Applied Cross-Cultural Research

APPLIED
CROSS-CULTURAL
RESEARCH IN
BUSINESS
An annotated review of cross-cultural research in

management, marketing and product development
Lawrence Zeitlin
Professor of Organisational Psychology
City University of New York
And
Centre for Experimental Consumer Psychology
University of Wales/Bangor
May 1, 2001
Cross-cultural Research in Business - L. Zeitlin 2
APPLIED CROSS-CULTURAL RESEARCH IN BUSINESS
TABLE OF CONTENTS
TOPIC PAGE
INTRODUCTION 3
The nature of culture 4
Fundamental problems of cross-cultural research 5
CULTURAL INFLUENCE ON BASIC PSYCHOLOGICAL PROCESSES 9
Culture and perception 9
CROSS-CULTURAL STUDIES OF VISUAL PERCEPTION 12
Colour perception 12
Colour preferences and meanings 13
Perception of visual illusions 14
Perception of pictorial material 17
Aesthetics 18
Conclusions about visual perception 19
COGNITIVE PROCESSES AND CULTURE 21
Cognition 21
General intelligence and culture 22
Cognitive styles 23
Learning and memory across cultures 24
Spatial cognition 25
Business applications of variations in cognitive performance 25
FOOD PREFERENCES AND CULTURE 27
SCENT, ODOUR, PERFUME AND CULTURE 33
CULTURAL VALUES RESEARCH 37
The nature of values 37
Landmark studies in cross-cultural values 39
Some contemporary values studies 51
RELIGION AND CULTURAL VALUES 55
GENDER AND CULTURE 60
TIME PERSPECTIVE AND CULTURE 65
THE STABILITY OF VALUES 67
VALUES AS BEHAVIOUR PREDICTORS 78
MEASUREMENT OF VALUES 83
Requirements of all values measurement techniques 83
A critical survey of values measurement methods 88
A VALUES MEASUREMENT CHECKLIST 104
ALTERNATIVE METHODS OF VALUES RESEARCH 106
DATA ANALYSIS 107
CONCLUSIONS 108
REFERENCES 110
APPENDIX 1 - Annotated bibliography in perception, cognition, behaviour. 120
APPENDIX 2 - Annotated bibliography in values research and measurement. 266
APPLIED CROSS-CULTURAL RESEARCH

IN BUSINESS
Lawrence Zeitlin
Professor of Organisational Psychology
City University of New York
University of Wales/Bangor
"Every man is in certain respects like all other men, like some
other men, and like no other men." - Kluckhohn, 1951
INTRODUCTION
This introduction to applied cross-cultural psychology is based on a study of the applicability
of cross-cultural research to marketing, management and product development. The Unilever
Research Laboratory at Pt. Sunlight, UK provided the funding and the University of
Wales/Bangor provided the facilities and research support. Originally intended for a business
audience, many of the examples used in this study are related to marketing and management.
Perceptual and cognitive differences across cultures relevant to business are surveyed but the
main emphasis is on the theory and practice of cross-cultural values research. Applied cross-
cultural psychology has broad applicability for any practical endeavour which transcends
national and cultural boundaries. The annotated appendices list thousands of published studies
covering current research and methodology. Appendix 1 deals with cross-cultural differences
in basic perceptual and cognitive behaviour. Appendix 2 contains studies on cross-cultural
values and attitudes.
It must be emphasised that cross-cultural research is one of the most complex areas in the
social sciences and that there are few "correct" answers. A number of best practice
prescriptions have been suggested for cultural values measurement but these merely represent
the current state of the art and are subject to modification on the basis of later information. No
apologies are made for the numerous references. That is the academic way.
The nature of culture:

Culture is a term invented to characterise the varied ways in which peoples of the world live
and which they pass along to succeeding generations. It is a composite of language, physical
artefacts, social institutions, family structures and personal values. There is general agreement
that cultural differences exist between national and regional groupings of people but the
precise nature of these differences is unclear. At least 175 definitions of culture have been
offered in the scientific literature ranging from "the programming of the mind" to the "human
made part of the environment"(Lonner 1994). Despite the definitional confusion, most
researchers agree that culture is the result of human efforts to satisfy physical and social needs
in a manner consistent with the constraints of biology and the environment.
Cross-cultural research into the social aspects of human behaviour invariably involves
consideration of strongly held beliefs and values. Without meaning to, most of us are victims
of a form of ethnocentric bias, the feeling that our own culture is the standard to which all
others must be compared. While this form of ethnocentrism is not as blatant as that exhibited
by the19th century historians and anthropologists who regarded Western European society as
the pinnacle of human achievement, subtle forms of this bias exist today even among
experienced researchers. Most of the methodological problems in cross-cultural research
involve minimisation of the contaminating influence of ethnocentrism in acquiring and
evaluating data.
The appropriate disclaimer having been made, the utility of cross-cultural research for global
business is to assist in the transfer of products, practices, and values originating in one culture
to another with dissimilar practices and values. Many multi-national companies are
headquartered in Western Europe or North America so the exporting of Western ideas to the
rest of the world is taken for granted. Cross-cultural information can be useful in minimising
the cultural conflicts that will inevitably occur.
Fundamental problems of cross-cultural research:

The concept of culture cuts across so many academic and applied disciplines that there is
sparse agreement on the units of culture to study. However all concerned are unanimous in
applying Aristotle's dictum that questions should be asked in such a manner that data could be
sought for the answer. To differentiate cultures, researchers have tried to measure external or
exogenous factors, particularly climate, geographic conditions, and technology which impose
physical limits on the manner in which needs are satisfied, and internal or endogenous
factors, such as attitudes and value systems, which serve to moderate behaviour and social
institutions.
Observing and classifying the material aspects of culture requires the objective measurement
of a number of items reflecting the external aspects of a culture and the correlation of those
measurements with specific behavioural tendencies. The most comprehensive recent study of
this type is that performed in 1994 by Cattell and his associates (Cattell 1994). Over 100
national cultures were evaluated along 19 dimensions, the four most important being 1)
development, 2) affluence, 3) morale, and 4) size. The development dimension includes such
factors as per capita energy consumption, dietary protein percentage, telephone usage, ratio of
farm to industrial workers, heart disease rate, illiteracy rate, etc. The affluence dimension
includes real income, educational expenditures, tourism, opposition political parties, press
freedom, female education, etc. Morale includes venereal disease rate, alcoholism rate, later
marriage rate, birth rate, death rate, legalisation of prostitution, etc. Size includes
measurements of geographic area, percentage of arable land, population makeup, population
density, etc. The data from all 19 dimensions was factor analysed and a schematic world map
drawn showing the relationship of national cultures to each other in terms of externally
measurable factors. Similar studies have been performed using indices of modernity,
language, kinship, and social institutional structure.
This type of analytic approach to cross-cultural research is familiar to the business community
and will not be further considered in this paper. It is basically a form of market analysis and is
routinely performed to qualify a region or even an individual customer for a particular product
or service. Sources of information include economic reports, reference libraries, consulates,
trade associations, almanacs and governmental agency world fact books. Data on less
developed cultures are available from universities and are available for academic and research
purposes on CD-ROM (Levinson 1998). The general utility of this work for marketing and
product development rests on the assumption that if a product is acceptable to one market or
region, it will be equally acceptable to other markets or regions sharing similar characteristics.
It is important to remember that this form of research compares only the external
manifestations of a culture. It describes what people do but offers few insights into why they
do what they do.
While researchers in industry and academia have reached a consensus on measuring a

culture's external characteristics, there is no such agreement on culture's internalised aspects.
The terms value, personality, attitude, motive and society often used in the description of
culture have no objective reality but are hypothetical constructs used to explain observed
regularities and differences in behaviour. The aim of researchers is to discover and describe
the units of culture. Units of culture can best be defined as the smallest elements that can
adequately describe and predict phenomena without knowledge of the unit’s internal structure.
They are, in essence, the atoms in an atomic theory of culture.
Proposed units of culture range from the very specific to the esoteric. They include language,
particularly its semantic structure, belief systems involving religion, mythology, and cultural
values, and rules defining human interaction such as kinship structures, social institutions, and
behavioural etiquette (Argyle, Henderson et al. 1986). A culture pattern is a coherent structure
of units and the rules that determine their interaction that persists through time. Observable
variations in patterns can be used to differentiate cultures.
A further problem is in determining how much of human behaviour is universal and present
in all cultures as opposed to being relative to each and every culture. The relativist position
gives the highest priority to the context in which behaviour takes place, arguing that it is
impossible to isolate a psychological process from the particular circumstances that surround
its occurrence. The universalist position admits that context is important but also argues that
many behaviours are common across cultures and represent the same underlying processes.
To the extent that the common processes are identified it is possible to formulate principles
that may govern human behaviour in all cultures. An extreme version of universalism has
been termed absolutism. The absolutist view is that all humans are essentially the same and
that observable aspects of culture such as language or social institutions create the impression
of marked differences when in fact the underlying aspects of behaviour are similar. Apparent
cultural variation is regarded as a "nuisance" which obscures the basic laws of human
behaviour.
A cross-cultural sporting analogy is appropriate. In American football the objective is to

advance the ball across the opponent's goal line. The ball may be thrown, kicked or carried. In
European football (soccer) the object is also to advance the ball and place it in the opponent's
goal. Players kick the ball or butt it with any part of the body except the hands and arms. In
one version of the sport body contact is encouraged while in the other version it is
(theoretically) forbidden. Universalists would concentrate primarily on studying the
advancement of the ball as an objective common to both cultures while the relativist would
examine the specific process by which the ball is moved. Finally the absolutist would
disregard both the objective and the process and regard both American and European versions
of football as a manifestation of a species wide urge for competition.
The absolutist position has been viewed as impractical by social and behavioural scientists,
but in recent years it has gained renewed respect as information accumulates suggesting that
substantial portions of "learned" social and cultural behaviours are genetically or
physiologically determined. The problem of the relativity or universality of cross-cultural
information, far from being a mere philosophical issue, determines the acceptable procedures
for the measurement of subjective cultural phenomena such as attitudes and values.
Figure 1 is a block diagram representing a simplified view of the factors that influence
culture.
Figure 1. Culture block diagram.
Just the blocks on the extreme left and right hand sides of the diagram that can be
described objectively. The makeup and connections between the internal blocks are only
inferred. Moreover the diagram is not static. Cultures gradually evolve over time as their
physical and technological resources are modified and the social and economic
environment changes. The lines between the blocks are bi-directional providing the
feedback that enables the consequences of behaviour to modify the starting conditions.
CULTURAL INFLUENCE ON BASIC PSYCHOLOGICAL PROCESSES
Culture and perception:

Perception is a complex process involving sense organs, the central nervous system, prior
experience with the stimulus, learning and cultural influences, expectations and desires, the
physical state of the individual and the permissible categories of classification allowed by
language. Figure 2 is a schematic of the perceptual process.
Figure 2. The perceptual process.
The blocks on the left-hand side of the diagram involve the physical and neurological aspects
of the perceptual process while those on the right represent the experiential and cultural
aspects. All, of course, interact in the central nervous system. Some forms of perception
involving simple recognition of sensory information are clearly native. Visual brightness,
colour perception, contour recognition, taste sensation, and recognition of pitch differences in
sound are mediated by specific structures and nerve pathways in the sense organs. There is no
evidence to indicate that culture plays a significant part at this perceptual level (Pickford
1972). The idea that certain racial or ethnic groups have a special sensitivity to colour, sound
or taste has little basis in fact. Minor deviations from the perceptual norm have been found in
genetically isolated groups but these are of little practical significance in marketing. Despite
the protestations of the Japanese Trade Commission, the Japanese do not have unique physical
requirements that discourage the importation of Western colour films or foodstuffs.
It is true that some sensory processes are sex or age linked. Colour blindness or anomalous
colour vision is much more common in men than in women. Children and women can hear
higher frequency sounds than men. Vision, hearing, and taste of both sexes show gradual
deterioration with age, a fact which can easily be demonstrated in the laboratory, and by the
common observation that adults have less acute vision and prefer stronger flavours than their
offspring.
When stimulation changes, often the related percept does not. The perception of an
individual’s size as he or she comes closer or moves away remains almost constant. Similarly
colours appear to look nearly the same whether viewed indoors under incandescent light or
outdoors in sunlight. Shapes of objects do not appear to alter despite changes in viewing
angle. An objective recording instrument, such as a camera, will clearly document changes in
the incoming information despite the stability of the associated perception.
The observation that perceptual judgements remain relatively unchanged despite a wide range
of variation of the originating stimulus has been called perceptual constancy. This
phenomenon has been observed in all cultures and is undoubtedly a species-specific
behaviour. Indeed, it may be characteristic of all higher organisms. One can easily infer a
survival value in being able to recognise a desired or threat object from any aspect but the
underlying mechanisms of perceptual constancy are still not entirely understood. As in many
other areas of psychology, the relative importance of nature and environment is still in
dispute.
Two theoretical positions have emerged. One, nativism, suggests that perceptual phenomena,
including constancy, are “hard wired” into the nervous system as the result of an evolutionary
process. It is the structure of the perceptual organs and the nervous system itself that
determines the way in which stimulus information will be processed. Consequently
experience, and by extension, culture, has only a minor role to play in the perceptual process.
All humans perceive things in the same manner although they will almost certainly attribute
different meanings to similar percepts.
The second theoretical position, empiricism, holds that experience is critical in shaping
perception, both in terms of moulding the developing structure of the nervous system and in
determining the range and extent of neural processing required to transform the impinging
stimulus energy into a meaningful percept. Learning to perceive is viewed as similar to
learning a language. The potential is there from birth but the grammar and vocabulary of
perception must be learned. The individual is viewed as an active participant in the perceptual
process with the perception itself being a product of the person's physical and mental state and
the accumulated experience acquired over time. Clearly this formulation attributes a major
role to culture as a shaper of perception.
The nativist vs. empiricist argument is not new. It has been raging in philosophical circles
since the 17th century when Bishop Berkeley claimed that children are born with an innate
ability to perceive the external three-dimensional world. John Locke, on the other hand,
subscribed to the theory that all knowledge, including perceptual ability, must come from
outside to be written on the blank slate that was the baby's mind. Attempts to resolve the
controversy were not possible until independent means of recording sensations without their
associated perceptions were developed in this century. Other forms of this dichotomy have
emerged as the nature vs. nurture argument in the study of intelligence and the genetic vs.
environment controversy in the consideration of criminality. As in other areas in the
behavioural sciences, the truth is generally found between both extreme positions.
CROSS-CULTURAL STUDIES OF VISUAL PERCEPTION
Colour perception:
Cross-cultural studies of colour fall into two domains. One derives from the physiological
tradition and probes minor variations in colour perception among racial and ethnic groups.
The other focuses on colour perception as a phenomenon that may shed light on culturally
influenced psychological processes, notably language (Deregowski 1980).
It is certainly true that there are subtle variations in the way that cultures divide the perceptual
colour space. Recent research suggests that these differences are not due to colour
discriminatory ability as measured by objective tests but in colour naming ability as mediated
by language and relevance to the individual's environment (Hardin and Maffi 1997). Both
Canadian Inuit dog sledders and Norwegian cross-country skiers have numerous names for
various shades of snow. Bedouins have a dozen names for subtle colours of sand. Does this
suggest better colour discrimination in the hinterlands of the world than in Europe? Probably
not (Russell, Deregowski et al. 1997).
Accepting, for the moment, the Whorfian hypothesis that language determines patterns of
thinking and perception, it can be expected that broad cultural blocks, especially those
separated by language, would classify colours differently (Whorf 1956). A recent research
study by MacLaury concluded that this was so. Further, he noted that some societies approach
the world with an analytic outlook that emphasises brightness categories in colour rather than
hue categories. Bright yellow, bright orange, bright blue and bright green are viewed as more
similar than darker hues closer together in the colour spectrum (Simpson 1991; MacLaury
1992; MacLaury 1997).
There is also evidence that culturally defined colour categories alter over time as their
relevance to the environment and social function changes. After moving to London the
Bedouin's child finds little merit in distinguishing 12 different shades of desert sand and
eventually even the terms will be dropped from the language. This is adaptation in a positive
direction. An interesting cross-cultural relationship between the size of the colour vocabulary
and the speed of naming colours was reported by Johnson and Tomiie who examined colour
naming skills in Australian, Greek, and Japanese children. The Japanese children responded
quickest but had the smallest colour vocabulary (Johnson 1985; Uchikawa and Boynton
1987).
In summary, there are minor colour perception differences between cultures but these are
mediated by language and relevance rather than by any innate difference between peoples.
Their effect on cross-cultural product development and marketing efforts are likely to be
small except for products like hair colouring agents and cosmetics where very subtle colour
variations take on inordinate importance. Normal pre-market testing should identify these
situations.
Colour preferences and meanings:

There are some cross-cultural differences in the preference for specific colours, but there are
also quite substantial agreements (Pickford 1972). About 50 years ago Hans Eysenck pooled
data from 16 colour preference studies of White subjects and 10 colour preference studies
from non-white subjects and showed that the average rank order colour preference was nearly
the same for both groups. Blue was the preferred colour followed by red and green (Eysenck
1941). More recent studies support these findings. (Choungourian 1968; Choungourian 1969).
White and Black South Africans apparently have the same preferences (Grieve 1991). There
are some national differences, of course. Dutch people tend to name red as the first colour that
comes to mind whereas Americans name blue (Wiegersma and de Klerck 1984; Wiegersma
and Van der Elst 1988). Primary school children from Senegal choose brown as their
favourite colour.
More important than colour preferences are the different meanings assigned to colours across
cultures. In the West, death is symbolised by black draping. In Asia, white is the colour of
mourning. The colour of religious garb for Catholic clerics is black while Buddhist monks
dress in orange. Yellow is a sacred colour in Tibet. In Europe and America a bride wears
white on her wedding day. In India she wears red. In Spain she dresses in black. Russian
brides traditionally wear blue and Korean brides don ceremonial robes with bright reds and
yellows. There are no innate reasons for the meanings assigned to these colours. They are
very culture specific. Local knowledge of custom and colour symbolism is important in
planning advertising material and in product and package design. It would be culturally
inappropriate for a health care product in India to be presented in a white box, a practice that
might pass without comment in Europe.
Perception of visual illusions:

The notion that the world is what it appears to be was challenged by Plato in his famous
parable of the cave. What we perceive, he maintained, are mere reflections of an external
world that we cannot experience directly. Plato's assertion was echoed two millennia later by
German psychologist Egon Brunswick who theorised that all perception involves a transaction
between a viewer and the incoming sensory information. These transactions are functional
because they lead to perceptions that (usually) enhance the perceiver's survival.
Despite the similarity in the perception of the visual elements of colour, brightness, and
contrast, the way people actually view the world and the meanings assigned to percepts has
been shown to vary across cultures. Investigators have characterised the perception of
pictorial material into the broad areas of visual shape and illusion, the representation of
objects and three-dimensional space (drawing and painting), and the study of aesthetics.
The study of visual illusions represents a direct test of the nativist/empiricist controversy.
Early in this century, the Gestalt psychologists, intrigued by the advances in electromagnetism
and radio, hypothesised that visual illusions were caused by small electrical currents in the
brain. These resulted from visual stimulation influencing nearby brain cells and causing them
to respond despite the absence of an external stimulus. This concept of "action at a distance"
was responsible for the visual phenomenon of closure; C shaped lines being perceived as
incomplete circles or points in a row being perceived as lines. The brain was, in essence,
connecting the dots and fabricating percepts from disconnected points. The logic was
inescapable. If innate neural processes caused visual illusions then they should be the same
for all humans. Alternative nativist explanations suggest that subtle differences in eye
structure and pigmentation may also contribute to illusion susceptibility.
A conflicting hypothesis held that illusions were the result of learned regularities in the visual
world being applied inappropriately to incomplete visual stimuli. Children soon learn that
people actually don't diminish in size as they move away despite the fact that their visual
image is smaller, or that doors and windows are usually constructed with right angles at the
corners. Learned regularities enable the perceptual system to correct for apparent changes in
the visual environment.
Scientists love such a controversy because it leads to a "crucial experiment", a test in which
each theory makes different predictions, enabling one to be validated and the other to be
invalidated by a single experiment. The nativist and empiricist theories attribute the
phenomenon of visual illusion to different blocks in the perceptual flow diagram of Figure 2
and make different predictions about their universality.
One large scale test of the conflicting hypotheses was done by a team of psychologists and
anthropologists in the 1950s and 1960s (Segall 1963; Segall 1963; Segall 1966). The study
involved the study of several geometric optical illusions and was conducted in more than 15
societies in the United States, the Philippines, and Africa. In this study the test illusion, the
Sander Parallelogram (Figure 3), appeared differently to people living in carpentered and non-
carpentered environments.
Figure 3. The Sander Parallelogram illusion. (Both diagonals are the same lengths.)
People who lived in carpentered environments tended to judge the left diagonal as
substantially longer than the right diagonal. This error appears to be the result of interpreting
the parallelogram, drawn on a two dimensional surface, as though it was a representation of a
rectangular surface extended in three-dimensional space. This judgement reflects a habit of
inference that has considerable validity in highly carpentered environments since people who
live in places with tables, windows, and doors usually see them from points of view that
generate non-rectangular parallelogram shaped images. They have learned through experience
that such figures are to be perceived as rectangular with 90-degree corners. The conclusion
was that the marked difference in illusion susceptibility accorded well with the empiricist
theory that attributed perceptual tendencies to learned familiarity with objects in the culture.
Expectation and experience thus influence what we see.
Many other studies of illusion susceptibility since the 1960s have largely, but not entirely,
supported the empiricist position. Differences in perception of the Muller-Lyer illusion and
the horizontal-vertical illusion have been related to the learned tendency to interpret non-
rectangular figures as rectangular figures viewed from an angle. In general, the more
complicated the percept, the greater the likelihood that cultural learning and expectation play
a part (Deregowski 1980; Deregowski 1989).
Figure 4. The Muller-Lyer illusion. (Both horizontal lines are the same lengths.)
Figure 5. The Horizontal-Vertical illusion. (Both lines are the same lengths.)
Perception of pictorial material:

Studies of pictorial representation by drawing and painting also show marked cultural
differences. In one of the early 20th century excesses of ethnocentric anthropology, Boas was
astounded that South Sea natives could not identify objects shown to them in photographs
(Boas 1911). This fact is easier to understand if we remind ourselves that for most of human
history pictures were not intended to be literal depictions of a scene. They were used as
graphic methods of communication that conveyed meaning and emotion by symbolic and
coded images. The art of drawing or painting comprises two linked elements. The first is the
perception of the object; the second, the abstraction of those elements deemed important by
the artist's culture for representation on a two dimensional surface. As we have seen, there is
little evidence to suggest that there is any innate difference in perceptual ability among
peoples. Art style, then, appears to be almost entirely a cultural phenomenon.
The Palaeolithic images of reindeer, bison and mammoths painted or sculpted deep inside the
caves of Southern France and Spain are hardly exact representations of the animals depicted.
Rather they are symbolic images used in some unknown way in a magic ritual to insure a
successful hunt. Modern art critics praise the skill of the Palaeolithic artists and suggest that
their drawing ability was comparable to artists of our own day. The parsimonious use of
smoothly flowing lines to portray shape and action were what the cave culture of 15,000 years
ago expected.
The few graphic images that survive from ancient Greece and Rome were primarily
decorative. In the Europe, since the start of the Christian era, images have been used as an
educational and propagandistic tool, primarily to spread the gospel to an illiterate population.
This placed an emphasis on a conventionally realistic depiction of historical and religious
scenes. The fifteenth century discovery of scientific perspective, a unique characteristic of
European art, permitted three-dimensional space to be presented on a two-dimensional surface
and reinforced the cultural value of realism. The norm in 16th century to 19th century Western
art became the literal representation of the subject, with, of course, the appropriate symbols to
indicate rank, status, or religious merit.
Other parts of the world have different art traditions. In India images are not intended to be
representational but rather emotionally evocative of a specific individual, incident or event.
Most human figures are portrayed in a stylised form, usually in a profile view reminiscent of
Egyptian hieroglyphic carvings. Colours are much brighter than in Western art and the
concept of linear perspective is ignored. The size of the person or element depicted
symbolises importance. Thus in a battle scene, the king or general is the largest figure despite
his placement in the field.
Islam prohibits the use of figurative art in religion thus most decoration takes the form of
elaborate variations and permutations of geometric designs based on Arabic text, usually
selections from the Koran. Native African art relies primarily on exaggerated representations
of human and animal forms intended to have symbolic importance.
In China images historically were intended to tell a story and/or depict the passage of time.
Thus the subject figures, exquisitely drawn but almost cartoon like to Western eyes, could
appear several times in the same painting, each appearance representing a different phase of
the action.
Aesthetics:
In 1980 Berlyne cited over twenty experimental cross-cultural studies comparing aesthetic
responses to stimulus material. The samples included Canadian, American, Chinese, Indian,
Japanese, French, Egyptian and African populations (Berlyne 1980). More than half the
studies used actual works of art, including Western paintings, African designs, and Japanese
music. The remainder of the studies used laboratory constructed stimuli including visual
patterns and colour swatches, sound sequences, and geometric figures. The reponse variables
in most studies were preference and choice usually scored by ratings or rankings, verbal
expressions or adjective pairings with the stimulus (i.e. "pleasing" or "disgusting"), and
looking or listening time.
Berlyne's general conclusion was that despite differences in culture and in stimulus material,
there were impressive cross-cultural similarities and commonalties. The variables that
influence aesthetic response include complexity, novelty, uncertainty, and incongruity. Most
appear to work in a similar way for subjects from all cultures (Berlyne 1971; Berlyne 1974).
As an example, people from all cultures spent more time looking at complex patterns than
simple ones. This tendency, by the way, is universally found in babies from every cultural and
ethnic group and is almost certainly an innate behavioural pattern.
The similarity of aesthetic preferences across cultures seems to support a nativist position but
it is also likely that it is the result of a global acculturation to the same set of aesthetic values.
Since the invention of photography 150 years ago, the camera has carried the burden of
representational image making. The photograph has influenced all developed and semi-
developed nations to conform to a single standard of pictorial realism. In a similar manner,
radio permits music to be transmitted freely across national boundaries. Television and the
movies serve as cultural levellers wherever they are viewed. Since the mass media are
essentially Western in origin, the aesthetics of the world are rapidly becoming westernised.
The growth of the Internet is likely to accelerate the process. Boas' natives would have little
difficulty interpreting photographs today.
Conclusions about visual perception:

Differences in the way people of various cultures perceive the world certainly exist. They are
generally not the result of any innate or organic process but are the result of specific
expectations and experiences fostered by the physical and social environment. These
differences are diminishing with time as global acculturation increases. The curator of New
York's Museum of Modern Art, who keeps track of aesthetic fads and fashions, estimates that
the half life of an art style has decreased tenfold in the last century, from 20 years in the late
1800s to about 2 years in the late 1900s. He attributes the shortened life span of current art
styles to the speed of transmission of images to the potential viewing audience and the
satiation caused by frequent exposure.
World wide diffusion of aesthetic values are such that Fifth Avenue fashions soon become the
rage in Buenos Aires and the Japanese pay the highest prices for French Impressionist
paintings. Still it is important for the business community to be alert to the perceptual
preferences of the recent past. The process of acculturation is a generational one. A substantial
portion of the world's population developed its perceptual expectations and learned its
aesthetic values in the pre-TV, pre-Rock era. Any product that is not specifically targeted at a
narrow age group should avoid the use of the current moment's aesthetic fashion. Granny still
thinks Kate Moss is too thin and should eat more.
COGNITIVE PROCESSES AND CULTURE
Cognition:
Cognition refers to every method by which individuals obtain and utilise information. It
includes such processes as thinking, reasoning, recognition, analysis and categorisation.
Intelligence is often defined as a general cognitive competence. In no other area of cross-
cultural research is there such controversy or is there such a political and emotional mine
field. The three questions which cross-cultural studies of cognition deal with are:
1. Are there qualitative differences in cognitive processes among different cultural

groups or are the processes identical, with any apparent differences attributable to
different ways that each culture has of describing or measuring cognitive process?
2. Are there quantitative differences in cognitive processes among various cultural
groups? That is, are some groups more able, intelligent, or competent in specific
cognitive operations than others?
3. How do cognitive processes develop in cultural groups? Is there a general biological
unfolding of capability as a function of maturation? Do cognitive processes develop
differently as a function of cultural reinforcement (Berry 1974)?
While the questions themselves have interested cross-cultural psychologists for the better part
of a century, the range of permissible answers has shifted with the winds of political fashion.
Early research, both in cross-cultural psychology and in educational intelligence testing, had
as its objective the classification of ethnic and racial groups along a continuum of superiority-
inferiority, justified by the early theories of intellectual evolution. The racial purification
excesses of Nazi Germany, the racial discrimination of the USA, the rise of apartheid in South
Africa, and the ethnocentric nationalism of Japan all have their roots in the concept of genetic
causality for differences in cognitive performance. In reaction, for the last 40 years research
into the innate component of cognitive ability, even that of considerable scientific merit, has
been curtailed. When most contemporary psychologists find performance differences in their
work, they interpret them in terms of culturally shaped experiences, i.e. nurture rather than
nature (Cole 1988; Irvine 1988; Berry 1996).
In the light of recent research, specifically Bouchard's studies of identical twins raised apart,
and the discovery of genes which appear to influence personality and behavioural traits, the
philosophical pendulum, stuck for so long at the far left stop, has begun to move to a more
balanced position. Occasionally research is published which ranks culturally defined groups
along a cognitive scale (Rushton 1995). Interestingly, some national cultures find this easier
to accept than others. Australia and the US, with a political stake in universal equality,
preached but not always observed, have resisted any implication of innate cognitive difference
between individuals and groups. Britain and France, both societies with the residue of a
tradition of aristocracy, are more tolerant.
General intelligence and culture:

Cross-cultural studies of intelligence focus on a universal problem solving ability assumed to
be a requirement of most social behaviours. General intellectual ability, abbreviated as "g", is
positively correlated with a variety of verbal, spatial, and numerical tasks. Most researchers
agree that various ethnic and cultural groups are different in overall intellectual performance,
at least as measured by standardised tests. The causes and relative permanence of differences
are what is in dispute. Two recent books that suggest an innate difference in intelligence have
fuelled the debate (Herrnstein 1994; Rushton 1995). Herrnstein and Murray's book, "The Bell
Curve", caused a public outcry when it appeared in 1994 for its ranking of racial and ethnic
groups by intellectual ability. These differences were attributed to genetic as well as
environmental factors. The spate of studies that appeared in response attacked both the moral
and methodological premises of the book arguing that performance differences that did exist
could be explained by educational, social, and cultural factors.
For immigrant groups, the number of years of formal schooling has been found to be the best
predictor of intelligence test performance accounting for a significant portion of test scores. It
is suggested that the high correlation of intelligence with a variety of cognitive tasks may be
acculturation rather than "g". In order to make any valid inference about the intelligence of
different ethnic groups within the same national environment, it would be necessary to control
for acculturation (Ceci 1994; Berry 1996). It is unlikely that the nature/nurture argument will
be settled any time soon. What is likely is a form of détente between the competing camps
with culture being recognised as determining patterns of behaviour while genetic factors
contribute to levels of performance.
Cognitive styles:
Cultural factors prescribe what will be learned and at what age. Consequently different
cultural environments lead to different patterns of ability. A large portion of the research in
this area deals with the problem of field dependence or independence. That is, do individuals
form their judgements on the basis of their internal feelings or are they strongly influenced by
their immediate environment (Witkin 1981). When you enter a pub, do you order a pint
because you are thirsty or because you see other people drinking (Berry 1976)?
Research indicates that people who live in agricultural societies tend to be field dependent,
influenced by their surround. Hardly an earth shaking conclusion but one now scientifically
validated. Field independence appears to increase as the educational level rises. Gender role
differentiation in many societies exposes men and women to different experiences. Social
forces tend to encourage field independence in males and field dependence in females (Berry
1996). Several psychological tests have been used to measure the degree of field
independence or dependence exhibited and it appears to be a robust culturally determined
cognitive phenomenon.
This characteristic is interesting from a marketing viewpoint, particularly because so many

advertising campaigns are built around the relative popularity of a product. Field dependent
individuals would be likely to go along with the crowd, choosing a product just because
everyone else does. Field independent people might reject the product for the same reason,
preferring instead to march to the beat of their internal drummer. The greater the education
and sophistication of a market segment, the less likely are they to be influenced by claims of
product popularity.
Learning and memory across cultures:

The role of culture in learning and memory, at least in most developed societies, has been
studied primarily by an analysis of the effect of schooling and the school environment.
Different forms of schools found within or across cultures have different outcomes for
learning and memory. A comparison of traditional and Westernised schools in India showed
that the basic practice of rote learning characteristic of most Asian cultures fostered an
organisation of memory by object importance whereas Westernised teaching practices
featured an organisation of memory by sequence of events. Traditional Asian schooling,
essentially by repetition of formal exercises, encourages a static view of the world, the
relationships between individuals and society being unchanging. In contrast, the Western
approach presumes a world in flux, individuals and society changing and presumably moving
toward some idealised goal (Berry 1996).
Large class sizes, authoritarian climate, excessive homework, and formalised expository
teaching methods focused on preparing students for examinations characterise the learning
and teaching context in many developing countries. Techniques of reward and punishment
and the situations in which these are delivered show cultural variations as well (Ho and Chiu
1994). In Asian cultures, praise for good performance is rare while punishment for deviation
from the educational protocol is frequent. Punishment takes the form of ridicule and shaming.
Consequently, along with his/her lessons, a child learns conformity and evinces an
unwillingness to deviate from the route society has prescribed. Western education, at least in
recent years, has encouraged a form of meritocracy in which students are expected to perform
as individuals with rewards (grades, prizes, scholarships, etc.) based on the quality of work.
Rebellion against the social order is tacitly accepted as a characteristic of Western youth, in
part encouraged by the educational philosophy.
Western researchers have attributed the apparent lack of individual volition and creativity of
Chinese and Japanese students to their role as passive learners in a system that stresses rote
learning and corrective discipline (Murphy 1987). This phenomenon has been interpreted
differently by Asian scholars who argue that rote reproduction of memorised textbook
materials and lecture notes of teachers is an expression of filial piety. Accepting and obeying
teachers and authorities is deliberately taught to children during the process of socialisation.
Thus the use of a rote learning strategy is viewed as the expression of cultural values (Lin
1988).
Spatial cognition:
Every culture has the requirement to point out directions for travel, to describe routes, and to
represent physical extent and distance of objects and locations. Cross-cultural research on
spatial cognition has focused on the conventions used in describing space, the role of
symbolic tools in representing space, and cultural differences in organising knowledge about
space. Comparisons of route descriptions in Europe and Asia reveal a difference in the way
space is organised in each location (Spencer 1983). Asians tend to give more vivid and fuller
accounts of sites along the route and assume the traveller will be moving from landmark to
landmark. Europeans generally describe a route by the directions and distances one must
travel to reach the destination.
Maps and charts facilitate the capabilities of individuals to think about or describe space,
however the use of these artefacts differs by culture. A map is merely a tool for remembering
what the culture views as important for spatial representation. Thus the Western map is a
graphic display of direction and distance, a miniaturised version of the Earth's surface. Pacific
Islanders, who in the past travelled long distances by canoe, visualised their route by noting
changes in ocean currents, water colour, cloud formations over unseen islands, sea bird
populations, and foreshore smells. Their maps, mats of woven twigs, displayed these relevant
navigational cues in a form virtually unrecognisable to the Western seaman. There is evidence
to suggest that cultures differ in their use of directional words as well. In traditional
navigation in South East Asia, "south" is often used to refer to a seaward direction, as opposed
to a landward direction, and almost never for true South (Levinson 1995).
Business applications of variations in cognitive performance:

From a pragmatic, as opposed to a politically correct, point of view Western businesses have
long accepted that differences exist in individual cognitive competence, particularly within the
context of a given culture. This idea lies at the root of most business personnel selection and
promotional procedures. Indeed, the measurement of these differences is one of the few
unqualified success stories of the behavioural sciences. The current practice of forced
redundancy is one of the less pleasant manifestations of this idea (Zeitlin 1997).
Staffing the organisation with the most qualified personnel provides benefits based on the
recognition that, for many jobs, the variation in individual work related performance is likely
to be greater than the range in compensation. By selecting the most competent workers it is
possible to increase productivity or work quality without incurring corresponding increases
in cost. Since labour costs are the dominant cost of doing business in all but a few
endeavours, suitably staffing an organisation may be the most beneficial step that can be
taken by management toward increasing profitability and organisational effectiveness. This
situation is likely to occur where worker output can vary (sales, management, non-production
line factory work, skilled labour, professions, etc.) but employment costs (salary, benefits,
overhead, investment, etc.) are relatively fixed.
At a first approximation, each 1% change in worker productivity results in a 6% change in

profitability. What is implied in this analysis is that there is a transfer from labour cost to
profit. Such a transfer can only be achieved if output and sales are increased and/or the work
force is reduced, all other costs remaining constant. Practical constraints usually preclude
reducing labour costs in direct proportion to increases in worker productivity, but experience
shows that substantial profitability gains can be realised by increasing overall worker
effectiveness. The same logic applies in all industrialised societies but local laws and
practices may inhibit full application of the scheme (Zeitlin 1996).
Benefits to the individual worker are based on the assumption that the quality of both
personal and work life are likely to be better if the physical, intellectual and emotional
demands of work are suited to the capabilities and aspirations of the worker. This implies that
there is a sufficient variety of work in an organisation to suit the needs of each worker.
FOOD PREFERENCES AND CULTURE
The importance of food in understanding human culture lies precisely in its variability. If
survival were the only criterion, all humankind could eat the same food, its value measured
only in fats, proteins, carbohydrates and vitamins. But, in fact, people of different background
eat very differently. The basic ingredients of a cuisine, the ways in which it is processed,
prepared, and served, the amount and variety at each meal, the utensils used, the differention
between ordinary and ceremonial meals, and even prescriptions for those members of a
society permitted to eat together all vary. The number of culinary variables is great and their
interaction approaches infinity. Levi-Strauss states that such food preferences and food related
behaviours are simultaneously universal expressions of humanity and are among the sharpest
symbols of cultural diversity.
How one eats is a matter of geography, wealth, status, technology, and tradition. As in many
other realms, gastronomy is indissociable from culture (Capaldi 1996). Eating is both a
physical requirement and a social activity. Every culture uses food as a sign of approval or
signification (Bolles 1991). If an event is important socially or symbolically, food
consumption will be used to sanctify or bind it (Wallendorf and Arnould 1991; Capaldi 1996).
Food, its preparation, and its consumption reflect both physical realities and the values of a
society. People who share the same culture share the same assemblage of food variables.
Peoples of different cultures share different assemblages of food variables.
Wallendorf used depth interviews, participant-observation data, and structured surveys to

study the celebration of Thanksgiving Day in the US. Five conceptual themes were used to
organise interpretations of the meanings of Thanksgiving Day. These themes were negotiation
of abundance; extensiveness of inclusion; resolution of universalism and particularism;
negotiation of values such as cleanliness and hard work; and negotiation of the role of
produce and branded food products in relation to tradition and home-made foods. The
consumption rituals of Thanksgiving Day are interpreted as a discourse among consumers
about the categories and principles that underlie US consumer culture. The celebration is more
a cultural affirmation than a meal (Wallendorf and Arnould 1991).
Gender appears to influence food preference as well. Alley and Burroughs tested the
hypothesis that men prefer spicy food (Alley and Burroughs 1991). They examined sex
differences in preferences for sweet, spicy, hot, or unusual foods and in food aversions
among young adult men and women. The subjects completed questionnaires concerning
past and present food use and preference as well as condiment use. Their findings
supported the prediction that men tend to have a stronger preference than do women for
spicy, hot food. The prediction that men are more likely than women to seek unusual and
new foods was also supported. No evidence of a sex difference in preference for sweet
foods was found. Both sexes showed the same degree of preference for condiment use.
Even cultural concepts of the ideal body image are related to food availability, and not always
in the direction that one might expect. Smuts related the cultural preference for lean or fat
appearance to sex and class (Smuts 1992). He noted the increasing idealisation of leanness
and the devaluation of fatness in affluent, developed nations which not so long ago preferred
the well-fed look. This recent reversal is analysed as a potentially adaptive response to the
novelty of chronic food surplus and the breakdown of barriers between men's and women's
work, which, together, may have made thinness helpful to women competing for status and
resources in both mating and job markets. The European cultural obsession with leanness has
its down side. Food related psychiatric conditions, such as anorexia nervosa, are almost
unknown in countries with food shortages.
Food preferences are not usually synonymous with political boundaries. There may be several
cuisines within the bounds of a single nation or a single cuisine covering several nations.
Different cuisines may serve to delineate diverse subcultures within a geographic region.
Conversely, like culinary preferences may identify similar value structures in populations
geographically remote from each other (Feather, Norman et al. 1998). In a recent study
Feather investigated the relationship between values and the attractiveness and choice of food
in different contexts. Participants read five hypothetical scenarios describing situations, each
of which presented two alternatives relating to the presentation or consumption of different
foods, and rated each alternative for its attractiveness and indicated which alternative they
would choose. Participants also completed the Schwartz Value Survey (Schwartz, 1992). The
results showed that food preference was related to specified value types for some scenarios,
depending on context. The logical conclusion is that values influence choice of food and,
reciprocally food choices may provide a clue to the values of the chooser.
Although there are few reasons to suspect that any cultural differences in food preference
are innate, there do appear to be definite cultural preferences for basic tastes and flavours.
Bertino and his associated rated preferences for salt, sweet and bitter tastes in US and
Taiwanese subjects (Bertino, Beauchamp et al. 1983). They examined intensity and
pleasantness ratings of various concentrations of sucrose, caffeine, and salt in
undergraduates of European descent born in the US, and in undergraduates of Chinese
descent born in Taiwan. A subsample of members of each group was retested similarly
with cookies containing varying levels of sucrose. The Taiwanese rated sucrose as tasting
sweeter regardless of whether it was in solution or cookies. Taiwanese assigned higher
sweetness ratings to sucrose in solution when compared to US subjects. When the sucrose
was in cookies, the Taiwanese group assigned higher pleasantness ratings at the lower
sucrose concentrations. At the higher sucrose concentrations, the US group assigned
higher pleasantness ratings. There was no significant ethnic effect upon rated bitterness
or pleasantness of caffeine. Taiwanese rated low concentrations of salt as tasting saltier
and high concentrations of salt as tasting less salty when compared to US subjects. The
Taiwanese generally rated the salt solutions as tasting more pleasant. It is probable that
these group differences may be related to the way sugar and salt are used in the 2
cultures.
Research in food technology has provided global maps of flavour preferences showing
regions in which a specific spice is preferred. Cultural food preferences can be altered but
the process is slow. Typically the new food is introduced with the flavour modified to
resemble the preferred flavours of the target culture. Over time the flavours are allowed
to shift to resemble those of the original product. World travellers have noted that the
food in the ubiquitous Chinese restaurants found in every city bears only a passing
resemblance to food served in China. Rather it tastes like the preferred foods in the local
region. The Chinese are astute businessmen.
Indeed, experience with a novel foodstuff is sometimes enough to develop a taste for it.
In a clever experiment, Crandall conducted a field study in an Alaskan fishing and
cannery village with native Inuit subjects to test the hypothesis that mere exposure may
partially account for strong regional and cultural food preferences among humans
(Crandall 1985). He set up a table with free doughnuts, a food unfamiliar to the Alaskan
natives. Findings indicate that an increased rate of consumption of doughnuts in a free-
feeding situation corresponded to the number of trials subjects had with the food. The
more doughnuts they had eaten in the pre-trial period, the greater their consumption in
the test period. Cultural flavour markers may become liked as a result of exposure to
them, a justification for the use of free samples of products to develop familiarity.
Many physical, social and economic considerations influence the cuisine adopted by a
culture. These include:
A. Physical and environmental factors

1. Geography
a. land area for agriculture
b. population density
c. regionally
d. topography
2. Climate
a. temperature
b. aridity
c. seasonal variation
B. Socio/economic factors
3. Politics
a. subsidised agriculture
b. import/export restrictions
4. Religion
a. prohibitions
b. ritualisation
5. Economics
a. quality and quantity of foodstuffs
b. variety
c. waste
d. daily calorie content
e. fuel cost and availability
6. Technology
a. food preparation methods
b. storage
c. packaging
d. transport
e. table presentation and eating utensils
7. Male/female role differentiation
a. food acquisition
b. menu control
c. preparation
d. food consumption
8. Labour cost
a. preparation styles
b. dedicated kitchen personnel
9. Class differentiation
a. class related menus
b. prohibitions by class, sex, age
While knowledge of the physical and socio/economic factors may be sufficient to predict
the broad class of cuisine adopted, it is not sufficient to predict the food preferences of a
culture. The variety of edibles and the inventiveness of humankind is so great that a
number of cuisines may emerge to satisfy the constraints imposed by geography and
society.
The values embodied in food preference are so strong that even survival may be subordinated.
During the famines of the mid-1800s, starving English men and women would not eat black
bread, because that is what the French ate. Nor would they eat soup - the French also ate soup.
Nor did they wish to eat oatmeal – the Scots ate oatmeal. Halfway around the world, the
Sepoy Rebellion was attributed to the reluctance of Muslim troops in the British Indian army
to bite open muzzle loading rifle powder packets allegedly waterproofed with pork fat.
Apart from a few physiological conditions that restrict dietary preference, such as lactose
intolerance, very few food preferences can be explained by innate factors. Several studies
attribute some very basic flavour preferences, notably ability to taste the sweetness of sucrose
or the bitterness of caffeine, to genetic characteristics (Bertino, Beauchamp et al. 1983). A

number of sex linked differences in taste and odour sensitivity have been reported and these
will influence overall food preference within a culture (Doty, Applebaum et al. 1985; Alley
and Burroughs 1991). Most food preferences are learned during the socialisation process
(Bernstein 1991; Bellisle 1997).
There is also evidence that personality may affect food choice. In a paper entitled “Snack
Food Hedonics and Personality” psychiatrist Alan R. Hirsch reported on a study in which 800
volunteers were administered standard psychological tests of personality, depression, and
anxiety. The volunteers were queried about their preferences for six different snack foods,
potato chips, tortilla chips, pretzels, snack crackers, cheese curls and meat snacks.
Correlational analysis between personality and food type revealed that potato chip fans were
ambitious, high achievers; tortilla chip lovers were social perfectionists; pretzel eaters craved
novelty and were easily bored; cracker crunchers were contemplative and introspective;
cheese curl cravers were formal and conscientious; and meat snack munchers were gregarious
and generous. Hirsch concludes by asserting that food hedonics has potential utility as a
projective test for mental illness although he admits that further testing and cross-cultural
validation is warranted (Hirsch, 2000).
Cross-cultural research offers some obvious and some subtle lessons to in the marketing of
food products. Since food is so intimately associated with culture, the marketer should be
aware of prohibitions in both the nature of the foodstuff and the manner in which it is served.
Clearly, one should not offer a pork based product in a Muslim country, nor should
advertisements depict persons eating with the left hand. While observant Jews eat both milk
and meat products, they do not eat them together. Pepperoni pizzas and cheeseburgers would
find a scant market in Israel. Curry is a favourite Japanese food, but Indians would have a
hard time identifying it since the spices are quite different. Food consumption should be
depicted in the appropriate context. Foods requiring high energy consumption to prepare are
almost universally regarded as celebratory foods and would be inappropriate in
advertisements of casual living. Seating arrangements should conform to cultural norms in
depicting family members who eat together.
SCENT, ODOUR, PERFUME AND CULTURE
The sense of smell has been neglected as a cross-cultural research area. This neglect belies the
very critical role that the sense plays in human adaptation to the environment through the
monitoring of odours. Interpretation of smells are "learned" through experience. This results
in a schema or memory system that enables individuals to process and categorise odours. The
reaction of pleasure or aversion to an odour is more closely related to the relationship between
the individual detecting the odour and the circumstances or environment than with any other
sense. When subsequent occasions present the same or similar odours, memory will bring
back the early experience and influence the reaction to the new stimuli (Engen 1991).
Olfactory preferences and aversions develop from birth but children's ability to describe odour
responses is connected with their language development. The psychophysiological data on
taste and smell and the linguistic data indicate that the sensory experience and its verbal
description may be interrelated aspects of development.
Smell is perhaps the most primitive of the senses and often operates below the level of
conscious awareness. There is no one factor responsible for the way people use and refer to
odours in social use, but there is a combination of several factors. These include the
physiobiological basis of odour perception, features of odours, the symbolic meanings of
smells, exposure to odours during socialisation and the resulting identification of specific
odours with specific objects. All of these factors combine to establish a mode of individual
reaction, reference, and communication in which odours are described but not named. In fact,
most societies have not classified odours, other than to compare them to easily recognisable
natural odours and to make the simple division between foul and pleasant smells (Almagor
1990; Classen, Howes et al. 1994).
Because smell is such a basic sense it is probable that physiological and sex differences,
as well as cultural experience, may influence response. To determine the generality of sex
differences in odour identification ability, a Smell Identification Test was administered to
4 groups of male and female White Americans, male and female Black Americans, male
and female Korean-Americans, and male and female native Japanese. The women of all
four groups outperformed the men to the same relative degree. The Korean-American
group performed better than the Black and White American groups, who, in turn,
outperformed the native Japanese. Analyses of the proportions of subjects correctly
answering each of the test items revealed considerable similarity of relative item
difficulty among the groups. The data suggest that sex differences in odour identification
ability are probably not due to ethnic or cultural factors but may be due to differences in
both the size of the nasal passages and/or the arrangement of the odour receptors (Doty,
Applebaum et al. 1985). Sense of smell is one of the few gender linked perceptual
differences.
Both familiarity and culture influence response to odours. In a recent experiment

Japanese and German subjects were exposed to a variety of scents in squeeze bottles and
asked to rate them according to intensity, familiarity, pleasantness and edibility, to
describe associations elicited by them and, if possible, to name them. One-third of the
odorants were presumed to be familiar to Japanese Ss only, one-third to German Ss and
one-third to both populations. Significant differences were found between the 2
populations on all measures. Better performance by Japanese Ss in providing appropriate
descriptors for "Japanese" odorants and by German Ss for "European" odorants supported
the pre-selection of stimuli as culture-typical. In general, a positive relationship was
found between pleasantness and judgement of stimuli as edible, suggesting that culture-
specific experiences--particularly of foods--may significantly influence odour perception.
Somewhat unexpectedly, significant differences were also found in intensity ratings for
some odorants. These differences raise the possibility that experience may even influence
such basic aspects of odour perception as stimulus intensity (Ayabe Kanamura, Schicker
et al. 1998).
There is ample evidence that odour interacts with other senses to influence overall
perception. This is evident in situations where the smell of the product, often acting
below the level of awareness, influences judgements of product quality (Pitts and
Woodside 1983; Breckler and Fried 1993). Used car dealers frequently spray the interior
of vehicles for sale with “new car” perfume, a scent compounded of rubber cement,
fabric sizing, and manufacturing oils, to give the subliminal impression that the car is just
off the production line. One of the author’s own graduate students verified that female
undergarments, lightly orange blossom scented, were perceived by a panel as having
much higher quality than identical unscented garments. Further, the scented garments
sold in greater numbers in test markets, even though offered at a substantially higher
price. This effect was most marked with consumers at a lower socio-economic level
where price and packaging characteristics serve as strong surrogate cues to product
quality (Shulman 1986). The conclusion was that enhancement of scent and/or colour is
most important for products whose quality cannot be easily assessed by the consumer.
The study was conducted in the US but it is likely that the same results would hold cross-
culturally, although the specific scents might vary to suit local preference.
Thus the apparent attributes of a basic product such as a detergent can be altered for
various market segments by subtle changes in scent. In Western countries, citrus smell
conveys the impression of freshness, flower scents (rose, jasmine) convey luxury,
chemical smells infer power, and carbolic or alcohol odours give the impression of
sanitation. The scent level necessary to alter the apparent product attributes is extremely
low, barely at the threshold of perception.
Subtle odours introduced into a business air conditioning system appear to have mood
altering effects. Present research is directed toward combating the inevitable lassitude
that occurs toward the end of a working day. Mint like smells such as oil of peppermint
and oil of wintergreen apparently increase alertness while some flower scents have a
calming effect. The odour induced mood changes are small but are statistically
significant. How long the mood altering influence of odour lasts and the rate of subject
acclimatisation are still under examination.
Perception of odour quality and intensity varies over the life span. The National
Geographic Smell Survey, an unusually large scale study with 1.19 million US and
Canadian respondents aged from 10 to 90 years, explored age-related changes in odour
perception. The subjects sampled 6 microencapsulated “scratch and sniff” odorants and
selected one of 11 odour descriptive words to characterise each smell. Four odours could
be characterised by a strong agreement with specific descriptors. This consensus
weakened with advancing age, and unusual descriptors were endorsed more frequently.
The results suggest a marked change in odour categorisation across the life span. Odour
descriptor profiles were used to generate age-specific multidimensional scaling maps.
The “sweet” dimension of odour quality may be particularly variable with maturation
(Russell, Cummings et al. 1993).
This decline was not uniform across all subjects, all odours, or all measures of response.
Evidence suggests that factors extrinsic to the ageing process, such as exposure to
airbourne pollutants, can modulate olfactory function as well (Wysocki and Gilbert
1989).
From a product development and marketing point of view, the confirmation that there are
distinct changes in odour sensitivity as a function of ageing suggests that compensatory
fragrance enhancement offers potential benefits to meet the needs of the elderly
(Schiffman 1992). Such benefits include:
1) promotion of relaxation and stress reduction,

2) elevation of mood and reduction of depression,
3) improvement of task performance,
4) retrieval of memories,
5) promotion of better human relations among persons with diverse backgrounds,
6) improvement of self concept,
7) modification of sleep,
8) enhancement of sexuality.
CULTURAL VALUES RESEARCH
The nature of values:

The most mysterious aspects of culture are internalised variables such as values, whose
existence can only be deduced from behaviour. Key to the understanding of values is the
concept of motivation. Motivation is an internal force within an organism that impels it to
action. It is generally regarded as an intervening variable, impossible to observe directly but
which mediates between the conditions antecedent and subsequent to behaviour. In animals
motivation is believed to result from unsatisfied tissue needs (hunger, thirst, sex, etc.), the
strength of the motivation being roughly proportional to the time of deprivation. In humans,
living in civilised societies, motives resulting from tissue needs (primary needs) are generally
satisfied by social institutions (the family, mates, etc.). More sophisticated behaviours in
humans are largely attributed to secondary or higher order needs, which are attached to
primary needs in childhood by a process of informal classical and instrumental conditioning
(Murray 1938). Since child rearing and socialisation processes differ between cultures, adult
motivational patterns may reveal cultural differences as well as differences attributed to the
individual's unique hereditary and developmental factors.
Cultural values are hypothesised to be generalised attitudes that serve as modifiers of

motives. Values involve beliefs about desirable and undesirable ways of behaving and about
desirable or undesirable end states. Values have a dimension of goodness and badness, at least
as defined by the culture. They are shared by most participants in a culture and lend direction
to behaviour. That is not to say that everyone in a culture behaves the same. Individuals
within all cultures have unique and idiosyncratic personalities that may vary within broad
limits. Cultural values, however, are common to everyone in a given culture and establish
general behavioural themes. Thus for contemporary values research the appropriate unit of
study is the group rather than the individual. This contrasts with the orientation of most
psychologists who prefer to study the factors contributing to the deviation of individual
behaviour from group norms (Berry 1996).
More specific than values are interests. These are the activities within which people expect to
attain their values and thus satisfy their needs. All else being equal, individuals are likely to
choose activities consistent with strongly held personal values. Thus an individual who places
a high value on the well being of others (altruism) is likely to follow a career in social work,
teaching, or some other service related occupation. While cultural values can be considered on
a group basis, interests are individual and result from a unique combination of value and
opportunity. However, interests are closer to actual behaviour than needs and values.
Vocational counsellors and human relations specialists in business regularly use interest
patterns as a predictor of the probable success of job applicants.
From a practical point of view, marketers who wish to understand why people do things must
study needs and motivation. Predicting the general direction of group behaviour requires a
consideration of group values. Finally, a prediction of the likely way in which individuals try
to achieve goals requires knowledge of each person's interests. Marketers already accept this
distinction by placing advertisements for niche products in media which are likely to be
noticed by consumers with the appropriate interests, i.e. cosmetics in beauty magazines, sports
drinks at football stadiums.
The scientific community is largely split about the appropriate methods of studying human
values. On the one hand the common biology shared by all humans and the limited means of
satisfaction of motives encourages the belief that there is a finite number of core values shared
by all and that the proper study of values is to define those held in common. This is called the
etic position and is that held by most psychologists and marketing professionals. Their
rationale is obvious. A limited array of values, each with a measurable degree of strength,
provides the ability to compare groups and cultures, and to make predictions based on a
reasonable number of variables. Of contemporary researchers, Hofstede, Rokeach, Kahle, and
Schwartz might be considered in this school.
The emic position, on the other hand, considers values to be largely culture specific. A value
is understandable only from a cultural perspective and there might well be as many sets of
values as different cultures. Only the values which overlap between cultures may be
considered general. This view tends to be favoured by cultural anthropologists and is the one
that prevailed during the earlier part of this century. It still has may supporters in the academic
community. Boas, Mead, Benedict, and Herzkowitz supported this view of cultural values, all
writing before 1930. Triandis and Bond, both currently active, still consider many values
largely culture specific.
As in most things, the truth is probably between both positions. A survey of recent literature
by Kimball Romney indicates that about 54% of the researched values are universal, 15% are
culture specific and the remaining 31% are undetermined.
In practice, an emic/etic distinction is largely artificial since all research must begin
somewhere. This generally means using a research technique firmly rooted in one's own
culture (emic) but assumed to be valid for the target culture (etic). Own and target culture
results are then compared for data analysis purposes. Obviously risk attends the use of
measurement techniques developed in one culture to assess values in another culture since
there is no way of knowing in advance if a measurement approach makes any sense other than
in its culture of origin. The emic/etic distinction resolves itself into the technical equivalence
of measurement schemes in disparate cultures - and this becomes one of the primary problems
in values measurement.
Landmark studies in cross-cultural values:

Current work in cross-cultural values has been influenced by several landmark studies spaced
a decade or two apart. Prior to the 1930's speculation about cultural differences was the
domain of anthropologists and philosophers (Boas 1911). The first scientific attempt to
measure values as an index of culture was undertaken as an exercise in applied philosophy by
Allport and Vernon (Allport 1931). As an instructional tool for university graduate students
they devised a values measurement scale, the Study of Values, based on German philosopher
Spranger's hypothesised list of 6 personality types (Spranger 1928). While naive by present
standards, the Allport values scale had a surprisingly long life and was used in values research
for over 40 years (Allport. G. W. 1960). The very existence of the scale emphasised that,
ephemeral as they may seem, values could be measured in the same manner as any other
psychological phenomenon.
Value Orientations is the name given to a theoretical construct developed by Florence

Kluckhohn. She postulated that humans are faced with a finite number of problems as social
groups and that there are a finite number of solutions. It is the ordering of these solutions that
creates the distinctive profile of a culture (Kluckhohn 1951; Kluckhohn 1953). The problem
areas involved: 1) the character of human nature, 2) the orientation of man to nature, 3) time
perspective or the temporal focus of human life, 4) types of human activities appropriate for
the culture, and 5) the relationship of men to other men. Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck developed
a 22 item ordinal questionnaire for measuring value strength in the several dimensions. Each
item consisted of a brief statement of a situation with three possible solutions. The respondent
was asked to make a first and second choice. Results of the questionnaire were used to
categorise the American Indian and Spanish American cultures that were the researchers
speciality (Kluckhohn 1961). While Kluckhohn’s work established a precedent for identifying
groups by patterns of values, Kluckhohn made no attempt to determine if her dimensions were
generally appropriate for cultural comparison or whether specific items were understood in an
equivalent way in different cultural groups.
Working from a somewhat different perspective, Abraham Maslow proposed a hierarchical

theory of human motivation in 1954, suggesting that both physical and emotional needs are
important in motivating behaviour (Maslow 1970). Maslow theorised that motives are ranked
in order with physiological motives being the most basic, followed by safety, social, esteem,
and self-actualisation motives. Physical and safety motives required constant external
satisfaction and are related to economic or hedonistic values. Social and egoistic motives tend
to be self-satisfying and are related to emotional values. Lower levels of motive must be
satisfied before higher levels become operative. Thus both the motives and the values that
shape behaviour change according to the individual’s circumstances. Maslow’s theory proved
influential in shaping subsequent motivational research in management and marketing,
primarily because it suggested that patterns of motivation, and the values that devolve from
them, are ever changing and are dependent on need satisfaction occurring in a hierarchical
sequence.
Influenced by the concept of a value hierarchy, Rokeach, in 1973, proposed a set of 18

terminal (end state) values and 18 instrumental (modes of behaviour) values which were
ranked in order of importance by students in the USA, Australia, Canada, and Israel (Rokeach
1973). Feather replicated Rokeach's study in Australia, New Guinea, and China a few years
later (Feather and Hutton 1974; Feather 1976). The Rokeach value list is shown below:
Terminal Values Instrumental Values
a comfortable life ambitious

an exciting life broad-minded
a sense of accomplishment capable
a world at peace cheerful
a world of beauty clean
equality courageous
family security forgiving
freedom helpful
happiness honest
inner harmony imaginative
mature love independent
national security intellectual
pleasure logical
salvation loving
self-respect obedient
social recognition polite
true friendship responsible
wisdom self-controlled
The large number of values compared and the absence of a theory that organised values into
dimensions on which cultures are known to differ made it difficult to draw conclusions from
their findings. The Rokeach values list proved popular in the marketing community, however,
since it offered the possibility of more finely differentiating market segment groups within a
given culture than the Maslow hierarchy. Regardless of the scientific merit of the Rokeach
list, it was used in several dozen market research studies soon after its publication and
continues to be thus used to this day (Becker and Connor 1981; Pitts and Woodside 1983;
Burgess 1988; Kamakura and Novak 1992; Sukhdial, Chakraborty et al. 1995).
Rokeach's list was simplified into 9 values (LOV) by Kahle in 1983 for use in marketing
research. Kahle also abandoned Rokeach’s method of requiring respondents to rank values in
order, substituting a 9 point rating scale ranging from very unimportant to very important
(Kahle, Beatty et al. 1986). The values included in the Kahle LOV are:
1) Sense of belonging
2) Excitement
3) Warm relationship with others
4) Self-fulfilment
5) Being well respected
6) Fun and enjoyment of life
7) Security
8) Self respect
9) A sense of accomplishment
The cultural block diagram in Figure 1 distinguished between instrumental values (processes
such as honesty or benevolence) and terminal values or goals (such as respect of others or a
comfortable home). This division is entirely arbitrary and is merely used for descriptive
convenience. The terminal values of one culture may be the instrumental values of another.
Contemporary research has found no evidence that there is any fundamental distinction
between terminal and instrumental values (de Mooij 1998). The instrumental/terminal value
distinction is still maintained in marketing studies primarily because many were based on the
Rokeach list of values where this dichotomy was first proposed.
The practical application of values research was recognised by management scientists

who looked upon the area as offering insight into motivational techniques that could be
used in the workplace. An essential part of management is the establishment of an
implicit bargain with workers that states "If you give me your time and effort, I will give
you what you desire." Limits to the bargain are imposed by economic, ethical, and legal
considerations, of course, but the best bargain can be struck if management offers the
worker what he/she desires most. Striking a bargain on an individual basis, sometimes
known as the "Different strokes for different folks" theory is impractical if more than a
half dozen workers are to be motivated. Effective bargain making is dependent on
discovering a single approach to need satisfaction that can be offered to all workers. This
permits a single management policy to be applied across all levels of a company. The
search for the "common denominator of desire" is the driving force behind values
research in business, both in management and marketing. Since research tends to follow
funding, a number of contemporary values research studies have a distinctly business,
marketplace or workplace orientation.
One such research study, Geert Hofstede's investigation into the work values of IBM
personnel in 40 nations, later expanded to 53 nations, by its sheer size and audacity
overwhelmed cross-cultural values research for at least a decade (Hofstede 1980; Hofstede
1983). To explore the possibility of using a uniform management structure for all IBM
personnel world wide, Hofstede distributed a work values survey to 117,000 IBM staff and
managers. The questions in the survey reflected the concerns of personnel management of the
time. These involved the comparison of intrinsic (work related) motives and extrinsic (life
style) motives, participative vs. authoritarian management styles and approaches to job
enrichment. Never intending at the outset to do a cross-cultural study, the variation in the
results obtained from regional areas prompted Hofstede to propose four cultural dimensions
that differentiated national groups. The dimensions were based primarily on Hofstede's
interpretation of the values research literature. These were:
Power Distance - acceptance of unequal distribution of power as legitimate;
Individualism/Collectivism - individual as opposed to group orientation;
Uncertainty Avoidance - valuing beliefs that provide certainty and conformity;
Masculinity/Femininity - valuing achievement, assertiveness, and material success

over relationships, charity, and interpersonal harmony.
Figure 6 is a graphic representation of national work value similarities based on

Hofstede's 1980 data. The number at each junction quantifies the difference between
groups meeting at that junction. The actual number is arbitrary, depending upon the scale
used to measure the values but it is linear and provides the ability to make ratio scale
judgements of cultural distance. Thus a node with a value of 2 represents twice the
national values difference of a node with the value of 1.
Although Hofstede did not do so directly, Figure 6 supports the classification of national
cultures into groups, with similar cultures clustered together. Anglo-Saxon, Western
European, Hispanic and Asian clusters emerge. Japan is revealed as culturally unique, more
distant from all other cultures than all are distant from each other. Cultural difference can be
estimated by finding the numerical value of the node on the shortest path joining the home
country with the target country. The smaller this distance, the greater the cultural similarity
and more likely home country business, management and marketing practices would be
applicable. Thus the United States (USA) and Australia (AUL) with a cultural distance of .08
are quite similar, the Great Britain (GBR) and Japan (JAP), with a distance of 6.82 are
culturally remote (Zeitlin 1996).
Figure 6. National work value differences based on Hofstede's 1980 data. (Zeitlin, 1996)
Hofstede, unlike many other researchers, published both his research questionnaire and his
raw data, inviting others to continue and expand on his work. Using Hofstede's study as a
baseline, other investigators have explored similarities and differences in national value
structures and the changes in value structure over time (Shackleton and Ali 1990; Smith,
Dugan et al. 1996; Fernandez, Carlson et al. 1997; Zeitlin 1999). Figure 7 depicts the
relationships among national values of countries trading in the European Union, based on
1990s data, grouping nations with similar work values together. The implication is that
management methods that are effective in one country are likely to be similarly effective in its
close neighbours on the diagram (Zeitlin 1996). The utility of Hofstede's study as a general
reference point in values research must be balanced against the specific and limited nature of
the values that are explored.
Figure 7. E.U. Trading partner national work value groupings.
With the benefit of several decades of hindsight, a number of researchers have found technical
fault with the Hofstede study. He did not distinguish between the values of upper and lower
level managers and he merged responses of male and female workers. Other research has
shown that there are substantial work value differences between these groups. Further the four
dimensions of work value proposed are not as clear cut as might be desired. A rigorous
mathematical analysis revealed that several of the dimensions are so highly correlated that
only a factor of Authoritarianism, combining portions of the Individualism/Collectivism and
Power Distance factors and a factor of Social Role Differentiation are necessary to account for
the cultural differences found (Zeitlin 1996). Figure 8 is a conceptual world map with the
national cultural groups arrayed according to their factor scores on these two work value
dimensions. Nations that are close together on the map are similar in cultural values. The
linear distance is proportional to the value difference. The fact that only two factors are
theoretically necessary to account for Hofstede’s results was to be expected since the original
values questionnaire was largely based on a two factor theory of work motivation.
Figure 8. “World map” of national cultural values.
Despite the technical faults of the study, however, Hofstede established the ground rules for
subsequent research. Groups, rather than individuals, were the appropriate units for
investigation. Value dimensions should, ideally, arise out of the data, rather than be
determined apriori. Finally, value dimensions should have a degree of universality rather than
be culturally specific. Subsequent studies have revealed the appropriateness of Hofstede's
dimensions in the workplace environment. They seem to be present in most cultures, although
additional dimensions have been suggested for non-work related values. In a sense, Hofstede
was too successful. His massive study filled a data vacuum in cross-cultural research and his
findings have been generalised and uncritically applied to all aspects of social behaviour.
In 1987 Michael Bond and his associates, the Chinese Culture Connection, extended
Hofstede's work to Asian cultures using a Chinese developed values survey (Chinese Culture
1987). In surveys of 23 Asian countries, Bond found support for the Hofstede work value
dimensions but identified an additional dimension called Confucian Work Dynamism which
was not present in Western cultures. One of the more interesting aspects of Bond's study was
that national scores on this value correlated to a relatively high degree with the economic
success of the specific countries. Hofstede later incorporated Bond's works into his own value
dimension structure although he renamed the unique Chinese work value Long Term
Orientation (Hofstede 1988). In 1996 Bond summarised his own work and that of others
concerned with Chinese culture in a valuable resource, the Handbook of Chinese Psychology
(Bond 1996).
The most recent of the landmark studies is by Shalom Schwartz (Schwartz 1992). In a
manner reminiscent of Kluckhohn, he and his associates proposed a theory based on the
concept that cultural values must reflect three “universal requirements of human existence”
(Schwartz 1994). These are: 1) needs of individuals as biological organisms, 2) requirements
of co-ordinated social action, and 3) survival and welfare needs of groups. A number of
motivational domains of values were derived from the three universal requirements. The
theory was tested cross-culturally with a multiple value set similar to that of Rokeach, using
Hofstede's approach of securing data from a number of countries. The results of this survey
convinced Schwartz and his associates that human values could be divided into distinct
motivational types. These were 1) self-direction, 2) stimulation, 3) hedonism, 4) achievement,
5) power, 6) security, 7) conformity, 8) tradition, 9) spirituality, 10) benevolence, and 11)
universalism. He then addressed the issue of the cross-cultural universality of all the value
types and if similar value types in each culture consisted of the same individual values.
Schwartz developed a list of 52 individual values structured into the 10 value types
(spirituality was excluded). Using a sophisticated statistical analysis on data from 54 countries
Schwartz showed that 45 of his individual values had stable cross-cultural meanings and
could be used to differentiate national cultures. These in turn were divided into three broad
polar dimensions, Conservatism vs. Autonomy, Hierarchy vs. Egalitarianism, and Mastery vs.
Harmony. A graphic technique enabled Schwartz to draw a schematic map of individual value
structures. Figure 9 shows the individual values and their relationship to the 10 value types.
The value structure shown is the average of 20 countries. Individual national value structures
would differ from the overall average and could be used to differentiate cultures.
SECURITY POWER
social
power
sense of preserving
national
accepting belonging public image
security authority
portion in life favor
reciprocation ACHIEVEMENT
social wealth
moderate clean ambitious
social order recognition
influential
TRADITION family
successful
obedient
respect for security healthy
tradition honor capable
devout parents
politeness pleasure
detachment intelligent
self discipline enjoying life
humble CONFORMITY HEDONISM
loyal
responsible true
friendship self exciting life
BENEVOLENCE meaning respect varied life
in life mature STIMULATION
honest love wisdom daring
helpful choosing
world at own goals
forgiving peace world of
social independent
spiritual beauty
justice creativity
life
protecting curious
inner environment
harmony
SELF DIRECTION
unity with freedom
nature
equality
UNIVERSALISM
broadminded
Figure 9. Individual level value structure averaged across 20 countries. (after Schwartz, 1992)
The data confirmed that people in a large number of cultures implicitly distinguish 10 types of
values when assessing the importance of specific values in guiding their lives. Further, there
do not appear to be any significant missing value areas within the cultures studied. The
number of individual values makes for an overly complex analysis if the full Schwartz model
is used for business purposes. Averaged scores on the 10 overall value types are probably
sufficient for marketing research.
Figure 10 shows the location of Schwartz’s ten overall value types along two dimensions, a
self-transcendence vs. self-enhancement dimension and an openness to change vs.
conservatism dimension. The two dimensions can be understood as underlying motivations.
The value types Universalism and Benevolence both involve concern for others while
Achievement and Power involve concern for the self. Self-Direction and Stimulation reflect
an openness to change while Tradition, Conformity, and Security reflect conservatism.
Hedonism shares characteristics of both openness to change and self-enhancement.
SELF
TRANCENDENCE
Universalism Benevolence
Tradition
Self direction
Conformity
OPENNESS TO
CHANGE CONSERVATISM
Stimulation
Security
Hedonism
Power
Achievement
SELF
ENHANCEMENT
Figure 10. Location of the 10 value types along two dimensions.
The values model presented is based on Schwartz’s 1992 through 1994 publications.
Schwartz's theory is in a state of flux as he constantly refines it and updates it with new
research results collected from a large group of co-workers.
Some contemporary values studies:

In 1990 Harry Triandis and his co-workers from the US and China used a novel research
technique to compare sets of values from each country (Triandis, Bontempo et al. 1990). They
compiled a list of 90 values culled from the research literature, including most mentioned in
the studies above. From this master list they selected a test list of 35 representative values
varying in rated cultural importance. Small panels of subjects from the US and from China
were asked to review the list of values, one by one, and agree on its importance to the home
culture. Both the percent agreement and the time taken to reach that agreement were recorded.
The top ten values from each list, ranked by percentage agreement and by quickness of
response were:
USA:
1) To be well adjusted, in harmony with my environment, in a good relationship with others.

2) To be happy, content, feel enjoyment, feel I have good fortune.
3) To be able to take advantage of opportunities.
4) To have intimacy, to be close to others, to know a lot about others who know a lot about
me.
5) To be able to properly balance action, enjoyment, reflection, behaviour, feeling, and
thought.
6) To be self reliant, independent, able to stand on my own two feet.
7) To be sympathetically concerned with others and care about what happens to them.
8) To have a job that reflects my potential, allows me to be what I want to be.
9) To be open to new experiences, look for the new, the different.
10) To be interdependent with others, to feel needed, to need them.
China:
1) Persistence and perseverance.

