is sympathetic and friendly4 %ith a 8grim8 face0 it is guarded and ominous.

5. :ull rise. !motionally in ol ed0 often Rdisbelief or shoc&0 the e1tent of the emotion depending on the %idth of the tone. ". 5igh rise. $ild 9uery or pu66lement4 often used in echoing %hat has >ust been said. #. 2e el. Bored0 sarcastic0 ironic. '. :all+rise. A strongly emotional tone4 a straight or 8negati e8 face con eys uncertainty0 doubt0 or tentati eness4 a positi e face con eys encouragement or urgency. ). \ise+fall. 7trong emotional in ol ement4 depending on the face0 the attitude might be delighted0 challenging0 or complacent. (%o more pitch parameters are pitch ranges and pitch le els. (hree pitch ranges are generally distinguished/ normal0 %ide0 and narro%. Pitch le els may be high0 medium0 and lo%. 2oudness is used in a ariety of %ays. 3ross differences of meaning ;such as anger0 menace0 and e1citement< can be con eyed by using an o erall loudness le el. (he tempo of speech is the third component of intonation. (he term tempo implies the rate of the utterance and pausation. (he rate of speech can be normal0 slo% and fast. (he parts of the utterance %hich are particularly important sound slo%er. [nimportant parts are commonly pronounced at a greater speed than normal. Any stretch of speech can be split into smaller portions0 i.e. phonetic %holes0 phrases0 intonation groups by means of pauses. By 8pause8 here %e mean a complete stop of phonation. -e may distinguish the follo%ing three &inds of pauses/ 1. 7hort pauses %hich may be used to separate intonation groups %ithin a phrase. . 2. 2onger pauses %hich normally manifest the end of the phrase. 3. @ery long pauses0 %hich are appro1imately t%ice as long as the first type0 are used to separate phonetic %holes. :unctionally0 there may be distinguished syntactic0 emphatic and hesitation pauses.

7yntactic pauses separate phonopassages0 phrases0 and intonation groups. !mphatic pauses ser e to ma&e especially prominent certain parts of the utterance. 5esitation pauses are mainly used in spontaneous speech to gain some time to thin& o er %hat to say ne1t. (hey may be silent or filled. !ach syllable of the speech chain has a special pitch colouring. 7ome of the syllables ha e significant mo es of tone up and do%n. !ach syllable bears a definite amount of loudness. Pitch mo ements are inseparably connected %ith loudness. (ogether %ith the tempo of speech they form an intonation pattern %hich is the basic unit of intonation. An intonation pattern contains one nucleus and may contain other stressed or unstressed syllables normally preceding or follo%ing the nucleus. (he boundaries of an intonation pattern may be mar&ed by stops of phonation that is temporal pauses. .ntonation patterns ser e to actuali6e syntagms in oral speech. .t may be %ell to remind you here that the syntagm is a group of %ords %hich is semantically and syntactically complete. .n phonetics actuali6ed syntagms are called intonation groups ;sense+groups0 tone+groups<. !ach intonation group may consist of one or more potential syntagms0 e.g. the sentence t think he is coming soon has t%o potential syntagms/ t think and he is coming soon. .n oral speech it is normally actuali6ed as one intonation group. (he intonation group is a stretch of speech %hich may ha e the length of the %hole phrase. But the phrase often contains more than one intonation group. (he number of intonation groups depends on the length of the phrase and the degree of semantic importance or emphasis gi en to arious parts of it/ 1his bed was not? slept, inW 01his be was not? slept in An additional terminal tone on this bed e1presses an emphasis on this bed in contrast to other beds. Not all stressed syllables are of e9ual importance. =ne of the syllables has the greater prominence than the others and forms the nucleus0 or focal point of an intonation pattern. :ormally the nucleus may be described as a strongly stressed syllable %hich is generally the last strongly accented syllable of an intonation pattern and %hich mar&s a significant change of pitch direction0 that is %here the pitch goes distinctly up or do%n. (he nuclear tone is the most

important part of the intonation pattern %ithout %hich the latter cannot e1ist at all. =n the other hand an intonation pattern may consist of one syllable %hich is its nucleus. (he tone of a nucleus determines the pitch of the rest of the intonation pattern follo%ing it %hich is called the tail. (hus after a falling tone0 the rest of the intonation pattern is at a lo% pitch. After a rising tone the rest of the intonation pattern mo es in an up%ard pitch direction/ Mo, Nary W Kell, Nary. (he nucleus and the tail form %hat is called terminal tone. (he t%o other sections of the intonation pattern are the head and the pre+head %hich form the pre+nuclear part of the intonation pattern and0 li&e the tail0 they may be loo&ed upon as optional elements/

Oake Pistrict is one o0 the lo/eliest ?parts o0, 4ritain.