2) Courtesy.
3) To be well adjusted, in harmony with my environment, in good relationship with others.
4) To have a close intimate friend.
5) Prudence.
6) Adaptability.
7) Patience.
8) To be able to take advantage of my opportunities, not to miss any opportunities.
9) Kindness, forgiveness, compassion.
10) To be able to properly balance enjoyment, behaviour, reflection, feeling, and thought.
Although Triandis and his co-workers were attempting to validate the method rather than
contrast social cultures, a comparison of the values lists reflects the self oriented aspects of the
US culture and the group oriented aspects of the Chinese culture. Indeed, much of Triandis’
voluminous body of work is centred on this individualism/collectivism values dimension and
the contrast between Western and Asian cultures (Triandis, Bontempo et al. 1988; Triandis
1990).
In 1995 Donald Super and Branimir Sverko published the results of a 15 year cross-cultural
study of the importance of work (Super and Sverko 1995). They tried to determine if the same
values exist in the same hierarchical order in traditionally capitalist and socialist countries and
between various ethnic, linguistic and religious groups in those countries. A secondary
objective dealt with values formation and career choice as children moved through the
educational process to adult status. Finally they attempted to assess the hierarchy of values
that come into play as individuals assume different roles in the society.
The Work Importance Study measured the values of secondary education students, higher
education students, and adults from Australia, Belgium, Canada, Croatia, Italy, Japan,
Poland, South Africa, and the United States. Independent measures were made of various
language groups in Canada and South Africa. The results of the study showed that the
cross-cultural variation in the 18 values areas probed. These were:
1) Ability utilisation
2) Achievement
3) Advancement
4) Aesthetics
5) Altruism
6) Authority
7) Creativity
8) Economics
9) Life Style
10) Personal Development
11) Physical Activity
12) Prestige
13) Risk
14) Social Interaction
15) Social Relations
16) Variety
17) Working Conditions
The results could be explained by invoking 6 dimensions, Adventurous Orientation,

Individualistic Orientation, Self-Actualisation, Social Orientation, and Utilitarian
Orientation.
Figure 11 is a schematic representation of the clusters of values of the various cultures

covered in the Super study. The labels on the left-hand portion of the chart indicate the
nation and the educational level of the sample. SE means secondary education, HE is
higher education and AD represents adult. English speaking Canadians are CAE while
French speaking Canadians are CAF. South African English are SAE, South African
Afrikaans is SAA, and South African Blacks are SAB.
Figure 11. Clusters of national values based on Super and Sverko, 1995.
Despite the fact that the data was collected 25 years after the Hofstede study (Figure 6), using
different instruments, from different populations, similar national clusters appear. It is
interesting to note that adult Japanese still have values that are distinctly different from other
cultural groups. Japanese children, however, do not appear to have values markedly different
from those of Europeans. This augers for a shift in the Japanese cultural value pattern in the
coming decades.
RELIGION AND CULTURAL VALUES
Religion, after language, has been regarded as the most important carrier of culture. Religions
incorporate both a system of beliefs and a formalised code of values, which are enforced by
social sanction. More nations than not subscribe to an official state religion which influences
civil practices as well as spiritual ones (Huismans and Schwartz 1992). It is apparent that
cross-cultural values research must consider religion as a primary influential factor.
Religious faith provides a patterned way of dealing with societal expectations in the face of
individual wishes, expressions and activities. It profoundly affects the practical aspects of
doing business in a country. Knowledge of religious practice is important for understanding
events that may influence marketing efforts or productivity levels. This is true even for
societies that are not religiously monolithic. Significant segments of the marketplace may
alter behaviour during periods of religious observance. While no single index exists for
evaluating religious heterogeneity, it is suggested that the influence of diverse religious
preference be considered in cross-cultural research and in marketing when at least 20% of the
population subscribes to different religions than the majority. The USA, the UK, France, and
India are four such societies.
In a recent study Schwartz and Huismans investigated the relationship between cultural values
and degree of religious faith (Schwartz and Huismans 1995). Two experiments examined the
relationship between religiosity and value priorities among adherents of four religions:
Judaism, Protestantism, Roman Catholicism, and Greek Orthodoxy. Single values were
combined into 10 distinct value types: power, achievement, hedonism, stimulation, self-
direction, universalism, benevolence, tradition, conformity, and security.
The first experiment focused on a total of 1,731 members of the four religions in countries
with different dominant religions: Greece, the Netherlands, Spain, and Israel. The subjects
rated the importance of each of the 10 value sets as a guiding principle in their lives. The
second experiment compared responses of 849 Protestants and 827 Roman Catholics in West
Germany. The results suggested that valuing certainty, self-restraint, and submission to
superior external verities inclines people to become more religious in general. Valuing
openness to change and free self-expression inclines people to become less religious.
To determine the influence of religious orientation on work values within a single culture,
Zeitlin administered a work values questionnaire to a population of 805 foreign born and US
native adult business graduate students in the USA. He factor analysed the responses to derive
two primary value dimensions, a work intrinsic Success dimension and a work extrinsic Life
Style dimension (Zeitlin 1999). Respondents were grouped by professed religion: Protestant,
Catholic, Jewish, Muslim, and no religion. Figure 12 shows the relationship of religion to the
two work values dimensions.
Figure 12. Work values and religion.
In this population, the Jewish group is more sympathetic to values reflecting success than life
style, the Protestant group is near the midpoint of both dimensions, and the Muslim group is
more motivated by values reflecting the life style dimension. This may well be the result of
the comparative difficulty of devout Muslims following their religious predisposition in an
urban US environment.
As a confirmation of the confounding of national values and religion, Zeitlin also plotted the
average value scores of his sample, segregated by national origin, along the same two work
related dimensions. Figure 13 displays these results.
Figure 13. Work values of adult business students by national origins.
Note the similarity between the findings for religion and for national origin. Israel, where
Judaism is the official religion, occupies nearly the same spot as the Jewish group regardless
of origin. The USA, predominantly Protestant, is in nearly the same location as the Protestant
group. The USSR and China, who in the recent past discouraged all forms of religious
expression, bracket the no religion location on the previous graph.
It is clear that there is a degree of statistical confounding between national values and religion,
most notable in those countries where there is a substantial religious majority or a state
approved religion. Further, religious values are also modified to meet local or national
requirements. There is a significant difference in Roman Catholicism as preached in Rome
and practised in South America; in Islam between Saudi Arabia and Bangladesh; in Judaism
between Tel Aviv and London.
The relationship between degree of religious conviction and work values is a complex one.
Itzhak Harpaz, in a cross-cultural comparison of religious conviction and the meaning of work
noted that high degrees of faith might either enhance or subtract from work values, depending
on the interaction of specific religious values and those of the workplace (Harpaz 1998).
Among workers with strong religious convictions in Germany and the Netherlands, the
intrinsic work values of work centrality, achievement, and obligation were stronger, and the
extrinsic expectations of pay and entitlement were weaker than for workers with little
religious conviction. In Israel, however, the situation was the opposite, with high religious
conviction correlating with low intrinsic work values and higher extrinsic or entitlement
values.
Harpaz related these differences to the importance of work related values to the specific
religion. The Protestant work ethic is an inherent part of the religious doctrine of German and
Dutch Protestantism. This ethic imposes on individuals a moral obligation to work hard, be
frugal, and be loyal to their occupation and organisation. The ethic reflects Martin Luther’s
teaching that work is a calling from God and one should serve God through hard work (Weber
1958). Thus religious values reinforce workplace values. Similar teachings are found in
Confucianism and a strong religious ethic has been found in the workplace values of the
Chinese (Bond 1996).
In Israel, and in many Catholic countries, work is seen as distracting from the obligations of
the religious faithful. It takes time that could otherwise be used for religious observance and
focuses the mind on worldly rather than spiritual matters. Asceticism, spirituality, and self-
denial are the central tenets of faith. Religious values tend to counteract workplace values and
the centrality of work in the individual’s life is lessened. Buddhism and Hinduism similarly
preach denial of desire and retreat from worldliness as religious goals (Campbell 1972).
While the studies cited deal with values related to the workplace, there is good reason to
believe that broader cultural values are influenced by religion as well. Certainly the socially
approved vision of the “good life” is a function of the prevailing belief structure. It must be
mentioned parenthetically that there are numerous and sometimes profound discrepancies
between formal doctrine and the actual behaviour of many religious adherents. Roman
Catholicism proscribes birth control yet many Catholics in developed countries use
contraception. Islam proscribes alcohol yet alcohol consumption is regarded as a problem in
many Muslim areas. Christianity, as does many other religions, considers the marriage vow
sacred, yet divorce rates in both the US and the UK approximate 50%. Further, the major
religions are hardly as monolithic as presented. Each has numerous divisions and sects, often
with divergent and sometimes incompatible behavioural prescriptions. This is, of course,
stating the obvious. Still it would be wise for an astute international marketer to secure an up
to date calendar of religious holidays, rites, and festivals and familiarise himself or herself
with local religious customs before making significant business decisions in a foreign culture.
GENDER AND CULTURE
Cross-cultural research about gender issues has tried to determine if gender identity arises
through the socialisation process or if there are universally male or female behaviours. It
has been long assumed that males in all cultures assume dominant and/or aggressive roles
and females assume nurturant and/or supportive roles. Current thinking attributes this
conclusion to the male oriented bias in observation of early cultural anthropologists such
as Malinowski and Boas (Wade 1994). Neutral observers suggest that while women care
for others directly, males see their role as “selfless sacrifice”, a definition which often
disguises the altruistic and caring activities of men. Men nurture their families and
society by providing for their wives and children, and dying, if necessary, in defence of a
safe haven for their people (Gilmore 1991).
Still, there are a few common themes that emerge from the cross-cultural study of gender.
Generally speaking, men have higher status and power in most societies than women,
especially in public affairs. If the society requires aggression or combat, men generally
assume that role. Males usually perform functions that require greater physical strength.
Women in most societies have the primary responsibility for domestic chores and, of course,
for child rearing functions. However common, these themes are not universal. The role of
women ranges from complete domination by men (rural China and India) to heads of state
(UK, India, Israel, and Pakistan). Women also are found in the armed forces of many Western
and Asian nations but never in traditional Muslim nations.
Cross-cultural gender roles are characterised by:
1) Female status in society – ranging from male personal property to full equality
under law.
2) The content of male and female work – in some cultures men weave and women
do not; in others it’s the reverse. Women do the shopping and marketing in some
cultures; in others its men’s work.
3) Gender based rules on emotional expressivity – in Northern Europe and North

America women are permitted to be more emotionally expressive than men while
in Southern Europe and South America, free emotional rein is permitted for both
sexes. In Asia, both sexes are expected to show emotional restraint.
4) Degree of normal contact between unrelated members of the opposite sex – In

many farming cultures and in most occupations in the Western world, men and
women work together in close proximity and interact freely. Religious Muslim
cultures have a tradition of purdah; the veiling of women and the seclusion of
wives from all non-related males. Modern Muslim cultures and some Asian
cultures fall in-between, permitting male/female social contact but requiring veils
and/or some restrictions.
5) Culturally based sexual mores and traditions – Cultural restrictions on sexual

behaviour range from imposition of the death penalty for pre-marital sex (Iran) to
the encouragement of pre-marital sex (Polynesia). Some Western societies
officially discourage sex out of wedlock but expect it (US, UK). Some simply
expect it (France).
Values, attitudes and practices regarding gender are deeply embedded in a culture’s history,
environment, economy, and survival needs. Rigid concepts of manhood, with a clear-cut
differentiation of male and female roles, tend to exist whenever there is a great deal of
competition for resources (Gilmore 1991). The more demanding the environment, the greater
survival need for males to develop an aggressive and competitive attitude. In compiling
cultural catalogues of behaviour, anthropologists have found the greatest role differentiation
in groups living in the harsher conditions. Thus the Bedouins, the Esquimaux, and many
nomadic peoples in Asia have codes of manhood that accept exposure to risk and danger as
part of life. People who live in benign conditions or in regions with abundant resources have
relatively little gender differentiation save for those functions connected with reproduction.
Deeply embedded values take time to change. As a society moves from austerity to plenty,
gender rules tend to lag behind. Japan is a case in point. Medieval Japan was a harsh,
militaristic society with brigands, warlords, and almost constant civil unrest. Although a
farming economy, males were required to bear arms for one faction or the other. A deep
division in gender related roles were the consequence of early Japanese history. In the modern
era, Japan is a major industrialised economy, yet still leads the list in gender specific roles.
The following is a list of national cultures ranked in order of gender role differentiation, based
on Hofstede’s values data (Hofstede 1980). The national cultures with the strongest cultural
prescriptions for male and female behaviour are at the top.
1) Japan
2) Austria
3) Venezuela
4) Italy
5) Mexico
6) Ireland
7) Great Britain
8) Switzerland
9) Philippines
10) South Africa
11) Columbia
12) United States
13) Australia
14) Germany
15) New Zealand
16) Greece
17) India
18) Argentina
19) Belgium
20) Canada
21) Pakistan
22) Brazil
23) Singapore
24) Israel
25) Taiwan
26) Turkey
27) France
28) Peru
29) Spain
30) Thailand
31) Portugal
32) Chile
33) Netherlands
34) Finland
35) Denmark
36) Norway
37) Sweden
The consequences of gender role differentiation for marketing are straightforward. It

would be culturally appropriate to show men and women sharing household chores,
washing up, doing the laundry, and caring for the baby in Finland, Denmark, Norway
and Sweden, but quite inappropriate to use the same material in Japan. The listing does
not attempt to suggest which activities are masculine and which are feminine rather it
indicates the rigidity of the assignment.
Because gender roles are among the most deep seated of cultural values, a forced change
in circumstances may have anxiety provoking effects. In an interesting study, Kirstin
Refsing explored gender identity problems in mixed marriages of Japanese and Danes,
national cultures at the extremes of the gender identity list (Refsing 1998). The gender
identity of the wife appeared to dominate in determining the gender-role distribution in
the marriage. The gender identity of the Danish wives was generally unchallenged by
having husbands doing household tasks, while they themselves became the breadwinners.
Most characteristics of the Japanese women's gender identity were appreciated by their
Danish husbands who, although they did not encourage submissiveness, still enjoyed the
freedom of not having too many demands made on them in the family. The only group
whose gender identity was seriously challenged among the Japanese-Danish couples in
Denmark was the Japanese men.
In a similar vein, when women take over male roles, gender identity changes may occur.
Shelton examined households where women were the breadwinners (Shelton 1990).
Gender roles were somewhat more egalitarian in households where women were
employed than can be discerned from analyses of only total housework and childcare
time. Employed women spent less time on female-typed tasks than full-time
homemakers, while their time spent on male-typed or neutral tasks was generally not
significantly different from that of full-time homemakers. Men's total housework time did
not vary by wives' employment status, and wives' employment had little effect on their
husbands' time spent on specific tasks. A similar study of dual career families showed
that did role changes did occur when both parties worked. The result generally was that
females assumed more of the traditional male roles of financial management and
household repair but the men less frequently assumed female roles of household care,
child care and cooking (Burley 1991). In other words, most of the changes were on the
female side.
From a cross-cultural and historical perspective, gender arrangements and the qualities
associated with being male or female are not arbitrary. They are affected by practical
considerations of the social and physical environment. As such they can be expected to
change as technology and circumstances change (Wade 1994).
Female attitudes and values tend to be less extreme than those of males. Research shows
that women want similar things regardless of culture. In the relatively restricted area of
work values research, female Life Style values have a significantly smaller deviation than
male values. With few exceptions, female groups tend to be centrally located in the value
space while male groups occupy the extreme positions. In one study of gender related
work values, the dispersion of male values was 42% greater than the dispersion of female
work values. More important, the standard deviation of the male group was 156% greater.
Most of the female dispersion was within one standard deviation of the male group mean.
Generally speaking, women regardless of citizenship, race, or ethnicity have values more
like each other than like the males of comparable groups (Zeitlin 1999).
A number of suggestions for the variability of male values as compared with female
values have been offered, the most common being changes rung on Freud's theme that
"biology is destiny". Women in all cultures expect that a substantial part of their life role
is in bearing and raising children. They are socialised to value aspects of life which
facilitate that role. Men, on the other hand, have no such biological link to reality. They
are free to pursue any goal their fancy, or their culture, dictates.
TIME PERSPECTIVES AND CULTURE
One of the more important hallmarks of a culture is its orientation towards the passage of
time (Rifkin 1987). The current Western conception of time as a linear stream that has a
beginning and ultimate end is fairly recent in human history. Agrarian societies, both
primitive and modern, usually regard time as circular, both nature and living beings as
having a beginning, a midlife, and then an end, only to be reborn again as the cycle
repeats. The residue of the cyclic idea of time persists in religious beliefs of reincarnation
and rebirth and in popular folklore. The New Year’s baby replacing the doddering Old
Year is a fairly universal cross-cultural symbolic representation of year’s end. Although
implications of the linear aspect of time were present in the writings of Heraclitus during
the classic Greek era, it was not until the Renaissance that the concept was widely
accepted in Europe.
While few modern cultures regard time as truly cyclic today, their perspective on time’s
passage varies significantly. Differing views on how soon is “soon” and how far the
future is in advance of the present are relevant both to business planning and to marketing
(Jones 1988). Western cultures are impatient when compared to their Asian counterparts.
European businesses typically make two and five year plans. Japanese make ten and
twenty year projections (Smith and Misumi 1989). In the UK, “immediately” means
within the next five minutes. In India, it means within the next week (Singhal 1977).
Most advertisers are reluctant to make direct promises about the temporal effectiveness of
their products. A face cream may be presented as quickly clearing the complexion, the
interpretation of the word “quickly” being up to the consumer. The cultural time
perspective is often the difference between disappointment and satisfaction (Jhally,
Goldman et al. 1995). Typically adolescents in all cultures have a shorter time
perspective than their elders (Nurmi 1991). Western countries have a shorter time
perspective than Asian countries. Developed countries have a shorter time perspective
than lesser-developed countries. Urban areas have a shorter time perspective than rural
areas (Jones 1988; Levine 1988).
One of the strongest relationships between time and culture is in the high negative
correlation between time perspective and the achievement motive (Agarwal and Tripathi
1978). Several cross-cultural studies have shown that the greater the desire for
achievement, the shorter the time perspective. Since cultures and subcultures vary in the
importance of achievement as a value, time perspective can be used a means of
differentiation. Chinese culture with its collective orientation generally regards individual
achievement as less important than overall group advancement hence the future
orientation of individuals of individuals is not important (Bond 1996). Achievement
motivated individuals tend to disregard the immediate past and focus their attention on
the short-term future, typically a period of less than a year (Agarwal and Tripathi 1980;
Halvari 1991; Conte, Mathieu et al. 1998). This holds true for all cultures and for
individuals of all ages.
Research in India, with its religiously traditional caste system, reveals different time
perspectives for members of each caste. In one experiment Americans and Indians were
asked to write short stories. Americans wrote significantly more stories with future
themes than did a comparable Indian sample. To explore this finding further, the subjects
were asked to develop a story from four present tense sentences with four themes.
Kshatriyas, Sikhs, and Parsees, as well as Americans tended to write stories with future
themes. Brahmins, Vasiyas, Sudras, and Muslims wrote stories with past themes. The
former groups had higher needs for achievement than the latter groups. The study
suggested that measures of time perspective could profitably be used for assessing
strength of motivation (Meade 1972). Among American Indians too, time perspective
shortens as acculturation to the mainstream society increases (Graves 1974).
The conclusions of studies on time perspective are unambiguous. The more developed
the society and the closer its values to those of Europe and North America, the shorter the
time perspective that must be implied in marketing material.
THE STABILITY OF VALUES
Values, those intervening variables we invoke to explain regularities in behaviour, have long
been regarded as relatively constant. The marketplace applicability of Hofstede’s and
Rokeach’s surveys is still discussed though the data is now more than a generation old
(Rokeach 1973; Hofstede 1980). But, since values are basically generalised attitudes, they
may, like all attitudes, be subject to alteration over time. This is particularly true when the
cultural or environmental structure supporting the values changes. Furthermore, in assessing
the stability of values, it is important to distinguish between the values held by an individual
and those of a cultural group or market segment.
Individual values are learned during the developmental process in early life. Parenting
techniques, schooling, and informal socialisation all play a part. The values are well supported
and reinforced by the institutions of the culture. The process is virtually complete by the time
a child reaches puberty and, in normal circumstances, the values so learned are extremely
resistant to modification. Longitudinal studies of individual attitude, value, and interest
patterns reveal very little change over the course of a lifetime. As the twig is bent, so bends
the bough.
By repeating values measurement studies years to decades later, researchers have documented
the stability of individual values within the context of a culture. Rokeach and his associates
repeated their early 70s values survey in the late 1980s and found most values in the US
culture were almost identical with those found in the earlier study except for a change in
values concerning equality and racism (Rokeach 1973; Rokeach and Ball Rokeach 1989).
Apparently racial unrest during the period between surveys had polarised opinion in the
direction of intolerance. In a cross-cultural study Peck examined national values in seven
countries taken years apart, using the same subjects, and found little change (Peck 1975).
Research in other domains supports similar findings. It is common political wisdom to state
that "all politics is pocketbook politics". On a formal basis political parties differ in their
attractiveness to the poor and wealthy depending on the values embodied in the political
platforms reflecting the party lines on taxes and benefits. If values are viewed as generalised
attitudes that promote individual goals, it might be expected that personal values reflecting
political ideology would change as affluence changes. Research shows that this is rarely the
case.
In many portions of the US voters are required to declare their political affiliation before
being permitted to vote in primary elections, after which they can only choose among the
candidates offered by their own party. The Democratic Party traditionally favours low-income
voters, the Republican Party high-income voters. In the last three decades, the US economic
boom has altered the financial fortune of the typical family. The average household net worth
in the US has risen $80,000 since the early 90s. The percent of truly poor, those needing the
economic safety net services featured in Democratic party campaign promises, has dropped to
a small fraction of the population. Yet the proportion of Democratic registered voters to
Republican registered voters has stayed nearly the same for years. Studies of party registration
made over a 40 year period by Common Cause, a political watchdog organisation, confirms
that voters rarely change party affiliation even though the voter’s economic condition has
changed dramatically.
The stability of individual values has often been viewed as a great cultural flywheel whose
inertia precludes rapid social change. Such stability can work to the disadvantage of society as
well. Since WW2 the Japanese have been encouraged to cultivate the values of personal thrift
and saving, partly so their savings could finance the expansion of the industrial economy,
partly to discourage consumption at home, so that the output of their factories could be sold
more profitably abroad. With the Japanese economy currently in recession, the government's
frantic efforts to increase consumption at home as an economic pump priming measure have
proven futile. The financial incentives given to consumers to spend have simply resulted in
greater rates of saving. Changing deeply embedded cultural values is not easy.
But are values really that unchanging? Seligman and Katz, of the University of Western
Ontario, suggest that some findings of the stability of individual values may be an artefact of
the way the value survey questions are posed (Seligman 1996). Rokeach, Schwartz, and other
researchers looking for common values across cultures measure values by asking subjects to
rate their importance as guiding principles in their lives. People are asked to answer abstractly
about how values guide their general predisposition or behaviours without regard to any
specific topic or purpose or social relationship. While such values research offers the ability to
broadly differentiate cultures, its relevance to application in the marketplace is limited. Even
though it is conceptually possible to predict general attitudes from this type of survey, there is
no assurance that individuals would rank values in the same way if they were responding to a
different request. The value order might be altered if the subjects were asked to rank order
values in terms of their importance to them as consumers, or voters, or sports fans, or as
parents. Further the interviews or questionnaires are generally untimed. Research in decision
making shows that judgements made under time pressure are often quite different from those
made in a more relaxed environment.
Super and his associates support this view. In the Work Importance Study they recognised
that value rankings were discernibly different when subjects assumed different roles
(Kulenovic 1995; Super and Sverko 1995). Subjects from the world’s three major economic
blocs, Europe, North America, and Japan exhibited distinctly different value rankings when
asked to assume the roles of student, worker, citizen, homemaker, and leisurite. The rankings
assigned to each role also differed significantly between economic blocs confirming that a
broad national or cultural consensus assigns different importance to each of the roles. Figure
14 depicts the relationship of roles to values in the three economic areas. The values are
ranked in importance along the dimensions of PARTICIPATION and COMMITMENT.
Figure 14. Role salience rankings in Europe, N. America, and Japan.
Note that the values exhibited by Europeans and Americans in the roles of student and citizen
are quite similar, although they differ a bit when asked to assume the roles of housewife and
worker. Japanese values form a discrete group, unlike those of Europeans or Americans,
except when in the role of leisure seeker. In this role their values are like their Western
counterparts.
Another way of looking at this data is by a cladistic diagram relating the similarity of role
related values for all three economic blocks. Figure 15 is such a cladistic diagram.
Figure 15. Relationship of roles to values in Europe, North America and Japan.
These findings suggest that value rankings may differ as a function of context and that
individual value importance may be modified, within a restricted range, as the situation or role
demands. Far from being specific measurable points, individual values must be considered as
fuzzy constructs subject to contextual alteration. Product related values measurement should
be performed within the context and role in which the product will be purchased or used.
Still, showing that individual values may be situation and context sensitive provides few clues
to the actual rates of value change. Individual value shift within the context of a home culture
may be relatively slow but when groups of individuals move physically from one culture to
another, as in the case of immigration, the supporting structure of the home culture vanishes
and change is rapid.
The most profound shifts in value occur during acculturation. This is a learning process in
which old values must be extinguished and the new culture's values absorbed. The more the
old values deviate from the new, the greater the cognitive dissonance, and the greater the
pressure for value change.
In a sense the process of acculturation is both frustrating and anxiety provoking as established
beliefs prove non-adaptive in the new environment. Predictably the bulk of the research
literature on acculturation comes from the mental health profession. For multinational
corporations that require personnel to operate cross-culturally, problems of acculturation, or at
least culture shock, are relevant as well (Zeitlin 1996). Management science literature
discusses the acculturation process in the transition of individuals from school to work and the
transfer of workers to an overseas location, the objective being to manage the transition as
quickly and as painlessly as possible (van der Velde, Feij et al. 1995).
Recently Zeitlin measured the rate of value change in a controlled voluntary immigrant
population of business students in the US (Zeitlin 1999). All had chosen to attend US graduate
schools of business to pursue advanced degrees after having completed primary, secondary,
and some college education in their home countries. They were assumed to have acquired
basic home country work and cultural values. Using a modified and expanded Hofstede values
questionnaire, two broad categories of work values were isolated, Work Success and
Lifestyle.
The longer the residence in the USA, the more closely the both the Work Success and
Lifestyle values approached those of US natives. The immigrant’s intrinsic work success
related values became less important over time while their extrinsic lifestyle values
became more important. This relationship is shown graphically in Figures 16 and 17.
Native US values are those at the extreme right hand portion of each figure.
Figure 16. Work Success (intrinsic) value factor score by years of U. S. residence.
Figure 117. Lifestyle (extrinsic) value factor score by years of U. S. residence.
The most dramatic effect was the relatively quick adoption of native US life style values
by immigrants. They were fully acculturated by the tenth year, their lifestyle values being
indistinguishable from US natives. The change was most rapid about the fourth year after
immigration. Informal interviews with respondents attributed the timing to the acquisition
of sufficient language skills to sever ties with the supportive ethnic communities and
immerse themselves in the mainstream culture (Zeitlin 1999).
Work success values changed relatively slowly compared to the lifestyle values. The
relative stability of work success values can be attributed to the influence of the business
school environment and to the expectation of a career path which would reward a specific
work orientation. For this self-selected group the demands of the business world
determined the acceptable range of values. Other immigrant samples might show greater
variation with time of residence. Lueptow reported a similar finding in measurement of
extrinsic work values (Lueptow 1992).
But while individual values may change slowly, group values affecting the marketplace are
subject to different dynamics. Consumers enter the economic marketplace in the early teen
years. This is the time when they begin to make independent decisions about product choice
and have the financial resources to implement their decisions. Most people tend to constrict
their marketplace activities at retirement age, approximately 50 years after entering. Given a
relatively stable population, the turnover of active marketplace participants is about 2% per
year, teens entering as pensioners leave. Depending on the similarity of the values of those
entering and leaving the annual values change may range from 1% to 4%.
Because today's children have had different formative experiences than their elders their
values are correspondingly different. The pensioners leaving the market had their values
formed during the trauma of WW2. The children of the pensioners experienced the social
excesses of the 60s and 70s, and formed their values in an era of political unrest, flower
power, recreational drugs and a suspicion of anyone over age 30. Their own children,
those entering the market today, formed their values in an environment of revitalised
capitalism, colour TV, AIDS, and the Internet. National location, of course determines
the specific values forming environment, but many regions have experienced marked
political, social and economic upheaval in the last two or three decades.
Using, as a first approximation, the evidence that shows that individual values can change
substantially over a ten year period, the marketplace, at least in the Western cultures, may
be divided into five age segments, each spanning a period of about ten years. Each age
cohort matures in a different economic, social, and political environment. These
developmental factors will produce somewhat different common value sets for each. As
each cohort moves through the marketplace, it takes its values with it. Thus a product
originally intended as a youth item, may, in a few years, be the choice of more mature
adults. In addition, the context in which these values manifest themselves and the
attitudes and behaviours resulting from them will be different as the cohort advances. The
age groupings and their purchasing contexts are:
EMERGING ADULTS - This group consists of persons from 15 to 25 years of age.

It is predominantly composed of singles and/or childless couples with limited
resources but similarly limited responsibilities. This group can be self-indulgent
and impulsive. Recreational and leisure time purchases are high. Brand choices
are flexible. They possess low market self-confidence and can be influenced by
advertising and the media.
YOUNG MARRIEDS (partnered) – This group ranges from 25 to 35 years old. It is

composed of couples starting a family, entering careers, and establishing a
household. This group generally has small children and is in the process of
making major purchases of a house and car. Resources are greater but
responsibilities often stress income. Brand loyalties are being established and
often are used as surrogate cues for product quality.
ESTABLISHED ADULTS - This group, aged between 35 to 45, are at the midpoint
of careers and well into the pattern of family life. Expenditures for consumer
items are likely to be greatest and generally are less limited by financial resources.
Brand loyalties are well established but, since consumer self-confidence is high,
can be altered by rational persuasion. This and the preceding group are the
primary purchasers of consumer items.
MID LIFERS - This group, ranging in age from 45 to 55, is deeply immersed in
career and family activities. Children are in the process of leaving home. Income
is available again for personal indulgence. Most major purchases have already
been made. Product choice is often upgraded in line with surplus income. This is
the group targeted for premium products, young enough to enjoy them and old
enough to afford them.
MATURE ADULTS - This group, persons from 55 to 65+, are experiencing

intimations of mortality. Those who can afford to are in the process of preparing
for retirement. Generally all children have left the home. Careers have peaked and
are winding down. For many in this group, assets outweigh responsibilities. There
is a marked increase in self-centred behaviour, travel, hobbies, gardening, etc.
Apart from such activities, purchasing of consumer items is low, except for health
related products.
The important thing to note is that the product related desires, needs and values of
persons entering the market are not the same as those leaving. Teens like different music,
clothes, cosmetics, food and automobiles than their elders. Their purchasing patterns are
different as well. This constant turnover virtually guarantees a marketplace values shift of
at least 2% per year. However since overall changes in economic, political, and
technological climate affect the entire marketplace population, not just the entering
cohort, the actual rate of values change from year to year is likely to be substantially
greater. Hansen reports that the average rate of change in Denmark is 5% per year
(Hansen 1998)
A values change rate of 2% to 5% per year may seem small, but it is cumulative. In 20 years,
consumer values may change more than 40%. Think how marketplace values have changed
since Elvis Presley made his first recordings in the ‘50s. Japan will have the consumer society
it desires but may have to wait 10 to 20 years.
When institutions themselves are in flux, values relevant to those institutions are also
modified. A current example of such a global values altering force is the shift to a market
economy experienced by many Eastern European countries. In addition to the economic
disruption experienced by all, the cultural reward system has changed to the point that old
values may be dysfunctional and new values incomprehensible.
Barring war or great economic disruption, it is unlikely that all aspects of the culture will
change in a given time period. Much of the basic values supporting structure still remains
(Kostera 1995). Change effects may be localised in a particular values sector. Fernandez and
his associates repeated Hofstede's work values study after a lapse of 30 years and found
substantial modification in work values of business professionals and business students in 9
countries. Many of the changes were in the independence/dependence dimension and showed
that the current crop of business persons are likely to be more independent than their
predecessors. Fernandez attributes this change to the increasing dominance of the Western
business model, stressing individual responsibility and achievement (Fernandez, Carlson et al.
1997). So values, particularly those related to consumer behaviour and lifestyle, do change
over time. They appear to be far less stable than the general literature indicates. In addition to
the fairly rapid group values changes in the marketplace, even individual values affecting
lifestyles can change significantly in adults over a 10 year period, especially in situations
where the supporting structure is dramatically altered.
VALUES AS BEHAVIOUR PREDICTORS
Accepting that a finite number of values exist and that most groups share them, can they be
used to understand and predict behaviour? The block diagram below places values in
perspective in the behavioural flow.
Figure 16. Factors influencing behaviour.
Clearly a number of factors influence each behavioural act. These include the perceived
environment, the individuals' need state, learned motives, socialisation and enculturation, and
environmental and situational conditions. The role the individual plays at the moment,
mother, lover, shopper, soldier, executive is critical to the operating set of values. Research
has shown that each role has a unique hierarchy of values that, although correlated, are
measurably different (Super 1995). Indeed, much of the process of cultural socialisation is
learning the values and the consequent behaviours appropriate for each role.
If behaviour is shaped by many factors operating simultaneously, the predictive ability of any
one of them, even if it can be known precisely, is debatable. Still it is all a question of the
behaviour under consideration. Sociobiologist E. O. Wilson suggests that some behaviours
involving biological or physical constraints admit of only a limited degree of variability
(Wilson 1980). These behaviours are on a short leash and with a limited number of
alternatives individual choice may be easier to predict from a consideration of values. Such
behaviours might involve eating, physical care, sexual and reproductive actions, etc. Other
behaviours, not tied to human physiology or the physical environment, are on a long leash and
may admit of considerable variation. Religion, kinship relationships, language, etc. fall into
this category. More knowledge of the factors influencing behaviour is necessary for this type
of prediction.
There are indications that strongly held values can be used to predict general trends in group
behaviour within the context of a single culture and to a lesser extent between cultures (Henry
1976; Kahle 1986). But it is naive to believe that if a group holds certain values it will always
behave in a prescribed manner. The cause and effect relationship of values to behaviour has
yet to be precisely determined. Even if individuals have full knowledge of and subscribe to
the values of their culture, the general attitudinal nature of values means that they can be
modified or subverted by other strong attitudes of the individual or by the pressure of external
realities. The same general value can manifest itself in different ways.
As an example, most Western cultures believe in the sanctity of life. The UK prohibits capital
punishment yet generally supports abortion while the USA authorises capital punishment yet
generally impedes abortion. Thus in one case it is permissible to take the life of a foetus but
not a felon while in the other a felon but not a foetus. In the marketing realm, a strong set of
values supporting the family can lead to the choice of an economical product in order to have
more money to spend on a family holiday. The same set of values may lead to the choice of a
luxury product in order to provide the "best" for one's children. Further, transient phenomena
may introduce random variability into product choice. Such a simple thing as the amount of
change one has in one’s pocket or purse may be a determining choice factor at the point of
sale.
Still, one can draw inferences useful in marketing from a consideration of national values. The
Chinese, for example, prefer a self effacing attribution style of behaviour expressed in the
aphorism "Haughtiness invites ruin, humility receives benefits." Translated into advertising
slogans, a marketer should not say "This is the best product money can buy." Rather he should
say "A good product at a fair price." While individual pride is abhorred, collective pride is
encouraged. Thus it is permissible to praise the company or the brand, but not the specific
product.
To add to the difficulty of prediction, the same set of behaviours may be influenced by
entirely different constellations of value. Take personal cleanliness as an example.
In the West, personal cleanliness is usually associated with values related to health or physical
attractiveness. Differences exist between national groups in behaviours associated with
personal cleanliness that are probably related to value differences. The French newspaper
Figaro reports that in “hygiene-obsessed Britain” three quarters of the population wash head
to toe every day while fewer than half of the French bathe daily. The average Briton uses 1.36
kilos of soap annually while the average Frenchman uses only .59 kilos. On the other hand,
the French are the biggest consumers of perfume in Europe.
In Muslim countries, especially for the devout, cleanliness is regarded as an essential

component of religion. Muslims are directed by the Koran not to pray until washed.
Cleanliness is identified with purity and good. In modern Islamic countries, bathing is
rejected, as opposed to showering because it leaves dirt residue on the body, hence does not
meet the Koran's injunction. Washing is ideally done in running water to remove all traces of
dirt. Clean clothing is both a symbol of pride and religious devotion.
Because cleanliness is associated with religious rather than health values, it is primarily for
adults. Children are not expected to be clean. A clean, well-dressed baby invites the "evil
eye." The bad luck drawn by the evil eye is regarded as a greater danger than dirty clothes.
Further, children are not yet practising Muslims and the religious standard of cleanliness is
lower than for their parents. Cleanliness also reflects social status. The rich are expected to be
cleaner than the poor. Men are expected to be cleaner than women. Women are required to be
cleaner than children (Ferna 1994). The primary values associated with personal cleanliness
for the devout Muslim are religious purity and social status, not health and, given the strong
prohibitions on casual gender contact, certainly not sexual attractiveness.
Still another set of values moderates personal cleanliness behaviour in India.

While daily washing is a religious obligation of the Indian Hindu, the use of soap is not. It is
the water itself that is the purifying agent. This is particularly true if the water comes from one
of India's two holy rivers, the Ganges or the Yamuna. The water from the confluence of the
rivers near Allahabad is the most purifying in India and millions of pilgrims travel to the site
to immerse themselves while taking part in religious ceremonies. The Ganges flowing past
Varanasi is terminally polluted by half burned bodies from the funeral ghats along the shore.
Devout Indians bathe themselves daily in the river and use the water for cooking. Modern
Indian health authorities are perplexed by the devout Hindu’s acceptance of the philosophy
that, "If the Ganges is the source of all purity, how can it be impure itself?"
The concept of cleanliness as an adjunct to health requires an acceptance of the germ theory
of disease. Clearly any campaign directed at inducing rural or lower class Indians to use soaps
and detergents in washing should stress the appearance enhancing and clothes preservation
aspects of cleanliness rather than the health benefits. In addition, sexuality is often treated
more permissively in India than in the West. Hence cleanliness products as aids to sexual
attractiveness would be accepted by the culture.
Cultural values can be used to predict behavioural predisposition provided the user has a full
knowledge of how the value is expressed in that specific culture. Simply knowing that a value
for “cleanliness” exists is not enough. One must also know what the concept of cleanliness
means in the target market.
Finally, it is not necessary to actually measure values to use them as an aid in forecasting
behaviour. Inference of value systems from a consideration of external factors is possible. It
requires correlation of specific features of the physical and social environment with culturally
expressed values. Measurements of relative modernity, technology, or socio-economic level
tend to correlate with certain sets of values. In the Western world the primary correlation of
economic success measured by income per capita is with individual/collective values; in Asia
it is with Confucian work values.
Since many values have been shown to relate to objectively observable aspects of the
environment or, alternately, have observable influences on the social structure, it may be
sufficient to look for these indices of potential behaviour. If, for example, we need to
determine who does the family shopping, we could measure the strength of the “gender role
differentiation” value using a value survey questionnaire or we could look for an external
manifestation of the same value. This might be the number of female business executives or
members of government. Of course it would be easier to simply stand at the supermarket
checkout and count men and women buyers.
THE MEASUREMENT OF VALUES
Requirements of all values measurement techniques:

Given that values are generalised attitudes, attitude research techniques refined over the last
75 years are directly applicable to both structured interviews and survey questionnaires. Many
of the subsequent comments pull freely from both the values research and the attitude research
literature. Because of the number of contributors to this field individual citations have been
omitted, however many general references to attitude and value measurement are included in
the bibliographic appendices. The following paragraphs on measurement methodology may
seem elementary to the experienced researcher but, given the lack of rigor in many applied
value studies, they may be instructive to those just starting a project in this area.
Direct measurement of attitude and value systems across cultures is difficult. It requires:
1) extensive observation of the target culture,
2) identification of the behaviour areas in which values differentiating it from the reference
(home) culture are found,
3) selection of a value set for measurement, translation and standardisation of measurement
instruments,
4) administration of those instruments to a suitable population.
While almost any set of behaviours can be used as an index of value, useful measurement
techniques share the characteristics of relevance, freedom from contamination, and reliability.
First, the technique must be relevant to the set of values being evaluated. Food preference, for
example, would be a poor choice for classification of a culture on Hofstede's Power Distance
dimension. Observations on religion or political systems might be appropriate, however.
Second, differences in measured values must be due primarily to variation in the attribute
being evaluated and free from contamination by other factors. In the foregoing example the
degree of religious belief of an individual might contaminate values inferred by merely noting
his/her religion. "True believers" in all religions are likely to share similar values in which
low faith individuals may differ. In market related values studies, the most frequently
observed contaminating factor is socio-economic level. The measurement technique should be

stable and reliable. Successive administrations of the method should provide similar results.
Finally it should be reasonably valid for the purpose for which it is being used. Validity is the
ability of the instrument to measure what it intended to measure. If it does not measure what
you intend, why bother to use it at all?
Reliability is measured by the correlation of one measurement score with a second

measurement score on the same instrument. Several forms of reliability are:
1) Stability: The same group is measured at different times. The value scores should be
nearly the same.
2) Equivalence: Different groups with similar characteristics, chosen from the same
general population, are measured at the same time. The value scores should be
nearly the same.
3) Internal consistency: All parts of the measurement instrument or questionnaire
should be consistent. Example: the odd numbered questions should correlate with
the even numbered questions in a well-designed questionnaire. This form of
reliability is difficult to achieve unless multiple questions are used for each value.
It is difficult to over stress the importance of reliability in all forms of research. Reliability is
basically the correlation in results of successive administrations of a measurement instrument.
No measurement method can ever have a higher validity than its reliability. It can never have
a higher correlation with any other measure than with itself! In most areas of behavioural
research, great care is taken to ascertain the reliability of the technique used. Measurement
instruments are either re-tested on the same population or on a comparable population and the
results are published for all to see. Unfortunately, because of money and time concerns,
researchers in the cross-cultural area rarely assess the reliability of their value survey
instruments. Any prediction made from a consideration of the results of a method with
untested reliability has unknown validity. It is basically an informed guess. Measurement
methods with reliabilities lower than 0.5 have a predictive efficiency too low to be used on
their own and should be combined with other measures to adequately assess values.
Measurement instruments with reliabilities lower than 0.3 probably should not be used at all.
While reliability is a function of the measurement instrument itself, validity is a function of

how it is used. A questionnaire that inquires about flavour preferences may be reasonably
accurate in predicting the acceptability of various packaged foods across cultures but would
be almost useless for deciding about the colour of the box in which the food was packed.
For a measurement instrument to be valid the scores should correlate with independent
determinations of the characteristic to be measured. In values measurement this may be
difficult to achieve since values are, by definition, internal variables that loosely shape
behaviour. In market oriented research, however, it is often possible to compare stated values
relevant to a product to actual purchasing behaviour or product use. While all the values
measured on a questionnaire or elicited in an interview might not correlate directly with
product use, independent determinations of some of the measured values would lend credence
to the entire survey. Several types of measurement instrument validity are:
1) Content validity: Experts are often used to define the values that influence
consumer behaviour. Content validation is only as good as the judgement of the
experts who specified the content area. Example: Values research (e.g.
Rokeach) often deals with values far removed from the consumer marketplace.
A researcher may well decide that “a world at peace” or “equal opportunity for
all” has little relevance to doing laundry or using cosmetics. The content area of
values research in these areas would not include these values. On the other
hand, the values of “pleasure”, “self respect”, and “happiness” might well be
included.
2) Face validity: If the values selected for investigation appear to relate to the
purpose of the study, the measuring instrument is said to have face validity. In
other words, “it looks like it should work.” In practice, what often looks
“correct” may not be relevant to behaviour influencing values and what looks
irrelevant may exert a profound influence on behaviour. As an example, there is

no logical reason why a washing up liquid that smells like a lemon will get
dishes any cleaner than one that has no smell at all, yet market experience
shows that scent has a profound effect on product preference.
3) Construct validity: Is a judgement about the attributes that underlie the specific
consumer behaviours. Examples: Confidence and security might be the values
that underlie product brand choice. What we hope to accomplish in a values
measurement instrument is the quantification of the amounts of each value
possessed by various market segments. Construct validation depends upon
research that actually relates specific values to various types of consumer
behaviour. In this sense it is different from content validity that depends on
expert judgement.
4) Criterion related validity: Are measurements correlated with the actual

behaviour of consumers in the marketplace. This is our ultimate goal. We hope
to develop a measurement instrument with predictive validity, one that permits
us to predict consumer behaviour from a consideration of the values scores
alone.
The number of values selected for examination is a function of the objectives of the study
and the time and funds available. In exploratory research, where little is known in advance
about the value structure of the target culture(s), the net must be cast widely. For applied
studies, where the objective is broadly differentiating a market into discrete groups, a smaller
number of commercially relevant values are chosen. In the latter case, these are generally
selected from a broader array of values by logic (inspired guesswork) guided by previous
experience with both the product and the target market. Where prior quantitative research is
available the use of cluster analysis or factor analysis is often helpful in choosing the most
important values from a broader set. A recent Unilever cross-cultural laddering exploratory
study of laundry related values suggested 23 individual values influenced product choice.
From a logical point of view this an unreasonable number of values to consider for an activity
as circumscribed as washing clothes. It is also too many to consider in product development

or marketing efforts. A factor analysis of the original numerical data revealed that only 6
factors could account for the results. This is a more manageable number for subsequent
studies.
Objective measurement techniques are preferable to subjective methods. A method is

objective to the extent that the operations of measurement and the means of arriving at
conclusions can be made explicit and reproducible. Of the techniques we will discuss, only
structured interrogation methods and documentation meet this criterion. Two observers given
the same collection of questionnaires or documents and following the same rules must end up
with the same values structures in the populations under consideration. How one interprets the
research findings is a subjective matter but the facts on which the interpretation is based are
arrived at objectively. It is also true that the data in which we deal in values measurement are
essentially subjective - introspection about goals and actions of the respondents - and all we
have done is objectify expressions of these subjective states. This is not a criticism of values
measurement methods per se. Objectivity concerns the role of the observer, not the observed.
A critical survey of values measurement methods:

Three broad approaches are used for gathering information about cultural values. These are
observation, interrogation, and documentation.
Observation techniques are basically methods of looking at culturally relevant behaviours.

They range from unstructured observation, through checklist aided observation, to total
immersion in a target culture. It is an emic approach and is highly culture specific. The use of
the observation method to deduce cultural values from the external aspects of behaviour takes
a considerable amount of time and requires highly trained observers.
Unstructured observation involves the simple recording and classification of behaviours,

social institutions and developmental procedures. It takes the least advanced preparation and
permits the greatest flexibility of approach. Start up costs are low. The trade-off is that it
requires the greatest skill in the interpretation and analysis of the observed behaviours to infer
the underlying value structure. It is also inherently unreliable, depending almost entirely on
the perspicuity and judgement of the observer. If you have no idea what you expect to find,
unstructured observation is a good first approach. If you do have some experience with the
target culture, it is better to use a more objective and reliable technique.
Checklist aided observation adds a degree of structure to the observation method. The
observer is provided with a previously prepared list of things to look for, identify, and record.
In a laundry products survey, the observer might be asked to note the type of machine used,
the clothes sorting behaviour, the time of day, the correlative activities of the housewife, and
even her apparent attitude towards clothes washing chores. In most cases the items on the list
are based on previous experience with the culture and the activities relevant to the value area
under investigation. If the behavioural area is being investigated in a number of cultures, a
standardised checklist can be used to permit direct cross-cultural comparison. Checklists can
range from simple notations of the presence or absence of an activity to a detailed recording
of every nuance of behaviour. The more detailed the checklist, the less the reliance on the
judgement of the observer and the greater the inter-observer reliability is likely to be. The
downside is that highly structured observation techniques require more prior information
about the culture and about the value-related behaviours. They also require more advanced
preparation than the unstructured observation methods. More costs are incurred up front
although analysis is simpler.
Participative observation (role playing) requires the observer to be actively involved in the
various activities of the culture while trying to retain objectivity in recording behavioural data.
Unstructured participative observation of a culture was often used by anthropologists early in
the century but the idiosyncrasies of the observers and the inherent unreliability of the method
have made it unpopular for rigorous scientific work. It is, however, valuable as a first step in
values research since it helps to identify the values to be examined by more objective
measures.
The results of the less structured observation techniques, while possibly valid for the observed
culture, may be difficult to generalise or compare with the results from other cultures. For
product development or marketing purposes, observation techniques are suitable only for
narrow behavioural domains, and then only where the possible variations are subject to
physical constraints. Information about what people actually do is likely to be more useful
that what they say they might do.
Ideally, cross-cultural observation should be performed by bi-cultural researchers, natives of

the target culture, familiar enough with the home culture to adequately appreciate the
behavioural nuances of both. Generally these researchers are immigrants to the home culture,
often academics that went abroad for their higher education.
An alternative source of generalised cross-cultural observational information is contained in

the works of contemporary writers from the target culture, either written in or translated to the
language of the home culture. Nabakov and Rushdie are examples. Many writers are keen
observers of their own society and possess insights unlikely to be acquired by researchers.
While it is seldom that narrowly defined value areas of commercial interest will be discussed
in these works, they provide a background against which the results of more formalised
studies can be judged. The use of contemporary writings will be covered again under the topic
of documentation.
Interrogation techniques ask questions of participants in target cultures about the behaviours
and attitudes of interest. The methods range from unstructured interviews, through structured
interviews, to questionnaires and value scales. Values research using these techniques
involves questioning people, either directly or indirectly, about their values. The unspoken
assumptions of interrogation are:
1) that respondents are actually aware of the psychological factors or motives that underlie
their behaviour, an assumption that will be debated by any psychiatrist or clinical
psychologist,
2) that they will respond truthfully or in an unbiased manner to the interrogator's questions,
3) that the interviewer records the respondent's comments in a neutral manner without either
biasing or filtering them through the interviewer's own values.
Mathematical methods exist to minimise some forms of response bias. These are merely
additional assumptions made by researchers about the nature of normal response patterns.
Within a single culture, or between closely related cultures, mathematical correction of
response bias works well and has been refined to the point where it is universally used in
attitude measurement and personnel selection testing. The greater the deviation between the
target and home cultures, the less likely are the normalising techniques to be correct.
Interviews are simply formalised questioning sessions, usually conducted on an individual

basis. Interviews can be entirely unstructured: "Tell me about yourself." Semi structured:
"Let's talk about how you discipline your children." Structured: "Please answer the following
questions . . . " The more structured the interview, the higher the inter-rater reliability. On the
other hand, a highly structured interview reveals little that could not be learned at lower cost
through a well-designed questionnaire.
The interview is not a conversation. The interviewer tries to appear as neutral and
unjudgmental as possible while trying to elicit information from the respondent that the
respondent may not want to reveal. In many cultures there are rules of politeness that inhibit
frank discussion of motives and preclude disagreement with the interviewer. The interviewer
tries to ascertain the real "persona" of the interviewee, the respondent's true goals, and the
specific values influencing the behaviours under consideration. In turn the interviewee tries to
persuade the interviewer to reveal why the topic is of interest and why he/she has been chosen
as a subject for investigation. The entire process is usually conducted in an artificial situation
and in most cases, the interviewer and interviewee have different social and educational
levels. Interviewers can be trained to conduct interviews properly but there is no evidence that
the training has any permanent effect on eliminating interview bias in interpreting responses.
Open-ended interviews are the most flexible interrogation technique. They allow for the
transmission of information from the respondent by both verbal and non-verbal language.
This is important in cultures reluctant to communicate personal or critical information
verbally. Open-ended or unstructured interviewing requires a skilled interviewer, completely
familiar with the target culture, who is able to translate all the nuances of the informant
response into the home language. Such interviews take the least advance preparation but
require time and patience to elicit useful material. Because they are labour intensive, they are
the most costly of all interrogation techniques, especially when large amounts of data are
required. They are, however, essential in the early stages of a value study in order to establish
the parameters of more structured techniques.
Analysis of the open-ended interview takes several forms. In almost every case the
interviewer is required to make a verbatim transcript of the interviewee's comments,
translated, if necessary. Notations about the behaviour and emotional state of the respondent
should be appended. An item analysis or topic analysis is required, both to define areas of
concern and to identify the values apparently underlying specific behaviours. The topic or
item lists for all respondents are generally pooled for statistical purposes and a rank ordered
list of the frequency and intensity of topics and/or expressed values is prepared for additional
research.
Often the most valuable products of the interview are the verbatim comments of the
respondent. These serve to give the researcher insights into the culture and the behaviours of
interest that would be hidden in a statistical analysis. It is unfortunate that as respondent
comments are refined into a form suitable for quantitative analysis, much information is lost.
Western cultures tend to be insensitive to non-verbal communication during the interview,
particularly body language and emotionality. Such information is generally disregarded
during the analytic process. It takes a distinct effort for Western researchers to retain this
source of data.
Structured interviews make use of a pre-established set of guidelines to control the nature
and direction of the interview session. The structured interview relies on information obtained
from other sources, either open-ended sessions or previous research for preparation of
interviewer guidelines. This imposes the requirement of considerable planning and pre-
testing. The results of the structured interview depend on the appropriateness of the guidelines
and the skill of the interviewer. The laddering technique with its sequence of questions
narrowing in on areas of interest is a classic example of the loosely structured interview.
As the structuring becomes more detailed and specific, the technique takes on the form of an
orally administered questionnaire. Such questionnaires are suitable for telephone interviewing
and for children or non-literates. They sacrifice any attempt to include non-verbal
information. The structured interview, in any of its forms is useful for gathering reasonable
amounts of information but relies heavily on the individual skill of the interviewer. He/she
must be adept at acquiring the information without influencing the results or being affected by
the biases which plague face to face communication.
Interview error sources are many. The importance given to information elicited in an
interview is time dependent. Early respondent comments tend to be weighed more heavily
than later comments. Research shows that the interviewer in an open-ended situation reaches
his/her conclusion based on the early information, perhaps during the first 5 or 10 minutes.
Age, sex, race, and social attractiveness of both the interviewer and respondent influence the
interview process. Verbal and communications skills of both parties are probably the
dominating factor.
In a series of interviews, the most significant situational variable is the contrast effect.
Information given by the current respondent is judged in comparison to the information
provided by the respondent who came before. Many interviewers have stereotypes of "ideal"
respondents and give special emphasis to the information received from a source that
possesses characteristics similar to those of the stereotype. Interviewer set implies that an
interviewer tends to have a disposition to evaluate all respondents with a similar bias, either
seeking negative information, or seeking positive information. In other words, unless very
carefully trained and given specific procedures to follow, the interviewer is likely to discover
what he/she expects to discover.
The problem of response faking or response shading exists in all attitude and values
measurement studies. It is particularly frequent in situations where a favourable opinion of the
interviewer may be seen to offer some advantage. In almost all cultures individuals tend to
respond in ways which appear to be socially acceptable. Even experienced researchers can be
taken in. Margaret Mead, the well-known anthropologist, was apparently fed false information
by the young girls she interviewed for her book “Coming of Age in Samoa”. Rather than
being a permissive culture, which allowed women sexual freedom, Samoa was quite
restrictive, allowing women less freedom than in Victorian England. Mead, an ardent early
feminist, was simply told what her respondents felt she wanted to hear (Wade, 1994). Similar
situations occur in election polling where the appearance of the pollster can bias the results.
Well-dressed interviewers report more Tory vote intentions and casually dressed pollsters
report more Labour vote intentions.
Response faking has been accepted as a fact of life in situations where there is actual
competition such as job selection or allocation of scarce resources. Personnel managers report
that over 75% of all job applications include some form of fraudulent information. Carefully
designed interviews or questionnaires will provide an estimate of response shading by
incorporating one or more "truth" checks permitting responses to be validated against directly
measurable criteria. Alternately, in personnel selection situations, faking can itself be used as
a measure of suitability under the dubious logic that if the respondent can play a desired role
in the interview, he/she can also play that role in the wider social arena.
In most values research studies response faking tends to be ignored. At the very least it is
minimised by assuring respondent anonymity, supplemented by instructions to give honest
answers. Anonymity may be possible with a widely distributed questionnaire but is hardly
likely in a face to face interview situation. The interviewer faces the delicate task of
establishing enough rapport with the interviewee to facilitate free communication yet not so
much that the interviewee shades answers in a favourable manner. Again, the problem
resolves itself into one of interviewer training.
Questionnaires and value scales are the most structured of the interrogative techniques and
offer the illusion that they are objective. This is hardly the case. The selection of the questions
or value measurement items is generally based on a hidden agenda, either a theoretical model
or a preconception of the value structure of the target culture. Often this preconception is
based on the values of the home culture. This type of ethnocentric bias is found in the most
respected value studies of the last few decades.
Hofstede, in his seminal study of cross-cultural work values, based his survey questions
almost entirely on the Western management theories of the 60's, notably Rensis Likert's
concept of participative management, Fredrick Hertzberg's two factor motivator/satisfier
model and Chris Argyris’ Theory X/Theory Y dichotomy. Rokeach's research involving
terminal and instrumental values reflected the social issues of the 70's and the American
version of the good life. Kahle accepted a simplified Rokeach model in his List of Values and
assumed universality for the 9 values proposed. Even Schwartz, the most active of the current
values researchers, has a distinctly Western European orientation in his values classification
schema.
This is only to be expected. Few researchers enter the study of values with no prior experience
of values. We are all participants in one culture or another. Every study must have a starting
point and, since more than 90% of all published literature on values emanates from Europe or
North America, a Western bias is likely. The general conclusion is that the closer the target
culture is to Western Europe or North America in value structure, the more likely value
measurements using Western developed questionnaires and scales are likely to be correct.
Results obtained on these scales from divergent cultures, those from Asia and non-
Westernised Africa, might well be viewed with caution.
The real danger of using preconceived models or theories in exploratory values studies is that
the results will often confirm those theories. Thus Hofstede, demonstrably basing his values
questionnaire on a two-factor theory of work motivation and a bipolar theory of management
style, achieved results that could be explained by invoking those theories. As mentioned in the
preceding section, some recent studies of work values have had difficulty in understanding
why Hofstede required four dimensions when a mathematical analysis of his data showed that
only two factors could account for difference between national groups. A river rarely rises
higher than its source.
The exception to the practice of preordaining the results at the outset is the procedure used by
Schwartz. Despite the fact that he started his study by using a Western concept of the social
interactions that must be regulated by culture, his ultimate list of ten values arrayed along
three dimensions emerged primarily out of the data obtained from 54 countries. The practical
difficulty with letting the data determine the results is that the resulting set of values is likely
to be far more complicated than those derived from simpler conceptual models, hence less
easy to exploit from a marketing or product development point of view. It is, unfortunately,
also more likely to be accurate.
Value Scale construction:

The most critical step in the development of a value measurement instrument is the
identification of relevant values for the purpose of the study. Since time and resources are
necessarily limited, the fewer the values to be measured, the greater the possibility of using
multiple items, both favourable and unfavourable, in a single scale. Scale reliability and
construct validity are both enhanced. Since it was an exploratory study with the questionnaire
administered in a variety of settings and in multiple languages, Hofstede used only 18 specific
value questions to attempt to establish national work value structures of 40 nations. The use of
a variety of items in both positive and negative versions to probe each value area would have
resulted in an administrative nightmare. In contrast, Triandis used 35 questions to explore
only one value dimension (individual/collective). The number of values chosen for a given
survey is best determined by prior research. Typically the published literature is screened and
the early choice is verified by interviews and expert panels.
In applied research the general strategy is to select only values which distinguish between
market segments, discarding those where there is general agreement or disagreement. Ideally
the researcher investigates a small sample of groups of people characteristic of the target
market, teases out the value structure relevant to the product or activity in question, and fits
the results into a correlation matrix. Value loaded responses, either positive or negative, which
show a high correlation between groups lack the ability to discriminate and are discarded from
the final measurement instrument. Thus in a laundry values survey there is no point in asking
questions about the general desirability of clean clothes or broadly inquiring about product
washing ability. Every group wants clothes to be clean after washing or laundry products that
remove dirt. Similarly, if a large list of values is factor analysed to derive a smaller and more
meaningful group of value dimensions, values that exhibit similar factor loadings for the
relevant dimensions have little discriminatory power and may be eliminated from the list.
There is an overriding practical reason for pruning the value list. The best measurement
techniques utilise the smallest number of value dimensions necessary for meeting the
objectives of the study but probe each dimension with the maximum number of items that are
feasible given the time and money available. Items should be presented in both a socially
desirable and socially undesirable way and, if in a questionnaire, quantitative responses
(forced choice, ranking, rating) should be solicited which makes subsequent statistical
analysis possible. It is but a truism to say that, for a given level of accuracy and reliability, the
cost of market research rises as an exponential function of the number of dimensions to be
explored.
Once the number of value dimensions has been determined, the next step is to prepare the
definitive set of questions for a questionnaire. Specific cautions for developing questions will
be presented later but the objective is to provide a number of items for each dimension. The
final set will be selected after pre-testing for reliability and validity.
Content validity of a questionnaire is facilitated by reference to the published literature or
to company based proprietary information. Hopefully, question validity and reliability
data will be available. Alternative approaches are to use panels of "experts", focus
groups, and pre-test trials of a questionnaire.
The number of questions, the sophistication of the target audience, and the available time
dictate the specific response method for each item. A number of techniques have been used
to quantify question response. These include ranking, rating, paired comparison, and
combinations of several methods.
Rokeach used value ranking to gather information. Respondents were required to rank a list
of 18 instrumental and 18 terminal values in terms of personal importance. The sole
advantage of ranking is that it provides a rank ordered list of values but the disadvantages are
many. Not only is ranking of a long list a difficult and frustrating task but middle rank
positions have low reliability. It is relatively easy to rank the first few most important values
and the last few least important values, but ranking of middle values in a long list is uncertain
at best. Further, the scores are relative rather than absolute. There is no assurance that a rank
in one group is equivalent to the same position rank in another group. The methodological
difficulty with all rank ordered data from horse races to beauty contests is that no information
is provided about the distance between ranks. A horse may win by a nose or by a mile.
Rating items on a numeric scale has been substituted for ranking in most recent studies. It
provides the same relative rank information as the ranking method and, if the ratings are
anchored to some external factor, provides some absolute information as well. Kahle,
Hofstede, Schwartz and most other researchers use the rating method. The respondent is asked
to indicate his/her degree of agreement or disagreement with a value loaded statement on a
numerical scale, usually divided into an odd number of steps. Typically the scale is anchored
to a range of descriptive statements such as "Completely disagree", "Have no opinion", or

"Completely agree." In some cases the scale is unidirectional, the respondent being asked to
rate the importance of a value on a scale of 1 to 10. In all cases, the respondent is asked to
quantify a subjective or internalised feeling or belief and make his/her judgement explicit.
Items may be included on the list that can be validated by external criteria. This establishes
objective points of reference for the ratings. As an example, a cross-cultural study of religious
faith asked respondents to rate the extent of their belief on an 11 point scale, anchoring 1 at no
belief (i.e. an atheist) and 11 as a true believer. The results corresponded quite closely to
church membership and attendance at religious functions for the target population. Thus it
would be reasonable to substitute a more objective question of church attendance in a values
survey.
The number of steps on the scale is a constant subject of debate. The greater the number of
steps, the higher the precision but the lower the test/re-test reliability. Five steps is probably
the minimum number and eleven the maximum. Seven is a good compromise. At least in the
Western world we are used to rating subjective opinions on a numeric scale (i.e. Olympic
gymnastics, figure skating, etc.) and respondents in other cultures grasp the concept fairly
easily. On a question by question basis the respondent's job is easier than ranking and
comparisons of the two methods show that most people prefer the rating task. The downside
to the rating method is it admits of the possibility of tie scores and it is subject to a variety of
forms of response bias. Some respondents may rate everything high, others low. The side of
the paper to which high value or low value markings are placed has been known to influence
the results, especially in cultures that read from right to left. Finally, although the method may
be easily understood, the quantification of subjective judgements may take different forms in
non-western cultures.
Response rating techniques have been used for decades in attitude research and most of the
structural difficulties with the method have been worked out. Rating scales can alternate the
high and low ends to eliminate positional bias. Respondents may be asked to supplement
ratings by identifying the most and least important items on a given list. Drawing a line on a
scale can be substituted for a numerical choice. Smiling or frowning icons can indicate
agreement of disagreement. Finally consistent response bias can be minimised in subsequent
data analysis. For lengthy questionnaires, rating systems are the method of choice.
Classification schemes involve sorting cards bearing value relevant statements into a fixed
number of piles. This technique, a variation of the rating approach was originated by Guttman
half a century age but is not commonly used because of administrative difficulties.
A small number of value items permit the use of the paired comparison or forced choice
method. A simplified form of the method is beloved by market researchers for consumer
product comparison. In this technique pairs of statements associated with different values are
presented to the respondent who is required to choose the one he/she prefers. Each value is
compared with each other. A rank ordered list of values could be derived without the
problems attending to the ranking of middle values. If time permits the values can be
compared by using both socially desirable and socially undesirable statements. The method is
easy for the respondent but becomes unwieldy if the number of value dimensions to be
compared exceeds a half dozen or so. Choices required are equal to x(x-1)/2 where x is the
number of items in the scale. Ten items means 45 choices, 15 items means 105 choices.
Triad presentation, where the first and last choices from a set of three items is similar to the
paired comparison technique but also suffers from a rapid increasing work load with more
than a dozen items. Both techniques have the advantage that the respondent has an easy, but
repetitive, task and are simple to implement and explain. Almost anyone from any culture can
pick the preferred item from a list of two or three without confusion.
Consensus measurement is a fairly recent approach to cross-cultural value research. It

simply measures the pattern of agreement of members of a group with a large number of value
relevant statements. Those statements that most participants agree on are considered to
represent values characteristic of the group, the usual cut-off being 75% agreement. If several
groups agree, the values are shared in common. In a similar manner agreement between
groups can identify those which share common values. A related approach is one used by
Triandis. He simply measured the time it took for a focus group to reach a consensus on the
importance of a series of value relevant statements to members of the group's culture. The
shorter the time taken, the higher the agreement. The technique appears reliable and might be
an adjunct to focus group research. The major difficulty with the approach is that it offers
neither ranking or absolute value strength information. For market research it is of use
primarily in determining the values to be explored by more quantitative methods.
The semantic differential technique has been used extensively in attitude research and finds
some application in values measurement as well. The method requires the observer to evaluate
a selection of value loaded statements by rating them in terms of their conformity to a set of
polar adjectives (e.g. hot - cold, active - passive, masculine - feminine). Thus a statement "I
get a sense of achievement when doing the family laundry" could be rated by a series of polar
adjectives ranging from happy-sad, warm-cold, accepted-rejected, useful-useless, etc. In that
values can be viewed as bipolar attitudes with both direction and intensity, rating them on a
series of bipolar scales has certain logic about it. The major properties of value that can be
measured are readily accommodated by the method. Direction of the value, favourable or
unfavourable, is indicated by the polar term selected. Intensity is indexed by the rating of the
term(s) chosen (Osgood 1957).
The difficulty with the semantic differential is primarily procedural. Not only must the
original statements be screened for equivalence in both cultures but the polar adjective set as
well. The use of polar adjectives in rating values adds another level of abstraction to what is
already a difficult introspective process. Finally the technique takes a lot of time to
administer. It is best used on small samples of the target population for fine tuning a values set
already measured by a questionnaire.
Scale equivalence means that each item is understood in the same way in both the home and
target cultures. Typically items are translated into the foreign language, then blind back
translated. Discrepancies are ironed out and the process is repeated until the back translation
is identical to the original source material. After translation experts from each culture review
the items to assure that the concepts actually mean the same things in both cultures.
The back translation process must be used even if home and target countries use the same
language. The obvious discrepancies between British, Australian, South African, and U. S.
English are the stuff of a thousand comic routines. Similar objects may be referred to by
different words, as in petrol for gasoline or hob for stovetop. The same word may refer to
different objects. Knickers are ladies undergarments in one part of the world and old
fashioned schoolboy's trousers in another. The simple phrase "the boy put on knickers" is
subject to embarrassing interpretation. In countries where there are large regional variations,
local usage may differ, even when the accents can be understood. In some portions of the U.
S. and Canada the morning, midday, and evening meals are breakfast, dinner and supper while
in other portions of both countries the meals are breakfast, lunch and dinner.
Since questionnaires and surveys may be administered to people from all walks of life and of
all educational levels, they should be written using a basic, easily understood vocabulary.
Comprehension is more important than literary elegance. Most people are reluctant to admit,
in public, that they do not understand a word and hesitate to ask for an explanation. If the
average 12-year-old cannot read all the words in the questionnaire it is too complex. Slang, of
course, is specific to both language and region and has a very short half-life. It should not be
used at all in value measurement instruments. Helpfully, a number of word-processing
programs contain language analysis routines that assess the readability of written text.
However even if the source text in the home language is judged satisfactory, the cross-cultural
researcher must assure that translated text is equally readable.
Differences may not always be obvious. For example, Schwartz's value scale requests
respondents to rate the importance of the item EQUALITY in their culture. Equality is
defined in Schwartz's questionnaire as "Equal opportunity for all" implying a correlation with
values relating to achievement and individual enterprise. Norman Feather, an Australian
cultural psychologist points out that EQUALITY is highly valued in his own country but that
Australians define it as "Equality of condition", a belief that all should enjoy an equal
standard of living.
Even values that are nominally similar may have different roots. The Australians have a
saying "Tall poppies are cut down", virtually identical to the Japanese saying "The nail that
protrudes gets pounded down" but the roots of both sayings are dissimilar and reflect
opposing values. The Australian saying is based on the low social acceptance of power
differential while the Japanese saying implies high social support for conformity. Clearly item
equivalence is a minefield of problems for value measurement scales and great care must be
taken to assure that items are equivalent in meaning as well as form.(Feather 1994)
Though specific words used in questionnaire items may translate satisfactorily, they may
possess emotional content in one culture that is absent in another. The familiar word "mum"
carries with it an emotional and attitudinal loading in South Africa and the UK that is quite
different in the USA and Canada. A mum in the UK is a paragon of motherly virtues and,
when used in a values statement may bias the response in the direction of compliance. What
mother in the UK doesn't want to be considered a "good mum." In the US the term "mum",
although infrequently used, conveys an image of an old fashioned, dowdy, lower middle class
housewife. Few modern career women want to be considered a "mum" much less a
housewife. Even the word “mom” in the US has begun to take on an old fashioned overtone,
largely in part to the frequent use of the word by conservative political factions when
invoking the image of bygone days and “Mom’s apple pie.”
In Indian English, the closest approximation to "mum" is "homely" thus a homely woman
embodies the virtues of home and hearth. No reference to physical appearance is implied.
There is a generation gap for word usage even within a single culture. Words gradually
change their meaning and reflect the changing values of successive generations. A survey
instrument probing personal values and intended to cover both pensioners and young marrieds
needs to be worded extremely carefully.
Similar discrepancies in vocabulary and local use of specific words abound in other languages
used across several cultures. Loaded verbal terms exist in all languages as well. Although the
French are very precise about language, Canadian French and Parisian French certainly differ.
Spanish is spoken in several variations in Spain and in Central and South America. Spoken
Chinese is so different between regions as to constitute separate languages. Before being

released for use, the survey instrument or questionnaire should be vetted (a Briticism) by a
local native of the target culture to avoid unintentional and embarrassing meaning or wording.
The best solution to establishing measurement equivalence is by carefully validating the

technique in both cultures against some independent criterion measure. Thus survey questions
dealing with religious commitment in both cultures might be evaluated against objective
measures of membership in religious organisations or participation in religious activities.
Similarly, in the area of product marketing, a comparison between values questions probing
convenience vs. economy across several cultures should be validated against sales of specific
products, adjusting for socio-economic factors. Only a few values areas are subject to
validation against external criteria. Once several reference points are established, however, it
is possible to compare other value measures with the externally validated ones and assess the
equivalence of the measurement technique in own and target cultures. Needless to say,
establishment of measurement technique equivalence is an arduous task and more often than
not it is ignored in cross-cultural investigation.
Further, the measurement approach chosen largely determines the number of unique values
that will be found. This is a function of the investigator's predisposition toward inclusiveness
or parsimony. The question boils down to the number of values the researcher feels is
necessary to account for observed differences in behaviour between groups in question. Small
observed differences require consideration of a greater number of values.
It must be remembered that questionnaire design is a mature art. Scientific research has been
conducted on survey methodology and question phrasing since the 1930s. Any organisation
embarking on a values research project should consult the voluminous literature in this area
before trying to re-invent the wheel.
A VALUES MEASUREMENT CHECKLIST
A checklist for values measurement studies helps insure that no steps are overlooked. Not
all items on the list are necessary for every study but steps should be bypassed only with a full
appreciation of the consequences of shortcuts.
1. Determine the objective(s) of the study. Market research to segment product users
by value within a single culture is inherently easier and less costly than cross-cultural
exploratory studies of value. Time and money constraints largely determine the scope
of most studies.
2. Identify the value domain to be measured. Prior research, literature sources, and in-
house proprietary data should be screened for selection of relevant values. The more
circumscribed the value domain, the easier the research. Expert opinion of persons
familiar with the product and culture should be consulted.
3. Conduct open ended or relatively unstructured interviews or focus group sessions

with respondent samples to verify that relevant values have been selected and
irrelevant value areas discarded. Pruning of the value array at this point pays dividends
in later parts of the study.
4. Decide on an appropriate measurement technique, structured interview or

questionnaire, and prepare a preliminary list of value questions or value relevant
statements. Translate the questions and test for item equivalence by back translating.
Test for equivalent concept meaning with bi-cultural experts.
5. Pre-test the structured interview or questionnaire on sub samples of the respondent

population. Discard items that fail to discriminate between groups.
6. Recheck the final questionnaire or structured interview guidelines for item and
concept equivalence. This is the last chance to get it right. Include items that can be
validated against external criteria in order to provide reference points for entirely
subjective judgement items.
7. Implement the full-scale study by distributing the questionnaire or conducting the

interviews using trained personnel. Verify standards of training of interviewers and
use between interviewer reliability checks. If the study is important, do follow up
interviews to clear up any ambiguity and to assure that the original interviews were
conducted properly.
8. Collect the responses. Translate interviews and questionnaire responses if

necessary, retaining original raw data and interviewer notes. Repeat translations to
minimise error.
9. Transcribe and code interviewer and questionnaire data for analysis by methods
appropriate to the research objectives.
10. Prepare results for organisational use. Quantitative data should be presented as
well as executive summaries since some users may have additional requirements.
ALTERNATIVE METHODS OF VALUES RESEARCH
Documentation techniques have often been overlooked in applied values research. These
include study of published literature, archival material, personnel letters and documents, item
analyses of newspaper stories, fiction, histories and statistical reports. Analysis of published
source material from the target group is carried out in much the same way as questionnaire
material. The advantage of documentation is that participants in a culture usually gather the
data over a period of time and at very little cost to the researcher. Some of the material is
surprisingly insightful. In most instances a novelist or newspaper editorialist is a better judge
of contemporary values that a market research specialist or a psychologist.
An example of this type of research is the study of world mythology carried out by Joseph
Campbell in the 60s and 70s (Campbell 1972). Using the assumption that all cultures faced
essentially similar problems of understanding nature and regulating behaviour, cultural
differences could be appreciated by analysing the myths that various peoples developed to
explain the sources of their social and institutional structures. Campbell suggested that the
relatively developed world could be divided into two hemispheres by a meridian passing
roughly through Eastern Europe and the Middle East. To the west of this meridian lies
Europe, South Africa and the Americas, all essentially areas with strong individualistic
values. To the east are Iran, India, China, and Japan, all with essentially collective values.
Thus by working with documents from the quiet of his university library, Campbell reached
nearly the same conclusions, with a much smaller research budget, as did more active
researchers.
This is not to suggest that field research be replaced by armchair exploration, but rather that
previously accumulated data be reviewed for guidance in planning and conducting more
expensive field studies.
DATA ANALYSIS
Analytic methods should be chosen for the type of information elicited and for the purpose
for which the results will be used. While not denying the value of experience and insight,
quantitative techniques have become quite sophisticated over the years and are the methods of
choice in teasing useful information out of apparently meaningless or random data. They have
largely replaced "intuition" in contemporary research. Most values studies use factor analysis
in situations where many proto-values are proposed to reduce the plethora of variables to a
reasonable number. This would be the case for interview data and broad surveys. A useful
adjunct is cluster analysis. This permits researchers to group results obtained from a large
number of populations into smaller sets of manageable groups for differential treatment.
Graphic mapping techniques are similarly useful for identifying and visualising the cultural
value distance between target groups.(Berry 1996)
All of the mentioned methods of analysis require quantification of collected data. This has
both good and bad effects. It forces the researchers to conceptualise the problem in concrete
terms and requires a degree of rigor in item construction and data collection. Under the
assumption that anything that exists can be measured, it encourages researchers to seek
methods for the quantification of the most subjective and ephemeral aspects of culture -
among them values. On the other hand, faith in the quantification assumption discourages
researchers from exploring areas that they feel are difficult to measure objectively. Indeed the
reality of these areas may be denied. The obvious distrust exhibited by physical scientists and
financial executives of the social sciences has its root in the difficulty of quantifying and
measuring social phenomena.
CONCLUSIONS
The consequences of culture, to use Hofstede’s phrase, are most important for the
conduct of a global enterprise. Despite broad similarities in values and behaviour,
national and regional cultures differ enough to have a significant impact on any
enterprise. A good cross-cultural background will:
1) Enable an enterprise to avoid an incompatibility between strongly held local cultural

values and product design and marketing presentation. Examples: Muslims and Japanese
are reluctant to wash themselves in a bathtub, preferring to use showers or running water.
For the Muslim, the prohibition is religious, for the Japanese it is cultural. Many German
housewives are reluctant to use cleaning products that make the task seem easy since the
culture values the physical effort involved in household care. Rather the product should be
extolled for its strength and sanitary capabilities.
2) Permit activity scheduling to avoid conflict with national, cultural or religious events.
Examples: Anyone who has tried to conduct public or private business during the week
between Christmas and New Years in the US and UK, in France during the August
vacation exodus or in Muslim countries during Ramadan is familiar with the necessity to
be aware of local customs and work practices.
3) Take advantage of cultural preferences for colours, scents, foods and flavours in product
development and avoid inappropriate use of colours and scents in product presentation.
Examples: Strongly spiced food products are favoured in Asia and portions of South
America but not in Europe. Butter is the preferred cooking fat in Northern Europe, olive
oil in the Mediterranean, groundnut oil in China. A rotten fish sauce is used as a
condiment in Thailand. Gourmets in the UK prefer slightly rotten (hung) meat. White is
the colour of death in India but the bride’s preferred colour in the UK and most of Europe.
4) Determine underlying objectives and values of product use for product development and
market segmentation in other cultures. Examples: Persons in all cultures want laundry
products to get clothes clean but additional desires vary by region and circumstance.
Housewives in the US favour convenience and the luxurious feel of freshly washed
garments. Those in South Africa look for economy and kindness to clothes. Polish women
want showering and bath products to enhance their self-esteem and self-confidence.
Women in China and Brazil want the same products to enhance their sexual attractiveness.
5) Provide an awareness of the rules governing social interaction for use in marketing,
advertising, and product presentation. Examples: Cultures vary widely on the
individual/collective dimension of values. In collective cultures, notably those in Asia and
India, it is expected that products will be portrayed as used in a group or family setting.
Thus food products will be enjoyed together. In individualistic cultures it is permissible to
portray products being individually used or consumed. Thus an advertisement showing a
person drinking a beverage alone on a mountain peak may be interpreted in the West as an
individual seeking freedom and adventure while in Asia as a person devoid of friends and
family.
6) Identify the values held in common by people in various cultures and the values in which
the cultures differ. An appreciation of cultural values is the key to long term cross-cultural
marketing success. While such values may not be the most powerful point of sale
influence, they are pervasive and long lasting, establishing the general direction of
consumer behaviour. Products that are consonant with cultural values, and with the values
of specific market segments, will gain acceptance. Those that conflict with cultural values
will not.
7) Modify organisational and management practices to be compatible with the work values
of the local culture. Compensation can be made for those practices incompatible with the
home culture. This is the cross-cultural area related to business that has been the most
thoroughly investigated. It is also the area in which the research findings are the most
reliable and valid.
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Cross-cultural research in business: Appendix 1
Table of Contents
This annotated appendix supplements the references in the report. It contains material
relevant to the various topics discussed. Only a fraction of the studies have been cited
although most were reviewed for background material. Individual articles and books are
displayed in alphabetic order. Many of the research studies are listed in several
categories.
TOPIC PAGE
Advertising research 121
Colour perception 130
Consumer behaviour 140
Food, taste and flavour 172
Gender and sex roles 184
Intelligence and cognition 201
Management research 210
Marketing research 219
Odour, scent, perfume and smell 231
Religion 236
Time perception 241

Advertising research:
Alaniz, M.-L. and C. Wilkes (1995). “Reinterpreting Latino culture in the commodity form: The case of
alcohol advertising in the Mexican American community.” Hispanic-Journal-of-Behavioral-Sciences; 1995
Nov Vol 17(4) 430-451.
Discusses the ways in which the semiology of alcohol advertising in the Mexican American
community shapes attitudes and behaviors. It is argued that the market-driven imperatives associated with
the sale and purchase of liquor deny legitimacy to existing social practices in Latino communities and
instead propagate a complex set of stereotypes that draw on traditional Mexican cultural armature for their
influence. In this process, the sign system of Mexican American communities is encoded from the outside
to reflect the needs of alcohol markets, while the authentic images of human lives are distorted. These
distortions play themselves out in the most concrete of social pathologies, in particular in the widespread
patterns of alcohol abuse and related community problems. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1996 American
Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
Alden, D.-L., W.-D. Hoyer, et al. (1993). “Identifying global and culture-specific dimensions of humor in
advertising: A multinational analysis.” Journal-of-Marketing; 1993 Apr Vol 57(2) 64-75.
Examined the content of humorous TV advertising from 4 national cultures: Korea, Germany,
Thailand, and the US. Findings indicate that humorous communications from such diverse national cultures
share certain incongruent cognitive structures underlying the message. However, the specific content of
humorous advertising is likely to be variable across national cultures along major normative dimensions
such as collectivism-individualism. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1993 American Psychological Assn, all
rights reserved)
Baumgarten, S.-A. (1975). “The innovative communicator in the diffusion process.” Journal-of-Marketing-
Research; 1975 Feb Vol 12(1) 12-18.
Studied characteristics of "innovative communicators," those consumers who are both innovators
and opinion leaders. The goal was to investigate the process by which men's fashions and clothing are
adopted and then diffused throughout the campus subculture. A demographic and fashion attitude
questionnaire was administered to 389 unmarried male undergraduates. The questionnaire also contained
items about media exposure; sociological and social activities; interests, opinions, and behavior;
psychological self-descriptions; and sociopolitical attitudes. Results suggest a general summary profile of
the campus fashion innovative communicator as a freshman or sophomore who is very active socially,
narcissistic, highly conscious of his appearance, and strongly attuned to the "rock music" culture. The
influence and importance of verbal networks for innovative communicators is noted, and implications for
marketing and advertising strategies are discussed. (17 ref) (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1975 American
Craig, R.-L. (1992). “Advertising as visual communication. Special Issue: Visual communication studies in
mass media research: II.” Communication; 1992 Dec Vol 13(3) 165-179.
Examines the variety of paradigms, methods, and analytical tools that have been used to study
advertising and sketches the background history of the advertising image from within the context of the
history of mass communication. The relationship of behaviorist theory, sociology, cultural history, and
postmodernism and cultural studies to advertising is discussed. M. Schudson (1984), T. J. Lears (1983), and
J. Baudrillard (1968) emphasize the functional aspect of consumer objects; they help individuals
distinguish themselves from others in mass society. However, unlike Schudson and Lears, S. Ewen (1976)
and Baudrillard do not assume that in the 20th century all cultural formations are lost within mass society.
They see advertising and consumerism as part of a larger process of commercializing culture and
communication. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1993 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
Crask, M.-R. and F.-D. Reynolds (1980). “Print and electronic cultures?” Journal-of-Advertising-Research;
1980 Aug Vol 20(4) 47-51.
Surveyed 1,689 adult married females to examine differences between segments of people
classified in terms of their print and TV media-exposure patterns. Ss completed a self-administered
questionnaire that covered several areas, including consumer attitudes and opinions, participation in various
in-home and out-of-home activities, magazine readership, radio listening, and TV viewing. Total exposure
measures were calculated for TV viewing and for magazine reading, and each respondent was classified as
high or low on each medium if her exposure was above or below the median exposure scores. Results
provide no conclusive evidence that social classes are completely separated or that they will become more
divided in their life styles. Rather, there were numerous similarities interwoven in the class profiles. The
similarities found in the study suggest a major US culture that cuts across all strata and classes of society.
(2 ref) (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1980 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
Friedlander, B.-Z. (1977). “Against the effect of advertising.” Fernsehen-und-Bildung; 1977 Vol 11(3) 186-
191.
Outlines the significance of the Action for Children's Television (ACT) organization and the tasks
it has to tackle as a result of TV programming and children's viewing habits in the US. The author presents
TV as the great persuader that gives viewers, particularly children, the illusion of a consumer world where
everything is in order and all wishes are fulfilled. This view of the world is contrasted with what the author
sees as the realities of the foreseeable future: a shortage of fundamental commodities and a population
explosion with disastrous economic and political consequences. It is suggested that worldwide catastrophes
can only be avoided if the values produced by the TV culture can be gradually removed--with the aid of the
medium and those responsible for it. The future tasks of ACT are to make those in politics, commercial
industry, and TV stations aware of their responsibility to American children in this matter. (French &
Spanish summaries) (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1979 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
Goodyear, M. (1996). “Divided by a common language: Diversity and deception in the world of global
marketing.” Journal-of-the-Market-Research-Society; 1996 Apr Vol 38(2) 105-122.
Argues that the common language of marketing hides the diversity of meaning associated with
elements of the marketing mix, as well as the disciplines of advertising and research. Although some
traditional aspects of culture may explain why these differences exist, another more dynamic factor seems
to be at work. It is suggested that analysis based on market maturity may help to explain some of the
problems encountered across national and sector boundaries. A continuum of consumerism is proposed, an
evolving development of the dialogue between marketers and consumers. It is a market's position along the
continuum which determines how marketing terms will be interpreted. The importance of the
consumerisation concept is that it provides a framework for understanding, and anticipating, between-
country differences. Understanding the overall shape and nature of the continuum would give confidence to
decision-making. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1996 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
Graham, J.-L., M.-A. Kamins, et al. (1993). “Content analysis of German and Japanese advertising in print
media from Indonesia, Spain, and the United States.” Journal-of-Advertising; 1993 Jun Vol 22(2) 5-15.
Compared 122 print advertisements for German and Japanese products appearing in Indonesian,
Spanish, and the US print media. It was hypothesized that home-country culture would influence ads in
each of the target countries. However, an analysis of informational and emotional content provided
evidence to the contrary. Japanese advertisers, in particular, appeared to adapt their advertising approaches
to foreign markets. Germans did so to a lesser degree. Managerial implications are discussed. (PsycLIT
Database Copyright 1994 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
Haarmann, H. (1984). “The role of ethnocultural stereotypes and foreign languages in Japanese
commercials.” International-Journal-of-the-Sociology-of-Language; 1984 No 50 101-121.
Discusses the prevalence of ethnic stereotypes in Japanese culture and how advertisers use these
stereotypes to stimulate the purchase of their products. It is contended that Japanese commercials contain
more ethnic stereotypes than those of any other country. Stereotypes are the biggest reservoir of those
elements familiar to all Japanese; as they appear in positive manifestations, they underline the high prestige
of the product and the producer's name. Foreign names are chosen for Japanese products to achieve the
highest possible attractiveness among consumers on the domestic market. Languages such as English and
French are used in commercials to reinforce these stereotypical functions. Stereotypes associated with
English and French language and culture are described. Other languages (e.g., Spanish, Portuguese, Greek,
Finnish) may appear as isolated background elements, thus serving a signal function in evoking related
ethnocultural stereotypes. Social stereotypes involved in these settings appear in a close symbiosis with
features of ethnocultural stereotypes. It is argued that a fundamental danger in the reproduction of
stereotypes lies in their lack of sensitivity to other attitudes that do not fit into the framework of adapted
cliches. Differences in language use in commercials and outside the mass media suggest that Japanese in
the mass media is a special variety of modern Japanese that is distinct from colloquial Japanese. (6 ref)
(PsycLIT Database Copyright 1985 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
Hernandez, S.-A. (1988). “An exploratory study of coupon use in Puerto Rico: Cultural vs. institutional
barriers to coupon use.” Journal-of-Advertising-Research; 1988 Oct-Nov Vol 28(5) 40-46.
Examined the validity of using cultural value differences as the major reason for explaining why
coupon promotions will not work effectively with Hispanic consumers. Surveys of 207 shoppers (primarily
female) at 3 supermarkets revealed that only 18% of Ss used cents-off coupons. Institutional and
informational barriers were given as reasons for not using coupons. It is suggested that methodological
difficulties that arise in the study of coupon use among Hispanics may have contributed to a cultural
explanation artifact. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1989 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
Holbrook, M.-B. (1995). “An empirical approach to representing patterns of consumer tastes, nostalgia, and
hierarchy in the market for cultural products.” Empirical-Studies-of-the-Arts; 1995 Vol 13(1) 55-71.
Presents results of an illustrative study based on 2 aspects of consumer tastes for cultural products,
i.e., nostalgia and cultural hierarchy, that have a significant impact on the structure of the market. 156
adults rated their preferences towards sets of 3 products from 21 cultural categories, including movies,
television, books, theater, sports, politics, and commercial advertising. Each category included a product
from the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s or 1980s. Results supported the hypothesis that taste patterns reflect age-
related nostalgia and indicate a hierarchy from highbrow to lowbrow cultural products. Furthermore, Ss
who were White, male, and Christian tended relatively to favor the more popular or lowbrow aspects of the
consumer culture. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1995 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
Javalgi, R.-G., B.-D. Cutler, et al. (1995). “Print advertising at the component level: A cross-cultural
comparison of the United States and Japan.” Journal-of-Business-Research; 1995 Oct Vol 34(2) 117-124.
Compared visual components in 339 advertisements from 7 US magazines and 194 ads from 7
Japanese magazines, using content analysis. Visual components examined were related to elements of the
process of visual appeal, content of appeal, headline type, and portrayal of people in the ad. Japanese ads
more often portrayed people in traditional roles and tried to build brand loyalty by building friendship with
consumers first, hoping that would lead to trial products. US ads more often tried to invite product trials,
hoping that would lead to habitual purchase. Religious background appears to influence advertising,
particularly if culture has been isolated from outside influences. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1996
American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
Kanso, A. (1992). “International advertising strategies: Global commitment to local vision.” Journal-of-
Advertising-Research; 1992 Jan-Feb Vol 32(1) 10-14.
Examined the effects of culture on international advertising practices. 96 advertising managers of
US consumer durable manufacturers that advertised internationally were surveyed. Results indicated that
75% of the firms followed a localized approach to international advertising and 25% a standardized one,
suggesting that the standardization of advertising is declining. Two groups of managers were identified:
culturally oriented managers and nonculturally oriented managers. Nonculturally oriented managers were
more likely to use a standardized approach. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1992 American Psychological
Assn, all rights reserved)
Koslow, S., P.-N. Shamdasani, et al. (1994). “Exploring language effects in ethnic advertising: A
sociolinguistic perspective.” Journal-of-Consumer-Research; 1994 Mar Vol 20(4) 575-585.
Investigated 367 Hispanic consumers' responses to varying degrees of Spanish-language usage in
print advertising, using sociolinguistic theories of accommodation. Ss' responses to questionnaires and to
the stimulus material (i.e., the advertisements) suggest that the effects of Spanish usage in advertising can
be usefully explained by accommodation theory. Spanish-language advertising increased Ss' perception of

advertiser sensitivity to Hispanic culture and people, and this perception in turn enhanced affect toward the
ads. Yet, after controlling for perceived advertiser sensitivity, the authors found that advertising exclusively
in Spanish decreased affect toward the ad. Thus, although Spanish-language advertising appears to signal
solidarity with the Hispanic community, exclusive use of Spanish in advertising may arouse Hispanic
insecurities about language usage. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1995 American Psychological Assn, all
rights reserved)
Kreshel, P.-J. (1990). “John B. Watson at J. Walter Thompson: The legitimation of "science" in
advertising.” Journal-of-Advertising; 1990 Vol 19(2) 49-59.
Recounts J. B. Watson's role in defining behaviorism and in applying behaviorist psychology to
advertising as it was developing at the J. Walter Thompson Company in the 1920s and 1930s. The
behaviorist doctrine is discussed, along with its intersection with the goals of the advertising and business
communities. The "culture" of the J. Walter Thompson Company is addressed, focusing on the philosophy
of S. B. Resor, the company's president. Watson popularized psychology, although his contributions were
to corporate culture and consumerism, rather than to science. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1990 American
Lupton, D. (1994). “Consumerism, commodity culture and health promotion.” Health-Promotion-

International; 1994 Vol 9(2) 111-118.
Focuses on the area of commodity consumption as a site at which people make choices that are
relevant to health but which are not always driven by explicit health concerns. The meaning of goods in the
culture of everyday life and the role and function of advertising in contemporary Western societies are
reviewed, and understanding of these phenomena derived form cultural studies are contrasted with those
obtaining in current mainstream health promotion praxis. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1995 American
McCracken, G. (1986). “Culture and consumption: A theoretical account of the structure and movement of
the cultural meaning of consumer goods.” Journal-of-Consumer-Research; 1986 Jun Vol 13(1) 71-84.
Argues that cultural meaning in a consumer society moves ceaselessly from one location to
another. In the usual trajectory, cultural meaning moves first from the culturally constituted world to
consumer goods and then from these goods to the individual consumer. Several instruments are responsible
for this movement: advertising, the fashion system, and 4 consumption rituals (exchange, possession,
grooming, divestment). The movement of cultural meaning is analyzed theoretically, showing both where
cultural meaning is resident in the contemporary North American consumer system and the means by
which this meaning is transferred from one location in this system to another. (122 ref) (PsycLIT Database
Copyright 1986 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
Moeran, B. (1984). “Advertising sounds as cultural discourse.” Language-and-Communication; 1984 Vol

4(2) 147-158.
Discusses how advertisers in the UK generate a form of discourse by creating a continuity in
advertising slogans that is attained by playing on an idea or phrase, which is similar to the form of verbal
play known as "sounding" practiced in Black communities in the US. Advertising slogans can be
regenerated to form a language of their own, and it is noted that there is a continual 2-way process by
which advertising language infiltrates the language of communication as a whole. In this way, advertising
slogans form the structures of meaning by which modern industralized societies are organized. The media
provides a pool of information on which advertisers can draw to continue their cultural discourse. This
process comprises the art of advertising, the translation between systems of meaning to create a meta-
system where values from different areas of life are made interchangeable. Although advertisers cannot
interact with groups of people in the same way as Black Americans in sounding, it is clear that they do
encourage the formation of in-group cliques of consumers attracted to certain products. The extent that
consumer in-groups are encouraged by advertising is the extent to which advertising plays a similar role to
sounding. (16 ref) (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1985 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
Sandoval, V.-A. (1994). “Smoking and Hispanics: Issues of identity, culture, economics, prevalence, and
prevention.” Health-Values-The-Journal-of-Health-Behavior,-Education-and-Promotion; 1994 Jan-Feb Vol
18(1) 44-53.
Discusses the prevalence and patterns of smoking among Hispanics and presents results from the
National Center for Health Statistics Hispanic Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (J. L. Delgado et
al, 1990). Smoking initiation in Hispanics and cigarette advertising and the Hispanic market are discussed.
Prevention/intervention programs geared to Hispanics should address socioeconomic factors, the influence
of family and community, and language. The role of the mass media in prevention is described. It is
concluded that smoking prevention programs geared to Hispanics should be bilingual, available at the grade
school level, and in multimedia formats. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1994 American Psychological Assn,
all rights reserved)
Scott, L.-M. (1990). “Understanding jingles and needledrop: A rhetorical approach to music in
advertising.” Journal-of-Consumer-Research; 1990 Sep Vol 17(2) 223-236.
Proposes a theoretical framework for the study of music in advertising. This approach to musical
meaning draws on notions of culture, rhetoric, and symbolic action. Music becomes a functional
component that contributes to the rhetorical task in ways as various as language. Eight illustrations of the
complexity of music's role in advertising are offered as evidence. A broad range of musical disciplines are
represented, including psychology, social psychology, and ethnomusicology. The proposed approach builds
on recent works in consumer behavior that argue for a culture-based or interpretive approach to
consumption. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1991 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
Sipiora, M.-P. (1991). “Alienation, the self, and television: Psychological life in mass culture.” Humanistic-
Psychologist; 1991 Sum Vol 19(2) 158-169.
Examines the nature of experience offered on TV by fiction serials, including soap operas and
situation comedies. It is argued that the viewer's self-image is changed by watching these TV shows such
that the transfigured self then seeks a new fulfillment similar to that found in the TV lifestyles. This
fulfillment is heavily linked to the products advertised on TV. Psychological breakdown occurs when
product images leave the consumer feeling unfulfilled and dull. The result is alienation and repression.
Solomon, M.-R. and B.-G. Englis (1994). “Observations : The big picture: Product complementarity and
integrated communications.” Journal-of-Advertising-Research; 1994 Jan-Feb Vol 34(1) 57-63.
Argues that product assortments "make sense" to consumers due to a perceived complementarity
among constituent elements. Consumers' choices are often guided by the positive or negative valuation of
groupings of symbolically related activities. Advertisers are reminded of the strategic importance of
combining holistic views of both communications and consumption. As competition for consumers'
attention intensifies, marketers are developing an array of new, more comprehensive strategies to penetrate
awareness. A surge of interest by marketers in integrated communications strategies brings with it the
implicit acknowledgement that consumers assimilate data about popular culture from many sources.
Tan, C.-T. and U. Farley John (1987). “The impact of cultural patterns on cognition and intention in
Singapore.” Journal-of-Consumer-Research; 1987 Mar Vol 13(4) 540-544.
Examined the influence of culture on relationships between consumer attitudes and intentions
among 1,296 Singaporean university students. Ethnicity of models used in advertisements and the
advertised product's country of origin were manipulated experimentally. Patterns of results for 3 products
were consistent with theoretical predictions of cognitive processes, with Ss preferring foreign products over
local ones and White over Asian models. Family orientation but not conformity affected evaluations of
advertising. Attitude-intention links appeared stronger than those in similar tests in the West. (PsycLIT
Taylor, R.-E., M.-G. Hoy, et al. (1996). “How French advertising professionals develop creative strategy.”
Journal-of-Advertising; 1996 Spr Vol 25(1) 1-14.
Content analyses of French advertisements have shown French advertising to be markedly

different from American advertising. A qualitative study of French advertising included in-depth interviews
with 11 French advertising professionals, most of whom had had some experience with American
advertising, analysis of agency documents, and photographic documentation of French advertising.
Analytic induction produced 4 broad categories central to Ss' constructions of creative strategy and
advertising: French and American models of strategy development, characteristics of French advertising
(i.e., la seduction, le spectacle, l'amour, l'humour ), perceptions of French consumers, and perceptions of
American advertising. Suggestions are made for American manufacturers who want to advertise to the
French market, and implications are drawn for future research on advertising in a particular culture.
Unger, L.-S. (1996). “The potential for using humor in global advertising.” Humor-International-Journal-
of-Humor-Research; 1996 Vol 9(2) 143-168.
International marketing firms often strive to standardize their advertising campaigns in the
countries where they operate. Because of its universality, its popularity, and its persuasive effect, humor
may well be an advertising element that can be transferred from culture to culture. Both cognitive and
affective models have been used to explain humor's role in persuasion. However, the problems associated
with using humor, particularly across cultures, threaten its potential. Humor in persuasion has been
criticized because it detracts from message comprehension, because diverse audience tastes in humor
threaten information processing, and because humor may wear out quickly, causing selective attention or
leading to audience irritation and counterargumentation. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1997 American
Wacker, W. (1996). “Changing demands.” Journal-of-Advertising-Research; 1996 Jan-Feb Vol 36(1) 31-
34.
Comments on the change in demands in consumer psychology. Topics discussed include change
in the rate of change; the futurists' view of research, including longitudinal "relative measurement" vs the
absolute, attitudes vs behavior, the end of mass culture, and observation tools; and new lifestyles and
metrics. It is contended that rather than being in the Information Age, humanity is now in the Age of
Access, where the equilibrium between what is accessible and what is scarce will change dramatically.
There is no question that the demands on people as individuals, as consumers, and on advertisers and
researchers are already changing dramatically. Consuming, it is contended, is not about "art form," but is
now psyche defined in the US culture. (0 ref) (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1996 American Psychological
Wells, L.-G. (1994). “Western concepts, Russian perspectives: Meanings of advertising in the former
Soviet Union. Special Issue: International advertising.” Journal-of-Advertising; 1994 Mar Vol 23(1) 83-95.
Examined Soviet attitudes toward advertising using the concept of symbolic interactionism, which
suggests that things have different meanings for different people at different times. The influence of
Russian culture on advertising in the former Soviet Union and the problem of imposing Western concepts
are discussed. A month-long research study was conducted in May 1991, when the Soviet Union was still a
unified country. Interviews with government officials, business and advertising industry professionals,
academicians, and students provide evidence that many individuals were adopting Western advertising
terminology, but not necessarily a Western definition of the attributes, forms, and processes of advertising.
Findings suggest that advertising in the former Soviet Union is an interaction between social and economic
realities and not just a means of uncovering a new marketplace. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1994
West, D.-C. (1993). “Cross-national creative personalities, processes, and agency philosophies.” Journal-
of-Advertising-Research; 1993 Sep-Oct Vol 33(5) 53-62.
Explored the personal qualities that form the advertising creative personality. It was hypothesized
that differences in culture, industrial development marketing orientation, and scope and influence of
advertising agencies would result in significant differences in (1) the nature of the creative personality, (2)
the control and participation of the creative process, and (3) the use and type of agency philosophy.
Questionnaires measuring various business creative issues were obtained from 86 US, 119 Canadian, and
98 UK senior creative advertising directors. Apart from the control of the creative process (i.e., senior UK
creative Ss regarded themselves as more involved and more independent than did their North American
counterparts), there were no substantive measurable differences on most creative dimensions between the 3
countries. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1994 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
Whittler, T.-E. (1989). “Viewers' processing of actor's race and message claims in advertising stimuli.
Special Issue: Psychology, marketing, and the Black community.” Psychology-and-Marketing; 1989 Win
Vol 6(4) 287-309.
160 White and 140 Black undergraduates rated an advertisement featuring a White (WHA) or
Black actor (BLA) promoting a portable word processor or a liquid laundry detergent (LD). An assessment
of racial attitudes (RAs (i.e., Whites' racial prejudice and Blacks' identification with Black culture))
followed product, advertisement, and actor ratings. When the BLA promoted the relatively inexpensive LD,
Ss with stronger RAs were more likely to employ racially focused heuristics than Ss with weaker RAs. Ss
with less defined RAs did not seem more likely to consider the message claims than Ss with firmly
established RAs. Findings provided partial support for the heuristic vs systematic processing distinction
made by S. Chaiken (see PA, Vol 66:8035). (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1990 American Psychological
de-Mooij, M.-K. (1998). “Global marketing and advertising: Understanding cultural paradoxes.” .
(from the cover) Cultural diversity influences marketing and advertising at all levels: consumer
behavior; research methodology; philosophies of how advertising works; advertising strategy; concept and
execution. What the field has been lacking is a knowledge base of cultural differences and similarities to be
used for developing global strategies. This book presents such a knowledge base, a structure to understand
the consequences of culture for marketing and advertising. /// It describes the characteristics of a global
brand, how advertising adds value to brands, the concept of culture and culture's consequences for values
and motivation in advertising, and how culture influences perception of advertising. The author's
application of G. Hofstede's 5-D model to marketing and advertising is an essential theme of this book. ((c)
1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Rose, G. M. (1997). Cross-cultural values research: Implications for international advertising. Values,
lifestyles, and psychographics. Advertising and consumer psychology. L. R. Kahle. Mahwah, Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates, Inc., Publishers: p. 389-400.
(from the chapter) This chapter examines current practices in international advertising and
summarizes cross-cultural values research. It attempts to identify consistent and important value
dimensions, and to assess the implications of these dimensions for international advertising. Initially,
current trends in advertising are examined. Then the distinction between the individualist and a collectivist
culture is described, and the cross-cultural research of both social psychologists and consumer behaviorists
is summarized. Finally, suggestions for future research are advanced. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights
reserved)
Caillat, Z. and B. Mueller (1996). “The influence of culture on American and British advertising: An
exploratory comparison of beer advertising.” Journal of Advertising Research 36(3): 79-88.
Used content analysis and semiology to compare cultural variables manifest in beer commercial
messages created between 1990 and 1994 in the US and Great Britain. These variables included dominant
values, rhetorical style, advertising appeals, and occasion for product use. US advertisements perpetuated
mainly American values, specifically achievement, individualism/independence, and modernity/newness.
British ads presented mainly British cultural values, specifically tradition/history and eccentricity. While
the portrayal of modernity/newness differed in US and British ads, both samples were more likely to avoid
representing the value. British ads used humor appeals almost exclusively; US ads relied on emotional and
sex appeals. US ads had a high frequency of direct speech; British ads had an even higher frequency of
indirect speech. Results suggest that a standardized advertising strategy among the 2 countries may not be
feasible. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Gregory, G. D. and J. M. Munch (1997). “Cultural values in international advertising: An examination of

familial norms and roles in Mexico.” Psychology and Marketing 14(2): 99-119.
Past research suggests that the cultural value orientation, individualism-collectivism, should be
considered when developing international advertising campaigns. The present study examines how
(in)consistencies in collectivist values (e.g., familial norms and roles) may affect attitudes and behaviors
toward advertised products within a collectivist culture, using 320 college students (aged 20-30 yrs) in
Mexico. Findings suggest advertisements that depict consistencies in local cultural norms and roles are
viewed more favorably, and purchase intention is higher than for ads that depict inconsistencies. Data
provide no support for the moderating role of individual-level differences in value orientation (i.e.,
allocentric vs idiocentric tendencies) on persuasion measures. Product category advertised appears to be the
best moderator of the relative strength of role and norm effects on ad attitudes and purchase intention. ((c)
Harris, R. J. (1989). A cognitive psychology of mass communication. Hillsdale, NJ, USA, Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
(from the introduction) This chapter [chapter 1] has introduced the theme of the way our
cognitions create a perceived reality from media. The next chapter explores the psychology of mass
communication in a general sense. The rest of the book is topically organized to explore the basic theme of
media creating reality in several different content areas. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Jhally, S., R. Goldman, et al. (1995). Advertising. Gender, race, and class in media: A text reader. G. Dines.
Thousand Oaks, CA, USA, Sage Publications, Inc: p. 71-159.
(from the book) [book section covering several chapters] /// [examines] advertising [as] imagery in
pictures and words designed to sell . . . products /// "Image-Based Culture: Advertising and Popular
Culture" / Sut Jhally / Reprinted from "The World & I," Washington Times Corp, Jul 1990 ///
"Constructing and Addressing the Audience as Commodity" / Robert Goldman / Parts are reprinted from
"Reading Ads Socially," London: Routledge, 1992 /// "The Black Experience in Advertising: An Interview
with Thomas J. Burrell / Martha Cassidy and Richard Katula / Parts are reprinted from "Journal of
Communications Inquiry," 14(1), 1990 /// "Different Children, Different Dreams: Racial Representation in
Advertising" / Ellen Seiter / Parts are reprinted from "Journal of Communication Inquiry," 14(1), 1990 ///
"Separate, but not Equal: Racial Segmentation in Cigarette Advertising" / Richard W. Pollay, Jung S. Lee
and David Carter-Whitney / Parts are reprinted from "Journal of Advertising," 21(1), 1992 /// "Sex, Lies
and Advertising" / Gloria Steinem / Parts are reprinted from "Ms.," Jul/Aug 1990 /// "Beauty and the Beast
of Advertising" / Jean Kilbourne / Reprinted from "Media & Values," Win 1989 /// "Reading Images
Critically: Toward a Postmodern Pedagogy" / Douglas Kellner / make . . . proposals that concern
developing critical media literacy and the development of competencies in reading [symbolic] images
critically, concentrating on some examples from print advertisements [in Virginia Slims and Marlboro ads]
/ [examines] the cultural codes of gender informing both sets of images, and . . . the evolution of these
campaigns over time, in relation to changing social developments /// "Advertising and the Construction of
Violent White Masculinity" / Jackson Katz / attempt to sketch out some of the ways in which hegemonic
constructions of masculinity in mainstream magazine advertising normalize male violence /// "Commodity
Lesbianism" / Danae Clark / Parts are reprinted from "Camera Obscura," 25, 1991 /// "Watching the Girls
Go Buy: Shop-at-Home Television" / Mimi White / Parts are reprinted from "Tele-Advising: Therapeutic
Discourse in America," Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 1992 ((c) 1997
APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Kavanaugh, J. (1983). “Capitalist culture as a religious and educational formation system.” Religious
Education 78(1): 50-60.
Discusses the impact of TV, especially TV commercials, on the formation of values. Commercials
promise fulfillment through consumption. Products are personalized, but family life and intimacy are
trivialized. In counteracting the values imparted to children by TV, educators must offer alternative models
for identity, relationships, justice and human dignity, life priorities, and compassion. ((c) 1997
McCarty, J. A. (1994). The role of cultural value orientations in cross-cultural research and international
marketing and advertising. Global and multinational advertising. Advertising and consumer psychology. B.
G. Englis. Hillsdale, NJ, USA, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc: p. 23-45.
(from the preface) argues that although there has been a great deal of interest in recent years in the
relationship of consumer values to consumption, most of this work has dealt with personal values / argues
that cultural values are of primary importance in international marketing efforts / shows how cultural value
orientations (e.g., individualism vs collectivism) can profoundly affect the way products are used in a
culture / stresses that knowledge and understanding of cultural values are essential to successful
international marketing efforts ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Mueller, B. (1987). “Reflections of culture: An analysis of Japanese and American advertising appeals.”
Journal of Advertising Research 27(3): 51-59.
Examined the role of culture in advertising content. The author's thesis was that advertising tends
to reflect the prevalent values of a culture in which it exists, insofar as those values can be used to shape the
consumption ethic. As a means of examining this thesis, Japanese advertisements were compared with US
advertisements for similar products. Through an intensive investigation of the literature on Japanese
society, a set of values, norms, and national characteristics were collected as being representative of
Japanese culture. Numerous differences were found between Japanese and American advertisements. The
involvement level of the product had an impact on the most common type of advertising appeal used in the
East or West. However, differences observed tended to be differences in degree, not in kind. All appeal
types were found in the advertisements of both countries but to varying degrees. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO,
Tansey, R., M. R. Hyman, et al. (1990). “Cultural themes in Brazilian and U.S. auto ads: A cross-cultural
comparison.” Journal of Advertising 19(2): 30-39.
Compared automobile advertisements from Brazilian and US business magazines (Business Week
and Visao) from 1971 to 1980 for cross-cultural differences in urban/wilderness and work/leisure values.
Brazilian ads used urban themes more frequently, while US ads used leisure themes more frequently. Work
themes appeared with equal frequency in both countries. Urban and leisure themes appeared more
frequently in US ads as the 1970s progressed, while their use declined in Brazil. Findings suggest that
despite close trade relations, values differ between US and Brazilian business subcultures. Careful market
research is recommended before adopting ad standardization in different nations. ((c) 1997
Wernick, A. (1991). Promotional culture: Advertising, ideology and symbolic expression. London, England
UK, Sage Publications, Inc.
(from the cover) "Promotional Culture" is a critical reflection--both cultural and sociological--on
the impact of advertising on the shaping of contemporary culture. /// Advertising has long been analysed as
a pervasive disseminator of cultural values. In a detailed analysis of advertisements as promotional texts,
Andrew Wernick shows how its impact on cultural formation has become increasingly fundamental with
the spread of the market into every facet of social life. The resulting promotional culture has transformed
the character of all forms of communication. /// Moving beyond a simple critique of advertising as an
ideological process, "Promotional Culture" relates its impact to the broad social processes analysed under
the label of postmodernism. Andrew Wernick traces the impact of promotion from the selling of consumer
goods to the spheres of electoral politics and the university. In doing so he poses fundamental questions not
only about the shape of contemporary societies but also about the individual as an acting and
communicating subject. /// This broad-ranging book will be welcomed by a readership in cultural and
media studies and by students of contemporary societies across a variety of disciplines. ((c) 1997
Zhang, Y. and B. D. Gelb (1996). “Matching advertising appeals to culture: The influence of products' use
conditions.” Journal of Advertising 25(3): 29-46.
Investigated the effects of different advertising appeals used in the US and China, focusing on the
match between values expressed in advertising and values in each of the 2 cultures, and included the
influence of product use condition (socially visible use vs use in a private setting). 80 university students
from each country studied 2 magazine ads for a 35 mm camera and 2 for a toothbrush along with filler ads
in a booklet. The test ads reflected individualistic and collectivistic appeal. Ss completed a questionnaire
indicating their responses. Results indicate that although culturally congruent appeals were more effective
in general, product use condition moderated the effectiveness of culturally incongruent advertising appeals.
Specifically, the Ss' reactions to the appeal were more positive when the appeal matched the product use
condition than when the appeal did not match either the culture or the product use condition. ((c) 1997
Colour perception:
Abel, T. M. (1981). “Color preferences in the Lowenfeld mosaic designs of university students in five
cultures.” Academic Psychology Bulletin 3(2): 173-176.
Compared the color choices of approximately 90 undergraduates in 5 cultures--Hispanic-
American, Navajo, Japanese, Mexican, and Iranian--on the Lowenfeld Mosaic Test. It was found that
Japanese of both sexes chose the most green colors. Mexicans, to a lesser extent, preferred blue. Iranian
females used fewer colors in making designs that did females in the other groups. (6 ref) ((c) 1997
Bagley, C. and L. Young (1988). “Evaluation of color and ethnicity in young children in Jamaica, Ghana,
England, and Canada.” International Journal of Intercultural Relations 12(1): 45-60.
Used a color meanings test and a preschool attitudes measure to assess levels of evaluation of
color and ethnic identification in 636 preschoolers in England, Jamaica, Canada, and Ghana. Findings
indicate that in all groups, negative evaluation of the color black was related to the devaluation of Black
people. Black Ss in rural Jamaica were particularly likely to devalue their ethnic identity and their skin
color, while Ss of Jamaican parents in England and Canada had a somewhat more positive evaluation of
color and ethnicity. Black Ss in Ghana had the most positive perceptions of their personal ethnicity and
skin color; Ss from Canada had the most positive evaluations of the West Indian groups studied. In some
groups, evaluation of color and ethnicity was linked to self-esteem levels. (French & Spanish abstracts) ((c)
Berlin, B. a. K., P. (1991). Basic color terms, their universality and evolution. Los Angeles, Univ. of
California Press.
Bokhorst, F.-D. (1989). “Intelligence and creative thinking ability in learning to perform a non-entrenched
colour-naming task.” South-African-Journal-of-Psychology; 1989 Mar Vol 19(1) 28-33.
Using a color-naming task originally introduced by R. J. Sternberg (1982), information-processing
analysis of performance by 109 South African undergraduates was done before and after computer-assisted
training. Mean response latency and error rates improved substantially after training, and the degree of
change was substantially correlated with the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking. Correlations with the
Cattell Culture Fair Intelligence Test were equivocal due to the low power of the present research design.
The evidence showed a possible relationship between nonentrenchment, task novelty, and creative-thinking
ability. Information-processing analysis of performance based on the a priori model used in the original
Sternberg experiment yielded results similar to previous research. (Afrikaans abstract) (PsycLIT Database
Bolton, R., C. Michelson, et al. (1975). “The heights of illusion: On the relationship between altitude and
perception.” Ethos 3(3): 403-424.
A recent theory by M. Bornstein has suggested that there is a psychophysiological causal factor
that accounts for both cross-cultural differences in color terminology and ethnic differences in
susceptibility to visual illusions. New data are presented, with a reanalysis of Bornstein's data, to contrast
his psychophysiological explanation with the ecological explanation, which emphasizes learning
experiences in a person's environment. The new data consist of responses to visual illusions by 108 Ss, in 2
groups living in the Central Andes of Peru in 2 villages at greatly different altitudes. Results were those
predicted by the ecological-learning explanation which tends to cast doubt on Bornstein's theory. (34 ref)
((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Bornstein, M. H. (1973). “Color vision and color naming: A psychophysiological hypothesis of cultural
difference.” Psychological Bulletin 80(4): 257-285.
Proposes an hypothesis which relates physiological differences in visual processing to semantic
categorization. A comparison of primary color-naming systems across cultures reveals a regular geographic
patterning of color-naming confusions. These semantic data indicative of a short wavelength (blue)
insensitive, so-called tritan, color vision have been corroborated by psychophysically measured depressions
in spectral sensitivity and confusions in color matching. Yellow intraocular pigmentation which is
biometeorologically adaptive and which attenuates effective short wavelength radiation is assessed to
contribute in varying degrees toward mimicry of the tritan color-vision complex. Furthermore, the density
of yellow intraocular pigmentation is found to parallel the worldwide distribution of collapsed color-
naming systems (51/2 p. ref.) ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Brauen, C. M. and J. L. Bonta (1979). “Cross-cultural validity, reliability, and stimulus characteristics of
the Luescher Color Test.” Journal of Personality Assessment 43(5): 459-460.
Administered the Luescher Color Test (LCT) to 125 Canadian university students, 88 of whom
were retested 21 days later. Sample and sex-specific color preferences were found as well as discrepancies
between M. Luescher's color-naming system and 2 widely used color-naming systems. Testetest reliability
estimates were low (0.33). It is concluded that the LCT suffers from major shortcomings and that research
investigating the relationship between color preference and personality should follow alternate paths. (5
ref) ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Cernovsky, Z. Z., J. Haggarty, et al. (1998). “Luescher color preferences of Arctic Inuit and of southern
Canadians.” Perceptual and Motor Skills 86(3, Pt 2): 1171-1176.
A comparison of color preferences based on the Luescher Color Test (M. Luescher and I. Scott,
1969) was made for 21 Inuit (mean age 42.3 yrs) residing within the Arctic circle and for 49 residents of
Southern Canada (mean age 37.9 yrs). These 2 groups had been raised in radically different physical and
cultural environments. Results show that no statistically significant differences were found in relative
preferences for blue, green, red, yellow, purple, brown, grey, and black based on Luescher's scoring and
those on our own scoring system independent of Luescher's theory and scoring. ((c) 1998 APA/PsycINFO,
Choungourian, A. (1968). “Color Preferences and Cultural Variation.” Perceptual and Motor Skills 26(3,
Pt. 2): 1203-1206.
160 AMERICAN, LEBANESE, IRANIAN, AND KUWAITI UNIVERSITY STUDENTS, WITH
EQUAL NUMBER OF MALES AND FEMALES IN EACH GROUP, EXPRESSED THEIR
PREFERENCES FOR 8 OSTWALD HUES (RED, ORANGE, YELLOW, YELLOW-GREEN, GREEN,
BLUE-GREEN, BLUE, PURPLE) THROUGH THE METHOD OF PAIRED COMPARISONS.
DEFINITE CULTURAL AND SOME SEX DIFFERENCES WERE FOUND. RESULTS ARE
DISCUSSED IN VIEW OF THE CURRENT PRECONCEPTIONS ABOUT CULTURAL AND SEX
DIFFERENCES IN COLOR PREFERENCES. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Choungourian, A. (1969). “Color preferences: A cross-cultural and cross-sectional study.” Perceptual and
Motor Skills 28(3): 801-802.
308 American and Lebanese male and female Ss at different age and educational levels expressed
their preferences for 8 Ostwald colors (red, orange, yellow, yellow-green, green, green-blue, blue, and
purple) through the method of paired comparisons. The main findings indicate that green was significantly
not preferred at earlier developmental stages while significantly preferred at a later adult age. ((c) 1997
Corbett, G. G. and I. R. L. Davies (1997). Establishing basic color terms: Measures and techniques. Color
categories in thought and language. C. L. Hardin. Cambridge, England UK, Cambridge University Press: p.
197-223.
(from the chapter) looking at the notion of basicness of color terms by comparing various tests / to
do this, we are using languages that are well studied / often this means the basic color terms in those
languages can be taken as given, so that we can then see how well particular types of tests perform in
identifying the basic color terms / there are 2 reasons for doing this / one is that it may tell us something
about the different types of tests and therefore about the notion of basicness / the second is a practical point
/ given the difficulties of fieldwork in particular places, it is worth looking for tests that are easy to run,
quick, and efficient, as opposed to those that are more elaborate /// outline the B. Berlin and P. Kay
hierarchy / then we look at the types of measure available and the statistical techniques for establishing how
well they fit with the predictions derived from Berlin and Kay / we then give examples of the tests in turn,
referring briefly to the results obtained and the degree of correspondence with the hierarchy / this leads to
an investigation of the interrelation between the measures, and to examining consistency across
investigators and across languages; certain measures give considerably better results than others / we
conclude that, while the indicators point in the same direction, supporting Berlin and Kay to varying
degrees, different measures serve different functions ((c) 1998 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Daltrey, M. H. and P. Langer (1984). “Development and evaluation of a measure of future time
perspective.” Perceptual and Motor Skills 58(3): 719-725.
Developed an 80-item measurement of future time perspective by submitting 120 items derived
from the literature of 11 university faculty and graduate students who rated them on 5 dimensions. The
resulting 104 items were administered to 37 undergraduates. When the weakest items were deleted, an 88-
item inventory was administered to 160 undergraduates. The resulting inventory, called the Daltrey Future
Time Perspective Test, is counterbalanced for acquiescence and based on the assumption that it measures a
cognitive construct. Factor analysis showed future time perspective to be a unidimensional construct. It is
suggested that since the test has established reliabilities, it provides a means of applying this construct to
psychology and education. (21 ref) ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Davies, I. R., G. G. Corbett, et al. (1991). “Linguistic basicness and colour information processing.”
International Journal of Psychology 26(3): 311-327.
B. Berlin and P. Kay's (1969) notion of basicness was defined by a combination of linguistic and
psychological criteria, but they suggested that the psychological criteria might be extended. A possible
extension was examined by searching for perceptual effects of basicness. Russian speakers, who have 2
basic terms for the blue region of color space, were compared with English speakers, who have only 1 basic
term for the same region, on 2 perceptual tasks. 31 Russian and 30 British adults participated. Exps 1 and 2
sought greater Stroop interference for the Russians than for the English for the critical "blue" stimuli, and
Exp 3 sought greater perceptual differentiation for the Russians in the blue region. All experiments failed to
find the predicted differences between the 2 groups. Possible effects in other domains such as recognition
memory should be studied before concluding that there is no psychological effect of basicness. (French
abstract) ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Davies, I. R. L. and G. G. Corbett (1997). “A cross-cultural study of colour grouping: Evidence for weak
linguistic relativity.” British Journal of Psychology 88(3): 493-517.
Examined linguistic relativity theory as applied to color grouping. 18-82 yr old speakers of
English, Russian and Setswana were sorted 65 colors into groups so that members of the groups looked
similar to each other. If linguistic relativity theory is true, then there should be reliable differences between
the 3 samples in the composition of the groups they formed associated with the differing positions of color
category boundaries in the languages. The most striking feature of the results, inconsistent with linguistic
relativity theory, was the similarity in the patterns of choice of the 3 samples. However, there were also
significant differences among the samples. Setswana speakers (who have 1 basic term for BLUE or
GREEN) were more likely to group BLUE colors with GREEN colors than either English or Russian
speakers. But Russian speakers (who have 2 basic color terms for BLUE) were no more likely than English
speakers to group light and dark BLUE separately. In addition Ss differed in the level of consensus in
grouping, the number of groups formed, and in the distribution of the number of colors placed in a group.
These structural differences may reflect differences in the availability and salience of the color categories
across the languages. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Davies, I. R. L. (1998). “A study of colour grouping in three languages: A test of linguistic relativity
hypothesis.” British Journal of Psychology 89(3): 433-452.
Conducted a cross-cultural study of the relationship between language and color cognition that
tests the linguistic relativity hypothesis. We compared speakers of English, Russian and Setswana--
languages with different numbers of basic color terms--on a color grouping task in order to see whether
choice of color groups reflected the differences among the color lexicons of the 3 languages. Participants
sorted a representative set of 65 colors into N groups (where N ranged from 2 to 12) based on their
perceptual similarity. We assessed the similarities and differences among the choices of the 3 language
samples, and focused in particular on 2 more specific questions. First, we tested the conjecture that levels
of consensus over which tiles to group together should peak when N equalled the number of basic color
terms in the language. Second, we focused on possible linguistic influences on color grouping in the
GREEN-BLUE region of color space. Setswana uses a single term for this region, whereas English uses 2
terms and Russian uses 3 terms. The most striking feature of the results was the marked similarity of the
groups chosen across the 3 language samples. In addition there were small but reliable differences in
grouping associated with linguistic differences. ((c) 1998 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Davies, I. R. L., P. T. Sowden, et al. (1998). “A cross-cultural study of English and Setswana speakers on a
colour triads task: A test of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis.” British Journal of Psychology 89(1): 1-15.
Reports a cross-cultural study of speakers of Setswana and of English carried out as a test of the
linguistic relativity hypothesis (the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis). These languages differ in their number of
"basic" color terms--English has 11 and Setswana has 5--and in the position of some color category
boundaries. 40 speakers of each language (aged 23-68 yrs) did a "triads" task in which they chose which of
3 colors was least like the other 2. There were 2 types of triads: "controls," for which any linguistic
influences should lead to the same choices, and "experimental", for which any linguistic influences should
lead to different choices by the 2 groups. Thus the universalist position predicts that the choices of the 2
samples should be essentially the same for all triads, whereas the relativist position predicts that choice
should be the same for the control triads, but differ for the experimental triads. The most striking feature of
the results was that the choices made by the 2 samples were very similar for both kinds of triads, thus
supporting universalism. But, there were also small but reliable differences associated with the linguistic
differences, thus supporting Whorfianism. ((c) 1998 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Eysenck, H. J. (1941). “A critical and experimental study of color preferences.” American Journal of
Psychology 54: 385-394.
Gardano, A. C. (1986). “Cultural influence on emotional response to color: A research study comparing
Hispanics and non-Hispanics.” American Journal of Art Therapy 24(4): 119-124.
Examined the reactions of 30 Hispanics (mean age 23.5 yrs) to 3 different color panels (red-
orange, blue-green, and yellow-green), using the Profile of Mood States. Results are compared with a
previous study by B. I. Levy (see PA, Vol 67:9071) of 34 non-Hispanics. No significant difference was
found between the emotional reactions of the Hispanics and the non-Hispanics. Red-orange elicited
feelings of anger, tension, and vigor; blue-green inspired a feeling of relaxation and self-effacement; and
yellow-green aroused a sense of sadness and some anger but no vigor. It was found that Hispanics had
more intense overall reactions. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Greenfeld, P. J. (1986). “What is grey, brown, pink, and sometimes purple: The range of "wild-card" color
terms.” American Anthropologist 88(4): 908-916.
Administered color perception tests to 16 female and 15 male Western Apaches from Whiteriver,
Cibecue, San Carlos, and Payson, Arizona. Ss included 27 bilingual speakers of English and Apache and 4
monolingual Apache speakers. Perception elicitation was achieved via the method developed by R. E.
MacLaury et al (1979) and involved naming color chips separately, locating the best example of the color
among an array of dots, and mapping each head color lexeme to its maximum extension in a series of
prompted stages independently of other color categories. Results from Apache Ss were compared to those
from an unpublished doctoral dissertation by J. D. Dougherty (1975) on the Futunese of West Futuna
Island, New Hebrides. Data indicated that geographically separate languages may have "wild card" color
categories with broad semantic ranges. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Grieve, K. W. (1991). “Traditional beliefs and colour perception.” Perceptual and Motor Skills 72(3, Pt 2):
1319-1323.
Examined color preferences and associations held by 11 male and 15 female Black South
Africans. Black and red were the colors preferred most often. Color associations corresponded to those of
Western studies and did not appear to indicate ethnic differences based on traditional beliefs. ((c) 1997
Hansen, L. S. and E. M. P. Gama (1996). Gender issues in multicultural counseling. Counseling across
cultures (4th ed.). P. B. Pedersen. Thousand Oaks, CA, USA, Sage Publications, Inc: p. 73-107.
(from the chapter) identify several gender issues in multicultural counseling, including the
omission of the topic in much of the literature; specific topics addressed when gender is a focus; dilemmas
of traditional cultural values and universal values; and interventions to assist counselors with these issues /
analyze gender as a dimension of culture / present concepts of gender with cross-cultural implications /
provide a rationale for the interaction between gender and other cultural components / suggest strategies for
counseling, systems intervention, and research /// conceptions of gender and multicultural implications
[gender-role ideology, historical perspectives, power and inequality, gender roles and stereotyping,
individualism and collectivism, instrumentalism and relationship, implications for multicultural counseling]
/ rationale for interactive focus between gender and other cultural components [global contexts,
reconceptualizations of culture and gender, new multicultural definitions, the intersection with feminist
therapy, integrating gender and ethnicity in research on and by women of color, challenges to academia,
heterogeneity and connectedness, oppression of both women and men, integrated approaches, respect for
cultural traditions and moral dilemmas] ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Hardin, C. L. and L. Maffi, Eds. (1997). Color categories in thought and language. Cambridge, Cambridge
University Press.
(from the cover) In the early 1960s, B. Berlin and P. Kay argued that there are commonalities of
basic color term use that extend across languages and cultures, and probably express universal features of
perception and cognition. In 1992, at the Asilomar Conference Center, visual scientists and psychologists
met with linguists and anthropologists for the first time to examine how these claims have fared in the light
of current knowledge. To what extent can cross-cultural regularities be explained by the operation of the
human visual system? What can the study of color categorization tell us about concept formation? Are the
Berlin-Kay results an artifact of their methods? What tools have been and should be used to probe the
structure of human color categories? This volume surveys key ideas, results, and techniques from the study
of human color vision, as well as field methods and theoretical interpretations drawn from linguistic
anthropology. ((c) 1998 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Janssens, J. and B. Mikellides (1998). “Color research in architectural education: A cross-cultural

explorative study.” Color Research and Application 23(5): 328-334.
Investigates the knowledge of architectural students about perceptual and psycho-physiological
aspects of color, color nomenclature, existing myths and beliefs, and how color is used in their everyday
work in the studios. Data were collected mainly by questionnaires from 273 first- and 175 final-year
students (aged 18-42 yrs) in 3 schools of architecture in Sweden and 2 in the UK. The findings show there
is a severe lack of knowledge about color research in both countries. Reading color literature and attending
lectures or conferences was rare. However, most Ss reported positive attitudes toward color research,
especially studies of color perception and color preferences. Knowledge of the Natural Color System and
British Standard was poor, and only a handful of the respondents knew the theoretical basis of the systems.
Most of the Ss complained about the lack of coverage of the subject area in lectures, seminars, or studio
work, with very little theory and only few practical exercises. The results suggest ways of improvement and
list the most appropriate and preferred methods of communicating research on color. ((c) 1998
Johnson, E. G. a. T., T. (1985). “The development of color naming in four to seven year old children: A
cross cultural study.” Psychologica-An International Journal of Psychology in the Orient(28): 216-227.
Kastl, A. J. and I. L. Child (1968). “Comparison of color preferences in Vietnam and the United States.”
Proceedings of the Annual Convention of the American Psychological Association 3: 437-438.
Kay, P., B. Berlin, et al. (1997). Color naming across languages. Color categories in thought and language.
C. L. Hardin. Cambridge, England UK, Cambridge University Press: p. 21-56.
(from the chapter) summarizes some of the research on cross-linguistic color categorization and
naming that has addressed issues raised in "Basic Color Terms: Their Universality and Evolution" (Berlin
and Kay 1969, hereafter B&K) / it then advances some speculations regarding future developments--
especially regarding the analysis, now in progress, of the data of the World Color Survey (WCS) / the
chapter serves as something of a progress report on the current state of analysis of the WCS data, as well as
a promissory note on the full analysis to come / B&K proposed 2 general hypotheses about basic color
terms and the categories they name: (a) there is a restricted universal inventory of such categories; (b) a
language adds basic color terms in a constrained order, interpreted as an evolutionary sequence ((c) 1998
Kay, P. and C. K. McDaniel (1997). The linguistic significance of the meanings of basic color terms.
Readings on color, Vol. 2: The science of color. A. Byrne. Cambridge, MA, USA, The Mit Press: p. 399-
441.
(from the introduction) The authors summarize and to some extent revise and correct early work
on significant cross-cultural regularities in color language. With the revisions and corrections in place, they
claim, for example, that all languages with only 2 basic color categories have the same categories: white-
or-red-or-yellow, and black-or-green-or-blue. /// The authors present a model of the universal structure of
basic color categories that has 2 important features. First, it attempts to respect the fact that whether an
object falls under a basic color category is a matter of degree: something may be more or less red, or more
or less blue-green. They make use of fuzzy set theory. Second, the model takes very seriously the point that
the linguistic data might be to a large extent explained by the human visual system. In particular, the model
identifies the (fuzzy) categories red, yellow, green, blue, black, and white, using the chromatic and
achromatic response functions from opponent process theory. They argue that all other basic color
categories in the world's languages are (fuzzy) unions (e.g., green-or-blue), or simple functions of (fuzzy)
intersections (e.g., orange), of these primary categories. ((c) 1998 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Kenyon, P. M. and M. E. Barker (1998). “Attitudes towards meat-eating in vegetarian and non-vegetarian
teenage girls in England-an ethnographic approach.” Appetite 30(2): 185-198.
Compared the attitudes of 15 vegetarian (VGs) and 15 nonvegetarian teen-age English girls
(NVGs) towards meat using an ethnographic approach. The attitudes of the 13-20 yr old Ss were assessed
in a single, tape-recorded, semi-structured interview. Eight themes of the cultural meaning of meat were
identified; 5 were common to both groups: Animal, Taste/Texture/Smell, Flesh and Blood, Color,
Miscellaneous. The theme Eating Well was unique to NVGs while the themes Life/Death and Health-
related were unique to VGs. VGs generally abhorred killing animals for food, meat's sensory characteristics
and ingesting blood. A meat-free diet was not particularly associated with health in either group. NVGs on
the other hand, tended to characterize meat positively, both liking meat's sensory characteristics and
associating meat with luxury and special occasions. ((c) 1998 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
La-Vaka, L. (1981). “L'influence de la culture sur la decision d'achat. (Cultural influences on purchase
decisions.).” Ethnopsychologie; 1981 Jan-Mar Vol 36(1) 87-98.
100 20-50 yr old females from 2 native tribes (Lokele and Topoke) living in a semi-urban area
outside Kisangani, Zaire, were Ss in an investigation of cultural influences on Ss' purchase decisions. Ss
were presented with a choice between 4 statues that were identically decorated so that neither color nor
motif would influence their decisions. The statues were representations of 2 different birds, an owl, and a
kingfisher. It was hypothesized that, since the owl is a bringer of bad news and the kingfisher is a bearer of
good news in the mythologies of both tribes, Ss would purchase the kingfisher statue as opposed to the owl
or the culturally neutral bird statues. Results support the hypothesis: 97% of the Lokele Ss and 100% of the
Topoke Ss chose the kingfisher statue. Findings are tabulated according to tribe, age, choice of object,
cultural factors, and noncultural factors. (10 ref) (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1985 American
Leadbeater, B. J. R. and N. Way, Eds. (1996). Urban girls: Resisting stereotypes, creating identities. New
York, New York University Press.
(from the cover) "Urban Girls: Resisting Stereotypes, Creating Identities," [focuses] on the
development of urban poor and working-class adolescent girls. /// Including both quantitative and
qualitative essays, as well as contributions from psychologists, sociologists, and public health scholars, this
volume explores the lives of girls from diverse ethnic and class backgrounds. Topics covered include
identity development, the role of racism and sexism in development, parent and peer relationships,
sexuality, and health risks. [This book] fills a . . . gap in the field of human development, and will be useful
to anyone interested in the lives and development of urban adolescent girls. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all
rights reserved)
Ludwig, D., P. Goetz, et al. (1972). “Language and color perception: A cross-cultural study.” International
Journal of Symbology 3(1): 25-29.
Studied effects of color names on the perception of color in a group of males from India and a
group of college students from the United States. Ss were presented with colored geometric designs on
colored backgrounds and asked to report the geometric design 1st seen. Indian Ss showed confusion in the
orange and blue areas apparently because of a lack of definite words for these colors. Other results were
confusing and fail to support Whorf's hypothesis that language affects perception. ((c) 1997
MacLaury, R. E. (1992). “From brightness to hue: An explanatory model of color category evolution.”
Current Anthropology 33: 137-186.
MacLaury, R. E. (1997). Skewing and darkening: Dynamics of the cool category. Color categories in
thought and language. C. L. Hardin. Cambridge, England UK, Cambridge University Press: p. 261-282.
(from the chapter) demonstrate briefly my means of modeling color categorization / demonstrate
uses of vantage theory in modeling color categorization / first, I review how category mapping procedures
improve data / sketch a particular model and its rationale / then, I display and discuss correspondences
between different data, such as those between category mapping configurations and focus placements, that
suggest how neurally grounded sensations and selective attention upon them may dynamically constitute a
color category / last, I appeal to this framework for an explanation of differences in the aggregate patterns
of foci chosen for the so-called "cool" category by speakers of Mesoamerican languages vs speakers of
languages elsewhere throughout the world / the cool category, which encompasses pure green and pure
blue, is widespread among languages / data derive from my Mesoamerican Color Survey (MCS) and the
World Color Survey (WCS) of P. Kay, B. Berlin, and W. R. Merrifield ((c) 1998 APA/PsycINFO, all rights
reserved)
Michaels, D. (1982). “Linguistic relativity and color terminology.” Language and Speech 20: 333-343.
Nelson, T. M., D. K. Allan, et al. (1971). “Cultural differences in the use of colour in northwest Canada.”
2,425 6-16 yr. old Ss from 5 different types of schools (Northwest Territory Indian, Alberta
Indian, Hutterite, white secular, and white Roman Catholic), registered color preferences by drawing, with
6 available colored crayons, either an unforgettable dream or real life event. Color preferences for all
groups except the Hutterites (who avoided black, the dominant color in their society) were, from most to
least preferred, white, black, green, blue, yellow, and red, as determined by relative amounts of crayon
used. Hutterite and Northwest Territory Indian children used the least amount of crayon and urban secular
children the most. Depiction of various themes did not differ in amount of crayon used for drawing, though
amount differed significantly for daytime and dreamed events. Results reveal both clinical and cultural
hypotheses as having serious limitations. Color preference appeared to be a perceptual or sensory
phenomenon. Results suggest that use of color "appears to imply less about cultural membership and
affective characteristics of the material being communicated than the degree to which individual expression
is directed by society." (20 ref.) ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Pettersson, R. (1982). “Cultural differences in the perception of image and color in pictures.” Educational
Communication and Technology Journal 30(1): 43-53.
Discusses differences in visual perception and pictoral conventions of peoples of differing
cultures, geographic location, and levels of industrialization. Color and image framing preferences are
noted in folk art and school textbooks of various countries, as are differences in the naming of colors. It is
suggested that these differences in color use were originally based on each group's ability to see or
experience colors, with this in turn based on illumination and reflectance conditions in the respective
latitudes and environments. A 3-dimensional model is proposed to depict the sensitivity range of human
vision under different lighting conditions. (53 ref) ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Root, M.-P. (1990). “Disordered eating in women of color. Special Issue: Gender and ethnicity:
Perspectives on dual status.” Sex-Roles; 1990 Apr Vol 22(7-8) 525-536.
The occurrence of eating disorders in American racial minority groups is rare. Indeed, whereas the
cultural context may afford "protection" to the group, it does not necessarily protect specific individuals, as
described by D. M. Schwartz et al (see PA, Vol 69:8243). Individuals within each racial/ethnic group are
subject to the standards of the dominant culture, particularly when the culture-of-origin is devalued by the
dominant culture. Social, familial, and individual factors are discussed that contribute to eating disorders
symptomatology. Discussions of obstacles to detecting eating disorders and guidelines for developing more
inclusive theory and treatment of persons with eating disorders are included. (PsycLIT Database Copyright
1990 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
Russell, P. A., J. B. Deregowski, et al. (1997). Perception and aesthetics. Handbook of cross cultural
psychology, Vol. 2: Basic processes and human development (2nd ed.). Handbook of cross cultural
psychology. J. W. Berry. Boston, MA, USA, Allyn & Bacon, Inc: p. 107-142.
(from the introduction) [focuses] on various domains of "basic processes": perception, visual
communication, and aesthetics (from the chapter) pictorial perception [the perception of pictures, the act of
depicting (painting or drawing), visual illusions, cultural artifacts as perceptual indices] / color perception /
aesthetics [empirical aesthetics, prospects for cross-cultural aesthetics] ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights
reserved)
Saito, M. (1994). “A cross-cultural study on color preference in three Asian cities: Comparison between
Tokyo, Taipei and Tianjin.” Japanese Psychological Research 36(4): 219-232.
474 college students were asked to choose from a color chart of 77 colors the 3 colors they liked
most and least, and to state the reasons for their choices. The significant differences obtained for both hues
and tones and the analysis by dual scaling indicated that each area has unique color preference tendencies.
However, a high preference for white was common to all 3 areas, corroborating M. Saito's (1992)
comparative study in Japan and Korea and indicating a preference for this color throughout Asia. Ss'
reasons for their choices suggest that associative images of colors based on aspects of environment and
culture may be one of the important factors influencing color preference. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all
rights reserved)
Saito, M. (1996). “A comparative study of color preferences in Japan, China and Indonesia, with emphasis
on the preference for white.” Discourse Processes 13(4): 115-128.
To measure and compare the main color-preference tendencies in Japan, China, and Indonesia,
490 university students (175 Japanese, 158 Chinese, and 157 Indonesian) were asked to choose from a
color chart the 3 colors they liked most and the 3 they liked least and to state the reasons for their choices.
Analysis of the choices by correspondence analysis showed that each area (country) shows tendencies for
unique color preference and that there are statistically significant differences in the frequency of selection
of colors of certain hues and tones. However, a high preference for white was common to all areas, along
with preferences for some other colors. Associative images based on environmental and cultural aspects
may be important influences on color preference. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Saito, M. (1996). “Comparative studies on color preference in Japan and other Asian regions, with special
emphasis on the preference for white.” Color Research and Application 21(1): 35-49.
Conducted 3 surveys with a total of 1,600 Ss (aged 15-59 yrs). Survey 1 was done in 4 large cities
in Japan. Survey 2 was done in Seoul, Korea and Tokyo, Japan to determine color preference in the 2
countries, focusing on the preference for white. The 3rd survey compared color preference in Taipei and
Tokyo, also with emphasis on the preference for white. Results of factor and cluster analyses of Survey 1
showed that color preference could be influenced by differences in age, sex, and geographical region. Dual
scaling analysis of the results of Surveys 2 and 3 indicated that each Asian area has unique color preference
tendencies. However, a high preference for white was common to all areas. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all
rights reserved)
Schmidt, W. H. and A. Nzimande (1970). “Cultural differences in color/form preference and in