(he pre+nuclear part can ta&e a ariety of pitch patterns. @ariation %ithin the prD+nucleus does not usually affect the grammatical meaning of the utterance0 though it often con eys meanings associated %ith attitude or phonetic styles. (here are three common types of prD+nucleus/ a descending type in %hich the pitch gradually descends ;often in ?steps?< to the nucleus4 an ascending type in %hich the syllables form an ascending se9uence and a le el type %hen all the syllables stay more or less on the same le el. (he meaning of the intonation group is the combination of the RmeaningS of the terminal tone and the pre+nuclear part combined %ith the RmeaningS of pitch range and pitch le el. (he parts of the intonation pattern can be combined in arious %ays manifesting changes in meaning0 cf./ the 5igh 5ead combined %ith 2o% :all0 5igh :all0 2o% \ise0 5igh \ise0 :all+\ise in the phrase Mot at all. >Mot at all ;reser ed0 calm<. >Mot at all) ;surprised0 concerned<. >Mot at all ;encouraging0 friendly<. > Mot at all ;9uestioning<. > Mot at all ;intensely encouraging0 protesting<. (he more the height of the pitch contrasts %ithin the intonation pattern the more emphatic the intonation group sounds0 cf./

5e8s %on. :an tastic. :an tastic. (he changes of pitch0 loudness and tempo are not hapha6ard ariations. (he rules of change are highly organi6ed. No matter ho% ariable the indi idual ariations of these prosodic components are they tend to become formali6ed or standardi6ed0 so that all spea&ers of the language use them in similar %ays under similar circumstances. (hese abstracted characteristics of intonation structures may be called intonation patterns %hich form the prosodic system of !nglish. 7ome intonation patterns may be completely colourless in meaning/ they gi e to the listener no implication of the spea&er8s attitude or feeling. (hey ser e a mechanical function W they pro ide a mold into %hich all sentences may be poured so that they achie e utterance. 7uch intonation patterns represent the intonational minimum of speech. (he number of possible combinations is more than a hundred but not all of them ate e9ually important. 7ome of them do not differ much in meaning0 others are ery rarely used. (hat is %hy in teaching it is necessary to deal only %ith a ery limited number of intonation patterns0 %hich are the result of a careful choice. 3. C*e 2*#"#'#/%c,' ,+2ect #. %"t#",t%#"( Phonology has a special branch0 intonology0 %hose domain is the larger units of connected speech/ intonation groups0 phrases and e en phonetic passages or bloc&s of discourse. (he descriptions of intonation sho% that phonological facts of intonation system are much more open to 9uestion than in the field of segmental phonology. ,escriptions differ according to the &ind of meaning they regard intonation is carrying and also according to the significance they attach to different parts of the tone+unit. Y.,. =8Connor and 3.:. Arnold assert that a ma>or function of intonation is to e1press the spea&er8s attitude to the situation hetshe is placed in0 and they attach these meanings not to pre+head0 head and nucleus separately0 but to each of ten 8tone+unit types8 as they combine %ith each of four sentence types0 statement0 9uestion0 command and e1clamation.