classificatory behavior.” Human Development 13(2): 140-148.
Presents data concerning color-form preference and ability to classify obtained from rural Zulu
children with and without Western-type schooling, from literate and illiterate Zulu urban workers, and from
illiterate urban workers. Significant differences are shown between children in school and those not going
to school, between literate and illiterate urban workers, between illiterate urban and farm workers. Some
comparisons are made with R. G. Suchman's data on Moslem Hausa children, J. Gay and M. Cole's data on
Kpelle children, J. S. Bruner and associates' studies of Wolof children, and N. L. Corah's data on American
children. It is concluded that even a poorly equipped and poorly staffed Western-type school in the bush
"seems to be a powerful agent for changing the direction in which the course of human cognitive
development will flow." (15 ref.) ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Simpson, C. (1991). “Colour perception: Cross-cultural linguistic translation and relativism.” Journal for
the Theory of Social Behaviour 21(4): 409-430.
Considers the relationship between a specific psycho-physiologically based structure, that of color
perception, and the supposed implications of this structure for cross-cultural translation and for bridgehead
theories in general. It is argued that the psycho-physiological theories that C. L. Hardin (1986) musters do
not confirm the larger thesis of B. Berlin and P. Kay (1969) that color language provides at least a minimal
bridgehead for cross-cultural translation. Five central criticisms regarding the claims made by Berlin and
Kay and of the methodology employed to establish their claims are considered. It is concluded that Hardin
is correct in claiming that experimental work on the opponent-process theory does suggest that unique hues
and individual perceptions of them are physiologically determined; but claims that this supports a practical
universality of color terms are not automatically vindicated. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Soma, I. and M. Saito (1997). Cross-cultural survey on color preferences in three Asian cities: Comparisons
among Tokyo, Taipei, and Tianjin. Handbook of Japan United States environment behavior research:
Toward a transactional approach. S. Wapner. New York, NY, USA, Plenum Press: p. 101-112.
(from the chapter) compare general color preference tendencies in these 3 Asian areas [Tokyo,
Taipei, and Tianjin] with an emphasis on the preference for white / [Ss were 474 university students] ((c)
Suinn, R. M., G. Knoo, et al. (1995). “The Suinn-Lew Asian Self-Identify Acculturation Scale: Cross-
cultural information.” Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development 23(3): 139-148.
Used to Suinn-Lew Asian Self-Identity Acculturation Scale (SL-ASIA) to conduct a cross-cultural
examination of Asian acculturation. 284 Asian American university students in the US and 118 Singapore
Asian individuals in Singapore completed the SL-ASIA and a demographic questionnaire. Chronbach's
alpha for the SL-ASIA was .79, reflecting reasonably stable data. Factor analysis identified 5 factors
underlying acculturation scores: reading/writing/cultural preferences, ethnic interaction, generational
identity, affinity for ethnic identity and pride, and food preferences. A 1-way ANOVA showed that
Singapore Asians achieved a score indicative of Asian identity, whereas Asian Americans obtained a mean
score indicative of higher Western acculturation. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Sutherland, M. and J. Galloway (1981). “Role of advertising: Persuasion or agenda setting?” Journal of
Advertising Research 21(5): 25-29.
Applied the agenda-setting theory of mass media to advertising by suggesting that its goal is to
focus the consumer's attention on what values, products, brands, or attributes to think about rather than
trying to persuade the consumer what to think of these products. This approach is combined with "top-of-
mind" or "first-brand-awareness" research to form a model of causal flow that begins with prominence in
the media, advances to salience in the public mind, and ends with behavioral outcomes (i.e., purchases).
Based on this, it was hypothesized that advertised products are perceived as superior to nonadvertised
products. 267 housewives were surveyed concerning what brands of toothpaste, color TV, and disposable
diapers they thought were used by the most people. Findings indicate that advertising (media prominence)
functions as a significant cue to the customer in judging what is and is not acceptable and popular with
others. Also presented is a model indicating that a link exists between salience and behavioral outcomes
and that it operates at least partially through perceived popularity or climate of opinion. It is considered
likely, however, that for low-involvement products or low-involvement decision areas, salience also
influences choice by determining or constraining the evoked set. (23 ref) ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all
rights reserved)
Uchikawa, K. and R. M. Boynton (1987). “Categorical color perception of Japanese observers: Comparison
with that of Americans.” Vision Research 27(10): 1825-1833.
10 native Japanese observers (4-68 yrs old) named 424 colors of the Optical Society of America
Uniform Color Scales set using monolexemic color terms of their choice. Results are compared with those
from 7 American Ss previously studied by R. M. Boynton and C. X. Olson (in press). It is concluded, in
agreement with the original thesis of B. Berlin and P. K. Kay (1969), that there are 11 basic color terms in
each language, each of which describes a fundamental color sensation dependent on an underlying
physiology that does not differ between the 2 groups. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Vandewiele, M., W. D'Hondt, et al. (1986). “Number and color preferences in four countries.” Perceptual
and Motor Skills 63(2, Pt 2): 945-946.
When asked to write down the name of their favorite color and number (between 0 and 9), 661
children from Niger, 233 Japanese children, 221 Transkeian children, and 331 children from Brazzaville
made heterogeneous choices, suggesting that number and color preferences are related to cultural context.
Wiegersma, S. and I. de Klerck (1984). “The "blue phenomenon" is red in the Netherlands.” Perceptual and
Motor Skills 59(3): 790.
Discusses the "blue phenomenon" in previous research, which designates the tendency of
Americans to specify the color blue when they are asked to write down the 1st color that comes to mind. It
is noted that Ss from the Netherlands have been found to exhibit a similar tendency with the color red.
Factors possibly responsible for this phenomenon include color preference and verbal response bias. The
present authors review the evidence and conclude that the blue phenomenon is due to culture-dependent
color preferences. (6 ref) ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Wiegersma, S. and G. Van der Elst (1988). “"Blue Phenomenon": Spontaneity or preference?” Perceptual
and Motor Skills 66(1): 308-310.
90 adults from the Netherlands produced different responses when asked to name the 1st color that
came to mind or to name their favorite color, suggesting that question formulation may account for
differences in the color preferences of different national groups. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights
reserved)
Wiles, C. R., J. A. Wiles, et al. (1996). “The ideology of advertising: The United States and Sweden.”
Compared values portrayed in magazine advertising in the US and Sweden. A content analysis of
269 advertisements (with 155 males and 358 females) from US and 123 ads (with 118 males and 157
females) from Swedish magazines compared portrayals of models in level of undress, skin color, and
activities (e.g., housework, childcare, leisure). Values conveyed were similar for both countries and
included a life of leisure, youthfulness, individualism, and ideal body shape. Results suggest that Swedish
and American advertisers subscribe to values that include the following: advertisers identify life with
leisure, not work; people enjoy life only when free of work; leisure is associated with consumption, not
activity; private life is what matters, mainly life as individuals; and life is best when there are no racial
differences. In general, these same values were found in the content analysis of US magazine ads by G.
Andren et al (1978) 20 yrs ago. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Williams, J. E., J. K. Morland, et al. (1970). “Connotations of color names in the United States, Europe,
and Asia.” Journal of Social Psychology 82(1): 3-14.
Explored the hypothesis of cross-cultural generality in the connotative meanings of common color
names via semantic differential ratings by 6 groups of college students: American Caucasians, American
Negroes, Germans, Danes, Hong Kong Chinese, and Asiatic Indians. The hypothesis was supported by the
finding of general agreement in the rank-order placement of the 10 color names along the evaluation,
potency, and activity dimensions. On evaluation, "white" was rated most positively by all 6 groups, while
"black," "brown," and "gray" were rated most negatively. Some possible explanations of these cross-
cultural meanings are discussed. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Zegura, S. L. (1997). Genes, opsins, neurons, and color categories: Closing the gaps. Color categories in
thought and language. C. L. Hardin. Cambridge, England UK, Cambridge University Press: p. 283-292.
(from the chapter) the body of research on cross-linguistic color categorization and naming is
examined from a human evolutionary perspective and in relation to recent findings on the genetics of color
vision ((c) 1998 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Zollinger, H. (1988). “Categorical color perception: Influence of cultural factors on the differentiation of
primary and derived basic color terms in color naming by Japanese children.” Vision Research 28(12):
1379-1382.
Conducted color-naming tests with 12-25 yr old Japanese children who lived in 2 locations in
Japan (Yonezawa and Tokyo) and 1 location in West Germany (Duesseldorf). Results demonstrate that the
primary basic color terms based on E. Hering's (1874) opponent color scheme were not influenced by the
increasing Western cultural influence from Yonezawa to Tokyo and to Duesseldorf. The derived color
terms for brown, orange, and pink hues did appear to be influenced, however. Results extend the findings
of K. Uchikawa and R. M. Boynton (1987) and support the hypothesis that the psycholinguistics of color
naming are based on a universal neurobiology of human color vision. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights
reserved)
Consumer behaviour:
Agarwal, A. (1993). Time, memory, and knowledge representation: The Indian perspective. Cognition and
culture: A cross cultural approach to cognitive psychology. Advances in psychology, Vol. 103. J. Altarriba.
Amsterdam, Netherlands, North-Holland/Elsevier Science Publishers: p. 45-55.
(from the chapter) [attempt] to (1) define the concept of time perspective and one of its
dimensions--future orientation; (2) trace its roots in the macrosystem of variables of Indian culture and
philosophical thought; and, (3) examine its influence on memory for temporal dates and on the encoding
and retrieval of new information when schemata relating to the future have been aroused ((c) 1997
Allen, M.-W. (1994). “Personal values of Wellingtonians: A multi-dimensional scaling analysis.” New-
Zealand-Journal-of-Psychology; 1994 Dec Vol 23(2) 71-76.
Presented the personal value orientations of Ss living in the area of Wellington, New Zealand in
November and December 1993. The Rokeach Value Survey was completed by 372 Ss. Respondents
selected the 13 most important and 13 least important items from a list of values (e.g. honesty, freedom,
equality, etc). A multidimensional scaling map is shown, The map portrays the interrelationships among
values and shows which values are considered compatible by the society to which the Ss belong. The
dimensions found in the study, power vs self-direction and connectedness, and excitement and growth vs
accomplishment through social expectations, reveal the organization and structure of this cultural group.
Allen, M.-W. (1994). “Reliability and accuracy of culture-level judgements of personal values.”
Perceptual-and-Motor-Skills; 1994 Aug Vol 79(1, Pt 1) 16-18.
Investigated the interrater reliability and accuracy of culture-level judgments of personal values.
289 undergraduates completed a modified form of the Rokeach Value Survey 2 times, first responding for
themselves and then responding as they believed a typical American would respond. Interrater reliability of
culture-level estimates was .92, but the accuracy of Ss' estimations was questionable because their
judgments appeared to be only somewhat consistent with past research (M. Rokeach, 1973) from which
estimates were taken as norms. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1995 American Psychological Assn, all
rights reserved)
Angus, L.-B. (1993). “Masculinity and women teachers at Christian Brothers College.” Organization-
Studies; 1993 Vol 14(2) 235-260.
Examined gender as an element of organizational culture by focusing on the gender regime of
Christian Brothers College (CBC), an Australian Catholic boys' school. A masculine gender regime at CBC
was evident in many forms. One of these forms was the symbol of the Virgin Mary, which by bonding
particular female stereotypes into a meaningful image of woman, subtly constituted and communicated a
powerful but abstract cultural notion of appropriate womanhood. The masculine gender regime was also
evident in the tradition of discipline at the school, which led to an institutionalized concern for order,
obedience, and control. The presence of a growing number of women in CBC, and the consequent
opportunity for a degree of female solidarity, has resulted in challenges to the dominant values and interests
that were engrained into the school's structure. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1993 American Psychological
Arnould, E.-J. (1989). “Toward a broadened theory of preference formation and the diffusion of
innovations: Cases from Zinder Province, Niger Republic.” Journal-of-Consumer-Research; 1989 Sep Vol
16(2) 239-267.
A synthetic, culturally relative model for the diffusion of innovations in consumer behavior
provides an account of how novel items of nonlocal origin are incorporated into the material culture
inventory of Hausa-speaking peasants in Niger. The model is composed of elements from the standard
diffusion paradigm, world-systems theory, and economic and symbolic anthropology. Data from field work
in Niger show that novel goods provide a medium through which alternative paradigms of consumer
behavior and reality contend. Among the Hausa, a premarket model, a Western market-mediated model,
and an Islamic ethnonationalist model compete for consumer affiliation. (PsycLIT Database Copyright
Arrindell, W. A., C. Hatzichristou, et al. (1997). “Dimensions of national culture as predictors of cross-
national differences in subjective well-being.” Personality and Individual Differences 23(1): 37-53.
The value of predicting cross-national variations in Subjective Well-Being (SWB) from Hofstede's
dimensions of national culture (1980) was examined using data collected in 36 nations. The Hofstede
dimensions were: Individualism-Collectivism (IDV), Power Distance (PDI), Masculinity-Femininity
(MAS), and Uncertainty Avoidance (UAI). With factors other than the Hofstede dimensions of national
culture (National Wealth/Purchasing Power, Civil Rights and Income Social Comparison) being equal
across nations, low UAI succeeded in predicting high national levels of SWB. As anticipated, a significant
negative interaction was observed between MAS and National Wealth in predicting national SWB levels:
in the poorer countries Masculinity correlated positively with SWB, whereas a negative association was
observed for the subset of richer countries. Relatively speaking, feminine-rich countries reported the
highest SWB levels. The predictive capability of MAS * National Wealth was independent of that of UAI.
The predictive capabilities of MAS * National Wealth and UAI were both independent of national
character. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1997 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
Aupperle, K.-E., W. Acar, et al. (1986). “An empirical critique of In Search of Excellence : How excellent
are the excellent companies?” Journal-of-Management; 1986 Win Vol 12(4) 499-512.
Examined the research methods used by T. J. Peters and R. H. Waterman (1982) in their book In
Search of Excellence and assessed whether their exemplary firms were actually excellent. Peters and
Waterman's "excellent" firms were compared with 1,000 firms evaluated by Forbes in its annual report on
American industry, using 4 measures of financial performance (return on assets, return on equity, market
valuation, and sales growth). Results indicate that the excellent firms were not as superior as Peters and
Waterman suggested. Implications for culture/performance research are discussed. (PsycLIT Database
Ballard, L. and B.-H. Kleiner (1988). “Understanding and managing foreign-born and minority
employees.” Leadership-and-Organization-Development-Journal; 1988 Vol 9(4) 22-24.
Discusses aspects of culture, language, and communication that the manager of foreign-born or
minority employees should take into account. G. Hofstede's (1984) dimensions of cultural values (power
distance, individualism, masculinity, uncertainty avoidance) are outlined. It is suggested that
minority/foreign born employees be given a complete orientation to the organization and the corporate
culture and be told exactly what is expected of them and how they are to be evaluated. (PsycLIT Database
Barnard, S. (1995). “Psychotherapy, confessional technology, and the reproduction of capitalism. Special
Issue: The politics of psychotherapy: A symposium on Philip Cushman's Constructing the Self,
Constructing America.” Psychohistory-Review; 1995 Fal Vol 24(1) 61-75.
Comments on P. Cushman's, Constructing the self, Constructing America , which suggests links
between the construction of the modern consumeristic self and theories of psychoanalysis. Cushing's
critique of personality theories that reproduce the "self-contained individual," and his proposed alternative
of a socially and culturally embedded moral self, are important to the development of a politically
conscious psychotherapy. However, an important omission of his work, is his focus on theories, at the
expense of the structures of psychoanalysis that shape its practice. Cushman's failure to invoke M. Focault's
discussion of psychoanalysis and its use of confessional technology, attenuates the power of his argument.
An analysis of the relationships between confessional technology, psychoanalysis, and capitalism, reveal a
plurality of resistances and power relations operative within psychoanalysis's confessional structure. A
genealogical critique is thus missing in this book. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1996 American
Belk, R.-W. (1995). “Collecting as luxury consumption: Effects on individuals and households. Special
Issue: Household and individual economic psychology.” Journal-of-Economic-Psychology; 1995 Sep Vol
16(3) 477-490.
Offers an assessment of collecting based on interviews with 200 collectors, considering the
problems and benefits for the individual collector, the collector's household, and society. While extreme
cases are found in which collecting is addictive and dysfunctional for the individual and his/her family, it is
more commonly found to be a beneficial activity, at least for the collector. But interpersonally, collections
are found to be perceived as nonhuman rivals for the affection of collectors in the household and to leave a
cultural legacy of material artifacts that over-represent powerful social classes. (PsycLIT Database
Bhogle, S. and I.-J. Prakash (1994). “Factor structure of the scaled GHQ for an Indian population.”
Psychological-Studies; 1994 Jul-Nov Vol 39(2-3) 107-112.
Reports the factor structure of the General Health Questionnaire (GHQ-28) administered to 857
male and female Indian adults (aged 20-63 yrs) in a nonpsychiatric setting. Ss came from differing
economic, social, educational, and occupational backgrounds; 368 were postgraduate students, and 489
were employees of the university. Factor analysis using the principal varimax rotation and Cattell's scree
test yielded 4 factors accounting for 46% of the variance: anxiety, hopelessness, a feeling of being run
down, and an inability to enjoy activities. These factors are comparable to those reported in the original
study of the GHQ-60 and in studies (e.g., D. W. Chan and T. S. Chan; see PA, Vol 71:5603) from other
cultures. Results confirm the multidimensional properties of the GHQ and suggest that the factors that
emerge, as well as their salience, differ from culture to culture. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1995
Billig, M.-S. (1992). “The marriage squeeze and the rise of groomprice in India's Kerala state.” Journal-of-
Comparative-Family-Studies; 1992 Sum Vol 23(2) 197-216.
Presents an analysis of the rise of "dowry" in the south Indian state of Kerala using data from
Indian censuses and interviews with the people. It is argued that the adoption of exorbitant payments from
the families of brides to those of grooms was mainly caused by changes in the marriage market (i.e., the
relative availability of potential spouses) and the rise of new criteria of spouse choice based on achieved
status. This explanation minimizes the role of "Sanskritization," or the attempt to improve the status of
one's family or caste by adopting the ways of higher castes. (French & Spanish abstracts) (PsycLIT
Blackman, S.-J. (1996). “Has drug culture become an inevitable part of youth culture? A critical assessment
of drug education.” Educational-Review; 1996 Jun Vol 48(2) 131-142.
Examines the policy rationale that defines drug use as a social problem and considers the
implications of the policy impasse between primary prevention and harm minimization approaches. The
delivery of drug education is considered and the curriculum location of drug education is evaluated. It is
suggested that it is not so much the products of consumer capitalism as its ideology that is supportive of
drug culture. The proliferation of drug-related merchandise is not so much a causal factor in normalizing
drug use as a visual indication that drug culture itself and issues around recreational drug use have become
more closely associated with the free market in terms of both consumption of products and ideology.
Bond, M.-H. and K.-s. Yang (1982). “Ethnic affirmation versus cross-cultural accommodation: The
variable impact of questionnaire language on Chinese bilinguals from Hong Kong.” Journal-of-Cross-
Cultural-Psychology; 1982 Jun Vol 13(2) 169-185.
184 Chinese bilingual undergraduates responded to 3 questionnaires in their 1st or 2nd language
(Chinese or English, respectively). On some questionnaire items their answers to the English version
differed from those to the Chinese version in a more "Western" direction (cross-cultural accommodation);
for others, in a more Chinese direction (ethnic affirmation). These outcomes were unaffected by Ss' level of
identification with traditional Chinese culture or by their degree of anonymity vis-a-vis the experimenter
conducting the research. An internal analysis of responses to the Rokeach Value Survey revealed that the
more important the value to Ss, the less likely they were to show cross-cultural accommodation. It appears
that affirmation occurs on important issues to buttress the individual's feelings of psychological
distinctiveness from other groups; compromise is possible on less important matters, presumably more
peripheral to the individual's cultural self-concept. (34 ref) (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1983 American
Bond, M. H., Ed. (1996). The handbook of Chinese psychology. Hong Kong, Oxford University Press.
(from the jacket) This handbook [discusses] Chinese psychology. The field of psychology has
long been dominated by Western theories, data, practitioners, and subjects. Within the past 2 decades,
however, a growing body of psychological research on Chinese people has added . . . new data and insights
to our understanding of both culture-specific and universal learning, thinking, and behaviour. /// The
research covers the people of China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Singapore, and the global Chinese diaspora. The
authors seek out and analyse the idiosyncratic aspects of Chinese intelligence, personality structure,
emotions, social interaction, abnormal behaviour, decision-making, and academic achievement. ((c) 1997
Boski, P. (1994). “Psychological analysis of a culture: Stability of core Polish values in the homeland and
among immigrants.” Polish Psychological Bulletin 25(4): 257-282.
Three historical processes impacted Polish culture formation: Catholicism, agriculture as the
dominant mode of production and social structure formation, and preoccupation with national sovereignty.
Value structures of 100 adult Poles (24-70 yrs old) in Poland and of 151 direct immigrants to the US and
Canada and Polish-Americans/Canadians were compared, using the Emic Culture Values Test. A joint
principle components analysis yielded 6 factors: Humanism^Materialism, Cognitive Openness, Political
Involvement, Self-constraint vs Hedonism, Traditionality, and Social Trust. Across S groups and
generations, Ss tended to construe Self and Polish prototype high on the Humanist side of the dimension;
American and Canadian prototypes were construed as Materialist. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights
reserved)
Boucebci, M. and A. Bouchefra (1982). “Psychiatrie transculturelle et migration. Influence des structures
sociales sur les destins personnels. (Transcultural psychiatry and migration: The influence of social
structures on individual destinies.).” Annales-Medico-Psychologiques; 1982 Jun Vol 140(6) 638-644.
While Algerian society has experienced centuries of internal migration and change, contemporary
life has added new dimensions, 2 of which, acculturation and resettlement, are subjected to
psychopathological scrutiny. This effort is focused around 2 distinct groups: those who have migrated to
the city, and those who are employed by the Algerian national petroleum company. Because of
modernization and industrialization efforts, traditional family bonds become ruptured as members move to
the city or to industrial areas, causing crises for many, particularly among those with schizophrenic
tendencies. If the father is absent because of work, the oldest son, by tradition, becomes the family head
and is often subject to psychotic decompensations. Moreover, the son assumes contradictory roles of
omnipotent family and obedient son. In treatment, he may show a complete resistance to all ideas of
change, quoting religious tenets and traditions. Cultural illusions may conflict with the need to function as a
citizen in contemporary society. (6 ref) (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1984 American Psychological Assn,
Brown, M. E., Ed. (1990). Television and women's culture: The politics of the popular. Communication
and human values. London, Sage Publications, Inc.
(from the cover) In this book an international team of contributors examines critically the
relationship between television and women's culture. Though they recognise that television frequently
distorts and oppresses women's experience, the authors avoid a simplistic manipulative view of the media.
Instead they show how and why such different media as game shows, police fiction and soap opera offer
women opportunities for negotiation of their own meanings and their own aesthetic appreciation. /// As a
substantial contribution to both women's studies and the study of mass communication this book will be
welcomed by lecturers and students of popular culture, cultural studies, women's studies and mass
communication. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Bumstead, D. and J. Eckblad (1984). “Developing organisational cultures.” Leadership-and-Organization-

Development-Journal; 1984 Vol 5(4) 21-26.
Contends that the purpose and values associated with the organization are crucial to the
development of viable organizational cultures. Organizational responses, the life-business approach,
energy, internal and external management teams, creativity and focus, innovation, structuring
organizational systems, and regenerating market orientation are discussed in terms of attention to
qualitative goals or values. It is suggested that the life-business approach to cultural change helps
individuals confront key questions, builds on the answers, and regenerates both markets and organizational
culture. (18 ref) (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1985 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
Cameron, C.-M. and J.-B. Gatewood (1994). “The authentic interior: Questing gemeinschaft in post-
industrial society.” Human-Organization; 1994 Spr Vol 53(1) 21-32.
Explores the basis of the appeal of Bethlehem, PA, by examining the annual Christmas program
through ethnographic description, media portrayals, and a survey of 348 visitors during December 1990.
The city markets itself as a tourist attraction on the basis of its authentic cultural community. Ethnicity, as
conveyed through the modes of music, customs, and food, is the foundation of most of the preservation
efforts. Moravian heritage appears prominently at Christmas, the Pennsylvania Dutch during Musikfest,
and the Scotch-Irish during Celticfest. Ss' responses to the survey indicate a nostalgia for authentic urban
community and a yearning for vicarious experience with a gemeinschaft-like community. Bethlehem is
perceived as small-town America persisting in mass society. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1994 American
Carter, R.-T. (1991). “Cultural values: A review of empirical research and implications for counseling.
Special Issue: Multiculturalism as a fourth force in counseling.” Journal-of-Counseling-and-Development;
1991 Sep-Oct Vol 70(1) 164-173.
Reviews the literature using the F. R. Kluckhohn and F. L. Strodtbeck (1961) model to identify
literature pertaining to cultural values. Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck believed that value-orientations represent
a limited number of common human problems; the need to find solutions to these problems is common to
all cultures, and cultures are limited in the number of solutions that are possible. The differential solutions
chosen by each account for differences between cultural and racial groups. The problems, or orientations,
involve human activity, social relations, time, person-nature relationships, and the innate character of
human nature domains. Findings show that value orientations may be influenced by a number of variables;
when any culture is assessed for its value system, psychological and demographic characteristics (e.g., age,
sex, socioeconomic status (SES), education) must also be considered. (Spanish abstract) (PsycLIT Database
Cattell, R.-B. and J. Brennan (1984). “The cultural types of modern nations, by two quantitative
classification methods.” Sociology-and-Social-Research; 1984 Jan Vol 68(2) 208-235.
100 nations assigned syntality profile scores on 16 factors from 82 variables in previously reported
research were entered into 2 of 3 alternative existing objective programs for segregating into species. Such
a taxonomy of species could contribute to the basis needed for an evolutionary sociological analysis of
culture. 18 types appeared with high homogeneity as shown by small mutual distance of high r-sub(p )
among members; but only twelve of them are supported as having a common core from both methods of
typal analysis. These 12 types can be recognized as agreeing in general nature and number of types found
in an earlier research and essentially with cultural groupings accepted in history, cultural anthropology, and
everyday sociopolitical descriptions. However, the basis in syntality measures is broader than that used in
most previous classifications. Further, it yields a precise quantitative mean profile on meaningful
dimensions to define each group, and it permits a specification equation to estimate the likelihood of certain
national behaviors. As to methods, taxonome and the peak fair methods and computer programs each have
some virtues and vices, illustrated by the differences found in this study, but nevertheless converge on
substantial mutual agreement. (38 ref) (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1984 American Psychological Assn,
Chase, R.-A. (1977). “Fairs and festivals.” Man-Environment-Systems; 1977 May Vol 7(3) 117-144.
Examines the historical role of the festival/fair and argues that (a) the festival provides a tangible
exhibit of important aspects of culture and society, and (b) each festival is defined by those particular
aspects of culture that it gives disproportionate attention to as well as the manner in which that attention is
given. While some of the advantages of festivals can be incorporated into more enduring elements of the
urban fabric, the festival is unique in that it provides the conditions that remind each person that he/she is a
member of a particular group. In this way, it can help to counteract some of the trends in modern society
(e.g., the growth of suburbs, consumer-oriented technologies, and the size and complexity of social
organizations) that have seriously eroded the quality of community life. (19 ref) (PsycLIT Database
Chinese Culture, C. (1987). “Chinese values and the search for culture-free dimensions of culture.” Journal
of Cross Cultural Psychology 18(2): 143-164.
Constructed a survey of Chinese values and administered it to university students in 22 countries
around the world. An ecological factor analysis was run on the culture means for the 40 scale items and
revealed 4 dimensions of cultural valuing. In a search for validities, country scores on these 4 factors were
correlated with those derived from a Western survey of work-related values by G. Hofstede (1980). Three
of the factors from the Chinese Value Survey (CVS) correlated at high levels with 3 of Hofstede's 4,
strongly suggesting the robust value dimensions of collectivism and compassion. The 2nd CVS factor,
Confucian work dynamism, was unrelated to any of Hofstede's, but correlated .70 with economic growth
from 1965 to 1984. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1988 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
Pt. 2): 1203-1206.
Church, A. T. and W. J. Lonner (1998). “The cross-cultural perspective in the study of personality:
Rationale and current research.” Journal of Cross Cultural Psychology: Cultural-Psychology.
Examines the rationale for and current research that is based on the cross-cultural or culture-
comparative approach to personality study. Notes the uncertain cross-cultural relevance of mainstream
personality theories, and addresses current cross-cultural research on the following personality-relevant
topics: personality structure and assessment, implications of individualism-collectivism for traits and their
measurement, values and beliefs, emotions and subjective well-being, and motivation. Some of the best
support for cross-cultural universality has been obtained in studies of the 5-factor model of personality, the
content and structure of values, a limited number of basic emotions, and higher order mood dimensions.
Topics that need to be studied further include the following: (1) how to separate the many factors that
influence personality scores across cultures, (2) the degree of cross-cultural comparability of the
nomological nets of personality dimensions, and (3) the integration of trait-psychology and cultural-
psychology perspectives. ((c) 1998 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Ciotta, P.-J. (1987). “The anatomy of a creative corporate culture.” Journal-of-Creative-Behavior; 1987 Vol
21(2) 145-152.
Describes the processes of innovation and creativity that are evidenced in one company, Rich
Products Corporation. The creative corporate culture of this company is encouraged by endorsing a state of
flux, challenging accepted norms of consumer behavior, and providing the means by which employees can
maximize their productive ability. (0 ref) (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1988 American Psychological
Classen, C., D. Howes, et al. (1994). Aroma: The cultural history of smell. London, England UK,
Routledge.
(from the cover) "Aroma" uncovers the secret history of smells: from the perfumed banquets of
ancient Greece to the 'best blueberry flavour ever made,' from the sweet 'odour of sanctity' to the latest in
designer fragrances. A journey of discovery that takes in the perfume potions of the Pacific as well as
Andean aromatherapies, "Aroma" maps the 'smellscapes' of different cultures and explores the roles that
odours have played throughout history. Along the way, the authors open our senses to the powerful cultural
meanings of smells. Odours, they show, inform power relations between the sexes, between classes and
ethnic groups. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Cook, D. (1992). “Ruses de Guerre: Baudrillard and Fiske on media reception.” Journal-for-the-Theory-of-
Social-Behaviour; 1992 Jun Vol 22(2) 227-238.
Describes the history of the dichotomy between the pessimistic accounts of the effects of mass or
popular culture and the optimistic ones. The authors critique the latest optimistic versions of the dichotomy
in J. Baudrillard (1972) and J. Fiske (1989) and posit the double consciousness of media consumers as a
task that remains to be explored in both theoretical and practical research. Duplicitous consciousness is the
result of the dialectic of optimism and pessimism. Since such consciousness contains both the positive and
the negative dimensions of media reception, new, more subtle and nuanced dialectical theories must be
devised to apprehend it adequately. Both Fiske and Baudrillard locate resistance in unconscious, unfocused,
and apolitical activities. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1993 American Psychological Assn, all rights
reserved)
Craig, R.-L. (1992). “Advertising as visual communication. Special Issue: Visual communication studies in
mass media research: II.” Communication; 1992 Dec Vol 13(3) 165-179.
Examines the variety of paradigms, methods, and analytical tools that have been used to study
advertising and sketches the background history of the advertising image from within the context of the
history of mass communication. The relationship of behaviorist theory, sociology, cultural history, and
postmodernism and cultural studies to advertising is discussed. M. Schudson (1984), T. J. Lears (1983), and
J. Baudrillard (1968) emphasize the functional aspect of consumer objects; they help individuals
distinguish themselves from others in mass society. However, unlike Schudson and Lears, S. Ewen (1976)
and Baudrillard do not assume that in the 20th century all cultural formations are lost within mass society.
They see advertising and consumerism as part of a larger process of commercializing culture and
communication. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1993 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
D'Adamo, S. (1987). “Il Test Culture Fair Scala 2 Forma A di Cattell: Contributo per una taratura italiana.
(Cattell's Culture Fair Intelligence Test, Scale 2, Form A: Contribution to an Italian standardization.).”
Bollettino-di-Psicologia-Applicata; 1987 Jan-Mar No 181 41-44.
Administered the Culture Fair Intelligence Test to workers in higher paying jobs who had a junior
high school education. Human subjects: 763 normal male Italian adults (mean age 38.5 yrs). The results
were analyzed statistically and were compared with results obtained from the original standardization of the
test. (English abstract) (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1990 American Psychological Assn, all rights
reserved)
Dasgupta, S. D. (1998). “Gender roles and cultural continuity in the Asian Indian immigrant community in
the U.S.” Sex Roles 38(11-12): 953-974.
Ethnic identity is a part of positive self-concept that consciously anchors an individual to a

particular ethnic group. Central to this identity is a sense of belonging, as well as a commitment to the
group's values, beliefs, behaviors, conventions, and customs. This study focuses on the Asian Indian
community in the US to investigate their concerns with the continuity of ethnic identity via maintenance of
traditional culture. Intergenerational synchrony in 2 specific values, attitudes toward women and dating,
were examined as indicators of successful transmission of culture and identity. 46 educated, middle class
Indian immigrant families, the majority of whom were foreign born and Hindus, participated in this study
by responding to questionnaires that included the Attitude Toward Women Scale and Dating Scale. Results
show a strong similarity between parents and children on target attitudes, but distinct intergenerational and
gender asymmetries emerged. The conscious attempt to preserve certain critical attitudes, values, and
behaviors characteristic of the group was labeled "judicious biculturalism," an expression of active
involvement on the immigrants' part to control the course of their own acculturation. ((c) 1998
Davies, I. R. L. and G. G. Corbett (1997). “A cross-cultural study of colour grouping: Evidence for weak
linguistic relativity.” British Journal of Psychology 88(3): 493-517.
Examined linguistic relativity theory as applied to color grouping. 18-82 yr old speakers of
English, Russian and Setswana were sorted 65 colors into groups so that members of the groups looked
similar to each other. If linguistic relativity theory is true, then there should be reliable differences between
the 3 samples in the composition of the groups they formed associated with the differing positions of color
category boundaries in the languages. The most striking feature of the results, inconsistent with linguistic
relativity theory, was the similarity in the patterns of choice of the 3 samples. However, there were also
significant differences among the samples. Setswana speakers (who have 1 basic term for BLUE or
GREEN) were more likely to group BLUE colors with GREEN colors than either English or Russian
speakers. But Russian speakers (who have 2 basic color terms for BLUE) were no more likely than English
speakers to group light and dark BLUE separately. In addition Ss differed in the level of consensus in
grouping, the number of groups formed, and in the distribution of the number of colors placed in a group.
These structural differences may reflect differences in the availability and salience of the color categories
across the languages. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
de-Jong, J. T. (1987). “Jangue Jangue in Guinee-Bissau: Een cultuurgebonden syndroom onder Balanta-
vrouwen. (Jangue Jangue in Guinea-Bissau: An unknown culture-bound syndrome among Balanta
women.).” Tijdschrift-voor-Psychiatrie; 1987 Vol 29(2) 58-86.
Discusses the 2 phases of a syndrome found among Balanta women that involves manifestations
of a bizarre behavior--Jangue Jangue. The women receive instructions from their god that are described as
imperative pseudohallucinations. It is maintained that a cultural renewal process is instituted by these
commandments. (English abstract) (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1989 American Psychological Assn, all
rights reserved)
de-Moraes-von-Simson, O.-R. (1983). “Cultural changes, popular creativity and mass communication: The
Brazilian carnival over the past two centuries.” Leisure-Studies; 1983 Sep Vol 2(3) 317-326.
Analyses festive activities of central and south Brazilian urban society during the past 2 centuries
examining cultural changes, the role of popular creativity, and the effect of the mass media. The author
notes the rise of a dominant sector in society, which imposes cultural creations on the lower classes and
appropriates and adapts cultural traits of popular origin into a consumer-oriented capitalist system. (5 ref)
Degot, V. (1985). “Culture et rationalite. (Culture and rationality.).” Social-Science-Information; 1985 Jun
Vol 24(2) 257-298.
Explores various definitions, theories, and aspects of culture and rationality as they apply to
business. Two French industries provide case material: (1) Renault Auto, which has adopted F. W. Taylor's
(1971) philosophy and methodology, and whose employees engage mostly in routine work, and (2)
Creusot-Loire, which manufactures a variety of products and whose workers are more highly skilled and
diversified and are allowed more initiative and responsibility. Discussion covers other factors, such as
industrial organization and structure, marketing, the economy, epistemology, and phenomenology. A
conceptual model is applied to a concrete case, and the reference to culture permits the explanation of
mechanisms from an anthropological viewpoint. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1988 American
Desai, K. G. (1980). “Comparative factorial structure of Raven's Standard Progressive Matrices, Cattell's
Culture Fair Scale 3 and Desai-Bhatt Group Tests of Intelligence on samples of various sub-cultures of
Gujarat.” Journal-of-Psychological-Researches; 1980 Jan-May Vol 24(1-2) 8-15.
Administered a variety of verbal and nonverbal intelligence measures to 338 children in urban,
semi-urban, rural, and tribal groups. Results of factor analyses confirm R. B. Cattell's (1963) distinction
between fluid and crystallized intelligence, question the validity of the Culture Fair Intelligence Test for
different subcultural groups, and do not provide any data that support or negate A. R. Jensen's (1973, 1974)
concept of Level I and Level II abilities. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1982 American Psychological Assn,
Deshpande, R. and F.-E. Webster (1989). “Organizational culture and marketing: Defining the research
agenda.” Journal-of-Marketing; 1989 Jan Vol 53(1) 3-15.
Contemporary work on marketing management is grounded implicitly in a structural functionalist
or contingency perspective of organizational functioning. The field of organizational behavior has recently
developed a major thrust into theoretical modeling and empirical research on organizational culture. The
authors survey this emerging literature on organizational culture, integrate it in a conceptual framework,
and develop a research agenda in marketing, grounded in the 5 cultural paradigms of comparative
management, contingency management, organizational cognition, organizational symbolism, and
structural/psychodynamism. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1989 American Psychological Assn, all rights
reserved)
Dessent, T. (1994). “Educational psychology: What future?” Educational-and-Child-Psychology; 1994 Vol

11(3) 50-54.
Describes the future of educational psychology (EP) as it shifts from a command culture to a
service culture that includes business planning, marketing, internal trading, consultation, and partnership. A
history of EP's role in special education is given, and 3 areas relevant to the quality and survival of EP are
described. These areas include enduring characteristics of policy, provision for children with special
education needs, new demands in areas such as accountability and public scrutiny, and the future roles of
local education authorities. Predictions for EP in the 1990s include the restructuring of services and
principal EP posts. The assets and deficits of EP services that will affect their quality and survival are
listed. (0 ref) (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1995 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
Diaz Guerrero, R. and R. Diaz Loving (1994). Personality across cultures.

(from the chapter) compare at least 1 important development in the North American psychology of
personality [the 5 robust North American factors] with 1 in the cross-cultural literature [Hofstede's
universal factorial dimensions] and 1 in Mexico [La Rosa's and Diaz-Loving's 9 factors of the self concept
in the Mexican university student] / ask: are there indeed universal personality dimensions / compare the
results of the 2, more similar approaches [North American and Mexican] arriving at what appear to be
pertinent statements ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Eiguer, A. (1982). “Falstaff et le prince Henry ou l'homosexualite initiatique. Falstaff and Prince Henry or
initiatory homosexuality.” Etudes-Psychotherapiques; 1982 Dec Vol 13(4) 281-289.
Discusses the latent homosexual component in student-teacher and tutor-prince relationships,
particularly when these relationships are developed during adolescence. The open initiatory homosexuality
in ancient Greece and the bond between Falstaff and Prince Hal in Shakespeare's plays both exemplify the
function of homosexual ties in transmitting culture to the adolescent. Overt homosexuality seems less
suited to this purpose than latent homosexuality. (16 ref) (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1983 American
Ernest, R.-C. (1985). “Corporate cultures and effective planning.” Personnel-Administrator; 1985 Mar Vol
30(3) 49-60.
Discusses the need to assess corporate culture (CC) in effective organizational planning (OP), and
introduces an organizational culture grid (CG) as an aid to defining CC. Based on previous research, 5
orientations are found to be critical in defining CC: marketing, employee, problem-solving, innovation, and
service-quality. Interrelationships among these 5 orientations can be summarized by using the CG. Based
on the "action" and "people" dimensions of this CG, 4 major CC types emerge: interactive cultures--
oriented to employees' and customers' needs and concerns; integrated cultures--having a strong people
orientation combined with effective identification of problems and opportunities; systematized cultures--in
which work is highly routinized; and entrepreneurial cultures--oriented toward rapid development of new
products and services. The CG provides a framework for successful OP. (PsycLIT Database Copyright
Fasick, F.-A. (1984). “Parents, peers, youth culture and autonomy in adolescence.” Adolescence; 1984 Spr
Vol 19(73) 143-157.
Proposes that the expansion of the high school system with its emphasis on continued dependence
in adolescence and the rise of the market economy with its emphasis on economic independence of young
adults creates potential discontinuity in the socialization of adolescents. The claim of T. Parsons (1951) and
W. V. Burlingame (1970) that adolescents cope by transferring their allegiance from parents and some
parental values to peers and the associated youth culture as a transitional phase in achieving full
independence is examined and an alternative scheme is proposed. This posits that adolescents remain
committed to the adult-related values of parents and maintain warm emotional ties with them. Close
relationships with peers represent an extension of emotional bonds rather than transference. Peer
relationships and the youth culture that make up their cultural content provide an independent social life
focusing on leisure activities that co-exists with continued commitment to parents and their adult-related
values. It is concluded that youth culture in this form is most characteristic of the middle class. (45 ref)
Fellous, M. (1975). “(The mother-child relationship in the traditional Bambara (Mali) environment.).”
Revue-de-Medecine-Psychosomatique-et-de-Psychologie-Medicale; 1975 Vol 17(2) 121-131.
Discusses how the mother's image, family roles, and group norms influence the relationship
between mother and child in Bambara society. Motherhood is seen as the desirable role for women, and
Bambara mothers are charged with creating a liaison between their children, husbands, and society. The
father's role is to provide authority, while the mother is responsible for the affective and moral aspects of
her children's upbringing. A close bond is established between mother and child after birth; close physical
contact is maintained, and the baby is fed on demand. However, mothers are criticized for becoming too
attached to their infants, and the fondling of the baby is shared by other women in the group. The security
and confidence produced by this constant attention abates when the child is weaned. Regression often
occurs, and children turn to each other for the maternal fondling they miss. The severance of the intimate
mother-child bond represents the child's entry into society; the teaching of sex roles and societal values
then begins. The relationship between mother and child thus becomes the first step in the sociocultural
learning of the infant. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1977 American Psychological Assn, all rights
reserved)
Fiske, A.-P. (1990). “Relativity within Moose ("Mossi") culture: Four incommensurable models for social
relationships.” Ethos; 1990 Jun Vol 18(2) 180-204.
Proposes that 4 normative models used by the Moose culture of Burkina Faso to generate and
evaluate their social relations are similar to models used in all cultures. The models (communal sharing,
authority ranking, equality matching, and market pricing) are illustrated with an example of the division
that occurs when a Moose group receives a gift or distributes the meat of sacrificial animals. The logical
coherence of the Moose culture and the functional integration of the society are limited by the multiplicity
and the disparity in the forms of the underlying models. While individual cultures vary in their applications
of the models to roles and situations, the basic form of the models may be universal. (PsycLIT Database
Gilbert, J. (1985). “Mass culture and the fear of delinquency: The 1950s.” Journal-of-Early-Adolescence;
1985 Win Vol 5(4) 505-516.
Discusses the origins and impact of the view that mass culture and media (e.g., crime and horror
comic books) were responsible for increasing levels of juvenile delinquency in the late 1940's and 1950's.
The author emphasizes the critique of mass media made by F. Wertham (1948), a forensic psychologist,
and the assumptions on which his argument was based (e.g., the inaccurate assumption of a huge increase
in delinquency since the beginning of World War II and the focus placed on delinquency by government
and private agencies). Survey data that refute such arguments are presented. It is argued that the mass
media/delinquency relationship was the result of many parents' outrage about the blurring of the boundaries
between family life and the increasingly commercialized youth market. (21 ref) (PsycLIT Database
Gordon, G.-G. (1991). “Industry determinants of organizational culture.” Academy-of-Management-

Review; 1991 Apr Vol 16(2) 396-415.
Argues that organizational or corporate culture is influenced by the characteristics of the industry
in which the company operates. Companies within an industry share cultural elements that are required for
survival. Three classes of industry variables are identified that have the potential for creating industry-
driven cultural elements: competitive environment, customer requirements, and societal expectations.
Implications of the industry influences on the potential for culture change are discussed. If cultural change
is to occur, it will occur more readily at the level of values than at the level of assumptions, and more
readily in directions that are compatible with the changes in the industry environment than in directions that
are against them. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1992 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
Gorney, R. (1985). “Cultural ends and means to world peace. Symposium of the Annual Meeting of the
American Psychiatric Association: World peace and social psychiatry (1984, Los Angeles, California).”
American-Journal-of-Social-Psychiatry; 1985 Spr Vol 5(2) 54-55.
Findings from 2 studies support the hypotheses (1) that levels of aggression and psychological
distress are in part determined directly by societal levels of competition and intensity of interpersonal
bonding and inversely by the level of social synergy; and (2) that levels of aggressive mood and hurtful
behavior of adult males are, in part, determined directly by the level of hurtful content and inversely by the
level of helpful content in the TV drama they view. Implications for efforts to promote world peace are
discussed. (6 ref) (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1986 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
Graves, T. D. (1974). “Urban Indian personality and the "culture of poverty.".” American Ethnologist 1(1):
65-86.
Attempted to obtain empirical evidence for the "culture of poverty" thesis by studying time
perspective, achievement motivation, and locus of control in 259 male Navajo urban migrants. Results
show that the acquisition of middle-class personality without access to middle-class goals creates problems
for lower-class groups and that these 3 psychological traits appeared to serve migrants as a means of
evaluating economic failures. (46 ref) ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Grieve, K. W. (1991). “Traditional beliefs and colour perception.” Perceptual and Motor Skills 72(3, Pt 2):
1319-1323.
Examined color preferences and associations held by 11 male and 15 female Black South
Africans. Black and red were the colors preferred most often. Color associations corresponded to those of
Western studies and did not appear to indicate ethnic differences based on traditional beliefs. ((c) 1997
Gudykunst, W.-B., G. Gao, et al. (1989). “A cross-cultural comparison of self-monitoring.”

Communication-Research-Reports; 1989 Jun Vol 6(1) 7-12.
Examined the goodness of fit of 3 alternative models of self-monitoring (SM) to data collected in
5 cultures (2 individualistic and 3 collectivistic cultures) and the influence of individualism-collectivism on
SM. It was predicted that the 18-item unidimensional SM scale is the best fit among the 3 and
individualistic cultures exhibit higher SM than collectivistic cultures. Data were collected from 224
university students in the US, 194 from Australia (individualistic cultures); 221 from Japan, 211 from Hong
Kong, and 192 from Taiwan (collective cultures). Results support the predictions. Data suggest, however,
that it is necessary to develop measures that are sensitive across cultures. (PsycLIT Database Copyright
Gutmann, D. (1973). “The new mythologies and premature aging in the youth culture.” Journal-of-Youth-
and-Adolescence; 1973 Jun Vol. 2(2) 139-155.
Discusses identity problems in adolescence and postadolescence. Comparative studies of aging
men in preliterate traditional societies suggest that older men, across cultures, are relatively mild and
uncompetitive, as compared to younger men from the same communities. Older men are more interested in
receiving than in producing, more interested in communion than in agency; their sense of pleasure and
security is based on food, religion, and the assurance of love. The counterculture gives priority to the same
themes, and thereby seems to sponsor a premature psychological senescence. Various contemporary myths
stemming from affluence and consumerism that have led to the new geriatrics are examined, particularly
the myth of the all-including, omnipotential self which is seen as a translation of socialist, collectivist ideals
into the domain of personality. The effects of the new psychic collectivism on ego development in the
adolescent and postadolescent periods are also considered. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1974 American
Hall, E. T. (1988). The hidden dimensions of time and space in today's world. Cross cultural perspectives in
nonverbal communication. F. Poyatos. Goettingen, Federal Republic of Germany, Hogrefe & Huber
(from the introduction) the two cultural systems of space and time in the context of today's world
are for . . . [the author] factors of cultural change and development, and in the light of the problems created
for third-world countries, he discusses "an important and often overlooked factor for both industrialized
and nonindustrialized nations: the intransigence of the ubiquitous bureaucratic process" (personal
communication) / applies his ideas mainly to Spanish-Americans, Anglo-Americans, and Native Americans
of the American Southwest, and their cultural changes in the last 50 years / in the Anglos he finds an
automatic reliance on procedures, among the Spanish rather a "carefully nurtured network of human
relationships" / comments on the predictability of the stumbling blocks of time and space patterns when
New World Spanish interact with the French, Americans, and Japanese ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights
reserved)
Hite, R.-E. and J.-M. Hawes (1991). “Understanding the Japanese culture for business success.” Journal-of-
Managerial-Issues; 1991 Spr Vol 3(1) 31-45.
Examines aspects of Japanese culture that impact on the potential success of US executives
attempting to do business in that environment. The effect of foreign misunderstanding and prejudice in the
business environment is discussed. Practical suggestions to help US executives understand the Japanese
market and business practices include developing personal sensitivity and recognizing differences in
perceptions of time. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1992 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
Hofstede, G. (1983). “National cultures revisited. XI International Congress of Anthropological and

Ethnological Sciences (1983, Quebec, Canada).” Behavior-Science-Research; 1983 Win Vol 18(4) 285-
305.
Asserts that anthropology can make a holistic contribution to the study of the complex societies of
today's nations by identifying key issues relevant to both the individual and the social system on which
these nations differ in empirically verifiable ways. The author describes a research project in which data
from 32 survey questions about employee values and beliefs were analyzed for 53 countries. Four
dimensions of national culture were derived and are discussed in terms of issues relevant to psychology,
sociology, political science, and anthropology. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1987 American Psychological
Hofstede, G. (1984). “The cultural relativity of the quality of life concept.” Academy of Management
Review 9(3): 389-398.
Research data on dominant work-related values patterns in 53 countries and regions are used to
suggest how definitions of the quality of life are affected by national culture patterns. A 32-item paper-and-
pencil questionnaire was completed by matched samples of employees of subsidiaries of the same
multinational business corporation to study the relationship between nationality and mean value scores.
Factor analysis generated 4 dimensions--Power Distance, Individualism, Masculinity, and Uncertainty
Avoidance--that explained approximately 50% of the differences in mean value scores among 40 countries.
Power Distance defines the extent to which the less powerful individual in a society accepts inequality in
power and considers it normal. Individualism opposes collectivism and assumes that individuals look
primarily after their own interests and those of their immediate families. Masculine cultures use the
biological existence of the 2 sexes to define very different social roles for men and women. Uncertainty
Avoidance defines the extent to which people within a culture are concerned by situations that they
consider to be unstructured, unclear, or unpredictable, and the extent to which they avoid such situations by
adopting strict codes of behavior and a belief in absolute truths. (17 ref) (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1984
Hofstede, G. and M.-H. Bond (1984). “Hofstede's culture dimensions: An independent validation using
Rokeach's Value Survey.” Journal-of-Cross-Cultural-Psychology; 1984 Dec Vol 15(4) 417-433.
S. H. Ng et al (1982) collected data among approximately 1,000 college students in 9 Asian and
Pacific countries using a modified version of the Rokeach Value Survey. Their data were reanalyzed by the
present authors through an ecological factor and analysis that produced 5 factors: World of Peace, Equality,
Pleasure, Self-Determination, and Freedom. Six of the countries were also covered by G. Hofstede in his
(1983) extended study of work-related values among employees of a multinational corporation in 53
countries and regions. For the overlapping countries, a correlation analysis was done between the 5 factor
scores of the Ng et al reanalysis and the 4 dimension scores of Hofstede (i.e., Power Distance, Uncertainty
Avoidance, Individualism, and Masculinity). This correlation analysis revealed that each of Hofstede's
dimensions could be distinctly identified in the Ng et al data as well. Findings are an example of synergy
between different cross-cultural studies. (8 ref) (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1985 American
Hofstede, G. (1990). “A reply and comment on Joginder P. Singh: "Managerial culture and work-related
values in India.".” Organization Studies 11(1): 103-106.
Criticizes research methods by J. P. Singh (see PA, Vol 78:2883) and states that several
comparisons should only have been done for individual questions from the questionnaire. Singh's main
conclusion cannot be drawn from his analysis. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1991 American Psychological
Hofstede, G., B. Neuijen, et al. (1990). “Measuring organizational cultures: A qualitative and quantitative
study across twenty cases.” Administrative-Science-Quarterly; 1990 Jun Vol 35(2) 286-316.
Studied task, structure, and control characteristics of 20 units from 10 organizations in Denmark
and the Netherlands. 180 unit members were interviewed, and 1,295 unit members completed a
questionnaire. In contrast to the findings of T. J. Peters and R. H. Waterman (1982), shared perceptions of
daily practices were the core of each organization's culture. Measurements of employee values differed
more according to the demographic criteria of nationality, age, and education than according to
membership in the organization. The values of founders and key leaders appear to shape organizational
cultures, but the way these cultures affect ordinary members seems to be through shared practices.
Hofstede, G., M. H. Bond, et al. (1993). “Individual perceptions of organizational cultures: A

methodological treatise on levels of analysis.” Organization Studies 14(4): 483-503.
Re-analyzed data from a survey study (G. Hofstede et al; see PA, Vol 77:32178) of organizational
cultures at the individual level (after elimination of between-unit variance) in 20 organizational units in
Denmark and the Netherlands. A factor analysis showed individuals' values to be composed of 6
dimensions (personal need for achievement, need for supportive relationships, machismo, workaholism,
alienation, and authoritarianism) and individuals' perceptions of their organization's practices of another 6
dimensions (professional, distance from management, trust in colleagues, orderliness, hostility, and
integration). The scores on these new dimensions are related to various demographic characteristics of the
respondents. This case is used for a methodological treatise stressing the need to choose the proper level of
analysis for the problem at hand, a need which is too seldom recognized. (PsycLIT Database Copyright
Hudson, L.-B. (1984). “Modern material culture studies: Anthropology as archaeology. Special Issue:
Household refuse analysis--theory, method, and applications in social science.” American-Behavioral-
Scientist; 1984 Sep-Oct Vol 28(1) 31-39.
Argues that sociocultural anthropologists can use modern material culture studies to explain
cultural phenomena. Instead of sociocultural anthropologists and archaeologists separating their method
and theory, these should be integrated in order to examine how the artifact functions in the behavioral
system of a particular society. The Garbage Project started by W. L. Rathje in Tucson, Arizona, in 1973 is
the most famous example of a behavioral study that serves to analyze interviewer bias; study the impact of
the material environment on behavior; and determine what consumers buy, use, and discard. (PsycLIT
Jandt, F. E. (1998). Intercultural communication: An introduction (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA, USA,
Sage Publications, Inc.
(from the book) Using a reader-centered approach, the author covers a wide range of material and
presents a historical framework to view the development of current topics and an integration of media as a
variable in the advancement of issues and ideas. A number of illustrative material--vignettes, quotes, cases,
and stories--are used to keep the student's attention and provoke thought while challenging existing
viewpoints. /// This text is written for introductory courses in culture and communication at the sophomore
or junior level in departments of communication, business, and anthropology. ((c) 1998 APA/PsycINFO,
Kagan, J. and S. Lamb, Eds. (1987). The emergence of morality in young children. Chicago, University of
Chicago Press.
(from the jacket) Based on papers given at a MacArthur Foundation conference held at Harvard
University in 1985, the essays focus on several major controversies: Is morality innate or learned? How do
standards for moral judgment develop as children grow older? Are there universal standards that all
children acquire? /// In discussing these questions and working toward answers, the contributors draw on
findings from recent research in anthropology, philosophy, and developmental psychology. They consider
how morality may be affected by economic factors, parental behavior, cultural conventions, objective
standards for behavior, emotional development, and gender. By taking into account each other's arguments,
the contributors have made the volume a coherent, integrated introduction to a diversity of approaches. The
volume editors provide an insightful introduction that opens up not only the issues raised by the
contributors but also possibilities for future research in child development. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all
rights reserved)
Kahn, H. and C.-L. Cooper (1992). “Anxiety associated with money market dealers: Sex and cultural
differences. Special Issue: Occupational stress, psychological burnout and anxiety.” Anxiety,-Stress-and-
Coping-An-International-Journal; 1992 May Vol 5(1) 21-40.
186 male and 36 female adult dealers (currency traders) in British institutions, some of which had
been taken over by US companies, completed questionnaires regarding their free-floating (FFA) and
somatic anxiety (SA). Independent variables were demographic characteristics, coronary prone behavior,
locus of control, personality measures, sources of job stress, and stress coping mechanisms. Sources of
females' anxiety appeared job-related, while that of males was related to dealing and personality factors.
Only the stress factor taking risks and achieving high performance was a common source of anxiety for Ss
in British- and US-owned dealing rooms. FFA and SA in the 2 types of dealing rooms appeared to come
from different sources. High coronary prone behavior predicted negative outcomes only for Ss in US-
owned companies. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1993 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
Kanso, A. (1992). “International advertising strategies: Global commitment to local vision.” Journal-of-
Advertising-Research; 1992 Jan-Feb Vol 32(1) 10-14.
Examined the effects of culture on international advertising practices. 96 advertising managers of
US consumer durable manufacturers that advertised internationally were surveyed. Results indicated that
75% of the firms followed a localized approach to international advertising and 25% a standardized one,
suggesting that the standardization of advertising is declining. Two groups of managers were identified:
culturally oriented managers and nonculturally oriented managers. Nonculturally oriented managers were
more likely to use a standardized approach. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1992 American Psychological
Katz, J.-H. and F.-A. Miller (1996). “Coaching leaders through culture change.” Consulting-Psychology-
Journal-Practice-and-Research; 1996 Spr Vol 48(2) 104-114.
Coaching of senior leaders is presented as a key component in changing organizational culture,
based on the authors' more than 40 yrs of combined experience in organization development consulting and
executive coaching. To enable organizations to capitalize on the advantages offered by diversity in the
workforce and marketplace, senior leaders need a new set of competencies. To learn these new
competencies, leaders need the support of skilled coaches who can show them the need for culture change;
create a safe environment for learning; and model the skills necessary to lead a diverse, inclusive workforce
through the culture change process. Specific examples are provided to facilitate the coaching process and
the development of partnerships that will enable leaders to learn and grow. (PsycLIT Database Copyright
Kelly, J. R. (1988). Entrainment in individual and group behavior. The social psychology of time: New
perspectives. Sage focus editions, Vol. 91. J. E. McGrath. Newbury Park, CA, USA, Sage Publications,
Inc: p. 89-110.
(from the chapter) our culture tends to live by the clock / schedules / deadlines / effects of such
time pressure on our behavior / how time influences our thought and behavior /// effects of temporal
constraints on the task performance and interaction of groups and individuals /// entrainment / process by
which one internal (or endogenous) rhythmic process is captured and modified by another (endogenous or
exogenous) rhythmic process / social entrainment model / individual performance / dyadic entrainment ///
studies of external pacing events / task difficulty / goals / entrainment of interaction patterns ((c) 1997
Kettel, K. J. (1974). “(Study of adaptation with foreign probands.).” Psychologie-und-Praxis; 1974 Oct-Dec
Vol 18(4) 146-149.
Compared 48 17-57 yr old Germans with 49 19-50 yr old foreigners on the Culture-Fair Test of
Cattell and the Intelligence-Structure test of Amthauer. No difference was found between German and
foreign Ss on the Culture-Fair Test. The correlation between the Culture-Fair Test and the Intelligence-
Structure Test was greater among foreign than German Ss. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1977 American
Kim, K.-C., S. Kim, et al. (1991). “Filial piety and intergenerational relationship in Korean immigrant
families.” International-Journal-of-Aging-and-Human-Development; 1991 Vol 33(3) 233-245.
Examines life conditions of Korean immigrant elderly people, focusing on their relationship with
married children and spouses in light of the Asian traditional norm of filial piety (FP). The changing nature
of socio-economic conditions for Korean immigrants, which strain their intergenerational relationships in
the US, are examined. As the family-kinship system of Korean immigrants changes toward the conjugal
family, it is contended that their traditional expectation of FP should be modified. The problems in
fulfilling the traditional expectation of FP and the nature of the modified expectation of FP are discussed.
The modified version of FP maintains that married children and spouses are obligated to physically care for
and provide social-psychological comfort to their parents, recognizing the dominance of the marital bond of
the children over the parent-child relationship. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1992 American Psychological
Kitchell, S. (1995). “Corporate culture, environmental adaptation, and innovation adoption: A

qualitative/quantitative approach.” Journal-of-the-Academy-of-Marketing-Science; 1995 Sum Vol 23(3)
195-205.
Examines the linkage between corporate culture and innovation adoption as identified by R.
Deshpande and F. E. Webster (see PA, Vol 76:20939). The linear regression model, which depicts the
corporate culture of adaptive companies attempting to survive in a competitive international environment,
demonstrates that corporate culture predicts technology adoption. Qualitative data collected through in-
depth interviews with 110 firms in the machinery and metal works industry supplement quantitative results.
Innovators invested in technology and product development, increased market span, and engaged in self-
betterment and risk taking in response to intensifying competition. Noninnovators, on the other hand, took
a more pessimistic view of environmental challenge. Perceiving competition to be unfair and innovative
efforts largely futile, they opted for a maintenance mode of operation, or hoped to survive by merging with
stronger companies. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1996 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
Kuh, G.-D. and J.-C. Arnold (1993). “Liquid bonding: A cultural analysis of the role of alcohol in fraternity
pledgeship.” Journal-of-College-Student-Development; 1993 Sep Vol 34(5) 327-334.
Investigated the role of fraternity culture in shaping alcohol use of new members. Data were
collected between June 1991-September 1992 from 2 fraternities at a large state-supported research
university and a small private, liberal arts college. 74 people were interviewed, 66 of whom were fraternity
members. Observations included a formal tour of each house, attendance at 7 formal events, and analysis of
institutional documents (e.g., grade-point averages and fraternity materials). At both campuses, alcohol was
featured at many social events to the degree that exhausting the alcohol supply signalled the end of most
social events. It is noted that as institutions and national fraternity officers emphasize the importance of dry
pledgeship, they inadvertently inflate the influence of alcohol in the socialization of newcomers. Four
recommendations for change are offered. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1994 American Psychological
Kumar, S. (1996). “Towards evolving an Indian style of management based on Indian values and work
ideals.” Abhigyan: 25-34.
Discusses a need for an Indian ethos in work and management, and describes the role of life skills
in professional development. Based on how Indians manage their affairs at home and how common Indians
still organize themselves for effective results, the author discusses a management model, referred to as
Vivek management ([VM] i.e., managing through wisdom for long term good, win-win basis), that blends
the best of management techniques of the west with the age old universal wisdom. Within the existing
organizational systems itself, VM can provide the opportunity to employees to feel the "ownership" of their
unit of work by which they are empowered to take total responsibility for results and for giving customer
satisfaction. ((c) 1998 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Langer, J. (1977). “Drug entrepreneurs and dealing culture.” Social-Problems; 1977 Feb Vol 24(3) 377-
386.
Using the concept of a dealing culture, this paper describes the skills and ideology of middle-level
marihuana and hashish dealers in Melbourne, Australia. This analysis, together with a summary of early
research on the marketing of psychedelics, refutes the "pusher" stereotype of the drug dealer. The paper
suggests that dealing in psychedelics has moved from a hang-loose ethic linked with the values of the
counterculture to a specific attitude which sanctions the accumulation of profit for services rendered. It is
noted, however, that although dealers have an expressed desire to make a profit from their entrepreneurial
activities, they rarely do so. Possible reasons for the unprofitability of drug dealing are discussed. (21 ref)
Langfeldt-Nagel, M. (1982). “Untersuchungen zur Konstruktvaliditat der Grundintelligenztests (CFT) von

Cattell und Weiss. (Studies of the construct validity of the basic intelligence test (CFT) of Cattell and
Weiss.).” Diagnostica; 1982 Vol 28(1) 65-79.
Following R. B. Cattell's (see PA, Vol 38:6877) theory of fluid and crystallized intelligence, the
present study analyzed the construct validity of the Culture Fair Intelligence Test (CFT) 2 and 3 as tests for
fluid intelligence. CFTs and the PSB (as tests to measure crystallized intelligence) were administered to 4th
graders and were readministered 8 yrs later. In this period, the stability of the CFT was low. Results of
crossed-lagged panel analyses did not support the CFT causative of the PSB tests. Only 1 test of the PSB
(Spelling) was more influenced by school environment than the CFT. Results indicate no reference to the
construct validity of the CFTs. (English abstract) (24 ref) (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1982 American
LaRusso, A.-C. (1985). “Why managers need exposure to organization development.” Organization-
Development-Journal; 1985 Fal Vol 3(3) 31-33.
Explores the role of organization development (OD) in adapting to the turbulent, sometimes
hostile business environment that has emerged as a result of socioeconomic trends and the emergence of
global markets. Implications of OD for union-management relations, communication, and corporate culture
are noted. It is argued that an understanding of OD techniques is necessary for managers to improve the
performance of their organization by helping them carry out routine functions and preparing them to
recognize the situations in which expert help is needed. (8 ref) (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1986
Laws, G. (1996). “"A shot of economic adrenalin": Reconstructing "the elderly" in the retiree-based
economic development literature.” Journal-of-Aging-Studies; 1996 Fal Vol 10(3) 171-188.
Considers the reconstruction of elderly identities in the retiree-based economic development
literature from academic and popular sources. Drawing from poststructuralist theories of representation and
the body, Laws asks how elderly bodies are represented and what they are used to represent in this
literature. Identities are shown to be both embodied and emplaced, and the politics surrounding identity
formation is shown to be spatialized. The transformations in elderly identities are situated in a transition
between modernity and postmodernity. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1997 American Psychological Assn,
Levine, R. V. (1988). The pace of life across cultures. The social psychology of time: New perspectives.
Sage focus editions, Vol. 91. J. E. McGrath. Newbury Park, CA, USA, Sage Publications, Inc: p. 39-60.
(from the chapter) focus on cross-cultural differences in the pace of life and their implications for
well-being /// reviews the major research findings on the pace of life with an emphasis on urban-rural
differences and cross-cultural differences /// reviews our own studies on punctuality and the pace of life
around the world /// examines the relationship of pace to psychological and physical well-being /// Brazil /
United States / Taiwan / Japan / Indonesia / Italy / England ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Li, P.-S. (1994). “A world apart: The multicultural world of visible minorities and the art world of
Canada.” Canadian-Review-of-Sociology-and-Anthropology; 1994 Nov Vol 31(4) 365-391.
Argues that Canada's policy toward the arts has produced 2 unequal art worlds, the 1st a formal,
legitimized, and high-status art world of White Canadians, and the 2nd a marginal, folkloric, and low-status
multicultural circle reserved for recent immigrants of mainly nonWhite origin. These art worlds are
distinguishable by their social organization, rules of operation, standards of evaluation, source of patronage,
and forum of communication. Their products differ in form and content and carry unequal aesthetic and
market value. The government's patronizing attitude toward minorities' art and culture and the
institutionalization of these 2 separate art worlds stifle the artistic creativity and aesthetic development of
visible minorities. Canada's art and multicultural policies reflect and reinforce a cultural hegemony that
upholds the dominance of Occidental values and culture. (French abstract) (PsycLIT Database Copyright
Lindstrom, F.-B. and N. Lindstrom (1986). “Adorno encounters Cu-bop: Experimental music as a task for
critics and their audiences.” Sociological-Perspectives; 1986 Apr Vol 29(2) 284-304.
Describes the entry of Cu-bop on the American music scene in the early 1940's and investigates
and portrays real world examples of T. H. Adorno's (1962 (1976)) categories of listeners (resentment
listeners, culture consumers, good listeners, and expert listeners) in relation to this area of music. (PsycLIT
Linstead, S. and R. Grafton-Small (1992). “On reading organizational culture.” Organization-Studies; 1992
Vol 13(3) 331-355.
Argues for the necessity of a movement from the dominant approach to organizational culture,
which seeks to produce a "reading" of the culture, to a postmodern view that seeks to appreciate the
organization as an interweaving of a variety of "texts" and textual features. This view stresses the
importance of (1) approaching culture as a discursive complex, (2) appreciating the importance of the other
in supplementarity, and (3) appreciating the seductive processes of the formulation of culture and image as
simulacra. It also stresses pursuing a detailed articulation and analysis of everyday practices to explore the
marginal creativity of culture "consumers" in particular socioeconomic and historical contexts. (PsycLIT
Mackey, W.-C. (1986). “A facet of the man-child bond: A teeter-totter effect.” Ethology-and-Sociobiology;
1986 Vol 7(2) 117-134.
Presents evidence from naturalistic observation in 18 cultures for the candidacy of the adult male-
child bond as a species-characteristic behavior. The evidence includes (1) catholicity of trait, (2)
arbitrariness of trait, (3) adequate number of observations to allow intracultural norms to emerge, (4)
substantial incidence of the trait's occurrence, and (5) accurate predictability of facets of the trait. If the
candidacy is successful, then the adult male-child bond is hypothesized to be a generalized or thematic
behavior pattern that is canalized and biased by (autogenetic and active) processes within the motivation
systems--the nervous system and the endocrine system. These systems, in turn, are under partial control of
the genetic constellations that are characteristic of the species Homo sapiens. (PsycLIT Database Copyright
Mackey, W.-C. and R.-D. Day (1995). “A test of the man-child bond: The predictive potency of the teeter-
totter effect.” Genetic,-Social,-and-General-Psychology-Monographs; 1995 Nov Vol 121(4) 425-444.
Explored whether a man-to-child bond exists as part of the human biogram. Part of the evidence
needed to corroborate the existence of such a bond would include successful prediction about facets of the
putative bond. Based on a core sample of 19 cultures, with over 32,000 adult-child dyads surveyed,
predictions were made concerning proxemic behaviors by men toward their children in 4 additional
cultures involving 1,700 children: London (UK), Paris (France), and communities in Austria and Kenya.
Most of the predictions were accurate, supporting the hypothesis that the man-to-child relationship is under
some genetic control, mediated by the neurohormonal (motivation) systems. (PsycLIT Database Copyright
Mahan, J.-M. and W.-E. Lacefield (1982). “Employability and multi-cultural teacher preparation.”
Educational-Research-Quarterly; 1982 Spr Vol 7(1) 15-20.
Compared 655 graduating college students who participated in a traditional teacher preparation
program with 78 Anglo students who participated in special culturally oriented programs. Findings indicate
that a need exists for multiculturally trained teachers and that such graduates are highly successful in the
job market. These Ss sought employment where their training and experience could be well utilized and
further developed. (7 ref) (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1983 American Psychological Assn, all rights
reserved)
Manrai, L.-A. and A.-K. Manrai (1995). “Effects of cultural-context, gender, and acculturation on
perceptions of work versus social/leisure time usage. Special Section: Marketing strategies and the
development process.” Journal-of-Business-Research; 1995 Feb Vol 32(2) 115-128.
Hypothesized that time usage patterns for work vs social/leisure activities differ across individuals
originating from low-context cultures (LCCs) of Western Europe and individuals originating from high-
context cultures (HCCs) of Asia, Japan, the Middle East, and South America. 263 foreign students in the
US were surveyed about a typical 24-hr day, the extent of acculturation, and demographics. 79 US
undergraduates served as control Ss. Perceptions of work time were higher in HHCs, and perceptions of
social/leisure time were higher in LCCs. Effects of cultural-context were more dominant for men than for
women. Findings also indicate that differences get narrowed with high acculturation in US culture. The
theoretical rationale for these hypotheses is developed by integrating concepts of time activity, time
priority, and time setting in a summary conceptual model. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1995 American
Marks, M.-L. (1991). “Consultations for facilitating international mergers and acquisitions.” Organization-
Development-Journal; 1991 Sum Vol 9(2) 17-24.
Examines the human resources and cultural dynamics in 3 cases of mergers of Japanese and North
American firms. Interventions to minimize unintended human reactions and postmerger culture clash are
reported, and learnings for subsequent cases of international mergers are derived. Case 1 reports a
preliminary intervention, concurrent with the announcement by a Japanese conglomerate of its intention to
acquire a Canadian low-technology manufacturer. Case 2 discusses a primary intervention in the "true
merger" of a Japanese and a US consumer products company. Case 3 reports a secondary intervention in
the acquisition of a US bank by a Japanese financial services institution. (PsycLIT Database Copyright
McCracken, G. (1986). “Culture and consumption: A theoretical account of the structure and movement of
the cultural meaning of consumer goods.” Journal-of-Consumer-Research; 1986 Jun Vol 13(1) 71-84.
Argues that cultural meaning in a consumer society moves ceaselessly from one location to
another. In the usual trajectory, cultural meaning moves first from the culturally constituted world to
consumer goods and then from these goods to the individual consumer. Several instruments are responsible
for this movement: advertising, the fashion system, and 4 consumption rituals (exchange, possession,
grooming, divestment). The movement of cultural meaning is analyzed theoretically, showing both where
cultural meaning is resident in the contemporary North American consumer system and the means by
which this meaning is transferred from one location in this system to another. (122 ref) (PsycLIT Database
McCracken, G. (1990). “Culture and consumer behaviour: An anthropological perspective.” Journal-of-the-

Market-Research-Society; 1990 Jan Vol 32(1) 3-11.
Examines the relationship between culture and consumer behavior and describes how cultural
meanings behave in the world of goods. Discussion focuses on (1) culture as the source of strategies used
by the marketing system and (2) the "meaning transfer" model. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1990
Meade, R. D. (1972). “Future time perspectives of Americans and subcultures in India.” Journal of Cross
Cultural Psychology 3(1): 93-99.
Describes a study based on analysis of themes used in writing, comparing 50 American male
college students with 50 male college students from each of 7 Indian subcultures. Earlier studies using
projective tests showed that Americans wrote significantly more stories with future themes than did a
comparable Indian sample. To explore this finding further, Ss were asked to develop a story from 4 present
tense sentences with 4 themes. Kshatriyas, Sikhs, and Parsees, as well as Americans, tended to write stories
with future themes; Brahmins, Vasiyas, Sudras, and Muslims wrote stories with past themes. The former
groups had higher needs for achievement than the latter groups. It is suggested that measures of time
perspective can profitably be used for assessing strength of motivation. (18 ref.) ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO,
Merrill, E.-B. (1987). “Learning how to mother: An ethnographic investigation of an urban breastfeeding
group.” Anthropology-and-Education-Quarterly; 1987 Sep Vol 18(3) 222-240.
Conducted a study of an urban La Leche League support group consisting of 12-18 breastfeeding
mothers (aged 20-35 yrs). The study followed a method of ethnography that describes the group as a small,
whole cultural system. The result is an emic structural-functional analysis of the group culture as it is
enacted in group members' behavior. It is concluded that this group has 10 concepts, shared as a basic
philosophy by its members. Group members are transmitting a style of natural mothering based on
complete breastfeeding by relying on intragenerational modeling. The group demonstrates how some
mothers are adapting to the effects of rapid social change, particularly on the mother-infant bond. (PsycLIT