$. 5alliday supposes that !nglish intonation contrasts are grammatical. 5e argues first that there is a neutral or unmar&ed tone choice and then e1plains all other choices as meaningful by contrast. (hus if one ta&es the statement ( don?t know the suggested intonational meanings are/ 2o% :all + neutral. 2o% \ise + non+committal0 5igh \ise + contradictory0 :all+\ise + %ith reser ation0 \ise+:all + %ith commitment. [nli&e Y.,. =8Connor and 3.:. Arnold0 $. 5alliday attributes separate significance to the prD+nuclear choices0 again ta&ing one choice as neutral and the other;s< as meaningful by contrast. ,. Crystal presents an approach based on the ie% ?that any e1planation of intonational meaning cannot be arri ed at by seeing the issues solely in either grammatical or attitudinal terms?. 5e ignores the significance of pre+ head and head choices and deals only %ith terminal tones. .t is still impossible to classify0 in any practical analysis of intonation0 all the fine shades of feeling and attitude %hich can be con eyed by slight changes in pitch0 by lengthening or shortening tones0 by increasing or decreasing the loudness of the oice0 by changing its 9uality0 and in arious other %ays. =n the other hand it is 9uite possible to ma&e a broad classification of intonation patterns %hich are so different in their nature that they materially/ change the meaning of the utterance and to ma&e different pitches and degrees of loudness in each of them. 7uch an analysis resembles the phonetic analysis of sounds of a language %hereby phoneticians establish the number of significant sounds it uses. (he distincti e function of intonation is reali6ed in the opposition of the same %ord se9uences %hich differ in certain parameters of the intonation pattern. .ntonation patterns ma&e their distincti e contribution at intonation group0 phrase and te1t le els. (hus in the phrases/ (0 Nary, comes let me know at once ;a fe% people are e1pected to come but it is $ary %ho interests the spea&er< (0 WNary comes let me know at e1pected to come< the intonation patterns of the first intonation groups are opposed. .n the opposition ( en2oyed it - ( en2oyed it the pitch pattern operates o er the %hole once ;no one else but $ary is

phrase adding in the second phrase the notion that the spea&er has reser ations ;implying a continuation something li&e 8but it could ha e been a lot better8<. Any section of the intonation pattern0 any of its three constituents can perform the distincti e function thus being 2*#"#'#/%c,' u"%t+. (hese units form a comple1 system of intonemes0 tonemes0 accentemes0 chronemes0 etc. (hese phonological units li&e phonemes consist of a number of ariants. (he terminal tonemes0 for instance0 consist of a number of allotones0 %hich are mutually non+distincti e. (he principal allotone is reali6ed in the nucleus alone. (he subsidiary allotones are reali6ed not only in the nucleus0 but also in the pre+ head and in the tail0 if there are any0 cf./ Mo. Mo, 1om. Qh, no, Nary. (he most po%erful phonological unit is the terminal tone. (he opposition of terminal tones distinguishes different types of sentence. (he same se9uence of %ords may be interpreted as a different syntactical type0 i.e. a statement or a 9uestion0 a 9uestion or an e1clamation being pronounced %ith different terminal tones0 e.g./ 1om saw it ;statement< + 1om saw itL ;general 9uestion< Pidn?t you en2oy itL ;general 9uestion< + Pidn?t you en2oy itL ;e1clamation< Kill you be RuietL ;re9uest< + Kill you be RuietL ;command<. (he number of terminal tones indicates the number of intonation groups. 7ometimes the number of intonation groups may be important for meaning. :or e1ample0 the sentence Ny sister, who li/es in the Houth, has 2ust arri/ed may mean t%o different things. .n oral speech it is mar&ed by using t%o or three intonation groups. .f the meaning is/ 8my only sister %ho happens to li e in the 7outh80 then the di ision %ould be into three intonation groups/ Ny sister, who li/es in the Houth, has 2ust arri/ed. =n the other hand0 if the meaning is 8that one of my t%o sisters0 %ho li es in the 7outh80 the di ision is into t%o intonation groups. (ogether %ith the increase of loudness terminal tones ser e to single out the semantic centre of the utterance. By semantic centre %e mean the information centre %hich may simultaneously concentrate the e1pression of