4(2) 147-158.
Moorman, C. (1995). “Organizational market information processes: Cultural antecedents and new product
outcomes.” Journal-of-Marketing-Research; 1995 Aug Vol 32(3) 318-335.
Argues that a firm's emphasis of organizational market information processes is determined, in
part, by the congruence among its cultural norms and values, and that the presence of these organizational
information processes affects new product outcomes. A survey of 92 vice presidents shows that clans
dominate the other cultures in predicting organizational market information processes, suggesting that
information processes are people processes that involve commitment and trust among organizational
members. Implications for balancing internal and external orientations within firms are discussed.
Information utilization processes, especially conceptual ones, are strong predictors of new product
performance, timeliness, and creativity, indicating that competitive advantage is tied to information
utilization activities in firms. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1996 American Psychological Assn, all rights
reserved)
Morris, M.-H., R.-A. Avila, et al. (1993). “Individualism and the modern corporation: Implications for
innovation and entrepreneurship.” Journal-of-Management; 1993 Fal Vol 19(3) 595-612.
Explored the extent to which entrepreneurship in established firms is the result of a more
individualistic vs collectivistic culture. Hypotheses proposed that a curvilinear relationship exists between
individualism-collectivism and corporate entrepreneurship. 252 marketing managers, human resource
heads, and heads of production departments completed and returned questionnaires. Ss were from 84
industrial firms. Results support the hypotheses, such that entrepreneurship is highest under conditions of
balanced individualism-collectivism and declines in highly individualistic and more collectivistic
environments. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1994 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
Mouele, M. (1997). “L'apprentissage des odeurs chez les Waanzi: Note de recherche. / The learning of
odors by Ba-wanzi children: Research note.” Enfance No 1: 209-222.
Discusses how the olfactory environment is learned by Ba-wanzi children in southeastern Gabon.
Olfactory aspects of the rituals and proscriptions concerning childbirth, breast-feeding, boys' initiation, and
girls' 1st menstruation and the social activities of this Bantu tribe are described. The extensive odor lexicon
is reviewed, and restrictions on its use are examined. (English abstract) ((c) 1998 APA/PsycINFO, all rights
reserved)
Murray, D. W. (1993). “What is the Western concept of the self? On forgetting David Hume.” Ethos; 1993
Mar Vol 21(1) 3-23.
Posits that the Western conception of the self is a complex and contested tradition of thought. The
author asserts that throughout Western religions and philosophical and literary expressions, there seems to
be a dialectical relationship between contrastive themes of selfhood that could be characterized as
essentialist and nominalist or as transcendent and contingent. The work of David Hume (1758 (1975)) is
said to show a theory of self-experience that fails to conform to expectations of a continuous, bonded, and
perduring self and that anticipates theoretical awareness found in the work of K. Ewing (see PA, Vol
79:27043). (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1993 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
Nakata, C. and K. Sivakumar (1996). “National culture and new product development: An integrative
review.” Journal-of-Marketing; 1996 Jan Vol 60(1) 61-72.
Examines the possible link between national culture and new product development using literature
from marketing, economics, research and development management, organizational behavior, international
business, and new product management. Five dimensions of national culture are presented: individualism,
power distance, masculinity, uncertainty avoidance, and the Confucian dynamic. High and low degrees or
levels of each dimension and how it effects initiation and implementation stages of product development
are discussed. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1996 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
Nenty, H. J. and T.-E. Dinero (1981). “A cross-cultural analysis of the fairness of the Cattell Culture Fair
Intelligence Test using the Rasch model.” Applied-Psychological-Measurement; 1981 Sum Vol 5(3) 355-
368.
Used G. Rasch's (1960) model to identify items in the Culture Fair Intelligence Test that did not
conform to this model using 803 Nigerian high school students and 600 American high schoolers. Although
all items conformed to the Rasch model for both groups, 13 of the 46 items had significant between score
group fit in either the American or the Nigerian sample, or both. It is suggested that the replicability of
these findings be tested. (39 ref) (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1981 American Psychological Assn, all
rights reserved)
Nenty, H. J. (1986). “Cross-culture bias analysis of Cattell Culture-Fair Intelligence Test.” Perspectives-in-
Psychological-Researches; 1986 Apr Vol 9(1) 1-16.
Administered the Cattell Culture Fair Intelligence Test (CCFIT) to 600 Americans, 231 Indians,
and 803 Nigerians to assess the cross-cultural validity of the test. The CCFIT was designed by R. B. Cattell
(1971) to measure, for every culture, a single 2nd-order intelligence factor-fluid intelligence. Scale 2, Form
A of the CCFIT was used for the study. Results of the study indicate that 27 of the 46 items of the CCFIT
are biased culturally, and that, as a result, the CCFIT may not have universal validity as a measure of fluid
intelligence. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1988 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
Ngole, J.-P. (1986). “Social relations and group identity among women fishsellers in the Congo. Special
Issue: Women and folklore.” Women's-Studies-International-Forum; 1986 Vol 9(3) 287-293.
Assesses social relations and group identity embedded in the folklore of Congolese women
fishsellers and focuses on cultural values and social practices that constitute the backbone of the fishsellers'
identity and solidarity. The Congolese culture in general, and the pattern of social interaction among buyers
and sellers in particular, are discussed in relation to the concept of primary community. (PsycLIT Database
Nieburg, H. L. (1981). “Theory-tales and paradigms.” Journal-of-Mind-and-Behavior; 1981 Sum Vol 2(2)
179-193.
Argues that dramatic forms are universal in all art and experience. They provide structures that
embed emotional bonds in the symbolic repertoire of a culture, internalizing them in the psyches of
individuals, endowing language and acts with meaning, and transforming symbolic artifacts into living
presences. Collective dramas provide political and social bonds, aggregates, and purposes. It is suggested
that greater attention be paid to the emotional nature of humankind and to the process of storytelling and
dramatic necessity that shape the unities of culture. The ambiguities of dream imagery, the dynamics of wit
and cunning, and the baffling utterances of psychotics are analyzed to discover clues to the structure of
society and the normal psyche. (15 ref) (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1982 American Psychological Assn,
Nurmi, J. E. (1991). “How do adolescents see their future? A review of the development of future
orientation and planning.” Developmental Review 11(1): 1-59.
Reviews research on how adolescents see their future with reference to the 3 basic processes
involved in orientation to the future: motivation, planning, and evaluation. Results suggest that adolescents'
goals and interests concern the major developmental tasks of late adolescence and early adulthood,
reflecting anticipated life-span development. Age, sex, socioeconomic status (SES), and cultural
differences are examined in relation to the content and temporal extension of future orientation. The levels
of planning and internality concerning the future increase with age. Family context also influences
adolescents' future-oriented interests, plans, causal attributions, and affects. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all
rights reserved)
Page, J.-M. (1993). “Ethnic identity in deaf Hispanics of New Mexico.” Sign-Language-Studies; 1993 Fal
No 80 185-222.
Explored whether deaf Hispanics (2 men and 3 women, aged 24-68 yrs) identified more strongly
with their Hispanic heritage or with American deaf culture, using in-depth interviews based on
ethnographic philosophies, framed elicitations, and questionnaires. Grounded theory procedures and
techniques (A. Strauss and J. Corbin, 1990) were used to analyze the data. According to objective
definitions, deaf Hispanics may be considered both Hispanic and deaf. According to subjective definitions,
they may be neither. According to Ss' own perceptions of identity, however, they are both, with a stronger
bond to the deaf ethnic group. Four Ss related a stronger identification with deaf culture than with Hispanic
culture. The S who identified more with Hispanic culture identified strongly with deaf culture as well.
Pam, A. (1994). “The new schizophrenia: Diagnosis and dynamics of the homeless mentally ill.” Journal-
of-Mind-and-Behavior; 1994 Sum Vol 15(3) 199-221.
Argues that while professionals traditionally have viewed schizophrenics as most apt to come
from an enmeshed, dysfunctional, and seclusive family system, there may be a new pattern of
schizophrenia that is precipitated by fragmentation of family bonds rather than enmeshment. This pattern
tends to arise in the context of a "no parent family," into which 10% of American children are now born,
with the patient gravitating over time toward inconsolable object-seeking and homelessness.
Psychopathology can be related to culture such that the type and extent of symptoms reveal much about
problems in the culture. Thus, changes in the American family have led to changes in the presentation of
schizophrenia. It is suggested that this new form of schizophrenia be a distinct nosological category called
anomic turmoil. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1995 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
Papajohn, J. (1979). “Intergenerational value orientation and psychopathology in Greek-American

families.” International-Journal-of-Family-Therapy; 1979 Sum Vol 1(2) 107-132.
Examined the effect of culture change on the mental health of Greek-American families living in
the Boston area through the use of value orientation theory (F. R. Kluckhohn and F. L. Strodtbeck, 1961).
A comparison was made between a sample of 34 families with a 2nd generation schizophrenic member and
a matched group of 17 families without a history of manifest psychopathology. A detailed statistical
analysis of the data obtained through the use of the Value Orientation Schedule is provided. Among the
results it was found that parents in the patient families were more likely to have adhered closely to
traditional Greek value orientations, even after 40 yrs in the US. (11 ref) (PsycLIT Database Copyright
Perlaki, I. (1994). “Organizational development in Eastern Europe: Learning to build culture-specific OD

theories.” Journal-of-Applied-Behavioral-Science; 1994 Sep Vol 30(3) 297-312.
Discusses organizational development (OD) values and national culture in Eastern Europe (EE)
and examines differences in these variables between EE countries and the US using G. Hofstede's (1980) 4
dimensions of national culture (power distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism, and masculinity).
The role of social development in prerevolutionary EE counties is also described. Barriers to successful OD
applications in EE countries include fundamental incongruence between prerevolutionary EE culture and
OD values. Positive effects of social development plans in EE countries include increased managerial
awareness about areas such as quality of work life, work satisfaction, and goals and needs of individual
employees. Strategies for successful OD application in EE include choosing OD interventions that are
compatible with EE culture, choosing EE organizations that are compatible with OD values, and building a
culture-specific OD theory. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1995 American Psychological Assn, all rights
reserved)
Ponce, D.-E. (1984). “Value orientation: Clinical applications in a multi-cultural residential treatment
center for children and youth.” Residential-Group-Care-and-Treatment; 1984 Sum Vol 2(4) 71-83.
Discusses the need by clinicians in the human services field for a conceptual model of culture that
is complementary to, and can be easily integrated with, other clinical constructs and approaches. The author
presents such a model currently being used in a psychiatric residential treatment center servicing Hawaii's
multicultural population of children, youth, and their families. This value orientations model was adapted
for clinical use from the anthropological works of F. Kluckhohn and C. Strodtbeck (1961). (10 ref)
Punnett, B. J., J. B. Singh, et al. (1994). “The relative influence of economic development and Anglo
heritage on expressed values: Empirical evidence from a Caribbean country.” International Journal of
Intercultural Relations 18(1): 99-115.
Compared the economic development approach (a relationship between economic development
and expressed values, particularly individualism/collectivism) and the Anglo heritage approach (a link
between cultural heritage and expressed individual values). The focus was on 4 cultural values
(individualism, uncertainty avoidance, power distance, masculinity) measured by the Value Survey Module
developed by G. Hofstede (1980). The measure was administered to 180 graduating high school students in
Trinidad and Tobago. Results indicate a low level of individualism, supporting the economic development
approach, and a positive relationship between economic development and level of individualism. A profile
of the present group of Ss was compared with that provided by Hofstede; Ss were culturally similar to those
surveyed in other Anglo countries, except in terms of individualism. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1994
Punnett, B.-J., J. B. Singh, et al. (1994). “The relative influence of economic development and Anglo
heritage on expressed values: Empirical evidence from a Caribbean country.” International-Journal-of-
Intercultural-Relations; 1994 Win Vol 18(1) 99-115.
Rathje, W.-L. (1984). “"Where's the beef?" Red meat and reactivity. Special Issue: Household refuse
analysis--theory, method, and applications in social science.” American-Behavioral-Scientist; 1984 Sep-
Oct Vol 28(1) 71-91.
Describes the collection of the Food Loss Project database at the University of Arizona, which
was designed to record food "use" and "loss" in 63 households with an independent measure--analysis of
household refuse. Consumption of red meat and milk was studied. It was found that household records of
milk use and refuse records of milk use were highly similar but that reports of red meat use and refuse
records of red meat use were highly different; Ss reported a much higher use of red meat than refuse
records indicated. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1985 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
Raveau, F. H., E. Elster, et al. (1976). “Immigration and differential acculturation.” International-Review-
of-Applied-Psychology; 1976 Dec Vol 25(3) 145-165.
Studied 824 French students, immigrants from 21 African countries. Tests administered were
Raven Progressive Matrices, the Cattell Culture Fair Intelligence Test, the Bell Adjustment Inventory, and
the 16 PF. The roles of the native culture, educational level, and categories of professional activity were
compared with assessments of the quality of the immigrant's stay. A correlational analysis identified
relationships between psychological and cultural factors. (16 ref) (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1979
Ray, J.-W. (1995). “From the empty self to the communal self: Reactions to the journey. Special Issue: The
politics of psychotherapy: A symposium on Philip Cushman's Constructing the Self, Constructing
America.” Psychohistory-Review; 1995 Fal Vol 24(1) 43-51.
Comments on P. Cushman's Constructing the self, Constructing America which provides an
interpretive history of the development of the American self as the result of an intertwining of history and
psychoanalytic theory. Several aspects of this work merit attention. Cushing gives recognition to horizons
of understanding as powerful influences in the psychotherapeutic process, in which individuals are viewed
as both the constructors and the constructed. His views about the role played by minstrelsy in the
construction of the middle-class White self are also noteworthy, although he fails to extend this analysis to
African and Native American selves. However, his interpretation of 12-step programs as reinforcers of the
consumer metaphor of the addict, are disappointing. A salient point made by Cushing, is his suggestion that
psychotherapists function as moral and political bridges, who provide support beyond the clinical hour.
Rhee, E., J. S. Uleman, et al. (1996). “Variations in collectivism and individualism by ingroup and culture:
Confirmatory factor analysis.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology: Social-Psychology.
Five models of collectivism and individualism, which varied by ingroup and measurement
specification, were tested with confirmatory factor analyses. The sample consisted of 493 college students
from South Korea and the United States, with U.S. students divided between Asian Americans and
European Americans. Results indicated that collectivism and individualism are best represented by a 4-
factor model with the latent variables Kin Collectivism (KC), Kin Individualism (KI), Nonkin Collectivism
(NC), and Nonkin Individualism (NI). KC and Kl were strongly inversely related, but NC and Nl were only
moderately so. Whereas KC and NC were moderately related within each of the 3 student groups, Kl and
Nl were moderately related only among Koreans and Asian Americans, and not among European
Americans. Thus, the meanings of collectivism and individualism vary with ingroup and culture.
Measurement, methodological, and conceptual implications are discussed. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all
rights reserved)(journal abstract)
Rodenhauser, P. (1994). “Cultural barriers to mental health care delivery in Alaska.” Journal-of-Mental-
Health-Administration; 1994 Win Vol 21(1) 60-70.
Describes cultural barriers to the delivery of mental health care in Alaska inherent in the mental
health care delivery system as well as those attributable to the American Indian and Alaska Native cultures.
American Indians and Alaska Natives are experiencing deculturation, outmigration, alienation, distrust, and
despair. The difficulties at the interface between Alaskan mental health care providers and consumers
indigenous to Alaska have implications for administrative and clinical endeavors in culturally diverse
settings elsewhere. Progress in this area will require special administrative skills. (PsycLIT Database
Rosen, J. (1982). “The child model: A modern delusion.” Etc.; 1982 Fal Vol 39(3) 257-262.
Using the life of Brook Shields as an example, the author suggests that it is the dream of maturity
without aging that the promoters of Shields tap into, a form of beauty that helps to sell a wide range of
products and that must ultimately tyrannize all women with the demand to mature and yet remain at a
previous stage of growth. The impossibility of this demand and the pressure to fulfill it result in an anxiety
few can escape, a hate that turns inward to become the neurotic self-scrutiny typical of the narcissist and
perfect for selling remedy after remedy. Women might legitimately react with rage toward the deploying of
Shields throughout the culture, but to do so would mean questioning a deep desire that is not the creation of
the beauty industry. The dream of maturing without aging is the form of most modern illusions. (PsycLIT
Rosen, J. (1984). “Structuralism in reverse.” Etc.; 1984 Spr Vol 41(1) 38-45.
Argues that the products of popular culture represent a process in which form is established prior
to content and in which structure is presented as more important than the events that actualize it. Market
research is seen as an attempt to match forms of communication to patterns of attention, resulting in
consumers becoming the authors of the products they use and in the reduction of reading and
communication to a passive exercise devoid of meaning. (3 ref) (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1984
Rouse, M.-J. and U. Fleising (1995). “Miners and managers: Workplace cultures in a British Columbia coal
mine.” Human-Organization; 1995 Fal Vol 54(3) 238-248.
Tested a model developed specifically for organizational culture analysis in an industrial relations
case study of social change. The progression and deterioration of worker and management relations is seen
within the context of changing world coal market contingencies, company adaptation to those changes, and
workers' response to management's actions. From an organizational culture perspective, both management's
and workers' responses are generated by their culturally formed interpretations of, and adaptations to, their
environments. Data identify 2 distinctive cultures within the organization that partly account for the
conflictual interactions (e.g., oppressive industrial relations strategies, illegal strikes). The model is useful
within organizational contexts, especially clinical or consultancy contexts, but some modifications are
required to gain a more complete understanding of organizational culture. (PsycLIT Database Copyright
Sanua, V.-D. (1981). “Cultural changes and psychopathology in children: With special reference to
infantile autism.” Acta-Paedopsychiatrica; 1981 Oct Vol 47(3) 133-142.
Relates the sociocultural changes that have been taking place in the last few decades to the
increasing number of children brought to the attention of mental health professionals. Because of the
nuclearization of the family in the Western world, particularly in those countries with high technology,
many children face greater problems in adapting to society. If the relationship between parents and children
is less than optimal, the parties are less likely to obtain parental surrogates to compensate for that
deficiency. Present hospital policies seem to affect negatively mother-child bonding immediately after
birth. Literature indicates that infantile autism seems to be less frequent among the Italians, Chinese,
Hispanics, and Africans and Israeli children living in Kibbutzim. The frequency of infantile autism is rather
low among lower class children and minority groups, supporting L. Kanner's (1943) data that illness is
more frequent among the upper class. Findings are inconsistent with the theory that autism is of organic
origin. (German, French & Spanish abstracts) (31 ref) (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1982 American
Schneider, J. and A.-B. Weiner (1986). “Cloth and the organization of human experience.” Current-
Anthropology; 1986 Apr Vol 27(2) 178-184.
Discusses the significance of cloth traditions in the historical development of the world's societies
in relation to meaning and hierarchy, spirituality, death rituals, indigenous and cosmopolitan traditions, and
gender. Analyses of the relationship between cloth and culture suggest correlates in cloth of the most
fundamental historical and evolutionary processes that have shaped the world, from the consolidation of
kinship bonds to the creation of political hierarchies and the transformation of gender and class relations in
large-scale state and capitalist societies. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1987 American Psychological Assn,
Schneider, B., S.-K. Gunnarson, et al. (1994). “Creating the climate and culture of success.”
Organizational-Dynamics; 1994 Sum Vol 23(1) 17-29.
Contends that climate and culture are powerful psychological mechanisms through which
managers communicate their priorities to employees. Priorities leading to organizational effectiveness
include (1) quality service provided to both external and internal customers; (2) innovation in the research,
development, and marketing of new products and services; and (3) good citizenship behaviors (employees'
willingness to cooperate and contribute to organizational success). Research and consulting experience
suggest that a climate is created by what management does, not by what it says. Keys to service excellence
include human resource practices that promote employee well-being and a sense of community, active
retention of existing customers, and attention to details regarding the quality of staff and the resources
needed to deliver excellent service. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1994 American Psychological Assn, all
rights reserved)
Schouten, J.-W. and J.-H. McAlexander (1995). “Subcultures of consumption: An ethnography of the new
bikers.” Journal-of-Consumer-Research; 1995 Jun Vol 22(1) 43-61.
Introduces the subculture of consumption as an analytic category through which to better
understand consumers and the manner in which they organize their lives and identities. This article is based
on 3 yrs of ethnographic fieldwork with Harley-Davidson motorcycle owners. A key feature of the
fieldwork was a process of progressive contextualization of the researchers from outsiders to insiders
situated within the subculture. Data collection consisted of mostly of formal and informal interviews,
nonparticipant and participant observation, and photography. Analysis of the social structure, dominant
values, and revealing symbolic behaviors of this distinct, consumption-oriented subculture have led to the
advancement of a theoretical framework that situates subcultures of consumption in the context of modern
consumer culture and discusses, among other implications, a symbiosis between such subcultures and
marketing institutions. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1995 American Psychological Assn, all rights
reserved)
Schouten, J. W. and J. H. McAlexander (1995). “Subcultures of consumption: An ethnography of the new

bikers.” Journal of Consumer Research 22(1): 43-61.
reserved)
Schwartz, T. (1973). “Cult and context: The paranoid ethos in Melanesia.” Ethos; 1973 Sum Vol 1(2) 153-
174.
Discusses the cargo cults of Melanesia as modes of psychocultural adjustment to contact with
Western cultures. It is suggested that the internalized personality structures and the institutionalized
structures of Melanesia have a strongly developed paranoid ethos which leads to both extreme suspicion
and extreme credulity. (35 ref) (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1975 American Psychological Assn, all rights
reserved)
Schwartz, T. and L. Romanucci-Ross (1974). “Drinking and inebriate behavior in the Admiralty Islands,
Melanesia.” Ethos; 1974 Fal Vol 2(3) 213-231.
As part of a long term anthropological investigation, observations were made of the initial public
use of alcohol among natives in the Admiralty Islands of northwestern Melanesia. Integration of alcohol
use into the "contact culture" involved behavioral patterns based on colonial circumstances of the contact
situation and on traditional native concepts and institutions. Most striking was the accommodation of the
consumption of alcohol to the prestige system and to the uses of altered states of consciousness, along with
folk explanations of such altered states. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1975 American Psychological Assn,
Schwartz, T. (1981). “The acquisition of culture.” Ethos; 1981 Spr Vol 9(1) 4-17.
Argues that there is a missing element in anthropology, one in which the interests of cultural
theorists and psychologists converge--the study of the acquisition of culture. If the thesis of the radical
incompleteness of human nature is correct, then the acquisitional perspective is required for any
understanding of human psychology and behavior. The socialization approach is inadequate without taking
into account that the child is acquiring not just conditioned dispositions but a set of derivatives from
culturally informed experience including a specific ideology. Studies of 3-yr-olds will show that not only is
language rapidly acquired, but a surprising number of complex of cultural notions are already in place. At
present we know surprisingly little of the cultural competence and content of children as constituent
participants in culture. The ethnography of childhood remains a frontier of knowledge. (PsycLIT Database
Schwartz, M.-C. and K. Berman (1986). “Bewitched, bothered, and bewildered.” Family-Therapy-
Networker; 1986 Jul-Aug Vol 10(4) 50-51.
Examines the case presented by C. R. Herscovici (see PA, Vol 74:28883) about a 16-yr-old
Chilean boy of Mapuche Indian descent who was entered into therapy by his adopted mother as a result of a
psychotic breakdown and exorcised (as part of his cure) because of his belief that he was cursed. The value
of the exorcism as a treatment modality is questioned. It is argued that in introducing exorcism, the
consultant runs the risk of at once denigrating the family's culture and delegitimizing the act. (0 ref)
Schwartz, S.-H. and L. Sagiv (1995). “Identifying culture-specifics in the content and structure of values.”
Journal-of-Cross-Cultural-Psychology; 1995 Jan Vol 26(1) 92-116.
Reevaluates the propositions of S. H. Schwartz's (1992) values theory using data from 88 samples
in 40 countries and provides criteria for identifying what is culture-specific (CSP) in value meanings and
structure. Data confirm the widespread presence of 10 value types (VTs), arrayed on a motivational
continuum and organized on virtually universal, orthogonal dimensions: openness to change vs
conservation and self-transcendence vs self-enhancement. 44 values show high cross-cultural consistency
of meaning. In the average sample, about 16% of single values diverge from their prototypical VTs, and 1
pair of motivationally close VTs is intermixed. Test-retest and randomly split sample analyses reveal that
some two-thirds of deviations represent unreliable measurement and one-third represent CSP
characteristics. Subsamples from Japan and Australia show how to identify consistent deviations that
represent potentially CSP value meanings and structures. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1995 American
Schwartzman, J. (1983). “Family ethnography: A tool for clinicians.” Family-Therapy-Collections; 1983

Vol 6 137-149.
Attempts to bridge family therapy and cultural anthropology by using a perspective for
understanding clinical families similar to that anthropologists have traditionally used for the social systems
that have been their traditional subjects. Family therapy can be understood as an ethnography, or the study
of sociocultural systems, which calls for a slight shift in the usual orientation of the clinician. A good
family diagnosis must include the culture of the family and individual members' world views within the
social context of which it is a part. The social organization is acted out in a rule-governed pattern, while the
beliefs that maintain it and the mode in which it is expressed can be viewed as core aspects of the family
culture. These are also maintained by myths about the family and its members that both explain and
maintain their behaviors. Rituals in which participation validates the social order are another means by
which the family system is maintained and its culture is revealed. It is concluded that the therapist who is
sensitive to the family's culture has a broader repertoire of interventions from which to draw. (13 ref)
Scott, L.-M. (1990). “Understanding jingles and needledrop: A rhetorical approach to music in
advertising.” Journal-of-Consumer-Research; 1990 Sep Vol 17(2) 223-236.
Proposes a theoretical framework for the study of music in advertising. This approach to musical
meaning draws on notions of culture, rhetoric, and symbolic action. Music becomes a functional
component that contributes to the rhetorical task in ways as various as language. Eight illustrations of the
complexity of music's role in advertising are offered as evidence. A broad range of musical disciplines are
represented, including psychology, social psychology, and ethnomusicology. The proposed approach builds
on recent works in consumer behavior that argue for a culture-based or interpretive approach to
consumption. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1991 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
Shapiro, H. S. (1983). “Education and the transformation of bourgeois culture: Toward a critique of
Christopher Lasch's Culture of Narcissism.” Teachers-College-Record; 1983 Fal Vol 85(1) 57-72.
Reviews Lasch's (1979) account of schooling in The Culture of Narcissism, in which Lasch claims
that the production values of bourgeois culture in America have been replaced by those of consumption. It
is argued that Lasch fails to recognize that current emphasis on freedom, choice, satisfaction, and
fulfillment raises expectations and demands that may go beyond the consumer culture. (PsycLIT Database
Sheridan, J.-E. (1992). “Organizational culture and employee retention.” Academy-of-Management-

Journal; 1992 Dec Vol 35(5) 1036-1056.
Investigated the retention rates of 904 college graduates hired in 6 public accounting firms over a
6-yr period. Organizational culture values varied significantly among the firms. The variation in cultural
values had a significant effect on the rates at which the newly hired employees voluntarily terminated
employment. Ss voluntarily stayed 14 mo longer in the culture emphasizing interpersonal relationship
values than in the culture emphasizing work task values. The relationship between the employees' job
performance and their retention also varied significantly with organizational culture values. The cultural
effects were stronger than the combined exogenous influences of the labor market and the new employees'
demographic characteristics. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1993 American Psychological Assn, all rights
reserved)
Singh, J. P. (1989). “Choosing human resources development interventions.” Vikalpa; 1989 Jan-Mar Vol
14(1) 35-41.
Argues that top management should examine the managerial culture of the group and the
organization before introducing change through human resources development (HRD) interventions. A
study (J. P. Singh, in press) of 176 senior-level managers was conducted, using G. Hofstede's (1980) 4-
dimensional model of culture. Significant differences were found in the dimensions of culture among
managerial groups categorized by section (international, public, and private), education, and age. HRD
mechanisms can be categorized into 3 families based on their value orientations (e.g., high individualism,
high collectivism). HRD interventions are suggested for managerial groups based on their cultural
identities; the interventions include performance/potential appraisal and counseling for groups that are high
in masculinity and individualism. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1991 American Psychological Assn, all
rights reserved)
Sirsi, A.-K., J.-C. Ward, et al. (1995). “Microcultural analysis of variation in sharing of causal reasoning
about behavior.” Journal-of-Consumer-Research; 1995 Mar Vol 22(4) 345-372.
Explores the relation of culture to consumption by investigating individual, social, and cultural
sources of variation in the sharing of causal reasoning about behavior in 2 microcultures: Ss with a
macrobiotic belief system, and Ss committed to animal rights. Vast differences were found across
microcultures, levels of expertise, social structures in the activists' microcultures, and objects of
consumption. Results suggest (1) the importance of intracultural variation in the study of culture, (2)
differences between experts and novices as a robust source of this variation, (3) novel insights into the
relationship between expertise and sociocultural phenomena, and (4) the potential for investigating attitude
structure, categorization, and attribution as products of causal reasoning originating from cultural belief
systems. The study also demonstrates the synergy created by diverse research methods. (PsycLIT Database
Smith, P. B. and J. Misumi (1989). Japanese management: A sun rising in the West? International review
of industrial and organizational psychology 1989. C. L. Cooper. Chichester, England UK, John Wiley &
Sons: p. 329-369.
(from the chapter) consider the various characterizations of Japanese management which have
been advanced and how well founded they may be /// emphasis will be given to studies focusing upon
human resource management /// classical descriptions of Japanese management / time perspective /
influence processes / seniority system / collective orientation /// classical model of Japanese management ///
consider the evidence as to whether Japanese management is changing over time and what happens when
Japanese plants open in other parts of the world / change and stability /// culture and managerial
effectiveness /// consider whether the current successes of Japanese management hold lessons for us all or
whether we must be content with some form of cultural relativism ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights
reserved)
Smuts, R. W. (1992). “Fat, sex, class, adaptive flexibility, and cultural change.” Ethology-and-
Sociobiology; 1992 Sep-Nov Vol 13(5-6) 523-542.
Analyzes from an evolutionary perspective the idealization of leanness and devaluation of fatness
in affluent, developed nations. This recent reversal is analyzed as a potentially adaptive response to the
ecological novelties of chronic food surplus and the breakdown of barriers between men's and women's
work, which, together, may have made thinness helpful to women competing for status and resources in
both mating and job markets. Whether status and resources still promote long-term Darwinian fitness is
uncertain. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1993 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
Solomon, M.-R. and B.-G. Englis (1994). “Observations : The big picture: Product complementarity and
integrated communications.” Journal-of-Advertising-Research; 1994 Jan-Feb Vol 34(1) 57-63.
Argues that product assortments "make sense" to consumers due to a perceived complementarity
among constituent elements. Consumers' choices are often guided by the positive or negative valuation of
groupings of symbolically related activities. Advertisers are reminded of the strategic importance of
combining holistic views of both communications and consumption. As competition for consumers'
attention intensifies, marketers are developing an array of new, more comprehensive strategies to penetrate
awareness. A surge of interest by marketers in integrated communications strategies brings with it the
implicit acknowledgement that consumers assimilate data about popular culture from many sources.
Stefanile, C. (1982). “Contributo per una taratura italiana del Test Culture Fair di Cattell. (Contribution for
an Italian calibration of Cattell's Culture Fair Test.).” Bollettino-di-Psicologia-Applicata; 1982 Jan-Dec No
161-164 81-86.
Administered an Italian version of the Culture Fair Intelligence Test to 90 Italian adults with
advanced educations. Results confirm the test's validity. (English abstract) (12 ref) (PsycLIT Database
Stockard, J. and M. Dougherty (1983). “Variations in subjective culture: A comparison of females and
males in three settings.” Sex Roles 9(9): 953-974.
Examined differences in subjective culture among 3 societies that vary in their extent of
urbanization and differentiation and within these societies between females and males. D. Bakan's (1966)
agency-communion and T. Parson's (1951) instrumental-expressive distinctions were used to capture both
these rural-urban and male-female differences using data collected with the antecedent-consequent method
of studying subjective culture (H. Triandis et al, 1972). Data were collected from young people from an
isolated village in Greece, a small farming community in the western US, and the inner city of a large
metropolitan area in the western US. It was hypothesized that Ss in rural and less-differentiated societies
would express communal or expressive orientations more often than those in more urban and differentiated
societies. It was also predicted that women in all cultures would express a communal or expressive
orientation more often than men. Both between-society and within-society differences in subjective culture
were found, although they occur independently of each other; females in the most urban setting often
professed a more agentic and instrumental orientation than males in the rural settings. Cross-cultural
differences were stronger for concepts dealing with group life, and sex differences are stronger for concepts
regarding individual actions and self-orientations. Specifications and extensions of existing theory are
suggested. (29 ref) (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1984 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
Sue, S. (1991). Ethnicity and culture in psychological research and practice. Psychological perspectives on
human diversity in America. The Master lectures. J. D. Goodchilds. Washington, DC, USA, American
Psychological Association: p. 51-85.
(from the chapter) this chapter is addressed to a general audience of psychologists and students,
especially practitioners, who are interested in ethnicity and who want to begin the important task of
integrating ethnic minority issues in teaching, research, and practice /// a brief description of the status of
different ethnic groups (primarily American Indians, Asian Americans, Blacks, and Latinos) is presented in
order to illustrate contemporary issues of concern / the concepts of culture, ethnicity, and minority group
status are introduced / these concepts are used to examine acculturation, personality development, mental
health, and mental health services / value conflicts that are pertinent to the understanding of ethnic minority
groups are presented / recommendations for teaching, research, and practice are given ((c) 1997
Sue, D. (1998). The interplay of sociocultural factors on the psychological development of Asians in
America. Counseling American minorities (5th ed.). D. R. Atkinson. Boston, MA, USA, Mcgraw-Hill: p.
205-213.
(from the chapter) The psychological characteristics exhibited by Asian Americans are related to
their culture and interaction with Western society. Although personality differences have been found, these
have been interpreted from the Western perspective and often viewed negatively. Acculturational forces
have also had an impact on the psychosocial development of Asian Americans. The degree of influence
varies from different Asian American groups, their generational status, and response to acculturation.
Women and children appear to acculturate more quickly than do older males. Although Asian cultural
values can be identified, it is not clear how they have been shaped or altered by societal forces. ((c) 1998
Sumner, W. G. (1993). Folkways. Being good and doing right: Readings in moral development. A. Dobrin.
Lanham, MD, USA, University Press of America: p. 85-92.
(from the preface) represents a relativistic view regarding moral psychology / rejects the idea that
there is a universal moral standard / rather, all values and morals are relative to the culture in which they
are found / presents several examples which seem to support his view that all ethics is a matter of meeting
the interests of particular cultures ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Sweeting, H. and P. West (1995). “Family life and health in adolescence: A role for culture in the health
inequalities debate?” Social-Science-and-Medicine; 1995 Jan Vol 40(2) 163-175.
Examined the association of 3 dimensions of family life (family structure, culture, and conflict)
with health at the ages of 15 yrs and 18 yrs, and with labor market position at age 18 yrs. Ss were 1,009
respondents from the youngest cohort in the West of Scotland Twenty-07 Study, a longitudinal study of
community health. Despite a strong association between family structure and material deprivation, Ss with
differing family structures were largely undifferentiated in terms of health. By contrast, aspects of family
functioning were independently associated with lower self-esteem, poorer psychological well-being, and
(among females) more physical symptoms at both ages. Both family culture and conflict were associated
with labor market position. Findings suggest that in adolescence family life may have more direct effects
on health than material factors and, through social mobility, may be indirectly linked to health inequalities
in adulthood. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1995 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
Tanaka, Y. (1990). “Women's growing role in contemporary Japan. International Symposium: Social
values and effective organizations (1988, Taipei, Taiwan).” International-Journal-of-Psychology; 1990 Dec
Vol 25(5-6) 751-765.
Examines the reciprocal relationships between the ongoing socio-cultural changes and the
changing role of women in Japan. Japanese women now constitute roughly a third of the labor force, and
current equal employment opportunities encourage more women to work outside the home. Increasingly,
working women are becoming an important part of corporate culture, as informunication (information +
communication) proliferates and dependence on womanpower deepens in many informunication-related
sectors of business and industry. Women influence both political candidates and mass media markets. In
contrast, the fate of Japanese men, especially that of husbands, seems increasingly obscure in contemporary
Japanese society. (French abstract) (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1991 American Psychological Assn, all
rights reserved)
Toews, J.-E. (1995). “Consuming Freud in consumer culture: Historicizing the empty self. Special Issue:
The politics of psychotherapy: A symposium on Philip Cushman's Constructing the Self, Constructing
America.” Psychohistory-Review; 1995 Fal Vol 24(1) 13-26.
Comments on P. Cushman's Constructing the Self, Constructing America , in which the

mainstream psychotherapeutic traditions are situated within the transformations of Western individualism
and the development of modern consumer culture. In Cushman's historical narrative of the stages in the
evolution of the Western self, Freud is viewed as the diagnostician, therapist and co-constructor of a
conception of self that was characteristically 19th century and "Victorian." It is suggested that the
consumption and transsubstantiation of Freud and the absorption of his textual constructions of psychic
unconscious as the essential inner self led to the consumerization of American culture. However, Freud's
double role, as both the defining outsider and insider of the empty self, reveals some of the difficulties in
the organizing assumptions of historical and cultural constructionism, used in Cushman's analysis.
Triandis, H. C., R. Bontempo, et al. (1986). “The measurement of the etic aspects of individualism and
collectivism across cultures. Special Issue: Contributions to cross-cultural psychology.” Australian Journal
of Psychology 38(3): 257-267.
Studied the dimension of individualism-collectivism (I-C) as identified by G. Hofstede (1980),
using items developed both theoretically and emically in 9 diverse cultures. The dimension was found to be
analyzable into 4 stable etic factors: Individualism had 2 aspects (separation from ingroups and self-
reliance with hedonism) and collectivism had 2 aspects (family integrity and interdependence with
sociability). These 4 factors are orthogonal to each other. The location of 9 cultures on these 4 factors was
used to compute a collectivism score that correlated with Hofstede's collectivism scores for the 9 cultures.
This approach enables the measurement of I-C in each culture as well as across cultures, and shows that
different methods for measuring I-C converge. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1988 American
Triandis, H. C. (1989). “The self and social behavior in differing cultural contexts.” Psychological Review
96(3): 506-520.
Three aspects of the self (private, public, collective) with different probabilities in different kinds
of social environments were sampled. Three dimensions of cultural variation (individualism-collectivism,
tightness-looseness, cultural complexity) are discussed in relation to the sampling of these 3 aspects of self.
The more complex the culture, the more frequent the sampling of the public and private self and the less
frequent the sampling of the collective self. The more individualistic the culture, the more frequent the
sampling of the private self and the less frequent the sampling of the collective self. Collectivism, external
threat, competition with outgroups, and common fate increase the sampling of the collective self. Cultural
homogeneity results in tightness and in the sampling of the collective self. The article outlines theoretical
links among aspects of the environment, child-rearing patterns, and cultural patterns, which are linked to
differential sampling of aspects of the self. Such sampling has implications for social behavior. Empirical
investigations of some of these links are reviewed. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1989 American
Triandis, H. C. (1994). Culture and social behavior. New York, NY, US, McGraw-Hill Book Company.
Triandis, H. C. (1995). Individualism & collectivism. Boulder, CO, US, Westview Press.
Tse, D.-K., K.-h. Lee, et al. (1988). “Does culture matter? A cross-cultural study of executives' choice,
decisiveness, and risk adjustment in international marketing.” Journal-of-Marketing; 1988 Oct Vol 52(4)
81-95.
Investigated whether a manager's home culture (HC) influences his/her international marketing
decisions and whether the impact of HC diminishes in an open economy. Decision making in 4 simulated
marketing situations was studied with 145 executives from the People's Republic of China (PRC), Hong
Kong, and Canada, using an in-basket instrument. Findings confirm that HC had predictable effects on
decision making of Ss from the PRC and Canada. Chinese executives from Hong Kong were influenced by
a combination of Western and Chinese cultural norms. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1989 American
Vacker, B. and W.-R. Key (1993). “Beauty and the beholder: The pursuit of beauty through commodities.
Special Issue: The pursuit of beauty.” Psychology-and-Marketing; 1993 Nov-Dec Vol 10(6) 471-494.
Examines typical interpretations of beauty from a philosophical context and suggests that different
philosophies of what comprises beauty often yield different psychological and cultural effects. A
preliminary framework is offered for understanding the function of beauty in the market, the physical
appearance phenomenon, concern with unnatural perfection, the preoccupation-with-youth culture, and the
decontextualization of beauty. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1994 American Psychological Assn, all rights
reserved)
Vinton, K.-L. (1989). “Humor in the workplace: Is it more than telling jokes.” Small-Group-Behavior;
1989 May Vol 20(2) 151-166.
Developed a taxonomy of humor found in a small, family-owned business. The different types of
humor serve to maintain low status differentials and alleviate workplace tension. The types of humor
included puns, slapstick, jokes/anecdotes, and teasing. Humor also seemed part of the socialization process
for employees, helping to create bonds among the employees. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1989
Vitell, S. J., K. C. Rallapalli, et al. (1993). “Marketing norms: The influence of personal moral philosophies
and organizational ethical culture.” Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science 21(4): 331-337.
Developed a scale to measure the marketing-related norms of 508 marketing practitioners, of
whom 52.2% were men. The scale has 5 dimensions: price and distribution, information and contracts,
product and promotion, obligation and disclosure, and general honesty and integrity. Data were collected
from 542 members of the American Marketing Association. To test the validity of the dimensions of the
marketing norms scale, the 5 dimensions of the norms scale were correlated with the 2 dimensions of the
Ethics Position Questionnaire, idealism and relativism. The dimensions of the marketing norms scale were
positively correlated with idealism and negatively correlated with relativism. Idealism, relativism, income,
and gender were significant predictors of marketer's price and distribution norms. Moral philosophies,
idealism and relativism, and income were significant predictors of marketers' general honesty and integrity.
Wallendorf, M. and E.-J. Arnould (1988). “"My favorite things": A cross-cultural inquiry into object
attachment, possessiveness, and social linkage.” Journal-of-Consumer-Research; 1988 Mar Vol 14(4) 531-
547.
Explored the meaning and histories of favorite objects by means of surveys and photographs. Ss
were 300 adults from a Southwestern US city and 45 Hausa-speaking adult peasants from 3 villages in the
Niger Republic. Meanings of favorite objects derived more from personal memories in the US and from
social status among the Niger Ss than from object characteristics. Since favorite objects serve as a
storehouse of personal meanings, gender, age, and culture reflected differences in object selected and
reasons for selection. Among the US Ss, favorite objects most often served as symbols of, rather than
replacements for, close interpersonal ties. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1988 American Psychological
Watson, C.-G. and W.-G. Klett (1974). “Are nonverbal IQ tests adequate substitutes for the WAIS?”
Journal-of-Clinical-Psychology; 1974 Jan Vol. 30(1) 55-57.
Compared the relationships between 4 short nonverbal intelligence tests-Raven's Progressive
Matrices, the Porteus Maze Test, the Cattell Culture Fair Intelligence Test, and the D48 Test-and the WAIS
in a sample of 120 psychiatric patients. The Porteus correlations with the WAIS were quite low. The
correlations of the other 3 tests with the WAIS were higher and similar in magnitude. However, a
comparison of the present data with correlations between the WAIS and several short verbal achievement
tests in a previous study that used a similar sample indicates that the latter are much better WAIS predictors
than the nonverbal tests. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1974 American Psychological Assn, all rights
reserved)
Weatherill, R. (1991). “The psychical realities of modern culture.” British-Journal-of-Psychotherapy; 1991

Spr Vol 7(3) 268-277.
Discusses the contribution of the unconscious to any given cultural manifestation and considers
how culture impinges on the stability of the inner world. Aspects of the narcissistic pathology of our time
are addressed in an attempt to show how they are correlated with and exacerbated by cultural trends that
foster regression, violence, the breaking of social bonds, and illusory freedom and omnipotence. (PsycLIT
Webster, C. (1990). “Toward the measurement of the marketing culture of a service firm.” Journal-of-
Business-Research; 1990 Dec Vol 21(4) 345-362.
Developed a 38-item scale for assessing the marketing culture of a service firm. Six dimensions
are delineated: service quality, interpersonal relationships, selling task, organization, internal
communications, and innovativeness. The scale's reliability, factor structure, and validity are evaluated
using data from 4 samples. Potential applications of the scale in improving service provision and marketing
Webster, C. (1991). “A note on cultural consistency within the service firm: The effects of employee
position on attitudes toward marketing culture.” Journal-of-the-Academy-of-Marketing-Science; 1991 Fal
Vol 19(4) 341-346.
Service employees completed a questionnaire measuring their attitudes toward both actual and
ideal marketing culture of their firm. Attitudinal differences were examined between 127 high-level, 121
middle-level, and 112 ground-level managers from a cross-section of industries. Significant differences
were found for a variety of marketing cultural dimensions: service quality, interpersonal relationships,
selling task, organization, internal communications, and innovativeness. Many of the differences remained
even after removing possible effects of the size and age of the firm. Findings indicate that marketing
culture consistency does not exist in service firms. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1992 American
Whitehead, H. (1993). “Morals, models, and motives in a different light: A rumination on Alan P. Fiske's
structures of social life.” Ethos; 1993 Sep Vol 21(3) 319-356.
Examines A. P. Fiske's (1990) cultural analytic framework for the conceptualization of the social-
moral dimension of human life. Characterized as nonreductionistic and innatist, Fiske's hypothesis is that
most social relationships are generated out of only 4 basic models: communal sharing, authority ranking,
equality matching, and market pricing. Further, these implicit models are the psychological foundations of
social relations and society. This typology is illustrated by observations from anthropological fieldwork
among the Moose people of Burkina Faso. Fiske's models are grounded in human cognitive structure, and
are able to encompass cultural variation as well as the diverse typologies of other theorists. The
implications of model autonomy and model innateness are discussed (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1994
Wiedl, K.-H. (1978). “Ecological aspects of differential predictive validity in learning- and intelligence
tests.” Psychologie-in-Erziehung-und-Unterricht; 1978 Vol 25(6) 369-371.
Asked 80 4th graders to solve a puzzle form of the Raven Coloured Progressive Matrices (CPM-
LT, Raven, 1956) with feedback about the results. A German version of the Culture Fair Test (CFT) of R.
B. Cattell was also administered. An experimental group was taught set theory in small groups, a control
group in the usual way. The CFT correlated only .11 with the results of teaching in the small experimental
groups and .46 with those of the controls. The CPM showed the reverse: .47 for the experimentals and .10
for the controls. Results imply that the validity of tests depends on the similarity between teaching and
testing styles. (English summary) (6 ref) (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1980 American Psychological
Wierzbicka, A. (1991). “Japanese key words and core cultural values.” Language in Society 20(3): 333-
385.
Proposes a culture-independent analytical framework based on natural semantic metalanguage to
examine a language's key words, which reflect the core values of the culture. Six Japanese concepts widely
regarded as being culture-specific and culturally revealing (amae, enryo, wa, on, giri, and seishin) are
examined under this framework. It is argued that the use of the natural semantic metalanguage (based on
universal semantic primitives) helps to make these concepts clear and facilitates better insight into Japanese
culture and society. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Wilkins, A.-L. and W.-G. Ouchi (1983). “Efficient cultures: Exploring the relationship between culture and
organizational performance.” Administrative-Science-Quarterly; 1983 Sep Vol 28(3) 468-481.
Argues that the existence of local organizational cultures that are distinct from more generally
shared background cultures occurs relatively infrequently at the level of the whole organization. A
utilitarian view of organizations, the transaction costs perspective, recognizes 3 modes for governing
exchanges: markets, bureaucracies, and clans. Market forms of governance deal with transaction costs by
using a price mechanism in competitive situations. Bureaucracy deals with the social problem by creating
an incomplete contract in the form of an employment contract. The clan method is to socialize parties so
that they view their objectives as congruent. Japanese firms use this method to socialize new, inexperienced
employees. Of the 3 governing mechanisms, the clan requires the most work to develop a locally shared
social knowledge, or culture. Conditions that encourage the development of clans include a long history
and stable membership, absence of institutional alternatives, and interaction among members. In adapting
to change, it has been found that clans that focus relatively more on principles than on practices tend to be
more adaptive. (33 ref) (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1984 American Psychological Assn, all rights
reserved)
Woliver, R.-E. and R.-B. Cattell (1981). “Reoccurring national patterns from 30 years of multivariate
cross-cultural studies.” International-Journal-of-Psychology; 1981 Sep Vol 16(3) 171-198.
Examined the methodological approach of applying factor analysis to a large number of variables
that describe cultural domains of nations. Five studies that used a similar factor analytic approach are
compared by obtaining congruence coefficients. Eight factors in these studies are found to match. These
factors are hypothesized to form the basic dimensions of a national profile upon which all nations can be
measured and compared. It is concluded that these factors would describe a nation's cultural dimensions
much like personality traits describe an individual's character. (French abstract) (34 ref) (PsycLIT Database
Wong, T. (1982). “Aggression, personality, and political culture.” Hong-Kong-Psychological-Society-

Bulletin; 1982 Jul No 9 5-17.
Responds to an article on aggressive behavior in Chinese society by M. Bond and W. Sung-hsing
(1982) and proposes that the introduction of the concept of political culture helps in analyzing aggression
and personality. Bond and Wang found that researchers disagree on the nature of the socialization practices
of Chinese parents and the extent of aggressiveness in Chinese children. It is noted that Solomon related
aggression and hostility to particular relations of authority via the mechanisms and anxiety created through
childrearing and socialization practices and sanctioned by the Confucian ideology of societal hierarchy and
interrelatedness. Also reviewed is the work of R. W. Wilson (1974) who wrote that the learning
environment of Chinese children is characterized by a socialization that emphasizes love-withdrawal and

shaming techniques as methods of control. The present author concludes that any study of aggressive
behavior in Chinese society must take into account the cultural standards of conformity and
accommodation to group sanction and to the psychological accommodations of shaming and anxiety.
Food, taste and flavour:

Alley, T. R. and W. J. Burroughs (1991). “Do men have stronger preferences for hot, unusual, and
unfamiliar foods?” Journal of General Psychology 118(3): 201-214.
Examined sex differences in preferences for sweet, spicy, hot, or unusual foods and in food
aversions (neophobia) among 66 men and 80 women (aged 17-32 yrs). Ss completed questionnaires
concerning past and present food use and preference as well as condiment use. Findings support the
prediction that men tend to have a stronger preference than women for spicy, hot food. The prediction that
men are more likely than women to seek unusual and new foods was also supported. No evidence of a sex
difference in preference for sweet foods was found. Both sexes showed the same degree of preference for
condiment use. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Anderson, J., M. Moeschberger, et al. (1993). “An acculturation scale for Southeast Asians.” Social
Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology 28(3): 134-141.
From factor analyses of responses on 13 items obtained from 381 Cambodian, 350 Laotian, and
395 Vietnamese Ss (aged 18-89 yrs) living in the US, 2 subscales were derived: (1) Proficiency in
Languages and (2) Language, Social, and Food (LSF) preferences. Interitem reliability of the scales was
demonstrated for each of the 3 ethnic groups. Construct validity was established by demonstrating expected
associations of the subscales with current age, years in the US, years of education, percentage of lifetime in
the US, and age on entering the US. Multivariate analyses revealed that males tended to show higher scores
for the Proficiency in Language subscale. Multivariate analyses for the LSF Preference subscale showed
that both the Laotian and Vietnamese females showed higher scores in comparison to males. ((c) 1997
Ayabe Kanamura, S., I. Schicker, et al. (1998). “Differences in perception of everyday odors: A Japanese-
German cross-cultural study.” Chemical Senses 23(1): 31-38.
Examined the hypothesis that experience with odors may strongly influence perception by
comparing the responses of 40 Japanese and 44 age-matched German women to everyday odorants. Ss
were presented with 18 stimuli in squeeze bottles and asked to rate them according to intensity, familiarity,
pleasantness and edibility, to describe associations elicited by them and, if possible, to name them. One-
third of the odorants were presumed to be familiar to Japanese Ss only, one-third to German Ss and one-
third to both populations. Significant differences were found between the 2 populations on all measures.
Better performance by Japanese Ss in providing appropriate descriptors for "Japanese" odorants and by
German Ss for "European" odorants supported the pre-selection of stimuli as culture-typical. In general, a
positive relationship was found between pleasantness and judgement of stimuli as edible, suggesting that
culture-specific experiences--particularly of foods--may significantly influence odor perception. Somewhat
unexpectedly, significant differences were also found in intensity ratings for some odorants. These
differences raise the possibility that experience may even influence such basic aspects of odor perception as
stimulus intensity. ((c) 1998 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Beauchamp, G. K. and P. Pearson (1991). “Human development and umami taste.” Physiology and
Behavior 49(5): 1009-1012.
Tested the potentiating effect of monosodium glutamate (MSG) in plain aqueous solution in 15
Mexican infants (aged 3-24 mo) and in 12 Mexican infants (aged 4-29 mo). Aqueous MSG solutions were
rejected relative to water. The implications of this observation for understanding the mechanisms of MSG
perception and pleasantness are discussed. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Bellisle, F. (1997). “La "flaveur" des aliments: Reponses de l'enfant aux stimuli chimiosensoriels et leurs
effets sur les choix ingestifs. / The "flavor" of food: Children's responses to chemical-sensory stimuli and
their effects on food choices.” Enfance No 1: 112-121.
Discusses the conditioning of children's flavor preferences and food acceptance patterns. The
development of flavor preferences and aversions, the effects of age on sensory-specific satiety, the role of
physiological mechanisms, the effects of social conditioning, the development of feeding problems, and
differences in taste preferences among children with obesity, anorexia, and diabetes are examined. (English
Bernstein, I. L. (1991). Development of taste preferences. The hedonics of taste. R. C. Bolles. Hillsdale,
NJ, USA, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc: p. 143-157.
(from the chapter) does taste preference change through development and can such changes be
attributed largely to maturation / do early taste experiences have particular impact on adult taste preference
/ if so, what accounts for the importance of early experiences and what types of experiences are important /
in the course of examining these questions, I also consider those studies that have exploited the "taste
naive" neonate to study the innateness of certain taste preferences and aversions /// human infancy and
childhood / neonatal rats ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Bolles, R. C., Ed. (1991). The hedonics of taste. Hillsdale, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
(from the preface) The scientists who have contributed to this book have approached the hedonics
of taste from many diferent angles. We start with a historical chapter, a couple of chapters that discuss
basic conceptual and methodological issues. Then different writers worry about developmental aspects,
physiological substrates, and the social aspects of hedonics. We look at it functionally, comparatively, and
clinically. A number of us look at the hedonics of taste from a learning point of view. Learning is vital
because you and I and many animals must learn what, where, when, and how much to eat. ((c) 1997
Bonham, P., D. Greenlee, et al. (1995). “Knowledge of brand and preference.” Psychological Reports 76(3,
Pt 2), Spec Issue): 1297-1298.
Examined whether knowledge of brand influenced 74 adults' preferences for chocolate candy.
Knowledge of brand name was associated with preference for the brand; lack of knowledge of the
distinction between brand-name and generic candies was associated with no preference. Gender was not a
factor. Results are discussed in terms of the role brand names play in the attractiveness of consumer
products. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Boote, A. S. (1981). “Market segmentation by personal values and salient product attributes.” Journal of
Describes an application of an approach to market segmentation that relies on personal values as
the key variable in the underlying prediction model. The use of values in conjunction with 3 more common
psychographic variables yielded results that have implications for marketing and advertising strategy. Data
from 450 restaurant diners support the conclusion that brand preference is not differentiated with respect to
demographic characteristics of consumers who ate at each of 2 restaurant chains and had a stated
preference for one or the other. However, market segments based on value orientations of these fast-food
restaurant customers did reveal differences in brand preference. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights
reserved)
Booth, D. (1990). Learned role of tastes in eating motivation. Taste, experience, and feeding. E. D. Capaldi.
Washington, DC, USA, American Psychological Association: p. 179-194.
(from the preface) provides an . . . overview of the many ways in which learning and experience
can affect food preferences and food intake (from the chapter) experience-independent reactions to tastes /
innate preferences and aversions / innate appetite /// unlearned experience-based modification / stimulus-
specific satiety / long-term taste habituation /// tastes and learning [sweetness reward, calorically
conditioned sweetness preference, nutritionally conditioned preferences for odors, other preference-
inducing associate effects of experience] /// contextualization of learned taste preferences / taste mixtures /
dietary configurations / appetites and satieties /// learning, cognition, and applications ((c) 1997
Boster, J. S. and S. C. Weller (1990). “Cognitive and contextual variation in hot-cold classification.”
American Anthropologist 92(1): 171-179.
Compared 20 20-70 yr old pairs of spouses from Mexico (Group 1) with 25 US undergraduates
(Group 2) on judgments of the hot-cold valences of food in general and specific contexts. Group 2 Ss
agreed as much on the valences of food as Group 1 Ss. Group 2 showed a great deal of context sensitivity,
while Group 1 showed virtually none, and neither group showed a reduction of variation in the more
specific contexts. Agreement alone does not appear to infallibly indicate the existence of a cultural system,
and context does not appear to always explain away variation. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights
reserved)
Brunso, K. and K. G. Grunert (1998). “Cross-cultural similarities and differences in shopping for food.”
Journal of Business Research 42(2): 145-150.
To overcome previous criticism regarding lifestyle research, this paper proposes a new definition
of lifestyle, which is based on theoretical assumptions about what motivates and directs consumer behavior
and which distinguishes lifestyle from values and behavior. Lifestyle is regarded as a mental construct that
explains, but is not identical with, actual behavior, and is defined as the system of cognitive categories,
scripts, and their associations, which relate a set of products to a set of values. Based on this theoretical
approach, a cross-culturally valid instrument for measuring food-related lifestyle (ways of shopping) was
developed and tested with 4,200 Ss from France, Germany, Denmark, and Great Britain. The instrument
was assessed using a LISREL model. Results show that the developed instrument had acceptable levels of
cross-cultural validity in relation to ways of shopping, though item loadings and item reliabilities revealed
some problems that must be addressed. ((c) 1998 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Cameron, C.-M. and J.-B. Gatewood (1994). “The authentic interior: Questing gemeinschaft in post-
industrial society.” Human-Organization; 1994 Spr Vol 53(1) 21-32.
Explores the basis of the appeal of Bethlehem, PA, by examining the annual Christmas program
through ethnographic description, media portrayals, and a survey of 348 visitors during December 1990.
The city markets itself as a tourist attraction on the basis of its authentic cultural community. Ethnicity, as
conveyed through the modes of music, customs, and food, is the foundation of most of the preservation
efforts. Moravian heritage appears prominently at Christmas, the Pennsylvania Dutch during Musikfest,
and the Scotch-Irish during Celticfest. Ss' responses to the survey indicate a nostalgia for authentic urban
community and a yearning for vicarious experience with a gemeinschaft-like community. Bethlehem is
perceived as small-town America persisting in mass society. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1994 American
Capaldi, E. D., Ed. (1996). Why we eat what we eat: The psychology of eating. Washington, American
Psychological Association.
(from the introduction) The main focus of this book is on the role of learning and experience in
eating. The book covers the major areas of basic psychological research in this area, including biological,
learning, developmental, cognitive, and social perspectives. The focus is on normal eating behavior. . . . An
understanding of how the basic psychological processes operate in normal eating is necessary before
attempting to understand disordered eating. A consistent picture of eating as a learned and constantly
changing behavior emerges from the chapters in this book. The volume also reviews the biological basis of
feeding, including genetically mediated differences among people in their ability to taste foods and in other
physiological mechanisms that interact with learning to determine feeding. (from the jacket) "Why We Eat
What We Eat" explores how [physiological, developmental, biological, and cultural] factors interact to
shape our individual eating preferences and discusses the implications of this research for practitioners. The
volume also compares eating patterns in the nonobese and the obese person and discusses the short-term
satiety factor that ensures consumption of a variety of foods. /// [The book is intended for] anyone
interested in eating and its psychological aspects: health psychology researchers and practitioners,
physicians, pediatricians, nutritionists, educators, students, and parents. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all
rights reserved)
Pt. 2): 1203-1206.
Cockerham, W.-C., G. Lueschen, et al. (1986). “Social stratification and self-management of health.”
Journal-of-Health-and-Social-Behavior; 1986 Mar Vol 27(1) 1-14.
Examined data from approximately 348 adult respondants to the 1984 Illinois Comprehensive
Health Survey to determine whether people of low socioeconomic status (SES) have adopted a consumer
orientation toward professional health services. Findings show that lower-status Ss stand as passive
recipients of such services, with a significantly greater tendency to invest responsibility for their physical
health in the health care delivery system; yet, a general lack of difference existed among people of different
SES with respect to food habits, sports and exercise, smoking, and alcohol use. A culture-of-medicine
thesis provides a stronger explanation of this than a culture-of-poverty perspective. Medicine and mass
media have promoted a healthy lifestyle, but not consumerism in the physician-patient relationship.
Crandall, C. S. (1985). “The liking of foods as a result of exposure: Eating doughnuts in Alaska.” Journal
of Social Psychology 125(2): 187-194.
Conducted a field study in an Alaskan fishing and cannery village with 225 Ss (aged 18-65 yrs),
80% of whom were male, to test the hypothesis that mere exposure may partially account for strong
regional and cultural food preferences among humans. Findings indicate that an increased rate of
consumption of doughnuts in a free-feeding situation corresponded to the number of trials Ss had with the
food. It is proposed that cultural flavor markers may become liked as a result of exposure to them. (19 ref)
Crystal, S., C. A. Frye, et al. (1995). “Taste preferences and sensory perceptions in female varsity
swimmers.” Appetite 24(1): 25-36.
17 members of a college women's swim team and a control group of 28 female nonathletes rated
their taste and sensory preferences for 16 dairy stimuli with varying levels of fat and sucrose to examine
whether the intensity of athletic involvement influences taste perceptions and hedonics. Swimmers had
lower preference ratings for high-sucrose and high-fat stimuli than controls. Controls who exercised more
than 3 hrs/wk also displayed decreased preference ratings for high-sucrose and high-fat stimuli than
controls who exercised less than 3 hrs/wk. Swimmers reported that high-sucrose stimuli were sweeter, low-
fat stimuli were less fatty, and high-fat stimuli were more fatty than controls. Athletes' preference ratings
and sensory estimates were similar to those seen in individuals with anorexia nervosa and bulimia. ((c)
Dacosta, K. O. and J. F. Wilson (1996). “Food preferences and eating attitudes in three generations of
Black and White women.” Appetite 27(2): 183-191.
Examined the hypothesis that Black women have assimilated the eating-related attitudes and food
preferences of the dominant White American culture and thus are at an increased risk of developing
anorexia and bulimia. A survey of food preferences and the Eating Disorders Inventory (EDI) were
completed by a 3-generation sample of 42 Black and 61 White women. No significant main effects or
interactions were detected for race or generation for any of the EDI subscales, except for Interpersonal
Distrust, with Black Ss scoring significantly higher than Whites on Interpersonal Distrust. A number of
culturally preferred foods were identified, including fried meats and grits for Blacks and coffee for Whites.
Results indicate that, for many foods, food preferences of young Black women still reflect the preferences
of older Black women. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Erickson, G. M. (1995). “Advertising strategies in a dynamic oligopoly.” Journal of Marketing Research

32(2): 233-237.
Uses a dynamic model of oligopolistic advertising competition (i.e., decisions are made and
strategies developed with the explicit recognition of the goals and strategies of competing firms), in which
competitors are assumed to make a series of single-period advertising decisions with salvage values
attached to achieved sales in each period. Two systems of equations, one representing the dynamic sales
development for each competitor and the effect of competitive advertising on such sales development, and
the other representing the formation of the period-by-period advertising expenditure decisions of the
competitors, were applied to the 3 largest ready-to-eat cereal manufacturers: Kellogg, General Mills, and
the Post Division of Philip Morris's General Foods. Analysis revealed that General Mills places a higher
future value on achieved sales than do the other competitors. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1995 American
Feather, N. T., M. A. Norman, et al. (1998). “Values and valences: Variables relating to the attractiveness
and choice of food in different contexts.” Journal of Applied Social Psychology 28(7): 639-656.
Investigated relations between values and the attractiveness and choice of food in different
contexts for a sample of 464 participants (mean age 41.8 yrs) who completed a mail survey distributed in
supermarkets. Participants read 5 hypothetical scenarios describing situations, each of which presented 2
alternatives relating to the presentation or consumption of different foods, and rated each alternative for its
attractiveness and indicated which alternative they would choose. Participants also completed the Schwartz
Value Survey (S. H. Schwartz, 1992). Results showed that measures of the attractiveness (or valence) of
each alternative and choice of alternative were related to specified value types for some scenarios,
depending on context and structural relations among the value types engaged by each alternative. Results
also implied that choice of alternative was mediated by the valences. ((c) 1998 APA/PsycINFO, all rights
reserved)
Grunert, S. and H. J. Juhl (1995). “Values, environmental attitudes, and buying of organic foods.” Journal
of Economic Psychology 16(1): 39-62.
Surveyed 174 Danish schoolteachers about their values, environmental attitudes, and buying
behaviors regarding organic foods in order to investigate the applicability of the value theory and
measurement approach of S. H. Schwartz (1992) in explaining consumer behavior. Using smallest space
analysis and cluster and discriminant analysis, the explanatory power of values for environmental attitudes
and the relationships between attitudes and buying of organic foods were assessed to determine which
values are relevant for environmentally concerned vs unconcerned consumer behavior. Results show that
the universal content and structure of values as predicted by Schwartz were replicated. The 56 values could
be grouped according to their explanatory power with regard to environmentally concerned attitudes.
Grunert, K. G., K. Brunso, et al. (1997). Food-related lifestyle: Development of a cross-culturally valid
instrument for market surveillance. Values, lifestyles, and psychographics. Advertising and consumer
psychology. L. R. Kahle. Mahwah, NJ, USA, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., Publishers: p. 337-354.
(from the chapter) The chapter begins with a listing of the criticisms of lifestyle research
instruments developed and used by most of the larger market research firms. The remainder of the chapter
is devoted to discussing some ways towards improvement of lifestyle research in marketing, and especially
in the food sector. The authors attempt to present a new view of lifestyle, based on a cognitive perspective,
which makes lifestyle specific to certain areas of consumption. They attempt to develop an instrument that
can measure food-related lifestyle in a cross-culturally valid way. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights
reserved)
Gusfield, J.-R. and J. Michalowicz (1984). “Secular symbolism: Studies of ritual, ceremony, and the
symbolic order in modern life.” Annual-Review-of-Sociology; 1984 Vol 10 417-435.
Reviews the literature on studies of modern life that use concepts and perspectives derived from
symbolic anthropology. The theoretical and methodological problems entailed are discussed, including the
distinction between symbolic and nonsymbolic actions. Research on 3 major areas of behavior is reviewed:
(1) studies of institutions, especially politics, law, and social control; (2) studies of ceremonial events,
including life-cycle rituals, sports, and festivals; and (3) studies of everyday life, including consumer
goods, food, and popular culture. (82 ref) (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1985 American Psychological

Hanke, R. (1989). “Mass media and lifestyle differentiation: An analysis of the public discourse about
food.” Communication 11(3): 221-238.
This essay examines the public discourse about food in The Philadelphia Inquirer and Philadelphia
Magazine. Analysis of changes in American food journalism reveals the popularization of gastronomy and
the promotion of conspicuous culinary consumption. These changes do not merely reflect changes in public
tastes in food and cooking, or social structure. Rather, the mass media diffuse the meanings and values that
are attached to the preparation and consumption of food and display the choices to be made in this domain
of esthetic consumption, thereby reproducing "lifestyles" as the dominant cultural frame of reference for
the organization of everyday urban life. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Hobden, K. and P. Pliner (1995). “Effects of a model on food neophobia in humans.” Appetite 25(2): 101-
113.
Examined the effect of a modeling manipulation on the willingness of college students to ingest
novel foods. In Study 1, 43 Ss who were high and low in trait food neophobia chose between novel or
familiar foods in the presence of no model, a neophilic model who chose mostly novel foods, or a
neophobic model who chose mostly familiar foods. Ss also chose in private from foods that were not
modeled. Ss who were low in trait neophobia behaved in accordance with the behavior of the neophilic
model in the model's presence. Study 2 clarified the results of Study 1, revealing that the phenomenon was
modeling, not conformity and that even highly neophobic Ss can be influenced by a stronger modeling
manipulation. Additionally, Study 2 revealed that food neophobia can be both increased and decreased, and
that the reduced neophobia induced by exposure to a neophilic model does not generalize to nonmodeled
foods. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Homer, P. M. and L. R. Kahle (1988). “A structural equation test of the valueâttitude behavior hierarchy.”
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 54(4): 638-646.
The role of values has received limited empirical attention relative to its potential significance,
especially within a causal modeling approach. A series of multivariate and structural equation analyses
supported the hypotheses that values have internal and external dimensions that influence attitudes. In turn,
attitudes were found to influence behaviors, as the final phase in the value-attitude-behavior hierarchy.
These analyses were performed on data derived from a survey about natural food shopping. As
hypothesized, we found that people who have more internally oriented and less externally oriented value
structures like natural foods more than other people, and these attitudes then lead to behaviors appropriate
to the structure. Theoretical implications are discussed. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Hupkens, C. L. H., R. A. Knibbe, et al. (1997). “Social class differences in women's fat and fibre
consumption: A cross-national study.” Appetite 28(2): 131-149.
Studied social class variation in the intake of fat and fiber among 849 mothers in Maastricht,
Liege, and Aachen (mean ages 36.6 & 36.4 & age 35.7 yrs, respectively); and if class differences in eating
habits were comparable in different countries. Data on dietary and eating habits were collected through a
questionnaire from November 1993-February 1994, except from December 23, 1993-January 9, 1994.
Results showed that higher-middle class women (HMCW) in Maastricht and Liege ate less fat compared to
working class women (WCW), whereas in Aachen fat intake showed no class difference. Total intake of
fiber was highest among HMCW, although this tendency was not significant in Aachen. With regard to
cultural differences in intake of fat and fiber, the 3 cities did not vary in fat intake, but they differed in fiber
intake. Maastricht women ate more fiber than Aachen and Liege women. Moreover, the absolute daily
intake of all food groups differed significantly between the cities. ((c) 1998 APA/PsycINFO, all rights
reserved)
Hupkens, C. L. H., R. A. Knibbe, et al. (1998). “Class differences in the food rules mothers impose on their
children. A cross-national study.” Social Science and Medicine 47(9): 1331-1339.
Analyzed whether mothers with higher education prescribe more "healthy" foodstuffs for their
children and whether they restrict more "unhealthy" food items than do less educated mothers.
Questionnaires on the food practices of 849 women living in middle-class or lower class districts in
Maastricht (the Netherlands), Liege (Belgium) and Aachen (Germany) were collected and analysed. The
majority of mothers in each city prescribed primarily foods that were served at dinner like meat and
vegetables, and most mothers limited their children's consumption of sweet foods, soft drinks and snacks.
Higher class mothers restricted more foods, but prescribed as many food items as their lower class
counterparts. Class differences in the number of restricted foods were partly, but not completely, explained
by class differences in health and taste considerations. Despite national variations in dietary habits and
possibly in the education of children, class differences in food rules and the explanatory power of health
and taste considerations were comparable in the 3 cities. ((c) 1998 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Keillor, B. D., R. S. Parker, et al. (1996). “Influences on adolescent brand preferences in the United States
and Mexico.” Journal of Advertising Research 36(3): 47-56.
Investigated information sources used to form brand preferences by the emerging adolescent
segment in the Mexican market when compared with their American counterparts, in the context of the
Model of Consumer Socialization (G. P. Moschis; see record 63:08555). 178 Mexican and 182 American
adolescents completed questionnaires in which they rated products in terms of the likelihood that they
would use various information sources when faced with a brand-selected decision for soft drinks, candy,
fast food, movies, fashion clothing, and tennis shoes. Findings indicate that Mexican adolescents are
receptive to outside information sources in forming brand preferences for products at various involvement
levels. Significant differences exist between Mexican and American adolescents suggesting that, for US
firms to be successful in reaching this market segment in Mexico, a specialized advertising strategy may be
advisable. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Kenyon, P. M. and M. E. Barker (1998). “Attitudes towards meat-eating in vegetarian and non-vegetarian
teenage girls in England-an ethnographic approach.” Appetite 30(2): 185-198.
Compared the attitudes of 15 vegetarian (VGs) and 15 nonvegetarian teen-age English girls
(NVGs) towards meat using an ethnographic approach. The attitudes of the 13-20 yr old Ss were assessed
in a single, tape-recorded, semi-structured interview. Eight themes of the cultural meaning of meat were
identified; 5 were common to both groups: Animal, Taste/Texture/Smell, Flesh and Blood, Color,
Miscellaneous. The theme Eating Well was unique to NVGs while the themes Life/Death and Health-
related were unique to VGs. VGs generally abhorred killing animals for food, meat's sensory characteristics
and ingesting blood. A meat-free diet was not particularly associated with health in either group. NVGs on
the other hand, tended to characterize meat positively, both liking meat's sensory characteristics and
associating meat with luxury and special occasions. ((c) 1998 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Kim, C. (1989). “Working wives' time-saving tendencies: Durable ownership, convenience food
consumption, and meal purchases.” Journal of Economic Psychology 10(3): 391-409.
Surveyed 3,511 working and nonworking married females to investigate the effect of working
status on time-saving tendencies exhibited in household tasks. The following time-saving measures were
assessed: household ownership of time-saving appliances, frequency of consumption of convenience food
items, and frequency of purchasing meals from restaurants. After controlling for household income, family
life cycle, and other covariates, working status significantly increased the likelihood of the family's
ownership of several time-saving durable goods and the frequency of purchasing meals away from home.
Klineberg, S. L. (1968). “Future Time Perspective and the Preference For Delayed Reward.” Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology 8(3, Pt. 1): 253-257.
IT WAS HYPOTHESIZED AND DEMONSTRATED THAT THE CAPACITY TO PREFER A
LARGER REWARD, DELAYED FOR A SHORT AND SPECIFIED TIME, OVER A SMALLER
REWARD AVAILABLE IMMEDIATELY, IS RELATED TO (1) THE DEGREE TO WHICH IMAGES
OF PERSONAL FUTURE EVENTS IN GENERAL ARE ENDOWED WITH A SENSE OF REALITY,
AND (2) THE DEGREE OF EVERYDAY PREOCCUPATION WITH FUTURE RATHER THAN
PRESENT EVENTS. 47 10.5-12.5 YR. OLD MALES WERE INDIVIDUALLY INTERVIEWED. 25 SS
WHO CONSISTENTLY CHOSE DELAYED LARGER REWARDS WERE COMPARED WITH THE
REMAINING 22 SS WHO PREFERRED IMMEDIATE SMALLER REINFORCEMENTS ON
MEASURES OF 5 DIFFERENT ASPECTS OF THEIR OUTLOOK ON THE FUTURE. AS
PREDICTED, THERE WAS NO RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CHOICES MADE IN THESE
SITUATIONS AND MEASURES OF THE LENGTH OF FUTURE TIME PERSPECTIVES. (18 REF.)
Laehteenmaeki, L. and H. Tuorila (1995). “Consistency of liking and appropriateness ratings and their
relation to consumption in a product test of ice cream.” Appetite 25(2): 189-197.
The consistency of hedonic responses to 3 brands of vanilla ice cream was examined over 5 wks
using 2 procedures. 40 Ss (aged 19-47 yrs) rated their liking for ice creams side-by-side and after ad libitum
consumption. Ss also assessed the appropriateness of the 3 samples of vanilla ice cream to 10 usage
situations, including as a dessert which was the context in the test situation. The consistency of hedonic
responses was low over replicates. Some Ss ate more of all brands than other Ss did in both replicates,
unrelated to differences in liking. The appropriateness ratings of brands were similar but the ratings of
appropriateness as a dessert differentiated the brands. In the after-consumption condition the ratings of
liking and appropriateness, together with consumption measures, appeared to be slightly more consistent at
the individual level than those made in the side-by-side situation. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights
reserved)
Laing, D. G. and P. J. Clark (1983). “Puberty and olfactory preferences of males.” Physiology and
Behavior 30(4): 591-597.
Determined the preferences of 302 males, aged 8-9, 14, and 16 yrs, for 10 food-related odors using
a hedonic scale. The aim was to establish if major changes in preferences occur during the period that
encompasses puberty. Small but significant differences between the 8-9 yr old group and the others were
obtained for meat and chicken odors; between the 14-yr-old group and the others for peanut butter odor;
and a change from dislike to like with age for coffee odor. Results were almost all confirmed in a retest.
The general lack of differences between the responses of the 3 age groups indicated that no major change
occurs in preferences for food odors between the ages of 8 and 16 yrs. However, results do not eliminate
the possibility that preferences may be altered for odors related to sex and emotion. (25 ref) ((c) 1997
Logue, A. W. and M. E. Smith (1986). “Predictors of food preferences in adult humans.” Appetite 7(2):
109-125.
Examined predictors of preferences for a variety of foods in 303 14-68 yr olds, 69% of whom
were female. Ss completed questionnaires on sex, age, thinness, sensation seeking, ethnic background, and
food preferences. Results show that, consistent with previous studies, females reported higher preferences
for low-calorie foods, candy, and wine and lower preferences for meat, beer, spicy foods, and milk.
Younger Ss reported higher preferences for sweet foods and lower preferences for foods such as chili
pepper that are considered acquired tastes. Thinner Ss tended to rate both sweet foods and meat lower than
did other Ss. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Loughlin, C.-E. and J.-H. Suina (1983). “Reflecting the child's community in the classroom environment.”
Childhood-Education; 1983 Sep-Oct Vol 60(1) 18-21.
Contends that if teachers observe how space is used by members of the child's community, they
can offer spatial organization that permits similar uses in the learning environment; this is one way to help
children connect the worlds of home and school. Children prefer spatial arrangements reflective of the way
space is used in their lives and communities. Children from cultures in which communication includes
physical touching and close conversational space may be uncomfortable in settings that demand greater
distances. Materials from community businesses or industry, from children's homes, and locally purchased
objects can offer affective strength to the environment's learning possibilities. The culture of certain
communities may reject caged animals and natural specimens; water shortages or raising food in difficult
soil may be reflected in the community's attitude toward use of water and food for exploration in school.
The use of local plants and wild flowers and local raw materials helps to create a bond between school and
community and highlight the learning possibilities in both worlds. (6 ref) (PsycLIT Database Copyright
Lyman, B. and J. McCloskey (1989). “Food characteristics thought desirable during various imagined
emotions.” Journal of Psychology 123(2): 163-169.
100 students from a Canadian university were asked to report what they would like to eat or drink
while imagining themselves experiencing 22 common emotions. The physical characteristics of the
preferred foods were warm, chilled, unheated, crunchy, soft, liquid, solid, sweet, spicy, sour, and salty.
With the exception of sour, the frequencies of Ss preferring each characteristic differed significantly among
emotions. Within emotions, the percentage of preferred foods having various characteristics also differed.
Data raise the question of the extent to which the relationship between moods and food preferences results
from eating those foods or from the prior existence of a mood that led to eating the foods. ((c) 1997
McCullum, C. and C. L. Achterberg (1997). “Food shopping and label use behavior among high school-
aged adolescents.” Adolescence 32(125): 181-197.
41 male and 49 female high school students, stratified by shopping experience (44 shoppers and
46 nonshoppers), were given a list of 20 foods to select in a supermarket. An interview was conducted to
determine reasons given for each food selection, use of nutrition information, and other variables. Reasons
most often reported for selecting foods were personal preference/taste, customer/habit, and price/cost. Ss
were 5 times more likely to use front label/nutrition claims than nutrient labels. Fat free/low fat, lite, light,
and cholesterol free/low cholesterol were the most commonly used claims, whereas total fat and calories
were the most commonly used nutrient label constituents. Females were more likely than males to use front
label/nutrition claims. There were not significant differences between males' and females' use of nutrient
labels. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Mennella, J. A. and G. K. Beauchamp (1997). The ontogeny of human flavor perception. Tasting and
smelling. Handbook of perception and cognition (2nd ed.). G. K. Beauchamp. San Diego, CA, USA,
Academic Press, Inc: p. 199-221.
(from the preface) Discuss the issue of the importance of learning, particularly with regard to
olfaction. Following a brief overview of early development of the taste and olfactory systems in human
fetuses and infants, this chapter focuses on the flavor (primarily retronasal olfactory component) world of
the developing human infant. The authors suggest that exposure to flavor in amniotic fluid and human milk
may contribute to later preferences for such flavors. (from the chapter) This chapter focuses on one aspect
of developmental research, that which relates to chemical senses, with particular emphasis on food
acceptance, and its implications for "education." As will be discussed, this research clearly shows that the
human infant, like the adult, is not a passive receptacle for food. Rather, she or he makes active choices in
accepting or rejecting certain flavors. However, these studies also reveal that the sensory world of the
young infant may be quite different from that of the adult. Research also suggests that experience during
infancy may serve to alter later responsiveness to flavors, and, in a sense, educate and civilize the young
child to appreciate the flavors typical of the culture into which she or he was born. ((c) 1998
Michela, J. L. and I. R. Contento (1988). Cognitive, motivational, social, and environmental influences on
children's food choices. Child health psychology. B. G. Melamed. Hillsdale, NJ, USA, Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates, Inc: p. 41-62.
(from the chapter) this study tested the applicability of a cognitive-motivational model of health
behavior to children's food choices /// food preference, taste-oriented, health-oriented behavior, dietary
quality, cognitive-motivational model, children ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Morrison, M. (1995). “Researching food consumers in school: Recipes for concern.” Educational Studies
21(2): 239-263.
Examined food choice and consumption in relation to the institutional dynamics of 2 English
secondary schools and to 30 pupils' (aged 11-29 yrs) interpretations of internal and external influences upon
their understandings about food. The apparent ordinariness of eating is considered with multiple
perceptions of food as they link to educational experience and to identities forged from family, gender, and
media interests. Ss addressed issues including improving the cafeteria system, differentiation between
meals and snacks, and gender differences regarding types of foods consumed. Results suggest the need for
a continuing reappraisal of the formal and informal mechanisms of food-focused education. ((c) 1997
Moskowitz, H. W., V. Kumaraiah, et al. (1975). “Cross-cultural differences in simple taste preferences.”
Science 190(4220): 1217-1218.
Studied 10 Indian laborers who showed high preferences for sour and bitter tastes. Ss were tested
twice, after a 14-hr fast and just after lunch, using 6 concentrations each of glucose, NaCl, citric acid, and
quinine sulfate. Three confirmatory replicate judgments were obtained for each quality (sweet, salty, sour,
and bitter), each concentration, each attribute (intensity and pleasantness), and each condition (fasting and
after eating). Ss' judgments of taste intensity and pleasantness of sweet and salty stimuli were in accord
with European population estimates, which suggests that dietary history may alter preferences for simple
taste stimuli without affecting the gustatory system. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Mukai, T. and L. A. McCloskey (1996). “Eating attitudes among Japanese and American elementary school
girls.” Journal of Cross Cultural Psychology 27(4): 424-435.
Compared familial and peer correlates of eating attitudes in 31 American girls (aged 7-11 yrs) and
70 Japanese girls (aged 8-11 yrs). Ss completed the Children's Eating Attitudes Test and the Demographic
and Dieting Questionnaire. Correlates of eating attitudes shared by American and Japanese Ss were self-
perception of being overweight, the number of friends on a diet, and the frequency of talking with the
mother about food and diet. Japanese Ss were influenced more greatly by familial eating attitudes and
practices than were American Ss. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Perkins, W. S. and T. J. Reynolds (1995). “Interpreting multidimensional data with cognitive differentiation
analysis.” Psychology and Marketing 12(6): 481-499.
Examined the usefulness of cognitive differentiation analysis (CDA) in interpreting
multidimensional data in consumer research, using simulated data sets and a benefit segmentation study. In
Study 1, 300 simulations were generated in 3 series, for 9 stimuli on 2-4 dimensions. Study 2 studied
benefit segments for 9 fast-food restaurants, on 6 attributes. 125 marketing undergraduates rated each
restaurant on a 7-point scale, and completed a graded preference task to obtain a pairwise comparison.
CDA regression was applied to both data sets. Results show that CDA improved the interpretability of
individual-level multidimensional data by estimating a multi-regression equation relating pair-wise product
judgments to product attributes. In Study 1, CDA performed well statistically. CDA correlations and rho
values in Study 2 converged. CDA-generated segments successfully predicted unidimensional preferences,
while rho values did not. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1996 American Psychological Assn, all rights
reserved)
Pick, D. F., D. P. Hurford, et al. (1990). “Ice cream butterfat content by volume as a possible predictor of
taste preference.” Perceptual and Motor Skills 70(2): 639-642.
146 Ss (aged 18-61 yrs) ranked 3 brands of vanilla ice cream for taste preference to evaluate the
predictability of taste preference for ice cream based on butterfat content by volume rather than by weight.
The brand containing the most butterfat by volume was preferred by 72 Ss, the brand with the next most
was preferred by 41 Ss, and the brand with the least was preferred by 33 Ss. The expectation that butterfat
content by volume would predict hedonic rankings was confirmed. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights
reserved)
Pontecorvo, C., E. Ochs, et al. (1997). “Socializzare al gusto: Un confronto tra famiglie americane e
italiane. / Socializing taste: A comparison between American and Italian families.” Eta evolutiva No 57: 5-
25.
Studied family practices associated with socializing children's taste for food. Human Ss: 40
normal male and female Italian adults and children (family members). 40 normal male and female
American adults and children (family members). Data on socializing taste and family eating patterns were
obtained by videotaping the families (mother, father, 3-6 yr old child, and older sibling) while eating. The
discourse was assessed according to nutritional value, material value, reward, and pleasure. The results
were evaluated according to Italian or American family, value placed on nutrition, material, reward or
pleasure nature, adult's and children's taste, and individuality of taste. (English abstract) ((c) 1999
Prescott, J., D. G. Laing, et al. (1992). “Hedonic responses to taste solutions: A cross-cultural study of
Japanese and Australians.” Chemical Senses 17(6): 801-809.
30-37 Japanese Ss (aged 21-57 yrs) and 30 Australian Ss (aged 17-49 yrs) rated their liking for
solutions of 7 tastants: sucrose, NaCl, citric acid, caffeine, MSG, inosine monophosphate, and guanosine
monophosphate (GMP). The patterns of response were similar in both groups for all of the tastants.
Differences between the groups were evident at the higher concentrations of citric acid, GMP, and MSG
and also at the lowest concentration of MSG. Analysis of the response patterns of individuals across the
range of concentrations revealed that the mean response patterns were generally a good representation of
each group. Data suggest that the 2 groups were more similar than different in their responses to tastants in
solution. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Rathje, W.-L. (1984). “"Where's the beef?" Red meat and reactivity. Special Issue: Household refuse
analysis--theory, method, and applications in social science.” American-Behavioral-Scientist; 1984 Sep-
Oct Vol 28(1) 71-91.
Describes the collection of the Food Loss Project database at the University of Arizona, which
was designed to record food "use" and "loss" in 63 households with an independent measure--analysis of
household refuse. Consumption of red meat and milk was studied. It was found that household records of
milk use and refuse records of milk use were highly similar but that reports of red meat use and refuse
records of red meat use were highly different; Ss reported a much higher use of red meat than refuse
records indicated. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1985 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
Rozin, P. (1990). Social and moral aspects of food and eating. The legacy of Solomon Asch: Essays in
cognition and social psychology. I. Rock. Hillsdale, NJ, USA, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc: p. 97-
110.
(from the chapter) describe the role of food in three very different cultures, to demonstrate the
variability of the social functions of food / consider some of the basic beliefs and contrasts that motivate
traditional beliefs about food, and that imbue food with social significance and meaning / show that these
same beliefs exist in modern Westerners / consider the emotion of disgust, which perhaps best illustrates
the role of food as a biological, social, and moral substance /// the psychology of food and eating / three
models of food in human life / the United States / the Hua of Papua New Guinea / Hindu India / you are
what you eat / experiments using Asch's "impressions" technique / contagion / food as a moral substance /
the human/animal distinction / the moral/physical confusion / disgust: the food-related, moral emotion ((c)
Rozin, P. (1990). The importance of social factors in understanding the acquisition of food habits. Taste,
experience, and feeding. E. D. Capaldi. Washington, DC, USA, American Psychological Association: p.
255-269.
(from the chapter) discuss why the learning principles now acknowledged to be involved in food
intake and choice must be extended to include social factors /// identify the ways in which social factors can
influence eating, with humans as the target organism /// indirect social agency / beliefs and attitudes /
availability, price, and the setting of occasions / universal cultural themes and the social/food linkage: the
mouth gateway to the body, you are what you eat, and contagion / disgust and social ideation: the
human/animal distinction / food and the moral domain: moral/physical confusion /// social factors as part of
the mechanism of learned food preferences / inadvertent social agency / family paradox ((c) 1997
Rozin, P. (1996). Sociocultural influences on human food selection. Why we eat what we eat: The
psychology of eating. E. D. Capaldi. Washington, DC, USA, American Psychological Association: p. 233-
263.
(from the chapter) establish the importance of sociocultural factors in the understanding of food in
general and of the acquisition of preferences in particular / B. G. Galef (1976, 1985), L. L. Birch (1986,
1987), and P. Rozin (1988, 1990, 1994) have catalogued and discussed the various ways in which social
factors influence eating and food choice / a major source of social influence is indirect; that is, indirect
social influences set the stage for or modulate the interpretation of food encounters / indirect social factors
include beliefs, culinary traditions, and occasions that are established as part of the acquisition of culture /
other social influences are direct; that is, they require the mediation of another organism who is present on
the occasion / both indirect and direct social influences are discussed ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights
reserved)
Schaninger, C. M., M. C. Nelson, et al. (1993). “An empirical evaluation of the Bartos model of wife's
work involvement.” Journal of Advertising Research 33(3): 49-63.
Investigated whether wife's work involvement, as operationalized by the classification scheme
proposed by R. Bartos (1978, 1982; see also PA, Vol 60:4250), is a viable basis for segmenting married-
couple households and for predicting meaningful hypothesized consumption differences. 444 households,
of which 280 were married-couple households, completed a questionnaire addressing topics such as
ownership of major and minor durable goods, use of services, work involvement, attitudes, and deal
proneness and shopping behavior. Results demonstrate the usefulness of the Bartos segmentation model
across a variety of attitudinal and consumption areas. There were clear differences among the 4 Bartos
segments for sex-role norms, traditional values, self-fulfillment aspirations, work and time pressures, deal
proneness and shopping behavior, use of services, and food and beverage consumption. ((c) 1997
Smuts, R. W. (1992). “Fat, sex, class, adaptive flexibility, and cultural change.” Ethology-and-
Sociobiology; 1992 Sep-Nov Vol 13(5-6) 523-542.
Analyzes from an evolutionary perspective the idealization of leanness and devaluation of fatness
in affluent, developed nations. This recent reversal is analyzed as a potentially adaptive response to the
ecological novelties of chronic food surplus and the breakdown of barriers between men's and women's
work, which, together, may have made thinness helpful to women competing for status and resources in
both mating and job markets. Whether status and resources still promote long-term Darwinian fitness is
uncertain. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1993 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
Suinn, R. M., G. Knoo, et al. (1995). “The Suinn-Lew Asian Self-Identify Acculturation Scale: Cross-
cultural information.” Journal of Multicultural Counseling and Development 23(3): 139-148.
Used to Suinn-Lew Asian Self-Identity Acculturation Scale (SL-ASIA) to conduct a cross-cultural
examination of Asian acculturation. 284 Asian American university students in the US and 118 Singapore
Asian individuals in Singapore completed the SL-ASIA and a demographic questionnaire. Chronbach's
alpha for the SL-ASIA was .79, reflecting reasonably stable data. Factor analysis identified 5 factors
underlying acculturation scores: reading/writing/cultural preferences, ethnic interaction, generational
identity, affinity for ethnic identity and pride, and food preferences. A 1-way ANOVA showed that
Singapore Asians achieved a score indicative of Asian identity, whereas Asian Americans obtained a mean
score indicative of higher Western acculturation. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Terasaki, M. and S. Imada (1988). “Sensation seeking and food preferences.” Personality and Individual
Differences 9(1): 87-93.
Administered a Japanese version of the Sensation Seeking Scale (SSS) and a food preference
questionnaire to 105 undergraduates. Preference ratings of 70 foods were factor analyzed, and 7 factors
concerning food preference patterns were extracted. Preference ratings for food items with high loadings on
these 7 factors were correlated with Ss' scores on the SSS. Significant positive correlations were found
between total SSS scores and preference ratings for spicy foods (loading on Factor 1), meats (loading on
Factor 4) and alcoholic beverages (loading on Factor 6). The correlation patterns of SSS subscales and
preference ratings for alcohol were different from those for spicy foods and meats. ((c) 1997
Tuorila, H., R. M. Pangborn, et al. (1990). “Choosing a beverage: Comparison of preferences and beliefs
related to the reported consumption of regular vs. diet sodas.” Appetite 14(1): 1-8.
Surveyed 94 females (aged 16-31 yrs) regarding their consumption of regular and diet sodas and
related beliefs and concerns. 30 Ss were classified as users of regular sodas (URS) and 44 as users of diet
sodas (UDS); 20 Ss were nonusers (NUSs). Both user groups reported liking for their "own" sodas and
dislike for the "other" sodas; NUSs did not like either. Beliefs best differentiating among the 3 groups were
(1) superiority of taste of their "own" sodas, (2) perceived efficiency to quench thirst, and (3) perceived
compatibility with other menu items. UDSs and NUSs were more concerned about weight-related issues
than URSs. URSs also reported a significantly higher frequency of consumption of several foods high in
sugar, fat, and/or sodium. The selection of a principal soda may be an indication of a particular
consumption style and reflect a whole set of attitudes toward one's own body. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO,
Venkatramaiah, S. R. and P. B. Devaki (1990). “Personality traits and taste preference: An empirical
study.” Journal of Personality and Clinical Studies 6(1): 1-5.
Examined taste preferences among 38 female postgraduate students (aged 20-22 yrs) as a function
of certain personality traits (PTs). The Indian Personality Inventory was used to measure PTs, and a food
preference check list was used to measure taste quality. Four primary tastes, salt, sweet, sour, and bitter,
and 2 other taste qualities, bland and pungent, were assessed. PTs constituted a significant source for the
observed variations in the taste preferences across the 6 taste qualities. The taste qualities per se were also a
major source for the variations in the preferences. The relevance of the results to nutritional and psychiatric
disorders was suggested. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Wallendorf, M. and E.-J. Arnould (1991). “"We Gather Together": Consumption rituals of Thanksgiving
Day.” Journal-of-Consumer-Research; 1991 Jun Vol 18(1) 13-31.
Used 10 data sets (e.g., depth interviews, participant-observation data, structured surveys) to study
the celebration of Thanksgiving Day in the US. Five conceptual themes were used to organize
interpretations of the meanings of Thanksgiving Day. These themes were negotiation of abundance;
extensiveness of inclusion; resolution of universalism and particularism; negotiation of values such as
cleanliness and hard work; and negotiation of the role of produce and branded food products in relation to
tradition and homemade foods. The consumption rituals of Thanksgiving Day are interpreted as a discourse
among consumers about the categories and principles that underlie US consumer culture. (PsycLIT
Yamaguchi, S. (1991). “Basic properties of umami and effects on humans.” Physiology and Behavior
49(5): 833-841.
Reviews studies of the taste of umami substances, feelings created in humans by umami
substances, and how umami substances are detected. Data demonstrate that although the taste of the
common umami substances such as monosodium glutamate and disodium inosinate (IMP) is mainly caused
by their anions, the effects of their cations, such as Na, should not be ignored. The effects of cations
approach the taste thresholds of umami substances. It was also found that the taste of IMP was probably
caused by glutamic acid in saliva, since IMP itself has no umami taste. Comparison of umami sensitivity of
Japanese and Americans revealed no difference. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Gender and sex roles:

Aldous, J., G. M. Mulligan, et al. (1998). “Fathering over time: What makes the difference?” Journal of
Marriage and the Family 60(4): 809-820.
Examined how much fathers participate in child care, an important component of domestic duties,
and factors related to it. The study has the advantage of longitudinal data, so that it is possible to look at
changes in fathers' participation of and factors affecting changes and continuities over time. The data come
from the 1987-1988 and 1992-1993 National Surveys of Families and Households. The sample is restricted
to White, 2-parent families with at least 1 child younger than 5 yrs of age at the time of the 1st survey.
Based on prior theories and research, the study variables related to fathers' child care include performance
of household tasks, their marital quality, gender role ideologies, perceptions of the fairness of the division
of domestic labor, and the mothers' child-care hours. The labor-force variables are the husbands' and wives'
hours of paid employment, as well as the earned incomes of husbands and wives. Findings indicate that
hours on the job keep some men from active fathering, but if they begin taking care of young children, a
continuing pattern is established. Mothers' child-care hours are positively related to fathers' child care, and
fathers do more with sons. ((c) 1999 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Studies; 1993 Vol 14(2) 235-260.
Ben Baruch, E., J. E. Bruno, et al. (1985). “Development of time horizon perceptions in students.” Journal
of the Association for the Study of Perception 20(2): 5-16.
Examined which time horizon perception (THP) attitudes best distinguish boys from girls and
elementary from secondary school students among 353 high-middle socioeconomic status (SES) 4th, 6th,
8th, 10th, and 12th graders. The majority of Ss were White and 46% were male. Ss and their teachers
completed a questionnaire assessing their THP attitudes. Data confirm the influence of gender and age on
THP. It is suggested that traditional time use (dictated by parents and teachers) and opportunity time use
patterns (dictated by economic market forces) are 2 important underlying dimensions to students' attitudes
toward their time use. As students progress through school, the traditional parental influence on THP is
very strong for girls but is already changing for boys--from traditional to opportunity patterns. For both
boys and girls, the 8th grade seemed to be a major milestone where THP changed more toward an
opportunity and integrated THP. It is noted that student attitudes toward time use might play an important
role in determining educational aspirations of students and the degree of discord between teachers and
students. Classroom problems at schools in a multicultural setting might be particularly influenced by
disparities in student THPs among the various ethnic and cultural groups. (12 ref) ((c) 1997
Bittman, M. and F. Lovejoy (1993). “Domestic power: Negotiating an unequal division of labour within a
framework of equality.” Australian and New Zealand Journal of Sociology 29(3): 302-321.
Examined the degree of disjunction between belief of gender equality and action regarding equal
division of domestic work among 65 heterosexual couples. Ss completed a questionnaire and were
interviewed about the allocation of household tasks, sex-role attitudes, and views of the domestic division
of labor. Ss showed a general commitment to egalitarian attitudes about sharing housework, although
women held these views more strongly than did men. In contrast, analysis of data from the Australian
Bureau of Statistics indicated that the amount of time men spend on household chores did not increase
when a spouse's paid work increased and tasks performed by men and women remained highly segregated
by gender. The disjunction between attitudes and behavior was interpreted through 2 assumptions: (1) that
behavioral change lags behind social change and (2) that contradictions in behavior and attitude are reduced
or denied. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Blinn, L. M. and G. Pike (1989). “Future time perspective: Adolescents' predictions of their interpersonal
lives in the future.” Adolescence 24(94): 289-301.
Results of a questionnaire administered to 125 adolescents (aged 15-27 yrs) examining adolescent
future time perspective suggest that Ss did not perceive divorce in their future. However, periods of
singlehood, widowhood, and nuclear family life were perceived as extremely likely, particularly among
female adolescents. Differences in future time perspective were revealed for gender but not age. ((c) 1997
Bonham, P., D. Greenlee, et al. (1995). “Knowledge of brand and preference.” Psychological Reports 76(3,
Pt 2), Spec Issue): 1297-1298.
Examined whether knowledge of brand influenced 74 adults' preferences for chocolate candy.
Knowledge of brand name was associated with preference for the brand; lack of knowledge of the
distinction between brand-name and generic candies was associated with no preference. Gender was not a
factor. Results are discussed in terms of the role brand names play in the attractiveness of consumer
products. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Brown, W.-J. (1992). “Culture and AIDS education: Reaching high-risk heterosexuals in Asian-American
communities.” Journal-of-Applied-Commmunication-Research; 1992 Aug Vol 20(3) 275-291.
Assessed how culture affects responses to AIDS educational messages among high-risk
heterosexuals. 257 university students (Asian-American and Caucasian) completed a questionnaire that
included demographic items; questions on AIDS-related attitudes, beliefs, and communication behavior;
and the 36-item Rokeach Value Survey. AIDS-related knowledge among Ss was moderately high.
Regardless of cultural orientation (COR) or gender, Ss understood most of the important facts about AIDS
and its transmission. Ss' personal concern about AIDS and their AIDS-related interpersonal communication
differed according to COR and gender. Ss with an Asian-Pacific COR and men were generally less
concerned about AIDS and engaged in less interpersonal communication about AIDS than did Ss with a
North American COR and women. This indicates that AIDS education is a cultural communication process
directly affected by both gender and culture. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1995 American Psychological
Burns, A. and R. Homel (1989). “Gender division of tasks by parents and their children.” Psychology of
Women Quarterly 13(1): 113-125.
Explored the division of parenting tasks between wives and husbands in 279 Australian families
with a 9-21 yr-old child and compared the children's performance of household tasks with their parents'
division of labor. Results revealed 3 parenting factors (Domestic Care, Leisure/Enrichment, and
Psychological) and 4 child factors (Handyman, Domestic, Maturity, and Babysitting). Mothers were more
active than fathers on all 3 parenting factors, but significant differences were found between parents of
differing socioeconomic status (SES) and cultural backgrounds. Among children, the greatest sex
difference was found on the Handyman factor, where boys greatly outperformed girls, but girls'
performance was higher when they were only children and when they lived in higher SES families. Girls
outperformed boys on the domestic and maturity factors. Apart from child's sex, cultural background was
the strongest predictor of children's task performance. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Calasanti, T. M. and C. A. Bailey (1991). “Gender inequality and the division of household labor in the
United States and Sweden: A socialist-feminist approach.” Social Problems 38(1): 34-53.
The inconsistent results generated by the relative resources, gender-role ideology, and time-
availability hypotheses speak to the need to examine the structural bases for power relations based on
gender. Emphasizing the relative autonomy and interrelations of capitalism and patriarchy, socialist-
feminism posits that different forms of patriarchal capitalism have varying effects on the division of
household labor. The usefulness of the approach is examined by exploring the relationships expressed in 3
traditional hypotheses about gender inequality and the performance of 5 household tasks in the US and
Sweden. 422 married US Ss and 483 married Swedish Ss were interviewed. Analyses indicate that previous
perspectives do not adequately examine the power differential embodied in gender relations and that
socialist-feminism may give insights into why gender inequities in the home are maintained despite
progressive legislation. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Chertkoff, J. M., R. H. Kushigian, et al. (1996). “Interdependent exiting: The effects of group size, time
limit, and gender on the coordination of exiting.” Journal of Environmental Psychology 16(2): 109-121.
Performed 2 experiments on interdependent exiting using a new paradigm, choices made to exit or
wait on discrete rounds. Ss (458 men and 458 women) participated in groups of 4, 5, and 6 people per
session, with all Ss during a given session being of same gender. Results revealed the smaller the group
size, the larger the proportion of group members exiting, regardless of whether the exit space was held
constant and the number of rounds was proportional to group size or the number of rounds was held
constant and the exit space was proportional to group size. A larger proportion exited in the long time limit
conditions rather than the short. There was no main effect due to gender, but a complex triple interaction
involving gender, group size, and time limit was obtained. The relevance of this research to queue models
of pedestrian traffic flow and tacit coordination is discussed. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Cooper, P. E., L. E. Thomas, et al. (1981). “Subjective time experience in an intergenerational sample.”
International Journal of Aging and Human Development 13(3): 183-193.
Explored the relationship between CA and gender in subjective time experience [STE; i.e., the
difference between subjective age (SA) and (CA)] with 294 16 + yr olds. STE was found to vary widely
among Ss with some being "accurate" (SA = CA) and others either "retarded" (SA < CA) or "advanced"
(SA > CA). Males were more retarded in STE than females at every point in the life span, and patterns of
age differences in adulthood differed between the sexes as well. Results suggest that CA may play a key
role in transitions in STE and that CA is more significant in the STE of females than in males. (27 ref) ((c)
Cooper, S. E., D. L. Arkkelin, et al. (1994). “Work-relationship values and gender role differences in
relation to career^marriage aspirations.” Journal of Counseling and Development 73(1): 63-68.
Surveyed 130 undergraduate business majors and explored the relationship of their preferred
future career^marriage arrangement to their relationship and work values, work motivation, and gender role
orientation. Results indicate that the dual-career, career-job, and career-home groups showed significant
differences on these dimensions. Sex and gender role differences reflected cultural stereotypes of
achievement orientation in men and barriers to career pursuits of women. Results are discussed in terms of
interpersonal, intrapersonal, and societal factors underlying career^marriage aspirations. Data suggest that
work values and relationship values may be key correlates of career^marriage aspirations. ((c) 1997
Croteau, D. and W. Hoynes (1992). Men and the news media: The male presence and its effect. Men,
masculinity, and the media. Research on men and masculinities series, Vol. 1. S. Craig. Newbury Park, CA,
(from the chapter) examine the male presence in the news media and its effect on the news product
/ use our research on the guest list of ABC News "Nightline" to illustrate several points about men as both
sources and subjects of the news / discuss some of the consequences resulting from male domination of the
process of news production / these images portray a particular type of both male perspective and male
behavior that may not be resonant for a vast number of men / what programs like "Nightline" bring viewers
are interpretations of the world largely from elite, white men / men who are not white, or who are not part
of the culture of power, will find little in the news media to validate their experiences / what this suggests is
that access to "Nightline" and other media is structured by the intersection of gender, race, and class ((c)
the U.S.” Sex Roles 38(11-12): 953-974.
Davis, S. S. and D. A. Davis (1995). “"The Mosque and the satellite": Media and adolescence in a
Moroccan town.” Journal of Youth and Adolescence 24(5): 577-593.
Reports on the exposure of 100 Ss (9-21 yrs old) in a semirural Moroccan town (Zawiya) to a
variety of Western, Middle Eastern, and locally produced media. Media images included economic
affluence, relatively free sexual behavior, and nontraditional social roles for females. Data collected mainly
in 1982 reveal relationships between media exposure and adolescents' use of media images in their social
behavior, choice of mate, and career aspirations. Male adolescents were exposed to more Western media
and were able to develop a more individual taste, but both sexes appeared eager to use media to reimagine
and redefine the culture's gender roles while still preserving core traditional values. ((c) 1997
Dolgin, K.-G., L. Meyer, et al. (1991). “Effects of gender, target's gender, topic, and self-esteem on
disclosure to best and midling friends.” Sex-Roles; 1991 Sep Vol 25(5-6) 311-329.
Examined self-disclosure as a function of discloser's gender, target's gender, topic, class standing,
and self-esteem. In Exp 1, 99 female and 73 male college students completed a test containing items from
the Jourard Self-Disclosure Questionnaire and the Culture-Free Self-Esteem Inventory for Children and
Adults. Ss reported disclosure to their best, nonromantic, same- and opposite-sex friends. In Exp 2, 86
female and 52 male Ss were questioned about disclosure to "midling" friends (not one's best friend and not
a casual acquaintence). Female-female best-friend dyads disclosed more to each other than did other
friendship dyads. When magnitude of effects was examined, however, only the main effect of topic and the
interaction of discloser's gender * target's gender were large in both studies. Self-esteem influenced self-
disclosure. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1992 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
Eisler, H. (1995). The psychophysical functions for time perception: Interpreting their parameters.
Geometric representations of perceptual phenomena: Papers in honor of Tarow Indow on his 70th birthday.
R. D. Luce. Mahwah, NJ, USA, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc: p. 253-265.
(from the chapter) deals with time perception--to be more specific, with subjective duration--from
a quantitative point of view / blends empirical results with theory that can both be deduced from the results
and derived mathematically / there are 3 parts: (1) a brief summary of earlier work, . . . (2) mathematically
derived restrictions of the parameters as a consequence of the empirical finding of a discontinuity or break
in the psychophysical function, and (3) a description of the effect of stimulus and group differences [i.e.
sound intensity, gender, age, Type A-Type B behavior and African immigrants and Native Swedes] in
terms of differing parameter values ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Findlay, B. M. and J. A. Lawrence (1991). “Who does what? Gender-related distribution of household tasks
for couples, their families of origin and their ideals.” Australian Journal of Marriage and Family 12(1): 3-
11.
Examined the distribution of household tasks by 93 young, recently married couples together with
their memories of the way their parents distributed such tasks and their opinions about the ideal distribution
of the tasks. Men and women generally agreed about who did which tasks. Women generally did more
tasks than men, and many more tasks were gender-specific to women than to men. Couples were less
traditional than their parents in the way they distributed household tasks, and more traditional than their
stated ideals. The distribution of tasks to each gender has not changed appreciably from that found in other
studies (V. J. Callan and P. Noller, 1987). ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Fingerman, K. L. and M. Perlmutter (1995). “Future time perspective and life events across adulthood.”
Journal of General Psychology 122(1): 95-111.
Examined age differences in future time perspective and the relations between future time
perspective, locus of control, and past and anticipated future life events in 38 younger (aged 20-37 yrs) and
50 older (aged 60-81 yrs) men and women. Ss completed self-report questionnaires, including an
adaptation of the Major Life Events Inventory by C. Phinney et al (1988) and H. Levenson's Locus of
Control Measure (see PA, Vol 51:9295). There were neither age nor gender differences in the time period
(TP) Ss reported thinking of most frequently. Ss reported thinking about the next few months more
frequently than about other future TPs, which ranged from the next few days to many years. Younger Ss
reported thinking frequently about more distant TPs, whereas older Ss did not. Anticipation of
discontinuous future events, control of impending events, and positive past events accounted for some age
differences found in thinking about distant future TPs. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Gillett, J. and P.-G. White (1992). “Male bodybuilding and the reassertion of hegemonic masculinity: A
critical feminist perspective.” Play-and-Culture; 1992 Nov Vol 5(4) 358-369.
Explores the sources of current male psychocultural anxieties, and suggests that the
hypermasculine body cultivated by male bodybuilders symbolizes an attempt by men to restore feelings of
masculine self-control and self-worth. The sculpted body is intextuated with images recognized as
masculine in consumer culture. The muscular male body is constructed by social relations that are
embedded in gender ideology. Just as eating disorders and compulsive exercise lead to an exaggeratedly
stereotypical female form, bodybuilding idealizes the hypermasculine muscular body, a visual spectacle
and gendered text that reasserts a threatened male hegemony. The paper concludes with a discussion of the
political implications of bodybuilding for the gender order. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1993 American
Glass, J. (1998). “Gender liberation, economic squeeze, or fear of strangers: Why fathers provide infant
care in dual-earner families.” Journal of Marriage and the Family 60(4): 821-834.
As dual-earner families become the dominant structure for families with dependent children,
demographers have noted an increase in the number of families who avoid the use of paid child care by
substituting fathers for paid child-care providers. The number of married couples in which at least 1 partner
works a nonstandard shift has increased in recent years, a phenomenon that encourages parents to establish
sequential work schedules that decrease reliance on nonparental care. This article examined the experiences
of families who use fathers to care for their newborn infants when mothers return to work after childbirth.
The data come from a longitudinal study of 324 women who were employed at least 20 hrs a week during
the 1st trimester of pregnancy. Ss were interviewed in the last trimester of pregnancy, then contacted at 6
and 12 mo postpartum and asked to fill out a short questionnaire focusing on their return to employment
and their child-care arrangements. Results show that most families using father care also used other child-
care arrangements. Father care covered, on average, less than 60% of mothers' work hours. Father care
showed substantial instability over time. Few fathers consistently provided more than 20 hrs/wk of care
throughout the 1st year of their child's life. ((c) 1999 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Gunter, B. G. and N. C. Gunter (1991). “Inequities in household labor: Sex role orientation and the need for
cleanliness and responsibility as predictors.” Journal of Social Behavior and Personality 6(3): 559-572.
Examined the contribution of gender, need for domestic cleanliness and order, need for domestic
responsibility, sex-role orientation (SRO), and the presence of children to the performance of 36 household
tasks by 139 married, working couples. A 5-way analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) for task involvement,
controlling for education and length of time married, found significant main effects for gender, SRO, need
for cleanliness, and the presence of children. A significant interaction emerged between gender and need
for domestic order and cleanliness, indicating that women performed the same number of tasks regardless
of their need for order and cleanliness. In females, androgyny was associated with a high performance of
domestic tasks regardless of their need for responsibility, while an increase in task performance for
androgynous males occurred only if they had a high need for responsibility. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all
rights reserved)
Hancock, P. A., M. Vercruyssen, et al. (1992). “The effect of gender and time-of-day on time perception
and mental workload.” Current Psychology: Research and Reviews 11(3): 203-225.
Two experiments investigated how S gender and time of day influenced the estimation of duration
and the perception of task-related mental workload. In Exp 1, 24 Ss (aged 21-40 yrs) performed a filled
time-estimation task (TTK) in a constant blacked-out, noise-reduced environment at 0800, 1200, 1600, and
2000 hr. In Exp 2, 12 different Ss performed an unfilled TTK in similar conditions at 0900, 1400, and 1900
hr. All participants completed a workload assessment questionnaire as a measure of perceived mental
workload. Results indicated that physiological response, reflected in body temperature change, followed an
expected pattern of sequential increase with time of day. In each of the experiments there were significant
differences in time estimation and mental workload response contingent on the gender of the participant.
Handler, L. (1995). “In the fraternal sisterhood: Sororities as gender strategy.” Gender-and-Society; 1995
Apr Vol 9(2) 236-255.
Analyzes sororities as gender strategy and argues that young women use sororities as a strategy for
dealing with the complexities of gender relations both among women and between women and men. A case
study of a nationally affiliated historically White sorority is presented, based on interviews with 26
members, the chapter president, an alumnus, several pledges from other sororities, and members of the
administration responsible for Greek life. The author focuses primarily on how sororities structure
relationships, helping members navigate campus life, particularly the male-dominated culture of romance.
Employing a language of sisterhood, sororities encourage strong bonds between members. However,
sororities fail to resolve tensions between the collective interests of the sororities and the individualistic
strategies of members in the romantic marketplace. While sororities can be seen as a collective response to
male domination, they are not a challenge to it. (PsycINFO Database Copyright 1995 American
Hargreaves, J. (1985). “From social democracy to authoritarian populism: State intervention in sport and
physical recreation in contemporary Britain.” Leisure-Studies; 1985 May Vol 4(2) 219-226.
Discusses the main features of the nature of state intervention in the UK in sport and recreation
since the mid-1960's. It is concluded that state intervention in sport and recreation under the influence of
authoritarian populism (1) reinforces class divisions, (2) reproduces inequality between ethnic groups, (3)
preserves gender divisions, (4) is permeated with the values of consumer culture, and (5) induces
subordinate groups to identify with the greater good of the nation. (17 ref) (PsycLIT Database Copyright
Hilton, J. M. and V. A. Haldeman (1991). “Gender differences in the performance of household tasks by
adults and children in single-parent and two-parent, two-earner families.” Journal of Family Issues 12(1):
114-130.
Studied gender role differences in 47 2-parent, 2-earner families and 47 single-parent families in
time spent on household work. Children in the families were aged 6-27 yrs. Conclusions drawn from these
analyses were that parents were highly sex segregated in their household task behavior, that household
tasks were sex related for the female parent, and that children were less sex segregated in their household
task behavior than were parents. Boys in 2-parent families were the least sex segregated of the males in the
sample, and girls in single-parent families were less sex segregated in their household task behaviors than
all other adults and children in the study. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Hofstede, G. (1996). “Gender stereotypes and partner preferences of Asian women in masculine and
feminine cultures.” .
Honess, T. M. (1989). “A longitudinal study of school leavers' employment experiences, time structuring
and self-attributions as a function of local opportunity structure.” British-Journal-of-Psychology; 1989 Feb
Vol 80(1) 45-77.
144 15-yr-olds were interviewed shortly before their planned school leaving date and several times
more over the next 3 yrs. The schools are situated in 2 different labor markets, which vary in the extent to
which they offer employment opportunities. It is established that there were different cultures of
expectation with regard to employment, and that these engendered clear differences in coping response and
self-description, which were largely interpretable as appropriate accommodations to these different
expectations. There were some effects that transcended cultural differences, at least as contrasted in this
study. For example, a "community" view of time and positive self-esteem were unambiguous predictors of
success in employment placements. Some patterns were culture sensitive: The availability of good
supportive relationships was a strong indicator of employment placement for Ss from the relatively
disadvantaged community only. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1989 American Psychological Assn, all
rights reserved)
Chicago Press.
rights reserved)
rights reserved)
Leaper, C. and D. Valin (1996). “Predictors of Mexican American mothers' and fathers' attitudes toward
gender equality.” Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences 18(3): 343-355.
Examined factors (background and acculturation variables) related to attitudes about gender-role
equality in 50 Mexican American married mothers (mean age 31 yrs) and 33 Mexican American married
fathers (mean age 34.9 yrs). Each parent completed the Attitudes Toward Gender Scale (a modified version
of the Attitudes Toward Women Scale) and other attitude questionnaires. Mothers with communal values
who were born in the US, with higher levels of education, and who placed less value on competition were
significantly more likely to have gender-egalitarian attitudes. Fathers who had higher levels of education
and who placed less value on competition were significantly more likely to have gender-egalitarian
attitudes. Results suggest that Mexican American parents tend to endorse egalitarian gender attitudes as
they become more acculturated. Other factors such as language spoken, religion, income, and maternal
employment did not significantly account for independent amounts of variance for either mothers' or
fathers' gender-egalitarian attitudes. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Lew, A. S., R. Allen, et al. (1998). “Achievement orientation and fear of success in Asian American college
students.” Journal of Clinical Psychology 54(1): 97-108.
185 Asian American undergraduates participated in a study designed to examine the relationships
among gender, acculturation, achievement orientation, and fear of academic success. Acculturation was
modestly correlated with achievement orientation. Endorsement of Asian and Anglo values was
significantly related to individual-oriented achievement. Marginal significance, however, was obtained for
endorsement of Asian values and beliefs to social-oriented achievement. These findings suggest that
persons with a bicultural identity tend to adopt a multifaceted achievement style. Achievement orientation,
in turn, predicted fear of academic success, with gender and perceived discrepancies from parental
achievement values contributing minimal additional variance. Social-oriented achievement was related to
high fear of academic success, whereas an individualistic orientation buffered against such conflicts. ((c)
MacIntosh, R. (1998). “Global attitude measurement: An assessment of the World Values Survey
Postmaterialism Scale.” American Sociological Review 63(3): 452-464.
The World Values Survey is the product of an unprecedented collaboration of investigators from 5
continents. Using this survey, an international "postmaterialism" scale was developed. This scale shows a
worldwide trend away from concerns with material well-being toward a postmaterialist value system that
emphasizes the free expression of ideas, greater democratization, and the development of more humane
societies. The author tested the assumption that a single latent trait of postmaterialism accounts for the
observed response patterns to items that make up the scale. Applying a log-linear Rasch model, he tested
the assumption that the scale is a consistent cross-national measuring device and find that the scale is not
unidimensional. Item bias was identified after controlling for the common stratification variables of gender,
education, age, and country. ((c) 1998 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Mahoney, J. (1977). “Values and neurosis: A comparison of American and Israeli college students.”
Journal-of-Social-Psychology; 1977 Aug Vol 102(2) 311-312.
Examined the relation of values to neurosis among US college students and compared the findings
to those obtained from a similar study of Israeli college students by Y. Rim (1970). Data from 220
American undergraduates who completed the Emotionality scale of the Pittsburgh revision of the Maudsley
Personality Inventory (A. W. Bendig, 1962) and Form E of the Rokeach Value Survey support the view
that values associated with neuroticism are culture- and gender-specific. (PsycLIT Database Copyright
Maines, D. R. and M. J. Hardesty (1987). “Temporality and gender: Young adults' career and family
plans.” Social Forces 66(1): 102-120.
Examined qualitative data on 50 female and 51 male undergraduates from the present authors'
(1981) study of gender differentiation in mathematics to support and develop the proposition that men and
women live in different temporal worlds. Patterns concerning anticipations of how work, education, and
family will be organized are seen as gender differentiated. G. H. Mead's (1929) theory of time is used to
conceptualize these differences as problems of continuity and discontinuity. It is argued that men live in
linear temporal worlds and women live in contingent temporal worlds. These modalities are specified in
greater detail through an analysis of "what" and "how" problems of the future. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO,
Mason, E. S. (1994). “Work values: A gender comparison and implications for practice.” Psychological-
Reports; 1994 Apr Vol 74(2) 415-418.
Explored the work values of 7,629 managerial and clerical women and men across various US
industries. Ss were presented with 14 work values and asked to select the 7 most relevant. Results show
that each group's patterns or rankings of values lacked an overall similarity. Clerical women and men (total
of 5,145 Ss) were the least similar to each other while the value patterns of managerial men and women
approached similarity. Being treated with respect in the workplace was of paramount importance to both
clerical and managerial women. Managerial women ( n = 752) also ranked working for a supervisor whom
they respect at the top of their value hierarchy. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1994 American Psychological
Masuda, H. (1993). “A study on cognition patterns of gender roles in the family.” Japanese Journal of
Family Psychology 7(1): 25-37.
Studied cognition patterns concerning gender roles in social contexts and family situations. 48
junior college students were subdivided into 4 types: traditional-rigid, traditional-flexible, nontraditional-
rigid, and nontraditional-flexible. Ss were administered a questionnaire measuring awareness of gender
roles, knowledge of terms related to gender roles, social role taking of men and women, role taking in the
family, sensitivity to gender-related topics in mass media, and sharing of household tasks. (English
Mikula, G., H. H. Freudenthaler, et al. (1997). “Division of labor in student households: Gender inequality,
perceived justice, and satisfaction.” Basic and Applied Social Psychology 19(3): 275-289.
Conducted 2 studies of student households to examine gender inequalities in the division of
household labor, and related differences in perceived justice of and satisfaction with that division.
Participants in Exp 1 included 98 male and female students (mean age 25 yrs) sharing a flat, and in Exp 2
included 49 unmarried cohabitating student couples (mean age 25 yrs). Results showed that women spent
more time and made larger contributions to the majority of tasks in both types of households, although
male and female students did not differ in time availability and resources contributed to the household.
Perceived justice was equally high with both sexes, but women were somewhat less satisfied than men.
Both sexes regarded the division of household tasks more just the less it departed from an equal division.
Gender role orientation moderated this correlation with men but not with women. Satisfaction ratings were
positively correlated with perceived justice and negatively correlated with the relative size of Ss'
contributions to the household tasks. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Mikula, G., H. H. Freudenthaler, et al. (1997). “Arrangements and rules of distribution of burdens and
duties: The case of household chores.” European Journal of Social Psychology 27(2): 189-208.
Two studies explored the arrangements and rules which are used in the division of household tasks
and their frequencies of use with different kinds of tasks. In addition, the studies analyzed justice
evaluations of the arrangements and rules and the covariation of justice ratings with different kinds of tasks,
gender, and relative size of raters' own contributions to the household labor. Data were obtained from 2
different types of household systems: the households of 98 young adults sharing flats, and the family
households of 208 adolescents. Eight different arrangements and rules were distinguished. The frequencies
of use differed significantly and were influenced by considerations of practicability, usefulness and
efficiency. The justice ratings were guided by the ideal of an equal allocation of labor and additionally
shaped by functional considerations of applicability and usefulness, and self-serving tendencies. ((c) 1997
Morrison, M. (1995). “Researching food consumers in school: Recipes for concern.” Educational Studies
21(2): 239-263.
Examined food choice and consumption in relation to the institutional dynamics of 2 English
secondary schools and to 30 pupils' (aged 11-29 yrs) interpretations of internal and external influences upon
their understandings about food. The apparent ordinariness of eating is considered with multiple
perceptions of food as they link to educational experience and to identities forged from family, gender, and
media interests. Ss addressed issues including improving the cafeteria system, differentiation between
meals and snacks, and gender differences regarding types of foods consumed. Results suggest the need for
a continuing reappraisal of the formal and informal mechanisms of food-focused education. ((c) 1997
Morrison, N. K. and S. K. Severino (1997). “Moral values: Development and gender influences.” Journal
of the American Academy of Psychoanalysis 25(2): 255-275.
Discusses moral values and development, referring to moral values as the right and wrong of
behavior with self and others. It is proposed that the universal existence of morals throughout culture
suggests that human beings develop moral values out of inherent, innate capacities. Humans enter life in
powerful attachment based on mutual interactive attunement with primary caregivers. Mutual attunement
continues throughout life, expressed in experiences of approval and disapproval. It is proposed that this
ongoing, maturing, mutual attunement lays the foundation for the capacity to develop moral values. Gender
difference in morality is discussed as well, in the context of different developmental pathways between
males and females. ((c) 1998 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Naidoo, J. C. and J. C. Davis (1988). “Canadian South Asian women in transition: A dualistic view of life.”
Journal of Comparative Family Studies 19(2): 311-327.
Examined the duality and selectivity themes characterizing South Asian women's acculturation
attitudes and their role perceptions within the family setting. 298 South Asian and 153 Anglo-Celtic
Canadian women were administered a survey probing self-perceptions, intercultural image, acculturation,
and adaptation stress. The South Asians (46.3% of whom originated in India) were found to be basically
acculturated in education, work attitudes, and type of household maintained in the host country, but not
regarding traditional values relating to marriage, religion, and gender roles. (French & Spanish abstracts)
O'Neill, P. and L. Petrinovich (1998). “A preliminary cross-cultural study of moral intuitions.” Evolution
and Human Behavior 19(6): 349-367.
Hypothetical moral dilemmas have been used to explore the nature of moral intuitions that may
reflect a universal moral belief system. Several dimensions have been identified empirically that are
important to the resolution of these hypothetical moral dilemmas. These dimensions are unrelated to
gender, ethnicity, or other factors that might be expected to influence individuals' moral intuitions. We
explored the generality of these findings by presenting hypothetical dilemmas to a sample of Taiwanese
students attending National Taiwan University. Their native language was Chinese, and over half of the
students were affiliated with an Eastern religion. Responses to the dilemmas by the Taiwanese students
were similar to the responses from several U.S. samples. The same dimensions that were important in the
U.S. samples also were important in the Taiwanese sample. These findings support the argument that an
evolved human nature influences the resolution of these dilemmas. These evolved tendencies would be
those that would enhance inclusive fitness and increase the likelihood of reciprocal altruism and would be
expected to enhance the ultimate reproductive success in the environment of evolutionary adaptation. ((c)
1999 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)(journal abstract)
Patel, N., T. G. Power, et al. (1996). “Socialization values and practices of Indian immigrant parents:
Correlates of modernity and acculturation.” Child Development 67(2): 302-313.
Examined 3 predictors of parental attitudes and behavior (modernity, acculturation, and time in the
US) and aspects of socialization practices, including characteristics that parents encourage in their children,
and methods used in encouraging these characteristics. 100 Gujarati Indian immigrant mothers and fathers
of 12-19 yr old children were interviewed and completed questionnaires about their socialization values
and practices. Results show effects of the predictors varied as a function of parent and child gender.
Whereas modernity and acculturation predicted socialization values for fathers of girls, only time in the US
predicted the socialization values of mothers. Parental modernity, acculturation, and time in the US
predicted the use of induction and psychological control, but differently as a function of parent and child
gender. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Pliner, P., S. Chaiken, et al. (1990). “Gender differences in concern with body weight and physical
appearance over the life span.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 16(2): 263-273.
Studied age, gender, and gender role differences on a set of variables including concern with
eating, body weight, physical appearance, global self-esteem, and appearance self-esteem in 334 females
and 305 males (aged 10-79 yrs) who visited a participatory science museum. Results show that females
were more concerned than males about eating, body weight, and physical appearance and had lower
appearance self-esteem. More important, these gender differences were generally apparent at all ages. The
importance of gender differences across the life span in appearance concern and appearance self-esteem is
discussed. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Poole, M. E. and G. H. Cooney (1987). “Orientations to the future: A comparison of adolescents in

Australia and Singapore.” Journal of Youth and Adolescence 16(2): 129-151.
An event-listing approach was used to examine the personal and societal future orientations of 440
9th graders in Sydney, Australia, and 162 in Singapore. Three aspects were examined: content, affect, and
time span. Overall, results show that Ss perceived their personal and societal features in separate
noninterlocking planes, seeing more pleasant and proximal personal futures, and more unpleasant and distal
societal futures, especially in relation to nuclear war and political problems. Demographic and personal
construct variables influenced this general pattern of future orientation, with themes of career/work and
family/marriage predominating. Cultural and gender differences were also observed. ((c) 1997
Presser, H. B. (1994). “Employment schedules among dual-earner spouses and the division of household
labor by gender.” American Sociological Review 59(3): 348-364.
Examined the relationship between employment schedules and the division of household labor by
gender among 2,388 married dual-earner couples. A new specification of the concept of "available time"
among dual-earner couples is presented. It is shown that variations in employment schedules are significant
determinants of a husband's share in traditionally female household tasks. Also important are certain
aspects of spouses' resources, gender role ideology, and stage in the life course. Interpretations of these
findings take into account whether it is the husband's and/or wife's hours performing household tasks that
are affected by these variables, since the husband's share depends on both. Findings suggest that modest
increases in husbands' participation in household labor may result from the growing diversity in
employment schedules among American workers. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Pyke, K. and S. Coltrane (1996). “Entitlement, obligation, and gratitude in family work.” Journal of Family
Issues 17(1): 61-82.
Explored how feelings of entitlement, obligation, and gratitude affect family work in 193
remarried individuals (age 42 yrs or younger). Hypotheses about the division of labor derived from human
capital and social structural theories were tested along with the hypothesis that past affairs would influence
the allocation of household tasks. More sharing of household labor was associated with husbands being
employed fewer hours and holding egalitarian attitudes, and wives being employed longer, earning more,
and holding conventional attitudes. Husbands' previous extramarital affairs were associated with less
sharing. Drawing on gender theory, the authors suggest that past experiences, situational constraints, and
patterns of inequality in the larger society influence marital economies of gratitude, which, in turn, shape
the allocation of household labor. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Radecki, C. M. and J. Jaccard (1996). “Gender-role differences in decision-making orientations and

decision-making skills.” Journal of Applied Social Psychology 26(1): 76-94.
Used the Personal Attributes Questionnaire and the Social Problem Solving Inventory to examine
the relationship between gender role identification and decision making orientations, respectively, among
60 male and 88 female college students. Decision making was analyzed in terms of problem orientations
(behavioral, cognitive, and emotional) and problem solving skills (problem definition and formulation,
generation of alternative solutions, choice process, solution implementation, and verification). Results
reveal a 2-factor characterization of general decision making in terms of approach-avoidance tendencies
and self-appraisals of decision skills. A masculinity model was supported for decision-making orientation,
with masculinity serving as the only significant predictor. In contrast, an androgyny model was supported
for decision-making skills, with masculinity and femininity serving as significant predictors. ((c) 1997
Redmon, W.-K. (1992). “Opportunities for applied behavior analysis in the total quality movement.”
Journal-of-Applied-Behavior-Analysis; 1992 Fal Vol 25(3) 545-550.
Describes ways in which behavior analysts can contribute to the total quality movement (TQM)
and improve the status of behavioral methods in traditional management areas. The contributions that
would produce the greatest success in TQM also promise to benefit behavior analysis in general (e.g.,
improved cooperation engendered by better consumer satisfaction assessments, reduced countercontrol
through S participation). An organized effort to build the behavior analysis research base and market
behavior-change technology would bring powerful methods to the public at a time when they can
contribute a great deal to the good of the culture. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1993 American
Refsing, K. (1998). Gender identity and gender role patterns in cross-cultural marriages: The Japanese-
Danish case. Cross cultural marriage: Identity and choice. R. Breger. New York, NY, USA, Berg: p. 193-
207.
(from the chapter) Examines how the partners in Japanese-Danish marriages in Denmark perceive
their own gender and identity, and how the lifestyle and living conditions in Denmark influence the range
of choices available to the couple when they try to establish a viable power and gender relation pattern for
their marriage. This chapter is based on 26 interviews carried out in Denmark in 1993-1994. The Ss were
aged 25-65 yrs. The gender identity of the wife appeared to dominate in determining the gender-role
distribution in the marriage. The gender identity of the Danish wives was generally unchallenged by having
husbands doing household tasks, while they themselves became the breadwinners. Most characteristics of
the Japanese women's gender identity were appreciated by their Danish husbands who, although they did
not encourage submissiveness, still enjoyed the freedom of not having too many demands made on them in
the family.The only group whose gender identity was seriously challenged among the Japanese-Danish
couples in Denmark was the Japanese men. ((c) 1998 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Risman, B. and P. Schwartz (1988). “Sociological research on male and female homosexuality.” Annual-
Review-of-Sociology; 1988 Vol 14 125-147.
Discusses 4 topics dominating the research on homosexuality: (1) the question of etiology, which
is now described as the essentialist/constructionist debate; (2) research on the relationship between
sexuality and gender role nonconformity; (3) critiques of studies of intimate relationships; and (4) research
on the gay community, including the impact of acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) on gay male
culture. The previous literature is criticized for presuming that sexual desire can be used to categorize
human beings into homosexual vs heterosexual types. It is suggested that the term homosexual is more
appropriately used as an adjective rather than a noun. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1989 American
Roopnarine, J. L., J. Brown, et al. (1995). “Father involvement in child care and household work in
common-law dual-earner and single-earner Jamaican families.” Journal of Applied Developmental
Psychology 16(1): 35-52.
Examined the division of child care and household labor and beliefs about the roles of mothers
and fathers in 86 low-income dual-earner and single-earner Jamaican couples in common-law unions.
Analysis revealed that there was a markedly gender-differentiated pattern of involvement in child care and
household tasks by parents and that they held very traditional conceptions of the roles of mothers and
fathers. Both parents were more likely to spend time playing with rather than feeding or cleaning their
babies. Involvement in child care did not differ as a function of the gender of the infant, but involvement in
child care and household work did vary by mother's employment status. Jamaican men's participation in
child care and household activities was similar to that in other cultural groups. The data are discussed in
terms of the commonly accepted notion of the marginal role of Jamaican men in the family and in the
context of gender roles. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Root, M.-P. (1990). “Disordered eating in women of color. Special Issue: Gender and ethnicity:
Perspectives on dual status.” Sex-Roles; 1990 Apr Vol 22(7-8) 525-536.
The occurrence of eating disorders in American racial minority groups is rare. Indeed, whereas the
cultural context may afford "protection" to the group, it does not necessarily protect specific individuals, as
described by D. M. Schwartz et al (see PA, Vol 69:8243). Individuals within each racial/ethnic group are
subject to the standards of the dominant culture, particularly when the culture-of-origin is devalued by the
dominant culture. Social, familial, and individual factors are discussed that contribute to eating disorders
symptomatology. Discussions of obstacles to detecting eating disorders and guidelines for developing more
inclusive theory and treatment of persons with eating disorders are included. (PsycLIT Database Copyright
Rosenthal, D., N. Ranieri, et al. (1996). “Vietnamese adolescents in Australia: Relationships between
perceptions of self and parental values, intergenerational conflict, and gender dissatisfaction.” International
Journal of Psychology 31(2): 81-91.
Studied traditional family and independence values among 204 Vietnamese adolescents and young
adults (mean age 18.2 yrs) living in Australia, their perceptions of parental values, and the impact of
different parent-child acculturation on intergenerational conflict and sex-role satisfaction. Demographic
data were obtained, and Ss were administered a modified version of the Values Questionnaire (N. A.
Nguyen and H. L. Williams, 1988). Conflict was measured with a 12-item scale (D. A. Rosenthal, 1984),
and sex-role satisfaction was measured with an 8-item scale (Rosenthal and N. R. Grieve, 1990).
Preliminary analysis replicated the factor structure of the Nguyen and Williams (1988) study. Especially for
girls, traditional Vietnamese family values decreased with time spent in Australia, while independence
values increased. For girls but not for boys, the discrepancy between adolescents' values and perceived
parental values was associated with more conflict and greater sex-role dissatisfaction. (French abstract) ((c)
Sabo, D. and S. C. Jansen (1992). Images of men in sport media: The social reproduction of gender order.
Men, masculinity, and the media. Research on men and masculinities series, Vol. 1. S. Craig. Newbury
Park, CA, USA, Sage Publications, Inc: p. 169-184.
(from the chapter) explore emerging research on gender in sport media in order to demonstrate
how male images in sport media contribute to the social reproduction of cultural values and structural
dynamics of dominance systems within the gender order / drawing upon both feminist theory and a concept
of hegemony loosely derived from Gramsci, we try to identify some of the ways in which sports media
contribute to the social constructions of hegemonic masculinity, and enable dominant groups within the
gender order to extend their material control to the cultural sectors /// critical feminist analysis of sport and
media / the gendering of sport media [the glorious presence of men, the trivialization of women, socially
structured silences] / black athleticism and racial stereotypes / from gender emblem to class icon ((c) 1997
Schiff, W. and R. Oldak (1990). “Accuracy of judging time to arrival: Effects of modality, trajectory, and
gender.” Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 16(2): 303-316.
Observers' accuracy in using time-to-arrival (T-sub(a)) information was examined in 4
experiments. The issues included use of visual vs acoustic T-sub(a ) information, use of acoustic T-sub(a )
information by blind Ss, use of T-sub(a ) information controlling for velocity, and effects of angle of
approach and arrival time on judgment accuracy. Visual information was used more efficiently than
audiovisual and auditory information. Blind Ss used acoustical approach information as accurately as
sighted Ss used visual information. Radial, oblique, and transverse orientations were used to examine
effects of approach trajectory. Radial events were underestimated, whereas the more accurate transverse
approach was likely to be overestimated. Oblique angle events yielded intermediate accuracies implying a
spatiotemporal anisotropy. Women underestimated T-sub(a ) more than did men. Possible reasons for Ss'
judgment accuracy, including linear vs nonlinear optical changes and relation to spatial skills and
experience, were discussed. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Scipione, P. A. (1995). “The value of words: Numerical perceptions associated with descriptive words and
phrases in market research reports.” Journal of Advertising Research 35(3): 36-43.
Surveyed representative market research reports of 315 market research, consumer goods, and
advertising agency executives. Ss rated perceived values of 30 descriptive words and phrases commonly
found in market research reports. Results show that descriptive words and phrases can play a crucial role in
engendering magnitude or value impressions in persons making business decisions based on market
research reports. Those who only read (but do not write) research reports have different word-value
perceptions than those who write them. Those who write and those who read research reports need to pay
more attention to word choice. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1995 American Psychological Assn, all rights
reserved)
Shelton, B. A. (1990). “The distribution of household tasks: Does wife's employment status make a
difference?” Journal of Family Issues 11(2): 115-135.
Examined the relationship between wives' employment status and their own and their husbands'
time spent on specific household tasks. Ss were 154 men and 147 women. Using multiple classification
analysis, the adjusted mean time that women and men spend in a variety of specific household tasks were
compared. Gender roles were somewhat more egalitarian in households where women were employed than
can be discerned from analyses of only total housework and child care time. Employed women spent less
time on female-typed tasks than full-time homemakers, while their time spent on male-typed or neutral
tasks was generally not significantly different from that of full-time homemakers. Men's total housework
time did not vary by wives' employment status, and wives' employment had little effect on their husbands'
time spent on specific tasks. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Shirai, T. (1991). “Relationships between time perspective and time beliefs from adolescence to middle
age.” Japanese Journal of Psychology 62(4): 260-263.
Studied age and gender differences on (1) sense of time perspective and (2) type of time beliefs
and the relationships between them. Human Ss: 245 normal male and female Japanese adolescents and
adults (aged 16-24 yrs). 46 normal male and female Japanese adults (aged 25-39 yrs). 150 normal male and
female Japanese middle age adults (aged 40-55 yrs). A questionnaire consisting of the Time Perspective
Scale and the Time Beliefs Scale was administered. (English abstract) ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights
reserved)
Silghidjyan, H. (1985). “Value orientation and time horizons of personality during adolescence.”
Psikhologiia Bulgaria No 4: 22-32.
Studied the time perspective and value orientation of 120 male and 78 female adolescents. Ss were
asked how they viewed their life over the next 5 or 15 yrs. Responses indicated different attitudes toward
life goals depending on gender and life strategy. Two types of strategies for personality self-realization in
the area of value orientation were distinguished through time integration: adaptive and constructive. In the
time-horizon sphere, these strategies produced different orientations toward the future, different cognitive-
motivational hierarchies, and different means of reconciling contradictions between present and future
personality dimensions. Findings support the existence of a relationship between value orientation and time
horizons of personality in the selection of life strategies during adolescence. (English abstract) (20 ref) ((c)
Singhapakdi, A. and S. J. Vitell (1991). “Research note: Selected factors influencing marketers'
deontological norms.” Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science 19(1): 37-42.
Examined the impact of personal experiences and organizational environment on an individual's
deontological norms (i.e., personal values or rules of behavior), using questionnaire responses of 483
professional marketers. Ss rated a set of 7 deontological statements. Results indicate that deontological
norms were a function of Machiavellianism (the degree to which one feels other people are manipulable)
and locus of control. Marketers high in Machiavellianism and with an external locus of control tended to be
lower in their deontological norms than their counterparts. Marketers with more business experience were
more likely to be ethical deontologically than those with less business experience. No relationship was
found between the gender of a marketer and his or her deontological norms. (PsycLIT Database Copyright
Super, D. E. (1995). Values: Their nature, assessment, and practical use. Life roles, values, and careers:
International findings of the Work Importance Study. The Jossey Bass social and behavioral science series.
D. E. Super. San Francisco, CA, USA, Jossey-Bass Inc, Publishers: p. 54-61.
Reviews research examining the nature, assessment & practical use of values. (from the chapter)
research on the construct of values [do values differ from needs and interests; do values differ from 1
country to another / do values differ with age, gender, and other demographic variables; are values related
to occupational choice, stability, and satisfaction] ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Super, D. E. and B. Sverko, Eds. (1995). Life roles, values, and careers: International findings of the Work
Importance Study. The Jossey Bass social and behavioral science series. San Francisco, Jossey-Bass Inc,
Publishers.
(from the jacket) Do the same values exist within traditionally capitalistic and socialistic
countries? What is the role of the homemaker in recently industrialized regions? How does the way
individuals in different countries view work affect their lives, families, communities, and nations? /// [This
book] answers fundamental questions about the nature of work in modern life based on the research from
an innovative, cross-national project of the Work Importance Study. This unique collaborative effort
includes data from Australia, Belgium, Canada, Croatia, Italy, Japan, Poland, Portugal, South Africa, and
the US. /// Using a cross-national measure indigenous to each participating country, the researchers explore
how values of individuals are expressed in different roles and in different settings and situations: work,
play, and school. The results support the universality and stability of values and reveal that the fulfillment
of personal potential is a life goal that cuts through the boundaries of culture, status, and gender. /// "Life
Roles, Values, and Careers" makes an important contribution to the global study of human development
across the lifespan. The editors offer concise and thought-provoking presentations on the wealth of data
collected and include an overview of the current relevant literature. The book also highlights the
differences and similarities the researchers discovered in focus groups, sampling, and findings. Written for
scholars and practitioners in psychology, sociology, anthropology, counseling, education, and political
science, this book contains a wealth of information and an assortment of instruments valuable for career
counseling and human resources development in business, industry, and government agencies. ((c) 1997
Szinovacz, M. and P. Harpster (1994). “Couples' employment/retirement status and the division of
household tasks.” Journals of Gerontology 49(3): S125-S136.
Investigated how couples' employment/retirement status (ERS) affects division of household labor
based on a subsample of 672 participants in the National Survey of Families and Households. ERS effects
on housework were found to vary by gender and domain, as well as by the wife's work history. Retired
wives spent more and their husbands less time on "female" chores when compared to dual-earner couples.
Husbands' contributions to "male" tasks were highest if they were retired and their wives employed and
lowest if the husband was employed and the wife retired. Retired husbands of housewives spent more time
with both male and female chores than did employed husbands of housewives, whereas housewives whose
husbands were retired contributed less to female chores than did housewives whose husbands were
employed. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Tamayo, A. (1993). “Valores de los adolescentes: ejes motivacionales. Adolescents' values: Motivational
axes.” Acta-Psiquiatrica-y-Psicologica-de-America-Latina; 1993 Jun Vol 39(2) 140-151.
Studied the effect of gender and nationality on the motivational dimensions of human values. Ss
were 70 American students (mean age 14 yrs) and 70 Brazilian students (mean age 14 yrs) at a US high
school. 56 cross-cultural values and 4 values specific to the Brazilian culture were assessed using S. H.
Schwartz's scale. An ANOVA was performed. (English abstract) (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1994
Tan, U. (1992). “Relation of nonverbal intelligence assessed by Cattell's Culture Fair Intelligence Test to
latencies of the somatosensory evoked potentials elicited by stimulation of the posterior tibial nerves in
right-handed male and female subjects.” International-Journal-of-Neuroscience; 1992 May-Jun Vol 64(1-4)
107-112.
Investigated the speed hypothesis of information processing in cognitive functioning such as
nonverbal intelligence (NVI) by examining the somatosensory evoked potentials from the right and left
posterior tibial nerves (PTNs) in healthy right-handed men and women (aged 19-21 yrs). Individual
differences in NVI were assessed by the Cattell Intelligence Tests. In general, results do not support the
speed hypothesis, in that gender affected IQ-latency correlations. However, in accord with the speed
hypothesis, the latencies of the P39 and P58 waves from the right PTN and the latencies of the N49 waves
from the right and left PTNs showed significant linear correlations with NVI scores. Results suggest that
NVI in females does not depend on a symmetric or asymmetric organization of the brain, while an
asymmetrically organized brain is disadvantageous for NVI in males. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1993
Tyler, L. E. and N. D. Sundberg (1991). Cross cultural research on perception of possibilities.

Contemporary approaches to cognitive psychology. M. I. Posner. Varanasi, India, Rishi Publications: p. 17-
29.
(from the chapter) in keeping with our interest in counselling and the development of individual
personalities, we have been concerned with a special kind of awareness, the 'awareness of possibilities' ///
we are interested especially in the 'choices' individuals make at certain turning points in their lives / to what
extent do such choices set the direction for development that follows / in considering how we might
approach this problem, it was natural for us to think of cross-cultural research as one strategy we might
adopt / because some of the factors influencing choices vary from culture to culture, we might obtain clues
as to what such influences are, and also as to whether there are universal factors characterizing different
cultures /// out of the many kinds of similarities and differences we analyzed, we are reporting here the
evidence bearing on three questions / 1. are there group and individual differences in the extent to which
young people [adolescents] are 'aware' of multiple possibilities for action and development / 2. in the
making of choices, what kinds of 'possibility processing' mental structures are used, such as concepts,
interests, values and the like / 3. how are awareness and the structures influenced by families, schools,
social class, culture, gender, and any other factor we are able to identify ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all
rights reserved)
Wade, C. a. T., C. (1994). The longest war: Culture and gender. Psychology and Culture. W. J. L. a. R. S.
Malpass. Boston, Allyn and Bacon: 121-126.
Investigation of the relationship of gender and culture from a feminist viewpoint. Discussion of
basic problems of source of gender difference.
Wallendorf, M. and E.-J. Arnould (1988). “"My favorite things": A cross-cultural inquiry into object
attachment, possessiveness, and social linkage.” Journal-of-Consumer-Research; 1988 Mar Vol 14(4) 531-
547.
Explored the meaning and histories of favorite objects by means of surveys and photographs. Ss
were 300 adults from a Southwestern US city and 45 Hausa-speaking adult peasants from 3 villages in the
Niger Republic. Meanings of favorite objects derived more from personal memories in the US and from
social status among the Niger Ss than from object characteristics. Since favorite objects serve as a
storehouse of personal meanings, gender, age, and culture reflected differences in object selected and
reasons for selection. Among the US Ss, favorite objects most often served as symbols of, rather than
replacements for, close interpersonal ties. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1988 American Psychological
Watkins, D., J. Yau, et al. (1997). “The Twenty Statements Test: Some measurement issues.” Journal of
Cross Cultural Psychology 28(5): 626-633.
Investigated the issue of the weighting and number of the Twenty Statements Test (TST, M. H.
Kuhn and T. S. McPartland, 1954) responses with samples of 165 16-18 yr old secondary school students
in Hong Kong, and 200 Swedish and Ethiopian college students. The TST was designed to measure cross-
cultural differences in the nature of self concept. Responses were classified into idiocentric, large groups,
small group, and allocentric categories, and scores were weighted by the rank order of the response and 7,
10, or 20 items were considered. Analysis found that the rank and number of the items made a difference in
the proportions assigned to these categories for the Hong Kong but not the other samples and made little
difference to the testing of hypotheses about gender and cultural differences in self-concepts. (PsycLIT
Webster, C. (1996). “Hispanic and Anglo interviewer and respondent ethnicity and gender: The impact on
survey response quality.” Journal-of-Marketing-Research; 1996 Feb Vol 33(1) 62-72.
Applied a hierarchical regression model to analyze the simultaneous effects of Hispanic and Anglo
interviewer and respondent ethnicity and gender on response quality in survey research. The pool of
interviewers was comprised of 19 Anglo and 22 Hispanic females and 20 Anglo and 18 Hispanic males. All
respondents and interviewers were 31-45 yrs old. Although few significant main effects of respondent or
interviewer characteristics on response quality were found, Anglos and female interviewers generated a
significantly higher item-response effort rate than their counterparts. For the most part, ethnically
homophilous and gender-heterophilous interviews generated the highest response quality. Both Hispanic
and Anglo respondents deferred to an interviewer of a different ethnic background when queried about the
interviewer's culture, but not when asked noncultural, albeit sensitive, questions. (PsycLIT Database
Wrightsman, L. S. (1994). Adult personality development, Vol. 2: Applications. Thousand Oaks, CA, USA,
(from the cover) In this [volume], Wrightsman explores new topics [in adult personality
development] and includes a wide variety of sources, such as scholarly articles and books, biographies, and
case studies. Increased attention is devoted to creativity in adulthood, learning and memory, marriage
stability, and other topics. The book provides a focus for a Psychology of Adulthood course that
encourages students to look at the evolving nature of their own lives. Particular attention is given to
developing an extensive set of references . . . as an aid to scholars. /// "Adult Personality Development" will
attract a wide readership among students and professionals of psychology, developmental and clinical
psychology, aging, family studies, social psychology, gender studies, and nursing. ((c) 1997
Yarcheski, A., N. E. Mahon, et al. (1997). “Alternate models of positive health practices in adolescents.”
Nursing Research 46(2): 85-92.
Developed and tested 2 alternate causal models of positive health practices in adolescents, which
built on a modification of the original theoretical formulation previously tested in adolescents by A.
Yarcheski and N. Mahon (1989). The sample consisted of 202 adolescents (aged 15-21 yrs). In classroom
settings, Ss responded to instruments and a demographic data sheet measuring variables in both models
(age, gender, self-esteem, social support, and positive health practices), and to additional variables in
Model 1 (future time perspective) and Model 2 (perceived health status). Both causal models were tested by
the LISREL 7 program. By all indicators used in the study, there was a very good fit of both models with
their data, there were no specification errors in either model, and neither model required modification.
Visual inspection of the indicators suggested that Model 1 had a slightly better fit than did Model 2 with
their respective data. These results suggest that causal models explaining positive health practices should
include endogenous variables that share a common orientation, such as those with a psychosocial focus vs
those with a health-related focus. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Yee, B. W. (1992). “Markers of successful aging among Vietnamese refugee women.” Women and
Therapy 13(3): 221-238.
Summarizes research describing several markers of successful aging for Vietnamese women.
Feelings of control have important implications for the life satisfaction and mental health of female
Vietnamese refugees. Adequate satisfaction with social relationships is also a key contributor to successful
aging. Methods are discussed in which mental health and health care professionals can assist elderly female
refugees in coping with family crisis, adaptation, and acculturation issues. Of key importance to the
understanding of this population are cultural values surrounding age and gender norms, differential rates of
acculturation across generations in the family, and cross-cultural differences in mental health and their
therapeutic implications. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Zeitlin, L. R. (1999). Gender, race, and citizenship differences in work related values. Society for Cross
Cultural Research, Sante Fe, MN, SCCR.
A finding of gender, race and citizenship differences in work related values was the result of a
replication of Hofstede's 1980 study of national values in the multi ethnic population of CUNY business
students. A factor analysis of work value items on 780 questionnaires suggested that 2 factors, work
success and life styles, accountend for most of the response varience. Thefemal dispersion was marked
smaller than that of the males.
Zeitlin, L. R. (1999 (in press)). “Work values: Influences of national origin, religion, race and gender.”
World Cultures: Journal of Comparative and Cross-Cultural Research.
A comprehensive survey of graduate business students in the New York area revealed work value
differences attributable to race, gender, religion, and national origin. The Hofstede values survey, the EPPI,
a locus of control survey, a preferred activities survey, and a preferred manager survey were administered
to 805 native US and foreign born MBA candidates. Demographic information on birthplace, parent's
birthplace, religion, degree of religious faith, citizenship, educational location (primary, secondary,
college), year of immigration to the US, year of residence in the New York area and intention to remain in
the US after education completion was secured from all subjects. Factor analysis of the values survey
results revealed an intrinsic Work Success factor and an extrinsic Life Styles factor accounted for almost all
the variance. Female variability was much smaller than male variability. Religion and national origin as
well as years in the US were responsible for significant factor score differences. The rate of acculturation
was most rapid three to five years after immigration.
Intelligence and cognition:

Agrawal, R. (1986). “Authoritarianism and stress: Some findings on Indian adolescents. International
Conference on Authoritarianism and Dogmatism (1984, Potsdam, New York).” Psychological-Studies;
1986 Jul Vol 31(2) 161-164.
Studied the relationships among authoritarianism, age, intelligence, and stress among 30 boys
from each of the following grades at an English school in the Panjab, India: 6th grade (aged 10-12 yrs), 8th
grade (aged 12-14 yrs), and 10th grade (aged 13-16 yrs). The total number of Ss was 90. 10th graders
completed the following tests: the Directiveness Scale (J. J. Ray, 1976); the Sixteen Personality Factor
Questionnaire (16PF) (R. B. Cattell, 1973); Bem's Sex Role Inventory (S. Bem, 1974); General Mental
Ability Test (R. K. Tandon, 1971); Culture Fair Test of Intelligence (Cattell, 1950); and Socioeconomic
Scale (B. Kuppuswamy, 1962). Sixth and 8th graders completed only the Directiveness Scale. Results
reveal an increase in the level of authoritarianism with age, and a positive correlation between
authoritarianism and stress, a relationship that can be mediated by crystallized aspects of intelligence.
Bartmann, T. (1993). “Symmetrieverstandnis und Intelligenz bei Kindern im Grundschulalter. (Intelligence

and understanding of symmetry in elementary school children.).” Zeitschrift-fur-Entwicklungspsychologie-
und-Padagogische-Psychologie; 1993 Vol 25(1) 48-63.
Studied the development of the symmetry concept in elementary school children and the
relationship between intelligence and understanding of symmetry. Human Ss: 119 normal male and female
West German school-age children (mean age at baseline 7 yrs) (1st grade students). Ss' intelligence and
understanding of symmetry were assessed at baseline and again 3 yrs later. Changes in these parameters
and in their intercorrelation were analyzed. Tests used: Two German versions of the Culture Fair
Intelligence Test (CFT) by R. B. Cattell (CFT-1 and CFT-20). (English abstract) (PsycLIT Database
Bartsch, T. W., K. Barton, et al. (1973). “A repeated measures investigation of the relation of the School
Motivation Analysis Test to academic achievement.” Psychological-Reports; 1973 Dec Vol. 33(3) 743-748.
Administered standardized tests of social studies, science, mathematics and reading achievement
(e.g., the Culture Fair Intelligence Test and the School Motivation Analysis Test) 3 times at 6-mo intervals
to 109 female and 149 male junior high school students. With sex, intelligence, and motivation treated as
independent variables, 40 repeated-measures analyses of variance were computed to determine if these
factors were associated with differential rate of gain in any of the 4 achievement tests. Significant main
effects for intelligence, motivation, and occasions were found in each analysis. In comparison, interaction
terms, suggesting differential change in level of achievement, were sparse and highly specific. With one
exception, it is concluded that little differential growth occurred over the 12-mo period. (PsycLIT Database
Bokhorst, F.-D. (1989). “Intelligence and creative thinking ability in learning to perform a non-entrenched
colour-naming task.” South-African-Journal-of-Psychology; 1989 Mar Vol 19(1) 28-33.
Using a color-naming task originally introduced by R. J. Sternberg (1982), information-processing
analysis of performance by 109 South African undergraduates was done before and after computer-assisted
training. Mean response latency and error rates improved substantially after training, and the degree of
change was substantially correlated with the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking. Correlations with the
Cattell Culture Fair Intelligence Test were equivocal due to the low power of the present research design.
The evidence showed a possible relationship between nonentrenchment, task novelty, and creative-thinking
ability. Information-processing analysis of performance based on the a priori model used in the original
Sternberg experiment yielded results similar to previous research. (Afrikaans abstract) (PsycLIT Database
Bond, M.-H. and C. Kwok-Venus (1991). “Resistance to group or personal insults in an ingroup or
outgroup context.” International-Journal-of-Psychology; 1991 Vol 26(1) 83-94.
In a teaching exercise, which was purportedly measuring their intelligence, 8 students were
insulted for their incompetence by their teacher in various situations: when alone, in front of an ingroup
member, or in front of an outgroup member. In half the cases this personal insult was augmented by one
impugning the competence of the student's academic ingroup as well. Direct resistance showed a complex
pattern of results, reflecting concerns about managing an impression of group loyalty and personal
detachment. Measures of indirect resistance showed higher levels in the public, as opposed to the private,
contexts and were conceptualized as reflecting esteem deflation. These results thus amplify and extend into
the logic of a collectivist culture hypothesis (R. B. Felson, 1978) about aggression as impression
management. (French abstract) (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1991 American Psychological Assn, all
rights reserved)
Bond, M. H., Ed. (1996). The handbook of Chinese psychology. Hong Kong, Oxford University Press.
(from the jacket) This handbook [discusses] Chinese psychology. The field of psychology has
long been dominated by Western theories, data, practitioners, and subjects. Within the past 2 decades,
however, a growing body of psychological research on Chinese people has added . . . new data and insights
to our understanding of both culture-specific and universal learning, thinking, and behaviour. /// The
research covers the people of China, Taiwan, Hong Kong, Singapore, and the global Chinese diaspora. The
authors seek out and analyse the idiosyncratic aspects of Chinese intelligence, personality structure,
emotions, social interaction, abnormal behaviour, decision-making, and academic achievement. ((c) 1997
Buhler, K. E., M. Gross, et al. (1991). “Psychometrische Differenzierung schizophrener und

schizoaffektiver Psychosen. Psychometric differentiation of schizophrenic and schizoaffective disorders.”
Schweizer-Archiv-fur-Neurologie-und-Psychiatrie; 1991 Vol 142(6) 535-552.
Studied cognitive deficits in patients with schizoaffective disorders. Focus was on differentiating
between schizomanic and schizoaffective subtypes of schizoaffective psychoses and between schizophrenic
and schizoaffective disorders. Human Ss: 26 male and female German adults (mean age 37 yrs)
(schizomanic psychosis). 13 male and female German adults (mean age 38 yrs) (schizodepressive
psychosis). Ss completed a battery of intelligence and achievement tests, and intergroup differences were
analyzed. In addition, results were compared to findings from a previous study (K. E. Buhler and H. Vogt,
1987) that used the same instruments among patients with schizophrenia. Tests used: A wide range of
German-language instruments, including a brief German version by G. Dahl (1972) of the Wechsler Adult
Intelligence Scale (WAIS); the Standard Progressive Matrices by J. C. Raven (1979); a German version of
the Culture Free Intelligence Test by R. B. Cattell; and the Linguistic Achievement Test by K. F. Riegel
(1967). (English abstract) (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1992 American Psychological Assn, all rights
reserved)
Buhler, K. E. and H. Vogt (1987). “Kognitives Leistungsprofil bei Schizophrenen. Cognitive ability profile
of schizophrenics.” Schweizer-Archiv-fur-Neurologie-und-Psychiatrie; 1987 Vol 138(4) 25-44.
Studied cognitive abilities and deficits of schizophrenics with normal intelligence. Human
subjects: 189 male and female German adults (schizophrenia) (verbal IQ of 80 and above). The Ss were
administered a battery of verbal and nonverbal intelligence tests. Tests used: Seven German-language tests,
including German versions of J. C. Raven's (1936, 1960) Standard Progressive Matrices and R. B. Cattell's
(1961) Culture Free Intelligence Test, and a brief German version of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale
(WAIS) by G. Dahl (1968, 1972). (English & French abstracts) (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1989
Buj, V. (1981). “Average IQ values in various European countries.” Personality-and-Individual-

Differences; 1981 Vol 2(2) 168-169.
Reports the averaged IQ scores of 10,737 persons (CA 16 yrs and older) in 21 European countries,
collected using the Cattell Scale CFT3, a nonverbal, culture-fair test. One person for each 40,000
inhabitants was tested, and 3 subgroups were represented proportionally: (1) men and women, (2) age, and
(3) socioeconomic status. Results show that the mean of the total population was 2.2 IQ points above the
expected value of 100 and that the mean value was similar to the standardization value for previous
American samples. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1982 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
Carroll, J.-B. (1984). “Raymond B. Cattell's contribution to the theory of cognitive abilities.” Multivariate-
Behavioral-Research; 1984 Apr-Jul Vol 19(2-3) 300-306.
Describes Cattell's work on intelligence, its measurement, and the relationship between heredity
and intelligence. In 1933, Cattell and H. Bristol developed a series of intelligence tests for MAs of 4 to 8
yrs. They attempted to make the tests as free as possible of the effects of culture and schooling. Using data
from these tests, Cattell and colleagues made contributions to the question of the inheritance of intelligence
by enunciating principles for developing a culture-free intelligence test. Cattell proposed a series of items
of greatest common knowledge among diverse cultures. The Cattell Culture Free Intelligence Test was
published in the 1940's, although the name was changed to the Cattell Culture Fair Intelligence Test around
1965. Cattell went on to develop a theory of fluid and crystallized intelligence. The delay in the publication
of this theory was due to Cattell's research on personality factor structuring. The theory states that the
development of fluid intelligence is due primarily to genetic and constitutional factors, while the
development of crystallized intelligence is due chiefly to the investment of fluid intelligence in pursuits that
are dependent on environmental opportunities. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1985 American Psychological
Ceci, S. J. (1994). Schooling. Encyclopedia of human intelligence. R. J. Sternberg. New York, Macmillian.
Vol. 2: 960-964.
Chaiken, S.-R. and R.-K. Young (1993). “Inspection time and intelligence: Attempts to eliminate the
apparent movements strategy.” American-Journal-of-Psychology; 1993 Sum Vol 106(2) 191-210.
Inspection time (IT) indexes the ability to discriminate between test stimuli under conditions of
varied and limited exposure time. Two experiments were conducted to replicate and extend previous
findings. In Exp 1, 113 adults completed an IT task, a questionnaire dealing with the S's task response
strategy, and Scale 3 of the Cattell Culture Fair Test of g. Results replicated the basic findings of an IT/IQ
relationship and a difference between Ss reporting use and nonuse of an apparent-movement strategy, the
use of which diminishes the IT/IQ relationship. Exp 2, with 338 adult Ss, varied factors to remove use of
the apparent-movement strategy. Although none of these manipulations had the predicted effect of reducing
strategy use, conditions were found in which Ss reporting strategy use showed more robust correlations to
IQ than had been reported previously. In addition, significant task effects, practice effects, and bias effects
are reported. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1993 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
D'Adamo, S. (1987). “Il Test Culture Fair Scala 2 Forma A di Cattell: Contributo per una taratura italiana.
(Cattell's Culture Fair Intelligence Test, Scale 2, Form A: Contribution to an Italian standardization.).”
Bollettino-di-Psicologia-Applicata; 1987 Jan-Mar No 181 41-44.
Administered the Culture Fair Intelligence Test to workers in higher paying jobs who had a junior
high school education. Human subjects: 763 normal male Italian adults (mean age 38.5 yrs). The results
were analyzed statistically and were compared with results obtained from the original standardization of the
test. (English abstract) (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1990 American Psychological Assn, all rights
reserved)
Dasen, P. R. (1984). “The cross cultural study of intelligence.” International Journal of Psychology 19:
407-437.
Desai, K. G. (1980). “Comparative factorial structure of Raven's Standard Progressive Matrices, Cattell's
Culture Fair Scale 3 and Desai-Bhatt Group Tests of Intelligence on samples of various sub-cultures of
Gujarat.” Journal-of-Psychological-Researches; 1980 Jan-May Vol 24(1-2) 8-15.
Administered a variety of verbal and nonverbal intelligence measures to 338 children in urban,
semi-urban, rural, and tribal groups. Results of factor analyses confirm R. B. Cattell's (1963) distinction
between fluid and crystallized intelligence, question the validity of the Culture Fair Intelligence Test for
different subcultural groups, and do not provide any data that support or negate A. R. Jensen's (1973, 1974)
concept of Level I and Level II abilities. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1982 American Psychological Assn,
Dias, B. and F. Studer (1992). “Konnen Geistigbehinderte Regeln des induktiven Denkens lernen, behalten
und transferieren? Ein Beitrag zu den Theorien Reuven Feuersteins. (Can mentally retarded persons learn,
retain, and transfer the rules of inductive reasoning? A contribution to the theories of Reuven Feuerstein.).”
Vierteljahresschrift-fur-Heilpadagogik-und-ihre-Nachbargebiete; 1992 Dec Vol 61(4) 491-501.
Studied the effects of mediated learning on inductive reasoning abilities in persons with mental
retardation. Ss were 52 female participants (aged 16-22 yrs; IQ less than 75) in a residential vocational
training program. Ss were divided into 2 experimental groups and 1 no-intervention control group. The
intervention consisted of the Set Variation-II method developed by Feuerstein et al to assess learning
potential in mentally retarded persons. This method involves variations of test items from the Raven
Standard Progressive Matrices (RSPM). The 23 Ss in Experimental Group I and the 11 Ss in the control
group were tested with the RSPM and with a German version of the Culture Fair Intelligence Test (R. B.
Cattell and R. H. Weiss, 1972) before, immediately after, 4 wks after, and 1 yr after the 5-wk training
program. Experimental Group II followed the same protocol without the pretest. Intergroup differences in
learning, retention, and transfer of learning were analyzed. (English & French abstracts) (PsycLIT Database
Dielman, T. E., K. Barton, et al. (1974). “Adolescent personality and intelligence scores as related to family
demography.” Journal-of-Genetic-Psychology; 1974 Mar Vol. 124(1) 151-154.
Sex of child, father's education, race, and number of siblings of each sex were employed to predict
High School Personality Questionnaire and Culture Fair Intelligence Questionnaire scores in a sample of
298 junior high school students. Father's education and race were significant predictors of both intelligence
measures. Females scored higher on ego strength, social boldness, and self-sentiment, while males scored
higher on excitability, guilt proneness, and ergic tension. Ss with more sisters received higher scores on
guilt proneness, Ss with more brothers received higher scores on self-sentiment, and Ss with more highly
educated fathers received higher superego scores. Family size was significantly and positively related to
ergic tension. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1974 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
Doutriaux, F. (1980). “(The relationship between creativity, intelligence, school achievement, and
sociocultural level in children.).” Revue-de-Psychologie-Appliquee; 1980 Vol 30(3) 177-183.
Parental occupation was used to classify 133 10-11 yr old Parisian public-school children to study
creativity, intelligence (IQ), and school success in relation to sociocultural environment. Creativity was
measured by a French adaptation of the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking (Form A), IQ by the Cattell
Culture Fair Intelligence Test 2, and school achievement by a 5-category ranking in French (grammar and
expression) and mathematics. IQ and school success, but not creativity, were found to be correlated wtih
parental occupation. The obtained covariation might be explained in terms of convergent thinking. (English
abstract) (3 ref) (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1982 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
Flynn, J. R. (1991). Asian Americans: Achievement beyond IQ. Hillsdale, NJ, USA, Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates, Inc.
(from the book) This book shows that Asian Americans, particularly Chinese and Japanese
Americans, achieve far beyond their mean IQ would lead us to expect. /// Our primary objective is to
provide evidence that Asian Americans achieve far beyond the bounds of IQ. But the fact that Chinese and
Japanese Americans have mean IQs below Whites, or no higher than Whites, creates a secondary objective.
It casts doubt on theories that the Sino-Japanese peoples possess some sort of genetic superiority for IQ, or
perhaps intelligence, or perhaps both. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Hayslip, B. (1980). “Relationships between intelligence and concept identification in adulthood as a

function of stage of learning.” International-Journal-of-Aging-and-Human-Development; 1979-80 Vol
10(2) 187-202.
Asked 54 Ss in 3 groups (aged 17-26, 39-51, and 59-76 yrs) to solve 2 types of concept problems.
Predictions derived from the Gf-Gc (fluid vs crystallized functioning) theory of J. L. Horn and R. B. Cattell
(1966, 1967) were measured by the WAIS Information, Digit Span, and Vocabulary subtests; the
vocabulary, common and abstruse analogies, and letter series portions of the Gf-Gc sampler; and the Cattell
Culture Fair Matrices and were partially supported in each age group. Differential ability-performance
relations as a function of stage of learning were considerably less potent in the elderly vs the young and
middle aged. Comparisons both within and between age groups suggested that a dynamic picture of
interactions among organismic and task-related variables is preferable, reflecting structural changes in such
relationships with practice and cohort membership. (52 ref) (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1980 American
Hogan, H. W. (1980). “German and American authoritarianism, self-estimated intelligence and value
priorities.” Journal of Social Psychology 111(1): 145-146.
Administered the Rokeach Value Survey, Form E, in German to 168 German university students
(mean age 20 yrs) and in English to 312 American students (mean age 18 yrs). The study was designed to
extend the dimensions previously correlated with M. Rokeach's (1973) values by including self-estimated
intelligence and symbolically measured authoritarianism. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1981 American
Kettel, K. J. (1974). “(Study of adaptation with foreign probands.).” Psychologie-und-Praxis; 1974 Oct-Dec
Vol 18(4) 146-149.
Compared 48 17-57 yr old Germans with 49 19-50 yr old foreigners on the Culture-Fair Test of
Cattell and the Intelligence-Structure test of Amthauer. No difference was found between German and
foreign Ss on the Culture-Fair Test. The correlation between the Culture-Fair Test and the Intelligence-
Structure Test was greater among foreign than German Ss. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1977 American
Klauer, K.-J. (1987). “Induktives Denken, analytische Losungsstrategie und Intelligenz: Ergebnisse zweier
Trainingsstudien. (Inductive thinking, analytic solving strategy, and intelligence: Results of two training
studies.).” Zeitschrift-fur-Entwicklungspsychologie-und-Padagogische-Psychologie; 1987 Vol 19(4) 325-
339.
Studied the effects of training in techniques of inductive thinking (ascertaining equality and/or
difference of attributes and relations) on performance in 2 intelligence tests. Human subjects: 88 normal
children (Exp I). 22 normal adolescents (Exp II). Ss were trained for 4 hrs (Exp I) and 2 hrs (Exp II) in 6
classes of equality/difference items as well as in 3 classes of subject matter. The Culture Fair Intelligence
Test by Cattell and Weiss was administered before and after the training. (English abstract) Educational.
Educational level(s) of subjects: Grades 7 and 12. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1989 American
Klauer, K.-J. (1992). “Zum Training fluider und kristallisierter Intelligenzleistungen bei alteren Menschen:
Konzept und Erprobung zweier Trainingsprogramme. On the training of fluid and crystallized intelligence
with older adults: Conception and test of two training programs.” Zeitschrift-fur-Gerontopsychologie-and-
psychiatrie; 1992 Jun Vol 5(2) 59-70.
Studied the effectiveness of 2 training programs designed to enhance cognitive performance in
older adults. Ss were 30 elderly women (mean age 60 yrs in Group 1; mean age 57 yrs in Group 2) divided
into 2 groups. Group 1 participated in a program designed to enhance fluid intelligence by developing
inductive reasoning abilities; Group 2 received a training program aimed at promoting crystallized
intelligence. Fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence were assessed in both groups before and after
the 3-mo training programs, and intergroup differences were analyzed. German versions of the Culture Fair
Intelligence Test by R. B. Cattell and the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) were used. (English
abstract) (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1993 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
Klauer, K.-J. (1989). “Paradigmatisches Training induktiven Denkens: Ergebnisse zweier

Transferexperimente. Paradigmatic training of inductive thinking: Results of two transfer experiments.”
Zeitschrift-fur-Padagogische-Psychologie; 1989 Dec Vol 3(4) 249-258.
Studied the mode of action (Exp I) and the general effectiveness (Exp II) of a paradigmatic
training program of inductive thinking. Human subjects: 30 normal male and female West German
schoolage children (2nd graders) (Exp I). 20 male and female West German children and adolescents (aged
11-17 yrs) (learning disabilities) (Exp II). In Exp I, the Ss were divided into 2 training groups (receiving
training either with test-related and test-unrelated tasks or with test-unrelated tasks only) and a control
group (receiving no training). In Exp II, the Ss were equally divided into a training and a control group. In
both experiments, intelligence-test performances were assessed before and after training. Tests used: The
Culture Fair Intelligence Test by R. B. Cattell and R. H. Weiss (1972). (English abstract) (PsycLIT
Landry, R.-G. (1973). “The relationship of second language learning and verbal creativity.” Modern-
Language-Journal; 1973 Mar Vol. 57(3) 110-113.
Selected 8 males and 8 females from the 2nd, 4th, 5th, and 6th grades of 2 urban schools, 1 school
with a foreign language instruction program and 1 without such a program (N = 128). Ss completed the
Product Improvement and Unusual Uses subtests of the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking and the Cattell
Culture Fair Intelligence Test. Results with the 2nd graders support the hypothesis that there would be no
differences before foreign language instruction. For the older Ss, the main effects of sex and language
group were nonsignificant but the interaction was significant (p < .05). Findings indicate a cross-over
interaction with the males from the school without a 2nd language program scoring highest in creativity
and the females from the school with a language program scoring 2nd highest. The generalizability of the
results and the implications for curriculum specialists are discussed. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1974
Langfeldt-Nagel, M. (1982). “Untersuchungen zur Konstruktvaliditat der Grundintelligenztests (CFT) von

Cattell und Weiss. (Studies of the construct validity of the basic intelligence test (CFT) of Cattell and
Weiss.).” Diagnostica; 1982 Vol 28(1) 65-79.
Following R. B. Cattell's (see PA, Vol 38:6877) theory of fluid and crystallized intelligence, the
present study analyzed the construct validity of the Culture Fair Intelligence Test (CFT) 2 and 3 as tests for
fluid intelligence. CFTs and the PSB (as tests to measure crystallized intelligence) were administered to 4th
graders and were readministered 8 yrs later. In this period, the stability of the CFT was low. Results of
crossed-lagged panel analyses did not support the CFT causative of the PSB tests. Only 1 test of the PSB
(Spelling) was more influenced by school environment than the CFT. Results indicate no reference to the
construct validity of the CFTs. (English abstract) (24 ref) (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1982 American
Lapsley, D.-K. and R.-D. Enright (1979). “The effects of social desirability, intelligence, and milieu on an
American validation of the Conservatism scale.” Journal-of-Social-Psychology; 1979 Feb Vol 107(1) 9-14.
Attempted to validate the Conservatism Scale (C-scale) with American Ss, and tested the effects
of conservative milieu, dogmatism, social desirability, and intelligence on C-scale responses. It was
expected that the C-scale would be related to both dogmatism and intelligence, but not to social
desirability. 94 university students from the southern US were administered the C-scale, Rokeach's
Dogmatism Scale, the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale, and Raven's Advanced Progressive
Matrices. Results indicate that the C-scale is not contaminated by a social desirability response set.
Significant positive correlations were obtained with the Dogmatism Scale, while intelligence was
negatively related in a small though significant way with conservatism. Results are discussed in terms of
test format and mediation processes. That the C-scale was administered in a conservative culture had no
effect on the pattern of C-scale responses, and there was no evidence that the expression of social attitudes
was in any way divorced from underlying personality structure. Results indicate that the C-scale is a
reliable and valid measure and can be satisfactorily used with American samples. (21 ref) (PsycLIT
Lavrakas, P.-J. and R.-A. Maier (1979). “Differences in human ability to judge veracity from the audio
medium.” Journal-of-Research-in-Personality; 1979 Jun Vol 13(2) 139-153.
Related individual differences to accuracy in judging veracity. 10 lies and 10 truths were audio-
tape-recorded to create a stimulus set. 100 15-30 yr old Ss judged each audiotape for veracity and
completed such tests as the Concealed Figures Test, parts of the Cattell Culture-Fair Intelligence Test
(Form B), and Rotter's Internal-External Locus of Control Scale. Ss were better than chance in accurately
judging veracity. Variables (e.g., social intelligence, field dependence/independence, and number of
siblings) were identified that accounted for 22% of the variance in accuracy. (26 ref) (PsycLIT Database
Matejik, M. (1995). “Niektore aspekty vzt'ahu kreativita-anxieta. (Some aspects of the creativity-anxiety
relationship.).” Psychologia-a-Patopsychologia-Dietata; 1995 Vol 30(1) 34-38.
Studied the relationship between creativity and fear using correlational analysis. Human Ss: 264
normal male and female Slovak school-age children and adolescents (primary and secondary school
students). Tests used: The 2nd subtest of the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking, the State-Trait Anxiety
Inventory for Children, the Cattell Intelligence Tests and the Culture Fair Intelligence Test. Questionnaires
on classical fears and phobias, social and interpersonal fears, stage fright, and ecological fears were also
administered. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1995 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
Narayanan, S. and C. R. Paramesh (1978). “Paramesh Remote Associates Test (PRAT) and its relation to
convergent and divergent tests.” Indian-Journal-of-Psychology; 1978 Mar Vol 53(1) 8-12.
Describes the development of the Paramesh Remote Associates Test (PRAT), which is applicable
to the cultural experiences of a Tamil-speaking population. The PRAT was administered to 90 10th-grade
boys to assess its reliability and validity; data on its correlations with the Wallach-Kogan Tests of
Creativity, J. W. Getzels and P. W. Jackson's battery of creativity test, Raven Standard Progressive
Matrices, and Cattell Culture-Fair Intelligence Test are presented. (13 ref) (PsycLIT Database Copyright
Neber, H. (1974). “(Structure and intensity of spontaneous learning of under- and overachievers.).”
Psychologie-in-Erziehung-und-Unterricht; 1974 Vol 21(6) 335-344.
Tested 58 4th graders with the German version of Cattell's Culture Fair Intelligence Test and an
achievement test. 20 underachievers and 15 overachievers were compared as to questions they asked during
3 min about problems on standard charts. Overachievers asked significantly more questions, and gained
more information. There was no significant difference in the number of questions asked. IQ did not predict
the level of spontaneous learning. (English summary) (24 ref) (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1976
Nenty, H. J. (1986). “Cross-culture bias analysis of Cattell Culture-Fair Intelligence Test.” Perspectives-in-
Psychological-Researches; 1986 Apr Vol 9(1) 1-16.
Administered the Cattell Culture Fair Intelligence Test (CCFIT) to 600 Americans, 231 Indians,
and 803 Nigerians to assess the cross-cultural validity of the test. The CCFIT was designed by R. B. Cattell
(1971) to measure, for every culture, a single 2nd-order intelligence factor-fluid intelligence. Scale 2, Form
A of the CCFIT was used for the study. Results of the study indicate that 27 of the 46 items of the CCFIT
are biased culturally, and that, as a result, the CCFIT may not have universal validity as a measure of fluid
intelligence. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1988 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
Nenty, H. J. and T.-E. Dinero (1981). “A cross-cultural analysis of the fairness of the Cattell Culture Fair
Intelligence Test using the Rasch model.” Applied-Psychological-Measurement; 1981 Sum Vol 5(3) 355-
368.
Used G. Rasch's (1960) model to identify items in the Culture Fair Intelligence Test that did not
conform to this model using 803 Nigerian high school students and 600 American high schoolers. Although
all items conformed to the Rasch model for both groups, 13 of the 46 items had significant between score
group fit in either the American or the Nigerian sample, or both. It is suggested that the replicability of
these findings be tested. (39 ref) (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1981 American Psychological Assn, all
rights reserved)
Prokopcakova, A. (1992). “Recall of meaningful text by individuals with different levels of intellectual
abilities.” Studia-Psychologica; 1992 Vol 34(4-5) 331-338.
Studied the relationship between intellectual abilities and memory performance in recall of
meaningful text. 119 16-18 yr olds completed selected subtests from the Intelligence Structure Test and R.
B. Cattell's (1970) Culture Free Test. The task of Logical Memory from the Wechsler Memory Scale was
used as a measure of meaningful text recall. Research results showed a difference in the level of individual
intellectual abilities between the extreme groups classified according to memory performance. Persons
performing worse in the memory task also performed worse in the measures of intellectual abilities. A
significantly higher erroneousness in recall was, however, found in the group of Ss performing better in the
tests of intellectual abilities. (Slovak abstract) (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1993 American Psychological
Puhan, B.-N. and S.-C. Das (1979). “Contributions of memory and speed to psychology honours
examination scores.” Asian-Journal-of-Psychology-and-Education; 1979 Vol 5(1-3) 26-33.
85 Indian postgraduate psychology students were assessed on 14 marker variables (from the
WAIS, Differential Aptitude Tests, and Cattell Culture Fair Intelligence Test), the scores on which were
factor analyzed in relation to Ss' 6 psychology honors examination scores. Five principal component factors
were rotated to Varimax solutions and interpreted as General Reasoning, Knowledge of Psychology,
Memory, Perceptual Speed, and Abstract Reasoning. Ss' factor scores were then correlated with their exam
scores. Results show that 4 psychology theory courses significantly correlated with Knowledge of
Psychology, while the 2 psychology laboratory scores significantly correlated with Memory. (21 ref)
Raveau, F. H., E. Elster, et al. (1976). “Immigration and differential acculturation.” International-Review-
of-Applied-Psychology; 1976 Dec Vol 25(3) 145-165.
Studied 824 French students, immigrants from 21 African countries. Tests administered were
Raven Progressive Matrices, the Cattell Culture Fair Intelligence Test, the Bell Adjustment Inventory, and
the 16 PF. The roles of the native culture, educational level, and categories of professional activity were
compared with assessments of the quality of the immigrant's stay. A correlational analysis identified
relationships between psychological and cultural factors. (16 ref) (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1979
Schmidt, W. H. and A. Nzimande (1970). “Cultural differences in color/form preference and in

classificatory behavior.” Human Development 13(2): 140-148.
Presents data concerning color-form preference and ability to classify obtained from rural Zulu
children with and without Western-type schooling, from literate and illiterate Zulu urban workers, and from
illiterate urban workers. Significant differences are shown between children in school and those not going
to school, between literate and illiterate urban workers, between illiterate urban and farm workers. Some
comparisons are made with R. G. Suchman's data on Moslem Hausa children, J. Gay and M. Cole's data on
Kpelle children, J. S. Bruner and associates' studies of Wolof children, and N. L. Corah's data on American
children. It is concluded that even a poorly equipped and poorly staffed Western-type school in the bush
"seems to be a powerful agent for changing the direction in which the course of human cognitive
development will flow." (15 ref.) ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Singh, S. (1986). “Correlates of Rorschach measure of hostility.” Psychological-Studies; 1986 Jul Vol
31(2) 98-102.
Studied personality and family relationship factors related to Rorschach test measures of hostility.
The Group Rorschach Hostility Content Test (RHCT) by M. R. Harrower and M. E. Steiner (1973) was
administered to 75 male and 75 female Indian school students (with a mean age of 12.2 yrs). All Ss
completed the Culture Fair Intelligence Test--Scale 2, by R. B. Cattell and A. K. Cattell (1960); the
Neuroticism Scale Questionnaire by R. B. Cattell and I. H. Scheier (1961); the Eysenck Personality
Questionnaire by H. J. Eysenck and S. B. Eysenck (1975); and the Locus of Control Scale by H. Levenson
(1972). Mothers of Ss with extreme RHCT scores completed questionnaires concerning behavior problems
and parent attitudes. Results suggest that hostile Ss tend to be extraverted, externally-controlled, and
neurotic. Factor analysis of intercorrelations yielded 4 interpretable factors. (PsycLIT Database Copyright
Stefanile, C. (1982). “Contributo per una taratura italiana del Test Culture Fair di Cattell. (Contribution for
an Italian calibration of Cattell's Culture Fair Test.).” Bollettino-di-Psicologia-Applicata; 1982 Jan-Dec No
161-164 81-86.
Administered an Italian version of the Culture Fair Intelligence Test to 90 Italian adults with
advanced educations. Results confirm the test's validity. (English abstract) (12 ref) (PsycLIT Database
Sushma and V. V. Upmanyu (1979). “Psychological factors associated with the sociometric status.” Asian-
Journal-of-Psychology-and-Education; 1979 Jul Vol 4(2) 1-10.
135 10th-grade females completed 3 5-point sociometric rating scales, the Cattell Junior-Senior
School Personality Questionnaire, and the Culture Fair Intelligence Test. Ss were then classified as either
popular or unpopular. Results indicate that strong positive personality traits were more important than
negative traits for determining whether an S was popular. Extraverted and intelligent Ss were more popular.
Tan, U. (1992). “Relation of nonverbal intelligence assessed by Cattell's Culture Fair Intelligence Test to
latencies of the somatosensory evoked potentials elicited by stimulation of the posterior tibial nerves in
right-handed male and female subjects.” International-Journal-of-Neuroscience; 1992 May-Jun Vol 64(1-4)
107-112.
Investigated the speed hypothesis of information processing in cognitive functioning such as
nonverbal intelligence (NVI) by examining the somatosensory evoked potentials from the right and left
posterior tibial nerves (PTNs) in healthy right-handed men and women (aged 19-21 yrs). Individual
differences in NVI were assessed by the Cattell Intelligence Tests. In general, results do not support the
speed hypothesis, in that gender affected IQ-latency correlations. However, in accord with the speed
hypothesis, the latencies of the P39 and P58 waves from the right PTN and the latencies of the N49 waves
from the right and left PTNs showed significant linear correlations with NVI scores. Results suggest that
NVI in females does not depend on a symmetric or asymmetric organization of the brain, while an
asymmetrically organized brain is disadvantageous for NVI in males. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1993
Tan, U. (1990). “Relation of spatial reasoning ability to hand performance in male and female left-handers
to familial sinistrality and writing hand.” International-Journal-of-Neuroscience; 1990 Aug Vol 53(2-4)
143-155.
The Edinburgh Handedness Inventory was used to assess hand preference in healthy left-handed
students (aged 19-21 yrs). Cattell's Culture Fair Intelligence Test was used to determine IQ, and a group
version of a dot task described by S. M. Tapley and M. P. Bryden (see PA, Vol 73:8415) was used for the
assessment of hand performance. 23 Ss with no familial sinistrality (FS) and 11 Ss with FS and left-hand
(LH) writing were compared with 14 Ss with no FS and 10 Ss with FS and right-hand (RH) writing. In Ss
without FS, the RH and LH performances were related to IQ. In females there was a direct relationship
between IQ and RH/LH performances. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1992 American Psychological Assn,
Tan, U. (1990). “Relation of hand skill to spatial reasoning in male and female left-handers with left- and
right-hand writing.” International-Journal-of-Neuroscience; 1990 Aug Vol 53(2-4) 121-133.
17 male and 4 female left-handed students (aged 10-21 yrs) were tested for spatial reasoning (SR)
using the Cattell's Culture Fair Intelligence Test. Hand skill was determined by the peg-moving task of M.
Annett (1985) and hand preference by the Edinburgh Handedness Inventory. Left-handers with left-hand
(LH) writing showed stronger LH preferences than those with right-hand (RH) writing. A curvilinear
relationship was found between IQ and the degree of LH preference, which was fundamentally different in
Ss with different writing hands. In left-handers with LH writing, consistent and weak LH preference was
disadvantageous for SR. The relation of the right and left cerebral hemispheric motor efficiency to SR
ability depended on sex. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1992 American Psychological Assn, all rights
reserved)
Undheim, J.-O. (1981). “On intelligence: I. Broad ability factors in 15-year-old children and Cattell's theory
of fluid and crystallized intelligence.” Scandinavian-Journal-of-Psychology; 1981 Vol 22(3) 171-179.
Performed a simple-structure factor analysis of test data from 148 15-yr-olds. (Ss had been
administered a battery of tests, including Scales 2 and 3 of the Culture Fair Intelligence Test). Broad factors
were interpreted to represent visualization, speediness, and fluency, as well as fluid and crystallized
intelligence. Results are consistent with the factor distinctions as hypothesized by R. B. Cattell (1963,
1967, 1971; Cattell and J. L. Horn, 1978), but analyses of the developmental differentiation of fluid and
crystallized intelligence raise some doubts about Cattell's interpretation of these dimensions. (30 ref)
Watson, C.-G. and W.-G. Klett (1974). “Are nonverbal IQ tests adequate substitutes for the WAIS?”
Journal-of-Clinical-Psychology; 1974 Jan Vol. 30(1) 55-57.
Compared the relationships between 4 short nonverbal intelligence tests-Raven's Progressive
Matrices, the Porteus Maze Test, the Cattell Culture Fair Intelligence Test, and the D48 Test-and the WAIS
in a sample of 120 psychiatric patients. The Porteus correlations with the WAIS were quite low. The
correlations of the other 3 tests with the WAIS were higher and similar in magnitude. However, a
comparison of the present data with correlations between the WAIS and several short verbal achievement
tests in a previous study that used a similar sample indicates that the latter are much better WAIS predictors
than the nonverbal tests. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1974 American Psychological Assn, all rights
reserved)
Wiedl, K.-H. (1978). “Ecological aspects of differential predictive validity in learning- and intelligence
tests.” Psychologie-in-Erziehung-und-Unterricht; 1978 Vol 25(6) 369-371.
Asked 80 4th graders to solve a puzzle form of the Raven Coloured Progressive Matrices (CPM-
LT, Raven, 1956) with feedback about the results. A German version of the Culture Fair Test (CFT) of R.
B. Cattell was also administered. An experimental group was taught set theory in small groups, a control
group in the usual way. The CFT correlated only .11 with the results of teaching in the small experimental
groups and .46 with those of the controls. The CPM showed the reverse: .47 for the experimentals and .10
for the controls. Results imply that the validity of tests depends on the similarity between teaching and
testing styles. (English summary) (6 ref) (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1980 American Psychological
Yong, L.-M. S. (1994). “Relations between creativity and intelligence among Malaysian pupils.”
Perceptual-and-Motor-Skills; 1994 Oct Vol 79(2) 739-742.
Investigated the relationship between creativity and intelligence for 397 Malaysian secondary
school pupils, using the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking, Figural Form A and Verbal Form A (Malay
Language version), and the Cattell Culture Fair Intelligence Test. Scores on verbal creativity were related
to intelligence, whereas those on figural creativity were not. It is probable that students who are intelligent
have higher verbal fluency or capabilities than do students who are less intelligent, and this superiority in
verbal skills could explain their higher verbal creativeness. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1995 American
Management research:
Antoszkiewicz, J.-D., W. Jaworski, et al. (1994). “SPSP: Small Polish Soft Project.” Organization-
Development-Journal; 1994 Sum Vol 12(2) 35-40.
Describes the SPSP, which was developed in Poland to help organizations make the transition
from a centrally planned economic system to a market economy. The project is based on organization
development methodology and also has elements of problem solving, management development,
leadership, and action learning techniques all combined to develop management climate and culture. A case
example of an implementation of the project is provided. (O ref) (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1994
Aupperle, K.-E., W. Acar, et al. (1986). “An empirical critique of In Search of Excellence : How excellent
are the excellent companies?” Journal-of-Management; 1986 Win Vol 12(4) 499-512.
Examined the research methods used by T. J. Peters and R. H. Waterman (1982) in their book In
Search of Excellence and assessed whether their exemplary firms were actually excellent. Peters and
Waterman's "excellent" firms were compared with 1,000 firms evaluated by Forbes in its annual report on
American industry, using 4 measures of financial performance (return on assets, return on equity, market
valuation, and sales growth). Results indicate that the excellent firms were not as superior as Peters and
Waterman suggested. Implications for culture/performance research are discussed. (PsycLIT Database
Bellaby, P. (1992). Broken rhythms and unmet deadlines: Workers' and managers' time-perspectives. Time,
health and medicine. R. Frankenberg. London, England UK, Sage Publications, Inc: p. 108-122.
(from the chapter) give a substantive account of how workers and managers usually sustain effort
at work and occasionally go sick / suggest that going sick at work is a special case of making time for
oneself /// time at work: external and internal, linear and cyclical / rhythm [how rhythm is established in
manual work, broken rhythm and absence from work, broken rhythm and the sick role] / deadlines Reviews
a study of sickness and absenteeism among workers and managers in a pottery factory and suggests how
these are influenced by perspectives of time. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Blatt, B. (1988). Bureaucratizing values. Prevention, powerlessness, and politics: Readings on social
change. G. W. Albee. Newbury Park, CA, USA, Sage Publications, Inc: p. 80-81.
(from the book) incisive indictment of American business values that cause human damage / well
reflected in the cynical use of the media to sell consumer goods ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights
reserved)
Ciotta, P.-J. (1987). “The anatomy of a creative corporate culture.” Journal-of-Creative-Behavior; 1987 Vol
21(2) 145-152.
Describes the processes of innovation and creativity that are evidenced in one company, Rich
Products Corporation. The creative corporate culture of this company is encouraged by endorsing a state of
flux, challenging accepted norms of consumer behavior, and providing the means by which employees can
maximize their productive ability. (0 ref) (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1988 American Psychological
Vol 24(2) 257-298.
DePaulo, P.-J. (1992). “Applications of nonverbal behavior research in marketing and management.” .
Dixon, D.-F. and I.-F. Wilkinson (1986). “Toward a theory of channel structure.” Research-in-Marketing;
1986 Vol 8 27-70.
Develops a general analytic framework for understanding marketing channel structure (CHS). The
basic social structure--the group--has a limited ability to gain through specialization. Alternative exchange
mechanisms are therefore made to permit greater specialization. These mechanisms result in complex
structures such as business enterprises and marketing channels. CHSs involve internal and external costs
and the relationships between these costs. Traditions and values in the CHSs form a "culture" in which
transactions are managed by a socialization process. Power is exercised variously in teaching relations
among channel members (CMs) in a diffuse manner. The interdependence among CMs can be due to how
activities are allocated among system members. CHS is thus dynamic, evolving, and adapting. Current
understanding does not permit the prediction of future channels or the stability of current channels
accurately. (0 ref) (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1987 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
Dyer, R.-L. and R. Williams (1994). “CMHC survival: Adapting to the community mission. Special Issue:
Community mental health centers.” Administration-and-Policy-in-Mental-Health; 1994 Mar Vol 21(4) 309-
317.
Presents a case study of how 1 community mental health center (CMHC) developed creative
business strategies to support its social mission. The CMHC's board of directors formally defined their
business and social missions to identify areas of growth, and 4 marketable services were created: special
managed care offerings to businesses, support services available to insurance, organized services available
to social-service agencies, and physician-extending behavioral health services to complement public-
education offerings. Principles of practice consumerism, easy accessibility of services, and acceptability of
programs and services provided a strategy of interaction with customers. Business planning, clear
definitions of corporate culture, and employee recognitions became effective business strategies. These
strategies were successful in increasing the CMHC's budgets, decreasing inpatient costs, and enhancing
quality of care. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1994 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)

32(2): 233-237.
Feldman, S.-P. (1985). “Culture and conformity: An essay on individual adaptation in centralized
bureaucracy.” Human-Relations; 1985 Apr Vol 38(4) 341-356.
Describes the cultural aspects of interpersonal relations in a large telephone company that was
studied during a year-long, full-time fieldwork period. Participant observation, structured and
semistructured interviews, and document analysis for data-collection purposes were used. Strong demands
for conformity were found to dominate interpersonal relations. Three types of responses to these demands
were discovered: acceptance based on conscious suppression of personal interests, acceptance based on
unconscious distortion, and secret rejection. These mechanisms for dealing with strong demands for
conformity affected managerial development, interpersonal communications, and organizational
adaptability. Given these types of superior-subordinate relations, it is anticipated that the Bell System will
have great difficulty adapting to a competitive marketplace. (22 ref) (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1985
Fernandez, D. R., D. S. Carlson, et al. (1997). “Hofstede's country classification 25 years later.” Journal of
Social Psychology 137(1): 43-54.
Nearly 3 decades have passed since G. Hofstede (1980) collected the data used to classify
countries by their underlying work-related value structures. The present study, in which 1989 and 1990 data
from 7,201 business professionals and advanced business students from 9 countries in 4 continents was
collected, is a reexamination of his country classifications. The results suggest that many shifts have
occurred since Hofstede's study in 1980. These shifts are related to some of the major environmental
changes that have occurred. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1997 American Psychological Assn, all rights
reserved)
Galinsky, E., D. Hughes, et al. (1990). “Trends in corporate family-supportive policies.” Marriage-and-
Family-Review; 1990 Vol 15(3-4) 75-94.
Describes phases in the development of corporate work/family policies and the characteristics of
companies with work/family programs. During Phase 1, from the late 1960s to the present, some
companies became aware of work/family issues and investigated the needs of their employees. Such
companies carried out a broad range of family-supportive policies. In Phase 2, the number and type of
companies involved increased. Collaborative efforts and a greater government role were evident. The
exemplary companies emphasized new directions such as flexible time arrangements and a supportive
company culture. Factors relevant to whether a company has family-supportive policies include work force
characteristics, management style, and external labor market conditions. Issues for the future are identified.
Gerstner, C.-R. and D.-V. Day (1994). “Cross-cultural comparison of leadership prototypes.” Leadership-
Quarterly; 1994 Sum Vol 5(2) 121-134.
142 Ss (61 women and 81 men) from 8 countries (US, China, France, Germany, Honduras, India,
Japan, and Taiwan) rated a list of 59 attributes according to how well each fit their prototype of a business
leader. Results indicate significant differences among the ratings provided by Ss from different countries of
traits identified as high, medium, and low in prototypicality. Subsequent multidimensional scaling
aggregated across trait ratings yielded a 3-dimensional configuration of countries to indicate which were
most and least proximal. The relative distances between countries are discussed with respect to G.
Hofstede's (1980) dimensions of national culture. An understanding of perceptual differences would be the
first step managers could take in adjusting their behavior to fit the leadership prototype in a host country
and in understanding their subordinates' responses. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1995 American

Review; 1991 Apr Vol 16(2) 396-415.
Graen, G.-B. (1996). “At last, a production system that works and allows everyone to be an insider.”
Applied-Psychology-An-International-Review; 1996 Apr Vol 45(2) 130-135.
Comments on K. Taira's (see record 83:32429) exploration of the compatibility of human resource
management, industrial relations, and work process engineering under mass production and lean production
systems. Differences between Japanese and American leadership structures and leadership contexts and
between North American and European implementation of lean production are discussed. It is argued that
the leadership structure underlying complete, successful lean production systems, at present unique to
Japanese plants (in Japan and in North America), is a network of working relationships that is based on
strong bonds of mutual respect, trust, and obligation between associates at all levels and which makes each
person a company "insider." It is recommended that research in applied psychology include implementation
of "third culture" (G. B. Graen and M. Wakabayashi, 1994) lean production throughout the world.
Grunert, S. C. and G. Scherhorn (1990). “Consumer values in West Germany underlying dimensions and
cross-cultural comparison with North America. Special Issue: Social values.” Journal of Business Research
20(2): 97-107.
Data from a West German survey on social values are compared with results from surveys in the
US, Canada, and Norway. In all surveys, values were measured using the List of Values (L. R. Kahle,
1983). Results reveal considerable cross-cultural differences that could only be ascribed in part to
differences in political, economic, and sociocultural development. In addition to these substantive
differences in values, semantic differences were found: connotative meanings for the same values differed
among cultures. Findings have implications for the corporate culture of multinational business. (PsycLIT
Grunert Beckmann, S. C. and S. Askegaard (1997). "Seeing with the mind's eye": On the use of pictorial
stimuli in values and lifestyle research. Values, lifestyles, and psychographics. Advertising and consumer
(from the preface) In this chapter, the authors address the semantic ambiguity inherent in the
abstractness of value constructs and how they are usually presented. They propose the use of pictorial
stimuli in advertising and consumer behavior research and in values and lifestyle research and explore the
consequences of their suggestions. A research study is presented to illustrate. Ss for the study were
graduate business students. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Harris, M. and C.-L. Walck (1988). “Managing a megasystem transformation in the Ford Motor Company:
A retrospective retrieval of the progress of cultural change.” Consultation-An-International-Journal; 1988
Sum Vol 7(2) 67-85.
Describes how teams of external and internal change consultants have guided an 8-yr cultural
change effort that has had a powerful impact on the way the Ford Motor Company now runs its business. A
description is offered of the means by which the efforts of a few professionals were leveraged to provide
consulting to a large and complex global organization, a megasystem in change. The desired outcomes
were brought about through managing a transformational cycle of learning that led to empowerment and
diffusion--a cycle in which the organization moved from a management-centered culture to a participative,
employee-involved culture that could quickly adapt to the global marketplace. (PsycLIT Database
Hite, R.-E. and J.-M. Hawes (1991). “Understanding the Japanese culture for business success.” Journal-of-
Managerial-Issues; 1991 Spr Vol 3(1) 31-45.
Examines aspects of Japanese culture that impact on the potential success of US executives
attempting to do business in that environment. The effect of foreign misunderstanding and prejudice in the
business environment is discussed. Practical suggestions to help US executives understand the Japanese
market and business practices include developing personal sensitivity and recognizing differences in
perceptions of time. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1992 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
Review 9(3): 389-398.
Howard, A., K. Shudo, et al. (1983). “Motivation and values among Japanese and American managers.”
Personnel Psychology 36(4): 883-898.
There have been recent claims in the popular literature about the superiority of the Japanese-
inspired participative principles of management for business productivity. Yet motivational and value
differences that might support these principles have seldom been evaluated psychometrically. In the present
study, 100 Japanese (27-57 yrs old) and a sample of American (29-52 yrs old) business managers were
administered the Rokeach Value Survey and the Sarnoff Survey of Attitudes Toward Life, which measures
desire for upward mobility. Results show that the Japanese attached greater importance to socially
beneficial values in contrast to the American emphasis on individuality and straight-forwardness. Yet the
Japanese also showed greater valuation of accomplishments and, on the motivational instrument, more
interest in advancement, money, and forward striving. It is suggested that achievement and advancement
motivation may be important for Japanese productivity and that collective actions may be only their method
for disciplining and rewarding it. (15 ref) (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1984 American Psychological
Johnson, J.-L., T. Sakano, et al. (1993). “The exercise of interfirm power and its repercussions in U.S.-
Japanese channel relationships.” Journal-of-Marketing; 1993 Apr Vol 57(2) 1-10.
Investigated how Japanese distributors of US manufactured consumer products perceive the
exercise of power sources by both themselves and their US suppliers in the across-culture distribution
channel. 74 managers of Japanese firms importing consumer goods produced by US manufacturers
completed a questionnaire. The mediated and nonmediated bases of power found in domestic relationships
were not replicated in Japanese distributors' perceptions. Results indicate a factor structure based on
nurturing and authoritative bases of power. The Japanese also react to the exercise of power sources in a
different manner than Western channel participants. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1993 American
Kahn, H. and C.-L. Cooper (1992). “Anxiety associated with money market dealers: Sex and cultural
differences. Special Issue: Occupational stress, psychological burnout and anxiety.” Anxiety,-Stress-and-
Coping-An-International-Journal; 1992 May Vol 5(1) 21-40.
186 male and 36 female adult dealers (currency traders) in British institutions, some of which had
been taken over by US companies, completed questionnaires regarding their free-floating (FFA) and
somatic anxiety (SA). Independent variables were demographic characteristics, coronary prone behavior,
locus of control, personality measures, sources of job stress, and stress coping mechanisms. Sources of
females' anxiety appeared job-related, while that of males was related to dealing and personality factors.
Only the stress factor taking risks and achieving high performance was a common source of anxiety for Ss
in British- and US-owned dealing rooms. FFA and SA in the 2 types of dealing rooms appeared to come
from different sources. High coronary prone behavior predicted negative outcomes only for Ss in US-
owned companies. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1993 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
Kepner, E. (1983). “The family and the firm: A coevolutionary perspective.” Organizational-Dynamics;
1983 Sum Vol 12(1) 57-70.
The unique nature of the family-owned firm has presented dilemmas and frustrations to those who
manage, work in, and consult with such firms. Organizational theorists have found it difficult to apply their
task-oriented, competency-based models to a business in which the boundaries between task and kinship
considerations overlap. Practitioners who work with such organizations find that the types of interventions
successful in other situations are likely to be rejected or to be found inadequate in dealing with the
particular complexities involved. Founders are called on to make choices that put them in "no-win" double-
blind situations. If they base their decisions on what the firm needs, kinship bonds may be disrupted and
damaged; if they choose to honor family bonds, the business is likely to suffer. The author attempts to
expose the complexity of relational patterns between the firm and the family systems in general, their
purpose as satisfiers of certain universal human needs, the way they are organized to perform their
functions, and the cultural dimensions by which they regulate themselves and their development. Under
each of these topics, ways are described in which the family's organization and culture are influenced by its
relationship with a firm. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1984 American Psychological Assn, all rights
reserved)

195-205.
Kostera, M. (1995). “Differing managerial responses to change in Poland.” Organization-Studies; 1995 Vol
16(4) 673-697.
Discusses the complexities of management in Poland, by presenting a typology of differing
managerial responses to the present confused situation. The social role of the manager has changed with
regard to the professional dimension and contextual constraints, such that, enterprises in Poland are in the
process of renegotiating their environments and identities. Results of an exploratory study conducted on 52
18-20 yr old management students, indicate that current and future Polish managers would be willing to
participate more actively in the construction of a social role. Field studies and other research has led to the
presentation of 3 typologies, the `market tiger', the èmpire' and the `chameleon', along with relevant case
descriptions. The skepticism in taking initiatives is explained in terms of the double bind theory which
could be changed if reformers were more sensitive to the reformed enterprises' culture. (PsycLIT Database
Kreshel, P.-J. (1990). “John B. Watson at J. Walter Thompson: The legitimation of "science" in
advertising.” Journal-of-Advertising; 1990 Vol 19(2) 49-59.
Recounts J. B. Watson's role in defining behaviorism and in applying behaviorist psychology to
advertising as it was developing at the J. Walter Thompson Company in the 1920s and 1930s. The
behaviorist doctrine is discussed, along with its intersection with the goals of the advertising and business
communities. The "culture" of the J. Walter Thompson Company is addressed, focusing on the philosophy
of S. B. Resor, the company's president. Watson popularized psychology, although his contributions were
to corporate culture and consumerism, rather than to science. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1990 American
Krohn, F.-B. (1987). “Military metaphors: Semantic pollution of the market place.” Etc.; 1987 Sum Vol
44(2) 141-145.
Argues that to avoid future conflicts with American culture and to prevent subsequent restrictive
legislation, marketing educators must be cautious in how words, thoughts, and actions are projected to
students in teaching marketing ethics. The use of military metaphors in marketing education is criticized,
and alternative nonmilitary terms are presented. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1988 American
LaRusso, A.-C. (1985). “Why managers need exposure to organization development.” Organization-
Development-Journal; 1985 Fal Vol 3(3) 31-33.
Explores the role of organization development (OD) in adapting to the turbulent, sometimes
hostile business environment that has emerged as a result of socioeconomic trends and the emergence of
global markets. Implications of OD for union-management relations, communication, and corporate culture
are noted. It is argued that an understanding of OD techniques is necessary for managers to improve the
performance of their organization by helping them carry out routine functions and preparing them to
recognize the situations in which expert help is needed. (8 ref) (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1986
Lichtenstein, D. R., R. G. Netemeyer, et al. (1990). “Distinguishing coupon proneness from value
consciousness: An acquisition-transaction utility theory perspective.” Journal of Marketing 54(3): 54-67.
Conducted a study to test the existence of the constructs of coupon proneness (CP) and value
consciousness (VC) and to test a theoretical distinction between the 2 concepts based on acquisition-
transaction utility theory. Measures of CP and VC were created, using 263 business students. Responses to
these measures from 350 adults were used to test 8 hypotheses that reflect theoretical differences between
the 2 constructs. Results support the premise that coupon redemption behavior is a manifestation of CP and
VC. The more appropriate level of measurement of CP is the psychological vs the behavioral level.
McKinlay, A. and K. Starkey (1988). “Competitive strategies and organizational change.” Organization-
Studies; 1988 Vol 9(4) 555-571.
Examines the importance of work organization in terms of the impetus, dynamics, and impact of
pervasive change processes in securing competitive advantage in uncertain market environments, using 3
contrasting organizations. International competition, specifically the decline and fragmentation of
previously stable mass markets, has been the prime mover of contemporary organizational innovation. It is
concluded that significant business turnarounds were achieved by the 3 companies because strategic choice,
work organization, company culture, and organizational realignment were conceived of and operationalized
as complementary elements of their competitive strategy. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1989 American
Raskas, D.-F. and D.-C. Hambrick (1992). “Multifunctional managerial development: A framework for
evaluating the options.” Organizational-Dynamics; 1992 Fal Vol 21(2) 5-17.
Contends that multifunctional managerial development (MFD), a program of mobility across an

array of functional areas for the purpose of career development, can be a critical ingredient in overcoming
the stagnation of long job tenures typical of today's delayered organizations. Potential benefits (e.g., allows
fresh perspectives in units) and costs (e.g., salary homogenization) are outlined. Factors affecting the
choice of the MFD approach include business strategy (defender or prospector), culture (market or clan),
functions (technical or nontechnical), and person (risk averse or prone). Implementation is discussed in
terms of the reward and information systems, avoiding a reputation of being a "dumping process," and
evaluation. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1993 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
rights reserved)
Segal, M. N., U. A. Segal, et al. (1993). “Value network for cross-national marketing management: A
framework for analysis and application.” Journal of Business Research 27(1): 65-83.
Aimed to identify measurable variations among the values of marketing managers from the US
and India, using the Cross-Cultural Value Network Paradigm (CCVNP). The CCVNP offers a theoretical
framework for identifying and explaining various cultural, subcultural, and cross-cultural influences on the
personal values of marketers that affect managerial actions and organizational behavior. Data were derived
from 56 American and 106 Indian business executives who were enrolled in graduate level marketing
courses. Results of the California Psychological Inventory administered to these Ss reveal observable
differences and similarities in American vs Indian value systems. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1993
Selmer, J. and C. de Leon (1996). “Parent cultural control through organizational acculturation: HCN
employees learning new work values in foreign business subsidiaries.” Journal of Organizational Behavior
17(Spec Issue): 557-572.
Explored and illustrated the effects of organizational acculturation in foreign subsidiaries by
comparing the work values of 54 host country national (HCN) Singaporean managers, employed by
Swedish companies in Singapore, and those of a control group of 115 Singaporean managers not employed
by Swedish companies. Results suggest that HCN Singaporean middle managers in Swedish subsidiaries
had experienced organizational acculturation. In the 2nd stage of the study, the effects of organizational
acculturation were clearly pronounced when results were compared with G. Hofstede's (1980)
measurements. In 3 of the 4 cultural dimensions, Singaporean middle managers seemed to have adopted
Swedish work-related values. Implications for international business practitioners are discussed. ((c) 1997
Smith, P. B., F. Trompenaars, et al. (1995). “The Rotter locus of control scale in 43 countries: A test of
cultural relativity.” International Journal of Psychology 30(3): 377-400.
A databank of 9,140 responses to the Rotter's Internal-External Locus of Control Scale was
analyzed, using multidimensional scaling techniques to assess cultural variation in responses. Respondents
were employees in business organizations in 43 countries. Three interpretable dimensions were identified.
The 1st is the Personal-Political dimension, interpreted in terms of S. H. Schwartz's (1992) dimensions of
mastery over versus harmony with the environment. It also correlates significantly with country means for
internality. Second is the Individual-Social dimension, which distinguishes responses from countries
identified by G. Hofstede (1980) as individualist and collectivist. The 3rd, the Luck dimension, refers
principally to the role of luck and chance. (French abstract). (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1996 American
Smith, P. B., S. Dugan, et al. (1996). “National culture and the values of organizational employees: A
dimensional analysis across 43 nations.” Journal of Cross Cultural Psychology 27(2): 231-264.
Examined the replicability of studies of cultural dimensions of values including those by G.
Hofstede (1980), M. H. Bond (see record 76:14099), and S. H. Schwartz (1992, 1994). 8,841 business
organization employees from 43 nations completed questionnaires measuring universalism-particularism,
achievement-ascription, and individualism-collectivism. Results provide support for the replicability of the
surveys, with substantial differences found in Ss' modal cultural values consistent with previous results.
The individualism-collectivism and power distance dimensions were redefined as representing varying
orientations toward continuity of group membership and toward the obligations of social relationships.
Sparrow, P.-R. and A.-M. Pettigrew (1988). “Strategic human resource management in the UK computer
supplier industry. Special Issue: Technological change and innovation.” Journal-of-Occupational-
Psychology; 1988 Mar Vol 61(1) 25-42.
Examined the impact of change on computer supplier firms, using interviews with 11 personnel
directors and executives and 3 industry experts. In response to strategic change, firms have pursued 4
streams of human resource management (HRM) activity: the management of culture; the development of
skills; productivity improvements by the integration of roles, tasks and skills; and improving the quality of
managerial processes and customer service. Firms have tried to match their HRM and strategy by
developing rudimentary human resource plans, focusing the skills of employees on niche markets, and
setting up employment policies for a core group of flexible employees. Difficulties in HRM included a lack
of strategic management, organizational difficulties in managing across functions, personal and cultural
problems in attempting to create the necessary synergy of skills in core functions, and a potential lack of
internal consultancy skills in the personnel function. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1988 American
Vinton, K.-L. (1989). “Humor in the workplace: Is it more than telling jokes.” Small-Group-Behavior;
1989 May Vol 20(2) 151-166.
Developed a taxonomy of humor found in a small, family-owned business. The different types of
humor serve to maintain low status differentials and alleviate workplace tension. The types of humor
included puns, slapstick, jokes/anecdotes, and teasing. Humor also seemed part of the socialization process
for employees, helping to create bonds among the employees. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1989
Marketing research:
Alden, D.-L., W.-D. Hoyer, et al. (1993). “Identifying global and culture-specific dimensions of humor in
advertising: A multinational analysis.” Journal-of-Marketing; 1993 Apr Vol 57(2) 64-75.
Examined the content of humorous TV advertising from 4 national cultures: Korea, Germany,
Thailand, and the US. Findings indicate that humorous communications from such diverse national cultures
share certain incongruent cognitive structures underlying the message. However, the specific content of
humorous advertising is likely to be variable across national cultures along major normative dimensions
such as collectivism-individualism. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1993 American Psychological Assn, all
rights reserved)
Briody, E.-K., M.-L. Baba, et al. (1995). “A tale of two career paths: The process of status acquisition by a
new organiational unit.” Work-and-Occupations; 1995 Aug Vol 22(3) 301-327.
Investigated career path development through a focus on both organizational process and
organizational status in a General Motors sales and service department. Data were obtained by means of
semistructured and structured interviews with 39 sales and service employees of the newly created
Telemarketing Assistance Group, followed by discussions with individual employees on the history and
culture of sales and service work and on future career expectations. Results indicate that the direction and
expectations of career-path movement was an indicator of organizational status. Career structures were
subject to change, particularly when the telemarketing segment of the sales and service career path was
introduced. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1996 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
Cherry, L. and S.-P. Redmond (1994). “A social marketing approach to involving Afghans in community-
level alcohol problem prevention.” Journal-of-Primary-Prevention; 1994 Sum Vol 14(4) 289-310.
A program for preventing alcohol-related problems at the community level using environmentally
focused, public health approaches sought to involve a new segment of the community: recently immigrated
Afghans from a traditionally abstinent culture. Social marketing research was employed to elicit value-
based benefits to be used in promoting the product to the target audience. Approximately 75 members of
the Afghan community participated in interviews and focus groups. While the channels of distribution for
promotional messages were easily identified, special attention was required relative to effective
spokespersons. Findings are discussed in relation to the effects of alcohol availability on Afghan
immigrants, environments most frequently cited as being places where alcohol causes problems for
Afghans, and the need to change environments for prevention. Emphasis is placed on community
involvement with prevention, and a marketing plan is proposed. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1994
Clark, T. (1990). “International marketing and national character: A review and proposal for an integrative
theory.” Journal-of-Marketing; 1990 Oct Vol 54(4) 66-79.
Discusses the concept of national character (NC), the idea that the people of each nation have a
distinctive, enduring pattern of behavior and/or personality characteristics. Culture-centered and
personality-centered approaches to NC are discussed, and the concept is evaluated in terms of its value and
validity for use in international marketing research. A marketing-relevant NC concept with applicability to
both consumer and strategic decision making is proposed, and suggestions for assessing a market-relevant
NC are offered. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1991 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
Vol 24(2) 257-298.
Deshpande, R. and F.-E. Webster (1989). “Organizational culture and marketing: Defining the research
agenda.” Journal-of-Marketing; 1989 Jan Vol 53(1) 3-15.
Contemporary work on marketing management is grounded implicitly in a structural functionalist
or contingency perspective of organizational functioning. The field of organizational behavior has recently
developed a major thrust into theoretical modeling and empirical research on organizational culture. The
authors survey this emerging literature on organizational culture, integrate it in a conceptual framework,
and develop a research agenda in marketing, grounded in the 5 cultural paradigms of comparative
management, contingency management, organizational cognition, organizational symbolism, and
structural/psychodynamism. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1989 American Psychological Assn, all rights
reserved)
Dessent, T. (1994). “Educational psychology: What future?” Educational-and-Child-Psychology; 1994 Vol

11(3) 50-54.
Describes the future of educational psychology (EP) as it shifts from a command culture to a
service culture that includes business planning, marketing, internal trading, consultation, and partnership. A
history of EP's role in special education is given, and 3 areas relevant to the quality and survival of EP are
described. These areas include enduring characteristics of policy, provision for children with special
education needs, new demands in areas such as accountability and public scrutiny, and the future roles of
local education authorities. Predictions for EP in the 1990s include the restructuring of services and
principal EP posts. The assets and deficits of EP services that will affect their quality and survival are
listed. (0 ref) (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1995 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
Dillon, C. (1986). “Preparing college health professionals to deliver gay-affirmative services.” Journal-of-
American-College-Health; 1986 Jul Vol 35(1) 36-40.
Reviews common presenting themes of homosexual patients and clients who rarely seek help to
change their preference. The effects of homophobia on staff practices and attitudes are reviewed in the
context of learned negative stereotyping in the larger culture. Heterophobic expectations of potential gay
consumers are explored. Suggestions are offered for the design and marketing of collaborative gay-nongay
services and for service to older hidden populations. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1988 American
1986 Vol 8 27-70.
Donthu, N. and J. Cherian (1992). “Hispanic coupon usage: The impact of strong and weak ethnic
identification. Special Issue: Coupons.” Psychology-and-Marketing; 1992 Nov-Dec Vol 9(6) 501-510.
Argues that the strength of ethnic identification, which measures the strength to which a person
feels tied to the culture of origin, is a key variable in understanding the impact of ethnicity on responses to
marketing mixes. When the strength of ethnic identification is high, the ethnic consumer is expected to
respond to marketing the way their parents' culture does. 240 Hispanic consumers completed a survey
measuring ethnic identification, brand loyalty, use of Hispanic magazines, influence of point of purchase
displays, and demographics. Weak Hispanic identifiers were different from strong Hispanic identifiers in
their coupon usage, and weak Hispanic identifiers were more like the dominant culture. Thus, cultural
reasons may overshadow economic reasons in explaining coupon usage and brand loyalty. (PsycLIT
Ernest, R.-C. (1985). “Corporate cultures and effective planning.” Personnel-Administrator; 1985 Mar Vol
30(3) 49-60.
Discusses the need to assess corporate culture (CC) in effective organizational planning (OP), and
introduces an organizational culture grid (CG) as an aid to defining CC. Based on previous research, 5
orientations are found to be critical in defining CC: marketing, employee, problem-solving, innovation, and
service-quality. Interrelationships among these 5 orientations can be summarized by using the CG. Based
on the "action" and "people" dimensions of this CG, 4 major CC types emerge: interactive cultures--
oriented to employees' and customers' needs and concerns; integrated cultures--having a strong people
orientation combined with effective identification of problems and opportunities; systematized cultures--in
which work is highly routinized; and entrepreneurial cultures--oriented toward rapid development of new
products and services. The CG provides a framework for successful OP. (PsycLIT Database Copyright
Fishman, D.-B. (1984). “The real-world imperatives of organizational adoption.” Journal-of-

Organizational-Behavior-Management; 1984 Sum Vol 6(2) 5-15.
Discusses introducing behavioral technology into human service organizations, particularly the
organizational realities involved in the adoption of an innovative program product. The marketing
imperative dictates that values, needs, and behavioral preferences of relevant organizational decision-
makers be assessed. The political imperative can be met when behaviorists achieve positions of significant
decision-making power within the organization. A profile of organizational dynamics (ability, values,
information, felt need, and outcome) can be a first step toward innovative programming. Strategies in the
personal-relationship imperative include orientation to, exploration and collaborative development with,
and nondefensive responses to the client. In addition, it is contended that the governmental,
economic/financial, ideological-culture, and ethical imperatives will influence the adoption of behavioral
programs by human service organizations as much as will scientific validity. (PsycLIT Database Copyright
Ford, J.-B., M.-S. LaTour, et al. (1995). “Perception of marital roles in purchase decision processes: A
cross-cultural study.” Journal-of-the-Academy-of-Marketing-Science; 1995 Spr Vol 23(2) 120-131.
Focuses on differences in family decision making (i.e., joint, husband dominated, wife dominated)
in 100 Chinese couples and 102 American couples across 24 product categories as a function of 2 key
factors, following the approach of the classic marital-role influence study of H. L. Davis and B. P. Rigaux
(1974). Factors are stages of the decision process (i.e., problem recognition, information search, and the
final decision) and the culture (People's Republic of China and the US). The Jacobson Marital-Role
Egalitarianism Scale was included to assess individual differences in husband and wife traditionality-
modernism. Major findings indicate that emphasis on joint, husband-dominated, and wife-dominated
decisions vary by stage and by stage-culture interaction; in the less egalitarian, more patriarchal society
(China), less joint decision making and more husband dominance prevailed. Cultural specificity of
promotional campaigns is supported. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1995 American Psychological Assn, all
rights reserved)
Gentry, J.-W., S. Jun, et al. (1995). “Consumer acculturation processes and cultural conflict: How
generalizable is a North American model for marketing globally? Special Section: Marketing strategies and
the development process.” Journal-of-Business-Research; 1995 Feb Vol 32(2) 129-139.
Investigated the generality of acculturation (AC) models developed in North America to AC
processes occurring among Muslim and Chinese subcultures in southern Thailand. Data were collected
from 93 Chinese-Thai, 90 Muslim-Thai, and 100 Thai families. A measure of attitudinal AC developed in
the US worked well across ethnic groups in Thailand, but a language preference measure did not yield
comparable data. Results indicate that Chinese Thais are integrating more to Thai culture in terms of
identity and language usage than Muslim Thais. Chinese Thais own more durable goods and use the official
language even more than native Thais, proving their strong role in the country's economic development.
Behavioral and attitudinal dimensions of AC are relatively independent. The wife's identification toward
traditional culture was strongest among family members in both ethnic groups, whereas the child's
identification was lowest. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1995 American Psychological Assn, all rights
reserved)
Goodyear, M. (1996). “Divided by a common language: Diversity and deception in the world of global
marketing.” Journal-of-the-Market-Research-Society; 1996 Apr Vol 38(2) 105-122.
Argues that the common language of marketing hides the diversity of meaning associated with
elements of the marketing mix, as well as the disciplines of advertising and research. Although some
traditional aspects of culture may explain why these differences exist, another more dynamic factor seems
to be at work. It is suggested that analysis based on market maturity may help to explain some of the
problems encountered across national and sector boundaries. A continuum of consumerism is proposed, an
evolving development of the dialogue between marketers and consumers. It is a market's position along the
continuum which determines how marketing terms will be interpreted. The importance of the
consumerisation concept is that it provides a framework for understanding, and anticipating, between-
country differences. Understanding the overall shape and nature of the continuum would give confidence to
decision-making. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1996 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
Graham, J.-L. (1987). “A theory of interorganizational negotiations.” Research-in-Marketing; 1987 Vol 9

163-183.
Presents a theory that addresses the outcomes of negotiations between representatives of buyer and
seller firms. A social-psychological perspective is taken wherein situational constraints and bargainer
characteristics are posited to influence the process of negotiations, which in turn, affect negotiations
outcomes. Power relations is the situational constraint considered. Bargainer characteristics include
culture/nationality, interpersonal orientation, and listening skill. Aspects of the negotiation process
discussed involve the use of questions, initial demands, procedural discipline, impression formation
accuracy, and topical control. Negotiation outcome constructs are economic rewards, satisfaction, and
interpersonal attraction. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1988 American Psychological Assn, all rights
reserved)
Henry, W.-A. (1976). “Cultural values do correlate with consumer behavior.” Journal-of-Marketing-
Research; 1976 May Vol 13(2) 121-127.
Analyzed data from 498 usable questionnaires returned by family units (31.1% response rate), to
examine the effects of value dimensions on the number of automobiles owned or operated by each unit.
Data included value dimensions of culture (man's relation to nature, time dimension, personal activity, and
man's relation to others), standard demographic variables (social class, age of head of household, family
size, and annual family income), and number of family workers and drivers. The application of a simple
multivariate additive model showed that one or more of the value dimensions used appeared in each of the
4 automobile models established. For each model (full size, compact, subcompact, and sports model), there
was a significant interaction, involving the total number of cars in the family and the family's personal
activity value dimension. Both the value dimensions and the demographic variables of social class, age, and
family size apeared to influence ownership through somewhat similar extended causal paths containing one
or more intervening variables. It is suggested that value dimensions may be helpful short-term predictors of
market segmentation for auto industry sales. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1977 American Psychological
Imada, A.-S. (1990). “Ergonomics: Influencing management behaviour. Special Issue: Marketing
ergonomics: VI and VII.” Ergonomics; 1990 May Vol 33(5) 621-628.
Presents 3 specific strategies and 1 general strategy for marketing ergonomics and occupational
safety and health. The specific strategies involve (1) understanding corporate culture and translating
ergonomics into that cultural context, (2) identifying criteria that motivate people to use ergonomic, and (3)
introducing ergonomics proactively as a tool for cost avoidance. The general strategy suggests that more
involvement at the organizational design and management level is needed. By operating at the
organizational level, ergonomists can make changes from within the management structure rather than
making suggestions to management. (French abstract) (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1991 American
Johnson, J.-L., T. Sakano, et al. (1993). “The exercise of interfirm power and its repercussions in U.S.-
Japanese channel relationships.” Journal-of-Marketing; 1993 Apr Vol 57(2) 1-10.
Investigated how Japanese distributors of US manufactured consumer products perceive the
exercise of power sources by both themselves and their US suppliers in the across-culture distribution
channel. 74 managers of Japanese firms importing consumer goods produced by US manufacturers
completed a questionnaire. The mediated and nonmediated bases of power found in domestic relationships
were not replicated in Japanese distributors' perceptions. Results indicate a factor structure based on
nurturing and authoritative bases of power. The Japanese also react to the exercise of power sources in a
different manner than Western channel participants. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1993 American
Kelley, S.-W., S.-J. Skinner, et al. (1989). “Opportunistic behavior in marketing research organizations.”
Journal-of-Business-Research; 1989 Jun Vol 18(4) 327-340.
Assessed the relationships among opportunistic behavior, ethical climates/cultures, and ethical
profiles in 550 marketing researchers working in 3 types of organizations: data subcontractors, marketing
research firms, and corporate research departments. Findings show that the climate/culture of the
organization influences ethical behavior. Specifically, as the ethical climate of an organization was
perceived to be more ethical, less S opportunism was reported. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1989

195-205.
Krohn, F.-B. (1987). “Military metaphors: Semantic pollution of the market place.” Etc.; 1987 Sum Vol
44(2) 141-145.
Argues that to avoid future conflicts with American culture and to prevent subsequent restrictive
legislation, marketing educators must be cautious in how words, thoughts, and actions are projected to
students in teaching marketing ethics. The use of military metaphors in marketing education is criticized,
and alternative nonmilitary terms are presented. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1988 American
386.
Laurent, C.-R. (1982). “An investigation of the family life cycle in a modern Asian society.” Journal-of-
the-Market-Research-Society; 1982 Apr Vol 24(2) 140-150.
Interviewed 1,080 residents of Hong Kong (over 18 yrs of age) to investigate the family life cycle
within a Chinese culture and how that information can be used for segmenting consumer markets. In
comparison with research on US cultures, results show a degree of similarity in terms of the existing stages,
but they exhibit considerable differences in the manner in which the stages relate to one another.
Differences were also found regarding the incidence of the working housewife, family size and housing
type, and the family's net disposable income. (13 ref) (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1982 American
McCracken, G. (1990). “Culture and consumer behaviour: An anthropological perspective.” Journal-of-the-

Market-Research-Society; 1990 Jan Vol 32(1) 3-11.
Examines the relationship between culture and consumer behavior and describes how cultural
meanings behave in the world of goods. Discussion focuses on (1) culture as the source of strategies used
by the marketing system and (2) the "meaning transfer" model. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1990
Moorman, C., R. Deshpande, et al. (1993). “Factors affecting trust in market research relationships.”
Journal-of-Marketing; 1993 Jan Vol 57(1) 81-101.
Describes a comprehensive theory of trust in market research relationships. This theory focuses on
the factors that determine users' trust in their researchers, including individual, interpersonal,
organizational, interorganizational/interdepartmental, and project factors. The theory is tested in a sample
of 779 users. Results indicate that the interpersonal factors are the most predictive of trust. Among these
factors, perceived researcher integrity, willingness to reduce research uncertainty, confidentiality, expertise,
tactfulness, sincerity, congeniality, and timeliness are most strongly associated with trust. Among the
remaining factors, the formalization of the user's organization, the culture of the researcher's department or
organization, the research organization's or department's power, and the extent to which the research is
customized also affect trust. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1993 American Psychological Assn, all rights
reserved)
reserved)
Morris, M.-H., R.-A. Avila, et al. (1993). “Individualism and the modern corporation: Implications for
innovation and entrepreneurship.” Journal-of-Management; 1993 Fal Vol 19(3) 595-612.
Explored the extent to which entrepreneurship in established firms is the result of a more
individualistic vs collectivistic culture. Hypotheses proposed that a curvilinear relationship exists between
individualism-collectivism and corporate entrepreneurship. 252 marketing managers, human resource
heads, and heads of production departments completed and returned questionnaires. Ss were from 84
industrial firms. Results support the hypotheses, such that entrepreneurship is highest under conditions of
balanced individualism-collectivism and declines in highly individualistic and more collectivistic
environments. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1994 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
Mytton, G. (1996). “Research in new fields.” Journal-of-the-Market-Research-Society; 1996 Jan Vol 38(1)
19-33.
Reviews the function of audience research for a world broadcasting service and traces its history
since 1936. The work of the International Broadcasting Audience Research (IBAR) is described and some
of the problems and complexities of conducting surveys in different countries and cultures are discussed.
The end of the Cold War and economic and political liberalization in many countries have opened up many
areas previously closed or very restricted to market research, and IBAR's role in pioneering both
quantitative survey and qualitative research in new areas is described. Cultural barriers and the
harmonization of research data are discussed, as well as the importance of research data being analyzed and
interpreted within or against the background of the society and culture within which they were collected.
Researching sensitive Ss and the BBC as a serious and comprehensive source of news are also discussed.
Nakata, C. and K. Sivakumar (1996). “National culture and new product development: An integrative
review.” Journal-of-Marketing; 1996 Jan Vol 60(1) 61-72.
Examines the possible link between national culture and new product development using literature
from marketing, economics, research and development management, organizational behavior, international
business, and new product management. Five dimensions of national culture are presented: individualism,
power distance, masculinity, uncertainty avoidance, and the Confucian dynamic. High and low degrees or
levels of each dimension and how it effects initiation and implementation stages of product development
Oliver, R.-L. and E. Anderson (1994). “An empirical test of the consequences of behavior- and outcome-
based sales control systems.” Journal-of-Marketing; 1994 Oct Vol 58(4) 53-67.
The present authors (see PA, Vol 75:12382) previously presented a behavior vs outcome sales
control continuum based on methods of monitoring, directing, evaluating, and compensating the
salesperson's efforts and results. Here, they empirically test their propositions about how control system
perceptions influence salespeople on a diverse sample of sales representatives. 347 usable surveys were
provided by managers. It was found that the predicted effects of control philosophy on affective and
motivational states were generally supported, whereas the effects on sales strategies or performance
outcomes were not. The fairly consistent finding that behavior control relates to greater affect and
acceptance of company procedures is consistent with the findings on a supportive organizational culture, a
willingness to pursue agency as opposed to self goals, and a more risk-averse orientation. (PsycLIT
Ozanne, J.-L. and J.-B. Murray (1995). “Uniting critical theory and public policy to create the reflexively
defiant consumer.” American-Behavioral-Scientist; 1995 Feb Vol 38(4) 516-525.
Suggests that public policy can help consumers become aware of the power to define and fulfill
their own needs. Marketing researchers, consumerists, and policymakers have emphasized the importance
of making the consumer critical through providing consumers with more complete information and better
skills, but this focus leaves the existing system virtually unquestioned and intact. It is suggested that
consumers must become more radically critical or reflexively defiant by dropping this natural attitude
toward the existing order and instead questioning economic, political, and social structures. This
convergence of critical theory and public policy suggests a type of consumer who is empowered to reflect
social conditions to decide how to live, resulting in informed participation in consumer culture, defiance of
this lifestyle, or a creative combination of the two. Emphasis is placed on J. Habermas's (1971, 1975, 1989)
theory of communicative competence. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1995 American Psychological Assn,
Robinson, C. (1996). “Asian culture: The marketing consequences.” Journal-of-the-Market-Research-