attitudes and feelings. (he %ords in an utterance do not necessarily all contribute an e9ual amount of information0 some are more important to the meaning than others. (his largely depends on the conte1t or situation in %hich the intonation group or a phrase is said. 7ome %ords are predisposed by their function in the language to be stressed. .n !nglish le1ical ;content< %ords are generally accented %hile grammatical ;form< %ords are more li&ely to be unaccented although %ords belonging to both of these groups may be unaccented or accented if the meaning re9uires it. 2et us consider the sentence (t was an unusually rainy day. As the beginning of0 say0 a story told on the radio the last three %ords %ould be particularly important0 they form the semantic centre %ith the nucleus on the %ord day. (he first three %ords play a minor part. (he listener %ould get a pretty clear picture of the story8s setting if the first three %ords %ere not heard and the last three %ere heard clearly. .f the last three %ords %hich form the semantic centre %ere lost there %ould be irtually no information gained at all. (he same sentences may be said in response to the 9uestion Khat sort o0 day was itL .n this case the %ord day in the reply %ould lose some of its force because the 9uestioner already possesses the information that it might other%ise ha e gi en him. .n this situation there are only t%o important %ords + unusually rainy + and they %ould be sufficient as a complete ans%er to the 9uestion. (he nucleus %ill be on the %ord rainy. 3oing further still0 in reply to the 9uestion Pid it rain yesterdayL the single %ord unusually %ould bear the ma>or part of the information0 %ould be0 in this sense0 more important than all the others and conse9uently %ould be the nucleus of the intonation pattern. 3rammatical %ords may be also important to the meaning if the conte1t ma&es them so. (he %ord was, for instance0 has had little alue in the pre ious e1amples0 but if the sentences %ere said as a contradiction in the reply to (t wasn ?t a rainy day yesterday, was itL, then was %ould be the most important %ord of all and indeed0 the reply might simply be (t was, omitting the follo%ing %ords as no longer %orth saying. .n this phrase the %ord was is the nucleus of the semantic centre.

(hese ariations of the accentuation achie ed by shifting the position of the terminal tone ser e a stri&ing e1ample of ho% the opposition of the distribution of terminal tones is fulfilling the distincti e function. .f the phrase ( don?t want you to read anything has the lo%+falling terminal tone on the %ord anything, it means that for this or other reason the person should a oid reading. .f the same %ord se9uence is pronounced %ith the falling+rising tone on the same %ord0 the phrase means that the person must ha e a careful choice in reading. .t should be pointed out here that the most important role of the opposition of terminal tones is that of differentiating the attitudes and emotions e1pressed by the spea&er. (he spea&er must be particularly careful about the attitudes and emotions he e1presses since the hearer is fre9uently more interested in the spea&er8s attitude or feeling than in his %ords + that is %hether he spea&s nicely or nastily. :or instance0 the special 9uestion KhyL may be pronounced %ith the lo% falling tone sounding rather detached0 sometimes e en hostile. -hen pronounced %ith the lo%+rising tone it is sympathetic0 friendly0 interested. All the other sections of the intonation pattern differentiate only attitudinal or emotional meaning0 e.g./ being pronounced %ith the high MrD+ head0 Hello sounds more friendly than %hen pronounced %ith the lo% pre+head0 cf./

He lloS - Q He lloS
$ore commonly0 ho%e er0 different &inds of pre+heads0 heads0 the same as pitch ranges and le els fulfil their distincti e function not alone but in the combination %ith other prosodic constituents. -e ha e been concerned %ith the relationship bet%een intonation0 grammatical patterns and le1ical composition. [sually the spea&er8s intonation is in balance %ith the %ords and structures he chooses. .f he says something nice0 his intonation usually reflects the same characteristic. All types of 9uestions0 for instance0 e1press a certain amount of interest %hich is generally e1pressed in their grammatical structure and a special interrogati e intonation. 5o%e er0 there are cases %hen intonation is in contradiction %ith the syntactic

structure and the le1ical content of the utterance neutrali6ing and compensating them0 e.g./ a statement may sound 9uestioning0 interested. .n this case intonation neutrali6es its grammatical structure. .t compensates the grammatical means of e1pressing this &ind of meaning/ Po you know what (?m here 0orL W Mo ;9uestioning< (here are cases %hen intonation neutrali6es or compensates the le1ical content of the utterance as it happens0 for instance0 in the command 6hone him at once, please, %hen the meaning of the %ord please is neutrali6ed by intonation. 2ac& of balance bet%een intonation and %ord content0 or intonation and the grammatical structure of the utterance may ser e special speech effects. A highly forceful or e1citing statement said %ith a ery matter+of+fact intonation may0 by its lac& of balance0 produce a type of irony4 if one says something ery complimentary0 but %ith an intonation of contempt0 the result is an insult.