Society; 1996 Jan Vol 38(1) 55-62.
Provides an overview of the cultural dimensions of Asian orientations and discusses their
implications on brand values. Many Asian packaged goods markets are characterized by a level of single
brand dominance and entrenched market shares and it is suggested that this is due to the shared value
systems held by people in this region (belief in power distance, consensus, and uncertainty avoidance).
Strategies for overcoming the entrenched loyalty phenomenon are discussed, including tapping the strong
desire for identification through status product ownership. The effect of the collective orientation of all the
Confucian-influenced markets in Asia is especially evident in qualitative research and particular
importance must be placed on precise recruitment and moderating skills. It is recommended that target-user
segments be evaluated in terms of their alignment positions relating to the general cultural values of the
region. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1996 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
Rosen, J. (1982). “The child model: A modern delusion.” Etc.; 1982 Fal Vol 39(3) 257-262.
Using the life of Brook Shields as an example, the author suggests that it is the dream of maturity
without aging that the promoters of Shields tap into, a form of beauty that helps to sell a wide range of
products and that must ultimately tyrannize all women with the demand to mature and yet remain at a
previous stage of growth. The impossibility of this demand and the pressure to fulfill it result in an anxiety
few can escape, a hate that turns inward to become the neurotic self-scrutiny typical of the narcissist and
perfect for selling remedy after remedy. Women might legitimately react with rage toward the deploying of
Shields throughout the culture, but to do so would mean questioning a deep desire that is not the creation of
the beauty industry. The dream of maturing without aging is the form of most modern illusions. (PsycLIT
Roth, M.-S. (1995). “The effects of culture and socioeconomics on the performance of global brand image
strategies.” Journal-of-Marketing-Research; 1995 May Vol 32(2) 163-175.
Studied the brand image-performance linkage for consumer goods in 2 categories marketed
internationally and developed a conceptual framework that identifies various cultural and socioeconomic
environmental characteristics of foreign markets that are hypothesized to affect brand image performance.
Results from a 10 country/60 region study indicate that cultural power distance, cultural individualism, and
regional socioeconomics affect the performance of functional (problem prevention and solving), social
(group membership and symbolic), and sensory (novelty, variety, and sensory gratification) brand image
strategies. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1995 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
Rubin, D., J. DeHart, et al. (1991). “Effects of accented speech and culture-typical compliance-gaining
style on subordinates' impressions of managers.” International-Journal-of-Intercultural-Relations; 1991 Vol
15(3) 267-283.
Investigated the effects of Japanese accented English as compared with standard American
English and the effects of Japanese-typical compared with North American-typical compliance-gaining
styles on 70 US marketing students' impressions of a sales manager. The matched guise technique was
employed in preparing audiotapes. Questionnaires and rating scales completed by the Ss also considered
the effects of other mediating variables such as experience working with internationals. Results indicate
that subordinates rate highly managers who use Japanese-typical style, and they did so especially when
they erroneously associated this message pattern with American-typical style. (French & Spanish abstracts)
rights reserved)
reserved)
Tse, D.-K., K.-h. Lee, et al. (1988). “Does culture matter? A cross-cultural study of executives' choice,
decisiveness, and risk adjustment in international marketing.” Journal-of-Marketing; 1988 Oct Vol 52(4)
81-95.
Investigated whether a manager's home culture (HC) influences his/her international marketing
decisions and whether the impact of HC diminishes in an open economy. Decision making in 4 simulated
marketing situations was studied with 145 executives from the People's Republic of China (PRC), Hong
Kong, and Canada, using an in-basket instrument. Findings confirm that HC had predictable effects on
decision making of Ss from the PRC and Canada. Chinese executives from Hong Kong were influenced by
a combination of Western and Chinese cultural norms. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1989 American
Unger, L.-S. (1996). “The potential for using humor in global advertising.” Humor-International-Journal-
of-Humor-Research; 1996 Vol 9(2) 143-168.
International marketing firms often strive to standardize their advertising campaigns in the
countries where they operate. Because of its universality, its popularity, and its persuasive effect, humor
may well be an advertising element that can be transferred from culture to culture. Both cognitive and
affective models have been used to explain humor's role in persuasion. However, the problems associated
with using humor, particularly across cultures, threaten its potential. Humor in persuasion has been
criticized because it detracts from message comprehension, because diverse audience tastes in humor
threaten information processing, and because humor may wear out quickly, causing selective attention or
leading to audience irritation and counterargumentation. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1997 American
Vacker, B. and W.-R. Key (1993). “Beauty and the beholder: The pursuit of beauty through commodities.
Special Issue: The pursuit of beauty.” Psychology-and-Marketing; 1993 Nov-Dec Vol 10(6) 471-494.
Examines typical interpretations of beauty from a philosophical context and suggests that different
philosophies of what comprises beauty often yield different psychological and cultural effects. A
preliminary framework is offered for understanding the function of beauty in the market, the physical
appearance phenomenon, concern with unnatural perfection, the preoccupation-with-youth culture, and the
decontextualization of beauty. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1994 American Psychological Assn, all rights
reserved)
Webster, C. (1990). “Toward the measurement of the marketing culture of a service firm.” Journal-of-
Business-Research; 1990 Dec Vol 21(4) 345-362.
Developed a 38-item scale for assessing the marketing culture of a service firm. Six dimensions
are delineated: service quality, interpersonal relationships, selling task, organization, internal
communications, and innovativeness. The scale's reliability, factor structure, and validity are evaluated
using data from 4 samples. Potential applications of the scale in improving service provision and marketing
Webster, C. (1991). “A note on cultural consistency within the service firm: The effects of employee
position on attitudes toward marketing culture.” Journal-of-the-Academy-of-Marketing-Science; 1991 Fal
Vol 19(4) 341-346.
Service employees completed a questionnaire measuring their attitudes toward both actual and
ideal marketing culture of their firm. Attitudinal differences were examined between 127 high-level, 121
middle-level, and 112 ground-level managers from a cross-section of industries. Significant differences
were found for a variety of marketing cultural dimensions: service quality, interpersonal relationships,
selling task, organization, internal communications, and innovativeness. Many of the differences remained
even after removing possible effects of the size and age of the firm. Findings indicate that marketing
culture consistency does not exist in service firms. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1992 American
Webster, C. (1996). “Hispanic and Anglo interviewer and respondent ethnicity and gender: The impact on
survey response quality.” Journal-of-Marketing-Research; 1996 Feb Vol 33(1) 62-72.
Applied a hierarchical regression model to analyze the simultaneous effects of Hispanic and Anglo
interviewer and respondent ethnicity and gender on response quality in survey research. The pool of
interviewers was comprised of 19 Anglo and 22 Hispanic females and 20 Anglo and 18 Hispanic males. All
respondents and interviewers were 31-45 yrs old. Although few significant main effects of respondent or
interviewer characteristics on response quality were found, Anglos and female interviewers generated a
significantly higher item-response effort rate than their counterparts. For the most part, ethnically
homophilous and gender-heterophilous interviews generated the highest response quality. Both Hispanic
and Anglo respondents deferred to an interviewer of a different ethnic background when queried about the
interviewer's culture, but not when asked noncultural, albeit sensitive, questions. (PsycLIT Database
West, D.-C. (1993). “Cross-national creative personalities, processes, and agency philosophies.” Journal-
of-Advertising-Research; 1993 Sep-Oct Vol 33(5) 53-62.
Explored the personal qualities that form the advertising creative personality. It was hypothesized
that differences in culture, industrial development marketing orientation, and scope and influence of
advertising agencies would result in significant differences in (1) the nature of the creative personality, (2)
the control and participation of the creative process, and (3) the use and type of agency philosophy.
Questionnaires measuring various business creative issues were obtained from 86 US, 119 Canadian, and
98 UK senior creative advertising directors. Apart from the control of the creative process (i.e., senior UK
creative Ss regarded themselves as more involved and more independent than did their North American
counterparts), there were no substantive measurable differences on most creative dimensions between the 3
countries. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1994 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
Whittler, T.-E. (1989). “Viewers' processing of actor's race and message claims in advertising stimuli.
Special Issue: Psychology, marketing, and the Black community.” Psychology-and-Marketing; 1989 Win
Vol 6(4) 287-309.
160 White and 140 Black undergraduates rated an advertisement featuring a White (WHA) or
Black actor (BLA) promoting a portable word processor or a liquid laundry detergent (LD). An assessment
of racial attitudes (RAs (i.e., Whites' racial prejudice and Blacks' identification with Black culture))
followed product, advertisement, and actor ratings. When the BLA promoted the relatively inexpensive LD,
Ss with stronger RAs were more likely to employ racially focused heuristics than Ss with weaker RAs. Ss
with less defined RAs did not seem more likely to consider the message claims than Ss with firmly
established RAs. Findings provided partial support for the heuristic vs systematic processing distinction
made by S. Chaiken (see PA, Vol 66:8035). (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1990 American Psychological
Wills, J., A. C. Samli, et al. (1991). “Developing global products and marketing strategies: A construct and
a research agenda.” Journal-of-the-Academy-of-Marketing-Science; 1991 Win Vol 19(1) 1-10.
Presents a model that would enable multinational companies to design global products and
marketing strategies that combine the advantages of both globalization and localization. In essence the
model puts forth the elements of being global and acting local. To implement this strategy, the article starts
with consumer behavior (micro) and works up to societal concepts of product acceptance or purchase
(macro). The model has 4 dimensions: involvement, learning, culture, and diffusion. The article examines
each of these 4 dimensions separately, then explores the critical interactions among them. How these
dimensions can be used to enhance the design and marketing of global products is elaborated. The proposed
model can also be used in domestic markets where there are distinct subcultures. (PsycLIT Database
Wintrob, H.-L. (1987). “Self disclosure as a marketable commodity. Special Issue: Loneliness: Theory,
research, and applications.” Journal-of-Social-Behavior-and-Personality; 1987 Vol 2(2, Pt 2) 77-88.
Discusses the intentional use of self-disclosure (SD) as a means of maximizing attractiveness in
dating relationships. It is suggested that in a culture where openness, psychological awareness, and
emotional vulnerability are prized, revealing intimate aspects of one's life is a vehicle for enhancing social
appeal. The increased use of personal SD is considered in the context of a society in which people have
difficulty forming and maintaining relationships, experience a heightened sense of emotional alienation,
and have feelings of loneliness that have reached epidemic proportions. The author questions whether or
not SD, formerly reserved for intimate relationships, has not merely become another way of marketing
ourselves. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1988 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
Wooley, O.-W. and S.-C. Wooley (1982). “The Beverly Hills eating disorder: The mass marketing of
anorexia nervosa.” International-Journal-of-Eating-Disorders; 1982 Spr Vol 1(3) 57-69.
Discusses hunger, binges, bloating, digestion, combating hunger, and depression in relation to the
Beverly Hills diet (J. Mazel, 1981). It is argued that the diet is a training course in anorexic
psychopathology and a symptom of a weight-possessed culture. (21 ref) (PsycLIT Database Copyright
Kamakura, W. A. and J. A. Mazzon (1991). “Value segmentation: A model for the measurement of values
and value systems.” Journal of Consumer Research 18(2): 208-218.
Develops a model for the measurement of human values that identifies distinct value systems
within a population and classifies individuals according to them. Value systems are inferred from the stated
priority rankings obtained from each individual. This approach is similar to L. R. Kahle's (1983) value
segmentation model. The proposed model was applied to 800 Brazilian adults' responses to the Rokeach
Value Survey. Results support the idea that the hierarchy of values, when measured at the aggregate level,
does not reveal the true values held by different subcultures. Reliability of the estimated value systems and
validity of the segmentation results are discussed. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1992 American

reserved)

Odour, scent, perfume and smell:

Almagor, U. (1990). “Some thoughts on common scents.” Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour
20(3): 181-195.
Argues that there is no one factor responsible for the way people use and refer to odors in social
use, but there is a combination of several factors. These include the physiobiological basis of odor
perception, features of odors, the olfactory mode of spatiality, the semiotic basis of smells, and exposure to
odors during socialization and the resulting identification of specific odors with specific objects. All of
these factors combine to establish a mode of individual reaction, reference, and communication in which
odors are described but not named. In fact, societies have not classified odors, other than to make the
simple division between foul and pleasant smells, because of the multidimensional reality in which odor
stimuli exist. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Ayabe Kanamura, S., I. Schicker, et al. (1998). “Differences in perception of everyday odors: A Japanese-
German cross-cultural study.” Chemical Senses 23(1): 31-38.
Examined the hypothesis that experience with odors may strongly influence perception by
comparing the responses of 40 Japanese and 44 age-matched German women to everyday odorants. Ss
were presented with 18 stimuli in squeeze bottles and asked to rate them according to intensity, familiarity,
pleasantness and edibility, to describe associations elicited by them and, if possible, to name them. One-
third of the odorants were presumed to be familiar to Japanese Ss only, one-third to German Ss and one-
third to both populations. Significant differences were found between the 2 populations on all measures.
Better performance by Japanese Ss in providing appropriate descriptors for "Japanese" odorants and by
German Ss for "European" odorants supported the pre-selection of stimuli as culture-typical. In general, a
positive relationship was found between pleasantness and judgement of stimuli as edible, suggesting that
culture-specific experiences--particularly of foods--may significantly influence odor perception. Somewhat
unexpectedly, significant differences were also found in intensity ratings for some odorants. These
differences raise the possibility that experience may even influence such basic aspects of odor perception as
stimulus intensity. ((c) 1998 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Baron, R. A. (1981). “Olfaction and human social behavior: Effects of a pleasant scent on attraction and
social perception.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 7(4): 611-616.
94 undergraduate males participated in an experiment designed to examine the impact of a
pleasant scent (perfume) on interpersonal attraction and social perception. Ss met and interacted briefly
with 1 of 2 female confederates who either wore perfume or did not, and who were dressed either neatly (in
a blouse, skirt, and hose) or informally (in jeans and a sweatshirt). Results indicate that the presence of a
pleasant scent increased attraction toward the confederates and produced positive shifts in perceptions of
several of their traits when they were dressed informally. When the confederates dressed in a neater
manner, however, opposite effects were observed. These findings are interpreted as stemming from the fact
that Ss reacted more favorably to the confederates when they appeared to be intermediate rather than high
or low along a dimension of informality^formality. (9 ref) ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Baron, R. A. (1983). “"Sweet smell of success"? The impact of pleasant artificial scents on evaluations of
job applicants.” Journal of Applied Psychology 68(4): 709-713.
19 male and 26 female undergraduates interviewed male or female applicants for an entry-level
management position. Applicants were actually confederates of the researcher who wore or did not wear a
measured amount of a popular perfume or cologne. Following the interview, Ss rated each applicant on a
number of job-related dimensions and personal characteristics. Results indicate that both sex of S and the
presence or absence of scent affected the ratings of the applicants. Males assigned lower ratings to these
persons when they wore perfume or cologne than when they did not; females showed the opposite pattern.
Moreover, this was true both for job-related and personal characteristics. Results may reflect greater
difficulty on the part of males than females in ignoring extraneous aspects of job applicants' appearance or
grooming. (10 ref) ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Breckler, S. J. and H. S. Fried (1993). “On knowing what you like and liking what you smell: Attitudes
depend on the form in which the object is represented.” Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 19(2):
228-240.
Three studies with 163 college students examined whether responses elicited by an attitude object
depend on the form in which the object is mentally represented. Ss indicated their preferences for odors in
response to descriptive labels (a symbolic representation) and in response to unlabeled scratch-and-sniff
patches (a perceptual representation). The correspondence between ratings of symbolic and perceptual
object representations was substantially lower than the reliability of ratings within either representational
domain. Accessibility of attitudes (indexed by judgment times) was increased by prior expression of
attitudes within the same representational domain but not by prior expression of attitudes in the other
domain. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Classen, C., D. Howes, et al. (1994). Aroma: The cultural history of smell. London, England UK,
Routledge.
(from the cover) "Aroma" uncovers the secret history of smells: from the perfumed banquets of
ancient Greece to the 'best blueberry flavour ever made,' from the sweet 'odour of sanctity' to the latest in
designer fragrances. A journey of discovery that takes in the perfume potions of the Pacific as well as
Andean aromatherapies, "Aroma" maps the 'smellscapes' of different cultures and explores the roles that
odours have played throughout history. Along the way, the authors open our senses to the powerful cultural
meanings of smells. Odours, they show, inform power relations between the sexes, between classes and
ethnic groups. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Danghel, E. (1996). “The symbolism of smell.” Psychiatria Hungarica 11(6): 683-692.

The sense of smell is a driving force of memory and emotion, and as such it could be dangerous
for society. But on the personal level, it can be useful to clarify all our feelings about smell, to separate
what is induced by the process of socialization (from a kind of sampling), and that which is an attribute of
our current state. On an individual level this seems to be effected through love, but we may need more, we
have to extend this. To realize all this, first of all one has to perceive the world from the other's "point of
smell." The power and emotional effect of odors and fragrances, the basic connection between smell,
breathing, and life make the resulting "world scent" something more important than the only partial world
view used by our western culture in understanding the world of the others. ((c) 1998 APA/PsycINFO, all
rights reserved)
Doty, R. L., S. Applebaum, et al. (1985). “Sex differences in odor identification ability: A cross-cultural
analysis.” Neuropsychologia 23(5): 667-672.
To ascertain the generality of a sex difference noted in odor identification ability, the University of
Pennsylvania Smell Identification Test developed by the 1st author and colleagues (see PA, Vol 72:5611)
was administered to 4 groups of Ss: 660 male and 899 female White Americans (mean ages 39.1 and 41.1
yrs, respectively); 210 male and 228 female Black Americans (mean ages 29.7 and 36 yrs, respectively); 53
male and 53 female Korean-Americans (mean ages 14.1 and 14.3 yrs, respectively); and 117 male and 191
female native Japanese (mean ages 25.5 and 21.8 yrs, respectively). The women of all 4 groups
outperformed the men to the same relative degree. The Korean-American group performed better than the
Black and White American groups, who, in turn, outperformed the native Japanese. Analyses of the
proportions of Ss correctly answering each of the test items revealed considerable similarity of relative item
difficulty among the S groups. Data suggest that sex differences in odor identification ability are probably
not due to ethnic or cultural factors per se. (33 ref) ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Engen, T. and E. A. Engen (1997). “Relationship between development of odor perception and language.”
Enfance No 1: 125-140.
Discusses the development of odor perception and children's inclination and ability to describe
olfactory preferences. Empirical research indicates that olfactory preferences and aversions develop from
birth on and that children's ability to describe odor responses is connected with their language development.
The psychophysiological data on taste and smell and the linguistic data indicate that the sensory experience
and its verbal description may be interrelated aspects of development. Children do not talk spontaneously
about odor experiences in the early stages of language development, perhaps because these do not represent
salient experiences for them. (French abstract) ((c) 1998 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Fiore, A. M. (1992). “Effect of composition of olfactory cues on impressions of personality.” Social

Behavior and Personality 20(3): 149-161.
90 female undergraduates participated in an experiment investigating whether composition of 3
fragrances (perfumes) influenced impressions of personality traits of people who would wear each
fragrance. An analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) with the variance due to liking of the fragrance (a
covariate) removed, revealed that fragrance composition influenced impressions of personality.
Impressions made of affiliated fragrances (oriental and chypre) were closely aligned and significantly
different from impressions of the dissimilar (floral) fragrance for multi-item factors and single item traits.
Wearers of the floral fragrance were less likely to be perceived as having uninhibited traits, to be attributed
with traditional male factor traits, and to be impulsive, aggressive, assertive, dynamic, confident,
sophisticated, and outgoing, but more likely to be timid. Implications for research on the role of olfactory
cues in social and professional interactions are discussed. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
King, J. R. (1988). Anxiety reduction using fragrances. Perfumery: The psychology and biology of
fragrance. S. Van Toller. London, England UK, Chapman & Hall: p. 147-165.
(from the chapter) enhanced relaxation / enhanced relaxation therapy /// relaxation training /
problems with traditional relaxation techniques /// stress /// odours and disease /// use of fragrance alone ///
construction of the fragrance /// role of fragrance in enhanced relaxation: verification /// applications of
enhanced relaxation therapy ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Kirk Smith, M. D. and D. A. Booth (1987). “Chemoreception in human behaviour: Experimental analysis
of the social effects of fragrances.” Chemical Senses 12(1): 159-166.
Outlines major processes underlying the influences of odor on human social behavior and
proposes that human responses to odor are acquired by association with emotionally significant effects. The
conditions for eliciting a response to a particular odor depend on the complex settings of previous social
experience with odors. Odors help to carry the meaning of their sources, evoking recognition and affect.
Thus the results of an experiment on the social effect of an odor will depend on the test situation,
procedure, and instructions. These principles are used to resolve apparent conflicts in research findings and
to point to implications for the formulation and advertising of personal fragrances. ((c) 1997
Laing, D. G. and P. J. Clark (1983). “Puberty and olfactory preferences of males.” Physiology and
Behavior 30(4): 591-597.
Determined the preferences of 302 males, aged 8-9, 14, and 16 yrs, for 10 food-related odors using
a hedonic scale. The aim was to establish if major changes in preferences occur during the period that
encompasses puberty. Small but significant differences between the 8-9 yr old group and the others were
obtained for meat and chicken odors; between the 14-yr-old group and the others for peanut butter odor;
and a change from dislike to like with age for coffee odor. Results were almost all confirmed in a retest.
The general lack of differences between the responses of the 3 age groups indicated that no major change
occurs in preferences for food odors between the ages of 8 and 16 yrs. However, results do not eliminate
the possibility that preferences may be altered for odors related to sex and emotion. (25 ref) ((c) 1997
Mennella, J. A. and G. K. Beauchamp (1997). The ontogeny of human flavor perception. Tasting and
smelling. Handbook of perception and cognition (2nd ed.). G. K. Beauchamp. San Diego, CA, USA,
Academic Press, Inc: p. 199-221.
(from the preface) Discuss the issue of the importance of learning, particularly with regard to
olfaction. Following a brief overview of early development of the taste and olfactory systems in human
fetuses and infants, this chapter focuses on the flavor (primarily retronasal olfactory component) world of
the developing human infant. The authors suggest that exposure to flavor in amniotic fluid and human milk
may contribute to later preferences for such flavors. (from the chapter) This chapter focuses on one aspect
of developmental research, that which relates to chemical senses, with particular emphasis on food
acceptance, and its implications for "education." As will be discussed, this research clearly shows that the
human infant, like the adult, is not a passive receptacle for food. Rather, she or he makes active choices in
accepting or rejecting certain flavors. However, these studies also reveal that the sensory world of the
young infant may be quite different from that of the adult. Research also suggests that experience during
infancy may serve to alter later responsiveness to flavors, and, in a sense, educate and civilize the young
child to appreciate the flavors typical of the culture into which she or he was born. ((c) 1998
Mensing, J. and C. Beck (1988). The psychology of fragrance selection. Perfumery: The psychology and
biology of fragrance. S. Van Toller. London, England UK, Chapman & Hall: p. 185-204.
(from the chapter) is selection of a perfume a matter of chance /// fragrance aesthetics /// Colour-
Rosette Test /// trends in perfumery / characteristic traits of a trend /// change of self-perception: the main
perfume trends in recent years ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Russell, M. J., B. J. Cummings, et al. (1993). “Life span changes in the verbal categorization of odors.”
Journals of Gerontology 48(2): 49-P53.
Explored age-related change in odor perception based on 1.19 million US and Canadian
respondents (aged 10-90 yrs) to the National Geographic Smell Survey. Ss sampled 6 microencapsulated
odorants and selected 1 of 11 descriptors to characterize each smell. Four odors were characterized by
strong consensus endorsement of a single descriptor. This consensus weakened with advancing age, and
nonmodal descriptors were endorsed more frequently. Results suggest a marked change in odor
categorization across the life span. Odor descriptor profiles were used to generate age-specific
multidimensional scaling maps. The sweet dimension of odor quality may be particularly variable with
maturation. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Schiffman, S. S., M. S. Suggs, et al. (1995). “Effect of pleasant odors on mood of males at midlife:
Comparison of African-American and European-American men.” Brain Research Bulletin 36(1): 31-37.
Determined if daily use of colognes could elevate mood in 60 men (aged 40-55 yrs). Half of the Ss
were European-American and half were African-American. Mood ratings were obtained twice daily for 12
days using the Profile of Mood States (POMS). The 1st 2 days of the experiment were used as baseline
information. The following 10 days of the study consisted of 2 conditions of 5 days each. Main effects of
condition (baseline, fragrance, placebo) were found for all POMS factors as well as for the Total Mood
Disturbance (TMD) score. The scores for the fragrance condition were significantly better than those for
the baseline condition for tension, depression, anger, fatigue, and confusion factors, as well as for the
TMD. There was a main effect for race, with European-American Ss having worse scores for tension and
fatigue and better scores for depression than African-American Ss. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights
reserved)
Schleidt, M., P. Neumann, et al. (1988). “Pleasure and disgust: Memories and associations of pleasant and
unpleasant odours in Germany and Japan.” Chemical Senses 13(2): 279-293.
166 German and 88 Japanese Ss (aged 17-84 yrs) were asked to name pleasant and unpleasant
odors from memory and to give associations regarding them. The Ss enumerated 2,040 odors and 3,520
associations. The results for both cultures were similar in quality as well as quantity. The odor memories
included the whole physical and social environment, and the associations showed the far-reaching effect of
odor experiences. Both pleasant and unpleasant odors were remembered to an equal extent. Most of the
odors recalled were assessed similarly by the Ss. The possibility that this finding reflects preprogrammed
survival strategies is discussed. The few cultural differences that were found seem to reflect different life
habits, norms, and values in the 2 countries. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Torii, S., H. Fukuda, et al. (1988). Contingent negative variation (CNV) and the psychological effects of
odour. Perfumery: The psychology and biology of fragrance. S. Van Toller. London, England UK,
Chapman & Hall: p. 107-120.
(from the chapter) in our study we examined whether CNV [contingent negative variation] can be
used objectively to observe stimulating and sedative effects of odours /// our experiments showed that the
odour of jasmine, which is said to have a stimulating effect, increased CNV amplitude, while the fragrance
of lavender, which is said to have a sedative effect, decreased our subjects' CNV /// CNV is a very sensitive
measure for determining the effects of odours on brain electrical activity ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all
rights reserved)
Van Buuren, S. and J. de Leeuw (1992). “Equality constraints in multiple correspondence analysis.”
Multivariate Behavioral Research 27(4): 567-583.
Examines homogeneity analysis, a form of multiple correspondence analysis (MCA), as a
technique for analyzing multivariate categorical data. A methodology is presented to show how equality
can be specified in terms of homogeneity analysis and how the constrained solution can be computed. Two
applications are discussed. The 1st application, involving odor preference data from 102 adults, was an
analysis of ranking data as a straightforward application of equality. The 2nd application, involving event
history data from 25 babies, applied equality to subsets of variables. Equality provides a straightforward
extension of MCA and provides a way to incorporate prior knowledge. Fewer parameters are needed, and
the stability and clarity of the solution are likely to increase. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Van Toller, S. and G. H. Dodd, Eds. (1992). Fragrance: The psychology and biology of perfume. London,
Elsevier Applied Science Publishers/Elsevier Science Publishers.
(from the introduction) Understanding of the psychological basis of perfumery can be approached
only on the basis of a sophisticated understanding of several academically distinct disciplines. The
contributions to this book have been chosen to reflect this. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Wippich, W., S. Mecklenbraeuker, et al. (1993). “Sensorische Geruchsnachwirkungen bei indirekten und
direkten Behaltenspruefungen. / Indirect and direct memory tests for sensory effects of odor experiences.”
Schweizerische Zeitschrift fuer Psychologie 52(3): 193-204.
Studied the sensory aftereffects of odor experiences to determine whether or not these aftereffects
can be determined with indirect measures of memory. Ss included 48 normal male and female adults (aged
20-44 yrs) (mainly homemakers and employees). The study involved a 3 * 2 * 2 factorial design. In the
learning phase, Ss encoded pairs of odors, single odors, or names of odors. In the test phase, Ss were
presented with pairs of old and new odors and asked to determine as quickly as possible whether the 2
odors were the same or different. Error rates, reaction time (RT), odor preferences, and recognition
performances were the dependent variables. (English abstract) ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights
reserved)
Wysocki, C. J. and A. N. Gilbert (1989). “National Geographic Smell Survey: Effects of age are
heterogenous.” Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 561: 12-28.
Analyzed the responses of 1.42 million people to a National Geographic Magazine Smell Survey
to examine aging and olfaction. Odor perception, on average, declined with age, but this decline was not
uniform across Ss, odorants, or measures of response. Anatomical evidence suggesting that factors extrinsic
to the aging process can modulate olfactory function is discussed. Heterogeneity appears to be the hallmark
of age-related change in olfactory function. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Religion:
Agarwal, M. K., N. S. Muthukumaran, et al. (1990). “A psychographic segmentation of the Indian youth
market.” Journal of the Market Research Society 32(2): 251-259.
Reports on an exploratory study of the Indian urban youth market using the 7,791 complete
responses from women and men (aged 15-29 yrs) living in towns and cities. Ss were administered an
abridged version of the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF) along with questionnaires that
gathered personality, activity, and psychographic (i.e., Ss' opinions on shopping, sex roles, future
orientation, family, and religion) data. 43% of the women were married compared with 14% of the men.
39% of the men worked compared with 10% of the women. Household income was low for Ss with
traditional values and high for Ss with liberal values. Given that substantive intersegment differences in
activities and media habits were identified in these Ss, it is possible to improve the targeting of promotional
and communication efforts. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Cattell, R. (1994). How good is your country? What you should know. Washington, D. C., Institute for the
Study of Man.
One hundred countries were rated based on 19 dimensions of exogenous characteristics. The
dimensions were 1) Vigorous development, 2) Intelligent affluence, 3) Morale, 4) Size, 5) Careless
integrated conservatism, 6) Cultural pressure reaction, 7) Efficient use of resources, 8) Cultural pressure
with sublimation, 9) Cosmopolitan Muslim, 10) Political cultural awareness, 11) International concern, 12)
Anxious responsibility, 13) General productivity, 14) Orderly self sufficiency, 15) Population control, 16)
Stability and responsibility, 17) East Asian Buddhist culture, 18) Non-conformism in religion, 19) Self
sufficient work values. World maps showed the closeness of similar national groups.
Feather, N. T. and M. A. Hutton (1974). “Value systems of students in Papua New Guinea and Australia.”
1,100 indigenous English-speaking Ss from Papua New Guinea, enrolled in tertiary institutions
and training programs or serving as headmasters, and making up 12 subsamples (mean age 18.74 yrs for
university students, 29.23 yrs for inspectors and headmasters) completed the Rokeach Value Survey
anonymously, and provided information about age, sex, course of study, religion, clan, home, and district.
Average value systems of these Ss were compared with those of approximately 3,900 Australian secondary
and university students with Papua New Guinea Ss, revealing greater concern among Papuan students with
general social values, with orthodox religious values, and with values implying deference to authority, and
among Australian students greater concern with personal, humanistic values. Factor analyses of the 12
Papua New Guinea subgroups revealed general similarities in average value systems across all groups but
suggested some differences in the case of instrumental values, a finding hard to interpret since it is
confounded with differences in age. Results in Papua that reflect emphasis upon safety and security needs,
contrast with emphasis in Australian Ss upon competence and self-actualization. The differences are related
to level of development of the respective countries and to history of the areas (especially the missionary
influence, extended families, and concern with emerging nationhood). (30 ref) (PsycLIT Database
Gallard, M. (1994). “Jung et les faits de societe. (Jung and societal events.).” Cahiers-Jungiens-de-
Psychanalyse; 1994 Fal No 80 51-62.
Observes that Jung was always interested in the development of the human spirit as reflected in its
collective creations, such as culture, myths, religion, and a people's relationship with their body and
customs. Jung felt that the individual owed a debt to society and perceived the close bond between the
group and the individual. However, Jung perceived the negative aspects of mob psychology and the mob's
power to reawaken the demons and the violence in humans tamed by the work of civilization. Only when
evil is recognized and confronted by the forces of good can change be produced in individuals and society.
Only the tension between 2 opposites can produce a third symbolic term. Examples from current political
events illustrate this theme. (English abstract) (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1995 American Psychological
Lawless, D. J. (1989). “Religious values in the workplace: Implications for management in Canada.”
Organization Development Journal 7(1): 83-88.
Addresses the renewed interest in religion and ethics in the workplace reflected by the media and
argues that religious values are not dead nor are they completely secularized. Acceptance of the theological
and religious dimension of the work ethic has important implications for organizational structures and
management practices. These dimensions may be more important and have more influence on productivity
and quality than all the extrinsic, economic rewards combined. Recent changes in the meaning of work
require the attention of contemporary psychologists. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Melikian, L. H. (1969). “Acculturation, time perspective and feeling tone: A cross cultural study in the
perception of the days.” Journal of Social Psychology 79(2): 273-275.
17 "unexposed" and 19 "exposed" Saudi college students were asked to rank the days of the wk.
The unexposed ranked the official religious days of rest 1st, the exposed ranked the day before it 1st. The
exposed were more explicit than the unexposed about the future as determining their choice; the unexposed
were more explicit about religion as a determinant. Exposure seems to increase the future orientation of Ss
whereas nonexposure does not. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Monks, F. (1968). “Future Time Perspective in Adolescents.” Human Development 11(2): 107-123.
"IN A STUDY-REPRESENTATIVE OF ADOLESCENTS IN MEDIUM-SIZED AND LARGE
CITIES IN HOLLAND, THE FUTURE-ORIENTED TIME PERSPECTIVE OF 627 GIRLS AND 797
BOYS AGED 14-21 YR. WAS INVESTIGATED. THE SS WERE ASKED TO WRITE ESSAYS. THE
TECHNIQUE OF CONTENT ANALYSIS WAS APPLIED TO EVALUATE . . . (THEM). 9 MAIN
CATEGORIES WERE ESTABLISHED: (1) SELF AND PERSONALITY, (2) SCHOOL AND
VOCATION, (3) FAMILY AND HOME, (4) SOCIETY AND STATE, (5) RELIGION AND CHURCH,
(6) TRAVEL, (7) MATERIAL SPHERE, (8) SCIENCE FICTION, (AND) (9) CRITICAL REMARKS. . . .
(IN) BOTH SEXES 'SCHOOL AND VOCATION' RANKED FIRST AS THE THEMATIC FOCAL
POINTS. THERE ARE AGE AND SEX DIFFERENCES IN ALL ASPECTS OF FUTURE-ORIENTED
TIME PERSPECTIVE." ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Murray, D. W. (1993). “What is the Western concept of the self? On forgetting David Hume.” Ethos; 1993
Mar Vol 21(1) 3-23.
Posits that the Western conception of the self is a complex and contested tradition of thought. The
author asserts that throughout Western religions and philosophical and literary expressions, there seems to
be a dialectical relationship between contrastive themes of selfhood that could be characterized as
essentialist and nominalist or as transcendent and contingent. The work of David Hume (1758 (1975)) is
said to show a theory of self-experience that fails to conform to expectations of a continuous, bonded, and
perduring self and that anticipates theoretical awareness found in the work of K. Ewing (see PA, Vol
79:27043). (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1993 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
O'Guinn, T.-C. and R.-W. Belk (1989). “Heaven on earth: Consumption at Heritage Village, USA.”
Journal-of-Consumer-Research; 1989 Sep Vol 16(2) 227-238.
Examination of consumer behavior at Heritage Village, USA, a religious theme park encouraging
luxury and self-indulgence, demonstrates (1) the interdependence of media, politics, religion, and
consumption in a significant part of US culture and (2) the link between an economic system and religion.
Riess, A. (1988). “The power of the eye in nature, nurture, and culture: A developmental view of mutual
gaze.” Psychoanalytic-Study-of-the-Child; 1988 Vol 43 399-421.
Posits that ancient beliefs in the function and power of the eye are rooted in universal mutual gaze
patterns of childhood. Four developmental phases of childhood and their characteristics are described with
respect to eye experience and power from a cultural perspective. These developmental constructs provide a
framework for ordering data from ancient monuments, myths, and religion. The transformation of ancient
eye beliefs from more primitive, primary-process, magical beginnings to more rational, reality-oriented,
secondary-process, ethical forms parallels that of the individual child. In games such as "peek-a-boo," the
eye acts as an agent of social-emotional bonding. Examples of the power of the eye are given from
narrative text such as preclassical myth, figurative material, and the Bible. (PsycLIT Database Copyright
Roberts, A. H. and J. E. Greene (1971). “Cross-cultural study of relationships among four dimensions of
time perspective.” Perceptual and Motor Skills 33(1): 163-173.
Attempted to (a) describe the internal structure of the concept of time perspective in terms of
rationally developed dimensions derived from performance on 1 task; and (b) determine whether or not this
internal structure was in any way different for 3 ethnic groups (spanish-american, american indian, and
anglo-american), 2 age groups (10 and 16 yr.), and 2 thematic content areas (religious and social).
Measures of temporal extension, location, and kinesis were derived from 112 ss on a story-telling task.
Data were analyzed by a multidimensional chi2 analysis. The 3 measures were differentially sensitive to
variables introduced, E.g., ethnic differences were most clearly shown by the kinetic measure and content
differences by extension. A rationale for a partial interpretation of the findings within a cultural context is
suggested. (20 ref.) ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Schwartz, S. H. and S. Huismans (1995). “Value priorities and religiosity in four Western religions.” Social
Psychology Quarterly 58(2): 88-107 Issn: 01902725.
Two experiments examined the relationship between religiosity and value priorities among
adherents of 4 religions: Judaism, Protestantism, Roman Catholicism, and Greek Orthodoxy. Single values
combined into 10 distinct value types: power, achievement, hedonism, stimulation, self-direction,
universalism, benevolence, tradition, conformity, and security. Exp 1 focused on a total of 1,731 members
of the 4 religions in 4 countries where each is the dominant religion: Greece, the Netherlands, Spain, and
Israel. Ss rated the importance of each of the 10 value sets as a guiding principle in their lives. Exp 2
compared responses of 849 Protestants and 827 Roman Catholics in West Germany. Results suggest that
valuing certainty, self-restraint, and submission to superior external verities inclines people to become more
religious in general; valuing openness to change and free self-expression inclines people to become less
religious. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1996 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
Schwartz, S. H. and A. Bardi (1997). “Influences of adaptation to communist rule on value priorities in
Eastern Europe.” Political Psychology 18(2): 385-410 Issn: 0162895x.
The basic value priorities prevalent in Eastern Europe are studied in a cross-national comparison.
Analyses of the implications of adaptation to life circumstances under communist regimes lead to the
hypotheses that East European samples are likely to attribute especially high importance to conservatism
and hierarchy values and low importance to egalitarianism, intellectual and affective autonomy, and
mastery values. The same hypotheses apply to differences between countries within Eastern Europe in
which there was greater or lesser communist penetration. These hypotheses are largely supported with data
both from samples of school teachers and of university students from 9 Eastern European and 12 Western
European countries. Various possible alternative explanations are discussed: national economic level,
religion, earlier shared history, effects of totalitarianism, and distinctiveness of Western Europe. (PsycLIT
Sodowsky, G. R. and B. S. Plake (1992). “A study of acculturation differences among international people
and suggestions for sensitivity to within-group differences.” Journal of Counseling and Development 71(1):
53-59.
490 international students, researchers, and permanent US residents and naturalized citizens at a
US university completed the American-International Relations Scale. Results showed that Africans, Asians,
and South Americans were less acculturated than Europeans in terms of perceived prejudice, observance of
cultural practices and social ties, and language usage. There also were significant differences for permanent
vs nonpermanent US resident status, length of residence in the US, and religion. Themes derived from
open-ended responses showed that Ss referred to their religion, values, a strong need to depend on or seek
freedom from an image or symbols of their nationality group, their physical appearance, and their language.
Findings suggest that cultural sensitivity involves deep empathy for substantial diversity between groups
and for a wide range of behavior within a group. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Welch, M. R. and D. C. Leege (1988). “Religious predictors of Catholic parishioners' sociopolitical

attitudes: Devotional style, closeness to God, imagery, and agentic/communal religious identity.” Journal
for the Scientific Study of Religion 27(4): 536-552.
Analyzed data on 2,667 registered Catholic parishioners surveyed in the Notre Dame Study of
Catholic Parish Life to predict the influence of religious values on specific lifestyle and public policy
questions and political ideology. Multiple regression analyses suggested that measures of imagery and
devotional style were important predictors of sociopolitical positions. Images depicting God as judge are
discussed, along with devotional styles that involve patterns of evangelical-style devotion, meeting minimal
religious obligations, and exposure to media ministry. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Time perception:
Achamamba, B. (1987). “Perceptions of time and I-E locus of control.” Journal of the Indian Academy of
Applied Psychology 13(1): 12-15.
300 female college students completed Rotter's Internal-External (I-E) Locus of Control Scale and
4 measures of time perception. Results indicate that internally oriented Ss tended to orient toward the future
for realizing goals, whereas Ss who believed that external forces controlled their lives took a short-term
perspective. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Agarwal, A. and L. B. Tripathi (1979). “Time perspective: II. Development and empirical validation of a
new tool.” Psychological Studies 24(1): 59-65.
A projective measure of time perspective, which includes orientation and density, extension,
locomotion, and attitude toward different temporal zones, was developed in the form of a story-writing
technique. Empirical validation with 250 17-25 yr old students suggests that time perspective is a
representation of the past, present, and future, which shows the close relationship between motivation and
temporal orientation and extension. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Ben Baruch, E., J. E. Bruno, et al. (1985). “Development of time horizon perceptions in students.” Journal
of the Association for the Study of Perception 20(2): 5-16.
Examined which time horizon perception (THP) attitudes best distinguish boys from girls and
elementary from secondary school students among 353 high-middle socioeconomic status (SES) 4th, 6th,
8th, 10th, and 12th graders. The majority of Ss were White and 46% were male. Ss and their teachers
completed a questionnaire assessing their THP attitudes. Data confirm the influence of gender and age on
THP. It is suggested that traditional time use (dictated by parents and teachers) and opportunity time use
patterns (dictated by economic market forces) are 2 important underlying dimensions to students' attitudes
toward their time use. As students progress through school, the traditional parental influence on THP is
very strong for girls but is already changing for boys--from traditional to opportunity patterns. For both
boys and girls, the 8th grade seemed to be a major milestone where THP changed more toward an
opportunity and integrated THP. It is noted that student attitudes toward time use might play an important
role in determining educational aspirations of students and the degree of discord between teachers and
students. Classroom problems at schools in a multicultural setting might be particularly influenced by
disparities in student THPs among the various ethnic and cultural groups. (12 ref) ((c) 1997
Block, R. A. (1990). Models of psychological time. Cognitive models of psychological time. R. A. Block.
Hillsdale, NJ, USA, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc: p. 1-35.
(from the introduction) reviews various models of psychological time / the view of time as
succession is reviewed by considering models that focus on phenomena related to the psychological
moment, the psychological present, and memory for temporal order / the view of time as duration is
reviewed by considering models that focus on experienced and remembered duration, including
chronobiological models, behavioral models, internal-clock models, attentional models, memory models,
and a general contextualistic model ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Bortner, R. W. and D. F. Hultsch (1972). “Personal time perspective in adulthood.” Developmental

Defined personal time perspective as self-assessment at present in comparison with 5 yr. backward
(retrotension) and forward (protension) in time. Ss were 681 male and 728 female 20-88 yr. olds from H.
Cantril's United States sample. Age differences were found for both time perspective measures; there were
no sex differences. Correlations between age and retrotension and protension accounted for only a small
proportion of the variance. Past ratings were highly correlated with protension, but the negative sign was
puzzling. Ratings of life satisfaction and assessment of the country at present in comparison to 5 yr. in the
future as well as age accounted for more than 1% of the variance in multiple-regression equations for
retrotension and protension. (16 ref.) ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Brannigan, G. G. and A. Tolor (1971). “Sex differences in adaptive styles.” Journal of Genetic Psychology
119(1): 143-149.
In an attempt to study the adaptive styles of males and females, rotter's internal-external control
scale and the future events test were administered to 205 male and 128 female college students. Based on
an analysis of differences in the socialization experiences in this culture, it was predicted, and confirmed,
that females would be more constricted in future time perspective and more externally oriented than males.
It is suggested that varying social learning experiences during the acquisition of appropriate sex-role
behavior may account for these different adaptive styles. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Bruno, J. E. (1996). “Time perceptions and time allocation preferences among adolescent boys and girls.”
Adolescence 31(121): 109-126.
Examined whether girls differ from boys with regard to certain directed and nondirected types of
time allocation preferences. Lifestyle objectives related to personal development (spending time), material
achievement (selling time), social acceptance (giving time), and passive entertainment (passing or killing
time) were explored among nearly 500 adolescents, using a model that defines a person's time investment
portfolio. Findings show that girls, whether considered by their teachers to exhibit at-risk or normal
behaviors, seem to be less inclined toward nondirected activities and more toward other-directed activities.
Boys seem more inclined toward nondirected activities. Being at risk as a school behavioral classification is
particularly associated with a large amount of nondirected activities in boys and large amounts of other-
directed activities in girls. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Burley, K. A. (1991). “Family^work spillover in dual-career couples: A comparison of two time

perspectives.” Psychological Reports 68(2): 471-480.
Examined associations between perceptions and use of time and experiences of family^work
spillover for 79 men and 198 women with dual careers. Two types of time-related independent variables
used to predict family^work spillover (role overload and equity) were examined. Family work-time was
associated with higher spillover for the women. In contrast, time spent in family work, whether considered
in the form of raw hours or in conjunction with a partner's family work-time, did not predict men's
spillover. Results show the complex nature of work^family linkages in research on dual careers. ((c) 1997
Burton, R. G. (1976). “The human awareness of time: An analysis.” Philosophy and Phenomenological
Research 36(3): 303-318.
Analyzes man's awareness of time in terms of the phenomena of memory and anticipation. The act
of memory entails an implicit awareness of 2 acts of consciousness, one actually present and the other
actually past, temporally related through the mediation of the reflexive consciousness that is the subject of
both acts. Man's awareness of the future is centered between 2 acts of consciousness, one the present act of
anticipation, the other the future act that is anticipated. The present is the temporal model of change or
happening that characterizes events as they are in the process of passing from indeterminate potentiality to
determinate actuality; i.e., present experiences are known only as they contrast with the immediate past.
Chertkoff, J. M., R. H. Kushigian, et al. (1996). “Interdependent exiting: The effects of group size, time
limit, and gender on the coordination of exiting.” Journal of Environmental Psychology 16(2): 109-121.
Performed 2 experiments on interdependent exiting using a new paradigm, choices made to exit or
wait on discrete rounds. Ss (458 men and 458 women) participated in groups of 4, 5, and 6 people per
session, with all Ss during a given session being of same gender. Results revealed the smaller the group
size, the larger the proportion of group members exiting, regardless of whether the exit space was held
constant and the number of rounds was proportional to group size or the number of rounds was held
constant and the exit space was proportional to group size. A larger proportion exited in the long time limit
conditions rather than the short. There was no main effect due to gender, but a complex triple interaction
involving gender, group size, and time limit was obtained. The relevance of this research to queue models
of pedestrian traffic flow and tacit coordination is discussed. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Cooper, P. E., L. E. Thomas, et al. (1981). “Subjective time experience in an intergenerational sample.”
International Journal of Aging and Human Development 13(3): 183-193.
Explored the relationship between CA and gender in subjective time experience [STE; i.e., the
difference between subjective age (SA) and (CA)] with 294 16 + yr olds. STE was found to vary widely
among Ss with some being "accurate" (SA = CA) and others either "retarded" (SA < CA) or "advanced"
(SA > CA). Males were more retarded in STE than females at every point in the life span, and patterns of
age differences in adulthood differed between the sexes as well. Results suggest that CA may play a key
role in transitions in STE and that CA is more significant in the STE of females than in males. (27 ref) ((c)
Cottle, T. J., P. Howard, et al. (1969). “Adolescent perceptions of time: The effect of age, sex, and social
class.” Journal of Personality 37(4): 636-650.
Adolescents were studied in regard to 4 temporal perspectives: the location of important
experiences, fantasies of recoverability and preknowledge, the singificance of time zones as judged by their
perceived extensions, and the sense of time zone relatedness. The findings suggest that the transition from
early to later adolescence includes a shifting from an orientation of recall to one of expectation coupled
with a recognition of the relatedness of the past, present, and future. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights
reserved)
Cottle, T. J. and J. H. Pleck (1969). “Linear estimations of temporal extension: The effect of age, sex, and
social class.” Journal of Projective Techniques and Personality Assessment 33(1): 81-93.
Presented 180 Austrian adolescents with a line which supposedly represented time. They marked
off their birth, death, and the boundaries of the present. While these estimates were subjectively
determined, they were shown to vary with age, sex, and social class. Theories of instrumental-achievement
and maintenance-ascriptive orientations are used to explain the variations. (37 ref.) ((c) 1997
Cupchik, G. C. and R. J. Gebotys (1988). “The experience of time, pleasure, and interest during aesthetic
episodes.” Empirical Studies of the Arts 6(1): 1-12.
Examined whether judgments of exposure duration would reflect the amount of
perceptual/cognitive effort needed to appreciate a painting. 16 trained and 16 naive undergraduates,
including equal numbers of males and females, viewed 2 sets of paintings varying in collative and stylistic
properties for 18, 36 and 72 sec. Trained Ss who possessed a repertoire of skills for appreciating paintings,
generally underestimated exposure duration. Naive Ss, for whom art appreciation was an effortful
challenge, overestimated duration, especially for the complex paintings. Naive males and females showed
opposite monotonic changes in pleasure ratings for the stylistic set of paintings, interpreted as sex
differences in perceptual style. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Dapkus, M. A. (1985). “A thematic analysis of the experience of time.” Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology 49(2): 408-419.
Developed a category system describing the human experience of time to put existing theoretical
notions about time (e.g., future time perspective, time urgency, object constancy) into a broader theoretical
context. 20 mature, articulate, well-educated Ss (mean age 42.8 yrs) were interviewed about their
experience of time. A thematic analysis of these interviews produced 3 major categories: (1) change and
continuity (becoming in time), (2) limits and choices (doing in time), and (3) tempo (pacing in time). The
experience of time in various diagnostic groups (e.g., depressed, character disorder, schizophrenic) is
discussed in terms of the category system. It is suggested that this system would be useful in providing a
common language and unified conceptual framework for organizing information about the human
experience of time. (37 ref) ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Eisler, H. and A. D. Eisler (1992). “Time perception: Effects of sex and sound intensity on scales of
subjective duration.” Scandinavian Journal of Psychology 33(4): 339-358.
Asked 6 male and 6 female Ss (aged 21-57 yrs) to reproduce 10 time intervals varying in
logarithmic steps between 1.3 and 20 sec. The durations were indicated by white noise of 10, 25, 40, and 55
db of sensation level, with different sound intensities (SIs) in different sessions. Greater SI entailed shorter
reproductions, and reproductions by males were shorter than those by females, although both interacted
with the standard durations. The data were treated in accordance with H. Eisler's (see PA, Vol 55:3596)
parallel-clock model, whereby the parameters of the psychophysical power function are determined from
duration reproduction data. Data show a break in the function entailing 2 segments. The effect of SI could
be attributed to the exponent, while the effect of sex could be attributed to the weight coefficient of the
upper relative to the lower segment of the psychophysical function, the coefficient being lower for males.
Flaherty, M. G. (1987). “Multiple realities and the experience of duration.” Sociological Quarterly 28(3):
313-326.
Analyzes, phenomenologically, how transition occurs from one to another subuniverse of social
reality and how this shapes the individual's sense of duration in time consciousness. Data consists of
personal testimony in the form of anecdotes that summarize incidents in which time was felt to slow
noticeably. Analytic induction is applied to these ethnographic observations. Data suggests that the shock
that accompanies relatively distinct shifts from one finite province of meaning to another provokes
increased perception of immediate detail as the individual strives to interpret emerging events. ((c) 1997
Fourez, B. (1992). “Quand le temps s'accelere. / When time accelerates.” Therapie Familiale 13(3): 233-
238.
Describes the experience of accelerated time, with an emphasis on the relationship between abrupt
changes in a relationship and time acceleration. The effects of a rupture in a relationship or in a system on
time acceleration are illustrated with examples from history, economics, biology, and adolescent
counseling. Feelings of urgency are discussed as manifestations of the historical and sociological
unconscious. (English abstract) ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Fraser, J. T. and M. P. Soulsby, Eds. (1996). Dimensions of time and life. The study of time, Vol. 8.
Madison, International Universities Press, Inc.
(from the jacket) [This volume] presents articles that fall into 3 broad categories: life and time as
they are understood in the biological, cognitive, and psychological dimensions; the experience of time and
life in words, sounds, and images; and time and life as ordered according to sociological, historical, and
anthropological perspectives. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Friedman, W. J. (1988). A developmental psychological perspective on Guyau's 'The Origin of the Idea of
Time.'. Guyau and the idea of time. J. A. Michon. Amsterdam, Netherlands, North-Holland: p. 199-211.
(from the chapter) developmental issues in Guyau's origin of the idea of time / origins and
development of the idea of time / order, succession and simultaneity / duration / the past, present and future
/ memory / perception / the relationship between space and time ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights
reserved)
Friedman, W. (1990). About time: Inventing the fourth dimension. Cambridge, MA, USA, Mit Press.
(from the jacket) Few intellectual problems are as intriguing or as difficult as understanding the
nature of time. In "About Time," William Friedman provides a new integrated look at research on the
psychological processes that underlie the human experience of time. He explains what psychologists have
discovered about temporal perception and cognition since the publication of Paul Fraisse's "The
Psychology of Time" in 1963 and offers fresh interpretations of their findings. In particular he shows that
the experience of time depends on many different psychological processes and that it is essential to divide
temporal experience into component categories in order to understand these processes. /// In chapters on
perception and memory, Friedman discusses our impressions about the rate of time's passage and our
ability to localize memories in time. He takes up representation and orientation, our ability to build mental
representations of the time structures that surround us and to view these patterns from the unique
perspective of the present moment. Moreover he shows that we can learn a great deal about the
psychological basis of temporal experience by studying the development of this knowledge in children and
the way in which views of time vary by culture, personality type, and kind of psychopathology. ((c) 1997
Fuhrman, R. W. and R. S. Wyer (1988). “Event memory: Temporal-order judgments of personal life
experiences.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 54(3): 365-384.
Three experiments with undergraduate subjects investigated the mental representations that people
form when they recall and chronologically order their personal experiences. Subjects in each study first
recalled five events that occurred to them in two general periods of their life (e.g., high school and college).
Later, they saw pairs of these events and judged the order in which they occurred. It typically took less time
to compare events that occurred in different time periods than events that occurred in the same period.
However, response times depended on the serial positions of the compared events in each time period, and
the distance between them, in ways that varied over the three experiments. These effects were interpreted in
terms of a model of event memory and judgment proposed by Wyer, Shoben, Fuhrman, and Bodenhausen
(1985). Specifically, subjects appear to organize the events they are asked to recall into categories defined
by the periods of life in which they occurred and assign temporal codes to these categories. However, they
do not perform a more detailed temporal coding of the events they recall unless a coherent temporal
representation of these events is difficult to construct. A direct comparison between judgments of personal
experiences and judgments of others' experiences suggested that people may make more detailed temporal
coding of others' experiences than they do of their own. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Gjesme, T. (1979). “Future time orientation as a function of achievement motives, ability, delay of
gratification, and sex.” Journal of Psychology 101(2): 173-188.
A principal component analysis of a future time orientation (FTO) test revealed 4 factors:
Involvement, Anticipation, Occupation, and Speed. The results, based on 238 male and 277 female
Norwegian 6th graders, of a sex of S * motives * ability * delay of gratification (Dg) ANOVA indicated
that (a) girls had higher scores than boys on FTO, Anticipation, and Occupation; (b) approach-oriented Ss
had higher scores than avoidance-oriented Ss on FTO and its subdimensions; (c) high ability Ss scored
higher than moderate and low ability Ss on Speed; and (d) high Dg Ss tended to score higher than low Dg
Ss on Occupation. However, the occurrence of several interaction effects involving sex of S, ability, and
delay of gratification indicated complex relations to different dimensions of Ss' future time orientation. (43
Golding, J. M., J. P. Magliano, et al. (1995). “Answering when questions about future events in the context
of a calendar system.” Discourse Processes 20(3): 249-271.
Tested a model of question answering called WHEN in 3 experiments with a total of 246
university students. Ss answered questions about future events in the context of a 12-mo calendar year. The
WHEN model specifies how the time of the future event is expressed as a function of the temporal interval
between the present point in time and the time of a future event (1-90 days away). The answers included
generative descriptions (e.g., next week on Wednesday) and specific dates (e.g., August 13). The answers
systematically varied as a function of temporal interval in a fashion that supported most of the production
rules of the WHEN model. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Grac, J. (1978). “Experiencing time and adolescents' demands for lifetime.” Psychologia a Patopsychologia
Dietata 13(5): 429-443.
Investigated whether the experience of time as an abstract value regulates the behavior of
adolescents (217 apprentices, 268 secondary students, and 242 university students) as related to their hopes
for the length of their lives. The investigation was designed to reply indirectly to certain mental health
questions, mainly in connection with suicidal tendencies. An exploratory method of decision making
processes was employed. Three aspects of the question were studied: (1) hopes for length of life in short-
term prospects, (2) hopes for length of life in long-term prospects, and (3) differences between the sexes
regarding claims for length of life. The investigation also dealt with the way the Ss experienced somatic
and mental distress. Some of the results are applicable in the education of youth. (Russian summary) (11
Graham, R. J. (1981). “The role of perception of time in consumer research.” Journal of Consumer
Research 7(4): 335-342.
Most consumer decision process models assume a perception of time usually associated wih
European-Americans or Anglos (i.e., that time has a past, present, and future such that it can be "sliced"
into discrete units and allocated for specific tasks). Three alternate perceptions of time are described:
linear-separable (LS), circular-traditional (CT), and procedural-traditional (PT). The LS model is similar to
the Anglo model but in addition to time slices, people who share the LS perception usually do only one
thing in each slice, this allowing time to be easily compared with other discrete items, such as money or
consumer goods. In the CT model, time is a circular rather than a linear structure--the same events are
repeated in a cyclical pattern, and the future is expected to be the same as the past; most subscribers to this
view are present-oriented. For the PT model, the amount of time spent on activity is irrelevant, since
activities are procedure- rather than time-driven: The most important aspect of any activity is that it be done
correctly rather than "on time." All things are done "when the time is right." Problems that may confound
consumer research studies based on the Anglo time perspective are examined in terms of problem
recognition, evaluation of alternatives, search processes, and purchase and postpurchase evaluations. (19
Graves, T. D. (1974). “Urban Indian personality and the "culture of poverty.".” American Ethnologist 1(1):
65-86.
Attempted to obtain empirical evidence for the "culture of poverty" thesis by studying time
perspective, achievement motivation, and locus of control in 259 male Navajo urban migrants. Results
show that the acquisition of middle-class personality without access to middle-class goals creates problems
for lower-class groups and that these 3 psychological traits appeared to serve migrants as a means of
evaluating economic failures. (46 ref) ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Guy, B. S., T. L. Rittenburg, et al. (1994). “Dimensions and characteristics of time perceptions and
perspectives among older consumers.” Psychology and Marketing 11(1): 35-56.
Explores the impact of subjective time perspectives on consumer behavior, with a focus on the
elderly as a subgroup. Several frameworks for understanding time perception in the consumer behavior
context are reviewed: linear-separable, circular-traditional, and procedural-traditional. Relevant differences
across age groups are explored in the context of these models. Various theories of aging with biological,
sociocultural, and life stage/satisfaction perspectives are used to present, explain, and hypothesize these
age-related differences and their consequences for consumer behavior. Marketing implications are also
considered with respect to product, price, promotion, and distribution. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights
reserved)
Hancock, P. A., M. Vercruyssen, et al. (1992). “The effect of gender and time-of-day on time perception
and mental workload.” Current Psychology: Research and Reviews 11(3): 203-225.
Two experiments investigated how S gender and time of day influenced the estimation of duration
and the perception of task-related mental workload. In Exp 1, 24 Ss (aged 21-40 yrs) performed a filled
time-estimation task (TTK) in a constant blacked-out, noise-reduced environment at 0800, 1200, 1600, and
2000 hr. In Exp 2, 12 different Ss performed an unfilled TTK in similar conditions at 0900, 1400, and 1900
hr. All participants completed a workload assessment questionnaire as a measure of perceived mental
workload. Results indicated that physiological response, reflected in body temperature change, followed an
expected pattern of sequential increase with time of day. In each of the experiments there were significant
differences in time estimation and mental workload response contingent on the gender of the participant.
Heckel, R. V. and J. Rajagopal (1975). “Future time perspective in Indian and American college students.”
Journal of Social Psychology 95(1): 131-132.
Administered a questionnaire which requested the listing of 10 events expected to occur in the
future of 94 male and 115 female US college students and 51 male and 152 female Indian college students.
In spite of similar content, there was marked quantitative difference between Indian and US Ss on years
and events, US Ss having higher totals. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Hoornaert, J. (1973). “Time perspective theoretical and methodological considerations.” Psychologica

Belgica 13(3): 265-294.
Reviews literature on psychological time and analyzes vaguely defined terminology in the area.
Time perspective is defined as the perspective which exists and is continually elaborated, more or less
consciously, by the reciprocal influence of global viewpoints on the past, present, and future. It occurs as a
function of actual needs and value orientations and manifests itself in all aspects of behavior. Time
perspective is contrasted with other aspects of psychological time (e.g., time calculation, time orientation,
and time estimation). Specific dimensions of time perspective are described, and classified methods for
studying them are presented. (7 p ref) ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Hornik, J. (1993). “The role of affect in consumers' temporal judgments.” Psychology and Marketing 10(3):
239-255.
Reports on 2 Israeli studies on the impact of transient affective states on consumers' temporal
judgments. Study 1 used a Velten-like mood-inducing procedure administered to 117 adult students.
Findings suggest that mood is a powerful determinant in time perception and orientation. Study 2 involved
106 adult students in 3 film sessions and further supported the hypothesis on positive mood affects. In
accordance with the research hypotheses, both studies demonstrated strong mood effects on Ss' time
perception and orientation. Findings were validated across 2 different mood-inducing manipulations and
supported the general theoretical foundation of the mediating roles of affective states on consumers'
temporal judgments. It is concluded that good consumer mood has a positive influence on evaluation of
events; bad mood has the opposite effect. It is suggested that marketing strategies enhance consumer
moods. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Huang, X., C. Sun, et al. (1998). “Psychological structure of time.” Psychological Science China 21(1): 1-
4, 16.
Studied characteristics of psychological structure of time through weighing Chinese indefinite
temporal qualifiers with time units and fuzzy statistics. Human Ss: 408 normal Chinese male and female
adults (university students). 40 Chinese temporal qualifiers listed in 2 questionnaires were weighed, using 7
time units (sec, min, hr, day, wk, mo, yr) and a scale of fuzzy statistics (value range from 0 to 100), under
the rules of value and value range indications. Unit, frequency, mode, and the maxima value corresponded
point, and degree of fuzziness of each qualifier were studied in regard to time distances, i.e., time sections
in psychological structure. The use of time sections (nearer, near, far) when in the past vs when in the
future were compared. Symmetrical characteristics of psychological structure of the past and future time,
uneven uses of time units, and temporal perspective were discussed as aspects of culture. (English abstract)
Hultsch, D. F. and R. W. Bortner (1974). “Personal time perspective in adulthood: A time-sequential

study.” Developmental Psychology 10(6): 835-837.
2 measures of personal time perspective were obtained from 1,247 adults using a time-sequential
data collection strategy. 2 cross-sectional studies, separated by 1 yr, were conducted to test for the effects
of age and time of measurement. Data analyses yielded significant main effects due to ages for both
dependent measures. Main effects due to Time of Measurement, Sex, and all interactions were
nonsignificant. The findings suggest that differences in personal time perspective during adulthood are
related to age rather than sociocultural change during the year. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights
reserved)
Joubert, C. E. (1983). “Subjective acceleration of time: Death anxiety and sex differences.” Perceptual and
Motor Skills 57(1): 49-50.
Administered the Death Anxiety Scale to 24 male and 50 female undergraduates. Ss reported that
time seemed to pass more rapidly at the present time than when they were one-half and one-quarter their
present ages. Sex differences in the rate in which time seemed to pass were observed. Results partially
support R. Lemlich's (see PA, Vol 55:4259) hypothesis that the apparent acceleration of time's passing is a
function of an individual's total subjective time serving as a frame of reference upon which to base
temporal judgments. Time perception did not correlate significantly with death anxiety. (4 ref) ((c) 1997
Khoury, R. M. and G. T. Thurmond (1978). “Ethnic differences in time perception: A comparison of Anglo
and Mexican Americans.” Perceptual and Motor Skills 47(3, Pt 2): 1183-1188.
Social scientists have presented an image of the Mexican American as locked into the present,
incapable or unwilling to project plans and events into the future. This is seen as responsible in part for the
lack of social mobility and assimilation exhibited by Mexican Americans. However, there is little empirical
support for the contention that Mexican Americans have a restricted sense of future events. The present
study compared the temporal perspectives (Ellis-Tyler Social Time Perspective Scale) of 31 Mexican-
American and 41 Anglo-American college students. No marked differences were observed. (13 ref) ((c)
Lamm, H., R. W. Schmidt, et al. (1976). “Sex and social class as determinants of future orientation (time
perspective) in adolescents.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 34(3): 317-326.
Tested hypotheses concerning the effects of sex and class on future orientation; Ss were 50 male
and 50 female students, ages 14-16 yrs. Future orientation was measured in various domains of life,
constituting either private or public areas of concern (e.g., family and environment) and on the dimensions
of density (number of hopes and fears voiced by the S), extension, and optimism-pessimism. As predicted,
middle-class adolescents, as compared with lower-class adolescents, voiced more hopes and fears relating
to public life and fewer in the private sphere, and they manifested a more extended future orientation in the
private as well as the public spheres. They also judged the distant future more optimistically in 2 out of 3
public areas of concern. Lower-class females were more optimistic than the middle-class females in the
occupational domain. As predicted, the lower-class males voiced more hopes and fears in the occupational
domain and manifested a more extended future orientation than the lower-class females. On the other hand,
females of both classes voiced more hopes and fears in the private sphere than males of either class. Results
are interpreted in terms of theories of socialization and role behavior. (46 ref) ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all
rights reserved)
Lennings, C. J. and A. M. Burns (1998). “Time perspective: Temporal extension, time estimation, and
impulsivity.” Journal of Psychology 132(4): 367-380.
It has been proposed that time perspective is an important variable that can, in part, explain the
differences between people in terms of the development of self-control. One corollary of this position is
that time perspective is somehow related to systematic biases in the way people perceive the passage of
time. Such a bias may or may not be augmented by an association between time perspective and
impulsivity. Two studies were conducted using measures of temporal extension, time estimation, and
impulsivity. College students completed among other measures, the Time Perspective Questionnaire,
adapted from M. E. Poole and G. H. Cooney (1987). In general, no consistent effects were found. Neither
time perspective nor impulsivity was related to any characteristic pattern of errors. In the second study,
time perspective (mediated by age) was associated with predicting very brief time estimation scores, but
not longer time estimation periods. It was concluded that whatever the mechanism might be that underlies
the purported effect between time perspective and self-control, it is not related to a differential ability to
perceive time moving more or less quickly. ((c) 1998 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Lenskyj, H. (1988). “Measured time: Women, sport and leisure.” Leisure Studies 7(3): 233-240.
Argues that differences between men's and women's perceptions and experiences of time and
leisure have implications for their approaches to sport and physical activities. The special circumstances of
women's lives, in particular their responsibilities for domestic work and child care, contribute to a
perspective that tends to be task-oriented rather than time-oriented, qualitative rather than quantitative, and
altruistic rather than self-interested. Thus, women may be alienated by sporting activities that are rigidly
circumscribed by the clock, the rulebook, and the win-at-all-costs mentality. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all
rights reserved)
Lessing, E. E. (1971). “Comparative extension of personal and social-political future time perspective.”
Perceptual and Motor Skills 33(2): 415-422.
Administered measures of personal future time perspective (ftp) and social-political ftp and an
endorsement of negro rights militancy scale to 103 white and 188 black high school students. The 2 racial
subgroups did not differ in capacity to take a long-range point of view in regard to their personal futures;
however, the black ss organized their attitudes about black liberation in terms of a much briefer future time
span than that considered appropriate by whites. Militancy was not associated with any deficiency in the
ability to anticipate the future. (30 ref.) ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Levine, R. V., L. J. West, et al. (1980). “Perceptions of time and punctuality in the United States and
Brazil.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 38(4): 541-550.
Conducted 3 cross-national experiments to investigate the hypothesis that differences between
Americans (A's) and Brazilians (B's) in punctuality may be explained by divergent standard errors in their
perception of time. Results of Exp I show that public clocks were less accurate in Brazil (B) than in the US.
Results of Exp II with 205 A's and 202 B's show that watches were less accurate in B, watchless B's were
less accurate than watchless A's in estimating the time of day, and B's were less exact than A's in reporting
the time on their watches. Exp III, a questionnaire study of 107 A's and 91 B's, found that B's were more
often late for appointments and social gatherings, were more flexible in their definitions of "early" and
"late," and expressed less regret over being late than A's. However, A's had more negative overall
impressions of a person who is frequently late and rated punctuality as a more important trait in a
businessperson and friend than did B's. Thus, standards of timeliness may be broader and less salient for
B's than for A's. (13 ref) ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Lewkowicz, D. J. (1989). The role of temporal factors in infant behavior and development. Time and
human cognition: A life span perspective. Advances in psychology, 59. I. Levin. Amsterdam, Netherlands,
North-Holland: p. 9-62.
(from the chapter) available studies on infants' behavioral rhythmicities and responsiveness to
temporally organized stimulation will be reviewed /// the author's own studies of infants' processing of
temporal information within the visual modality and across the auditory and visual modalities will be
reviewed /// intrinsic biobehavioral rhythms / temporal organization of mother-infant interactions /
interactional synchrony / learning of temporal information / response to spatially-static information /
response to spatially-dynamic information / intersensory response to temporal information / response to
temporally related auditory-visual compounds and sensory dominance ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights
reserved)
Macar, F., V. Pouthas, et al., Eds. (1992). Time, action and cognition: Towards bridging the gap. NATO
ASI series. Dordrecht, Kluwer Academic Publishers.
(from the preface) Part One is devoted to developmental research for the basic reason that the
developmental perspective is thought to have direct bearing on the issues discussed in the other sections.
Part Two deals with temporal judgment, a topic which has not only been central in [the] history of
psychology of time but which has also received renewed attention in the last ten years because of the
development of new theoretical and empirical approaches. Part Three deals with temporal mechanisms, in
particular the internal clocks, the core issue in temporal judgment and action timing. Part Four approaches
motor timing and explores the hypotheses put forward to account for this important aspect of motor
performance. The issues raised in the first four parts form the backdrop for the complex questions discussed
in Part Five on representations of time. We have a developing experience of time, we sequence events of
time and estimate durations, we act in time, but how do we represent time? ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all
rights reserved)
Maines, D. R. and M. J. Hardesty (1987). “Temporality and gender: Young adults' career and family
plans.” Social Forces 66(1): 102-120.
Examined qualitative data on 50 female and 51 male undergraduates from the present authors'
(1981) study of gender differentiation in mathematics to support and develop the proposition that men and
women live in different temporal worlds. Patterns concerning anticipations of how work, education, and
family will be organized are seen as gender differentiated. G. H. Mead's (1929) theory of time is used to
conceptualize these differences as problems of continuity and discontinuity. It is argued that men live in
linear temporal worlds and women live in contingent temporal worlds. These modalities are specified in
greater detail through an analysis of "what" and "how" problems of the future. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO,
Melikian, L. H. (1969). “Acculturation, time perspective and feeling tone: A cross cultural study in the
perception of the days.” Journal of Social Psychology 79(2): 273-275.
17 "unexposed" and 19 "exposed" Saudi college students were asked to rank the days of the wk.
The unexposed ranked the official religious days of rest 1st, the exposed ranked the day before it 1st. The
exposed were more explicit than the unexposed about the future as determining their choice; the unexposed
were more explicit about religion as a determinant. Exposure seems to increase the future orientation of Ss
whereas nonexposure does not. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Menahem, R. (1972). “Temporal perspective: A test of spatial representation in the evaluation of duration.”
Annee Psychologique 72(1): 53-64.
4 groups of adults 17-55 yr. old localized life events as segments on a line representing their life
spans. Results indicate that Ss were differentiated by subjective estimates of life expectancy: younger Ss
accord themselves a shorter lifetime. Localization of past events revealed a time-perspective effect,
consisting in differing organizations of these locations as age increases. As regards future plans, time
perspective was the same regardless of age. The technique is proposed as a method for evaluating time
perspective where disturbances are suspected. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Mueser, K. T., P. R. Yarnold, et al. (1987). “Type A behaviour and time urgency: Perception of time
adjectives.” British Journal of Medical Psychology 60(3): 267-269.
26 extreme Type A and 28 extreme Type B male undergraduates rated the appropriateness of 158
adjectives as descriptors of time. Analyses showed that Type As rated adjectives low in speed and energy
as less descriptive of time than Type Bs and vice versa. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Nawrat, R. (1981). “Orientacja temporalna. Przeglad technik pomiaruk i wynikow badan. / Temporal
orientation: A review of measurement techniques and research data.” Przeglad Psychologiczny 24(1): 97-
124.
Defines the notion of psychological time and distinguishes basic concepts such as calculation of
time, time orientation, rating of time, and time perspective. Five aspects of temporal orientation that are
most frequently subjected to psychological research are presented (attitude toward past, present, and future;
differentiation of attitudes toward different time areas; saturation; range; and consistency). Research
techniques are reviewed, main assumptions that underlie construction of techniques for measuring temporal
orientation are presented, and the most frequently used techniques are described. (Russian abstract) (3 p
O'Rand, A. and R. A. Ellis (1974). “Social class and social time perspective.” Social Forces 53(1): 53-62.
Describes a methodological procedure (the Social Time Perspective Scale) for determining class-
linked differences in the way persons anticipate the future and orient their behavior to it. Data were drawn
from 80 male undergraduates from middle-class backgrounds and from 80 Job Corpsmen primarily from
lower-class backgrounds. Findings reveal that: (a) lower-class youth in the Job Corps have a more
circumscribed notion of future time than youth from the middle class and their outlook on the future is less
systematically ordered; (b) upwardly mobile lower-class youth in college have succeeded in incorporating
some features of the middle-class pattern of future orientation in their temporal outlook, but residues of
their lower-class backgrounds are still present; and (c) in both the lower- and middle-class samples, the
length of temporal perspectives is a factor mediating effective role performance. (42 ref) ((c) 1997
Platt, J. J. and R. Eisenman (1968). “Internal-External Control of Reinforcement, Time Perspective,

Adjustment, and Anxiety.” Journal of General Psychology 79(1): 121-128.
44 COLLEGE STUDENTS WERE GIVEN ROTTER'S INTERNAL-EXTERNAL (I-E)
CONTROL SCALE AND CLASSIFIED INTO INTERNAL (N = 17) OR EXTERNAL (N = 15) SS.
THEY WERE THEN COMPAREDON SEVERAL TIME PERSPECTIVE MEASURES, INCLUDING
PERSONAL AND IMPERSONAL FUTURE EXTENSION, IMPERSONAL PAST EXTENSION, 2
MEASURES OF FUTURE DENSITY, AND THE TIME METAPHORS TEST. IN ADDITION, SS
TOOK THE CORNELL INDEX WHICH WAS SCORED FOR ADJUSTMENT AND FOR ANXIETY.
IN GENERAL, THE RESULTS SUPPORTED THE HYPOTHESIZED DIFFERENCES BETWEEN
INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL SS, IN THAT INTERNAL SS TYPICALLY HAD MORE ACTIVE,
FULLER TIME PERSPECTIVE, WERE BETTER ADJUSTED, AND LESS ANXIOUS. THE RESULTS
ARE SEEN AS CONSISTENT WITH THE CONSTRUCT VALIDITY OF ROTTER'S I-E SCALE AND
WITH THE INCREASING USE OF TIME PERSPECTIVE MEASURES IN PERSONALITY
RESEARCH. (23 REF.) ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Platt, J. J., R. Eisenman, et al. (1969). “Birth order and sex differences in future time perspective.”
Developmental Psychology 1(1): 70.
Investigated future time perspective (FTP) in relation to birth order and sex differences. 132
undergraduates "were administered 4 instruments to measure the FTP dimensions of extension and density,
and 1 to measure directionality." The results were analyzed by a 2 (sex) * 3 (birth order) analysis of
variance for each test. 1st-born and only child Ss had greater FTP than later borns, especially among
females. Later born females saw the passage of time as more active than other Ss, especially later-born
males. "The differing results for the various FTP measures suggest that each may be tapping very different
aspects of time perception." ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Radosevic Vidacek, B. (1985). “Pregled novijih istrazivanja dimenzije jutarnjosti-vecernjosti. / Recent

research on the morningness-eveningness dimension: A review.” Revija za Psihologiju 15(1-2): 79-96.
Reviews recent detailed studies of morningness-eveningness in the international literature and
shorter studies that were conducted up to the 1970's. The interest in this dimension has grown as knowledge
of circadian rhythms has increased. Morningness-eveningness has been connected with sleep-wakefulness
rhythm, body temperature, heart rate, feelings of alertness and fatigue, and varied adaptability to shift work
and jet lag. (English abstract) (43 ref) ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Roberts, A. H. and J. E. Greene (1971). “Cross-cultural study of relationships among four dimensions of
time perspective.” Perceptual and Motor Skills 33(1): 163-173.
Attempted to (a) describe the internal structure of the concept of time perspective in terms of
rationally developed dimensions derived from performance on 1 task; and (b) determine whether or not this
internal structure was in any way different for 3 ethnic groups (spanish-american, american indian, and
anglo-american), 2 age groups (10 and 16 yr.), and 2 thematic content areas (religious and social).
Measures of temporal extension, location, and kinesis were derived from 112 ss on a story-telling task.
Data were analyzed by a multidimensional chi2 analysis. The 3 measures were differentially sensitive to
variables introduced, E.g., ethnic differences were most clearly shown by the kinetic measure and content
differences by extension. A rationale for a partial interpretation of the findings within a cultural context is
suggested. (20 ref.) ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Schiff, W. and R. Oldak (1990). “Accuracy of judging time to arrival: Effects of modality, trajectory, and
gender.” Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance 16(2): 303-316.
Observers' accuracy in using time-to-arrival (T-sub(a)) information was examined in 4
experiments. The issues included use of visual vs acoustic T-sub(a ) information, use of acoustic T-sub(a )
information by blind Ss, use of T-sub(a ) information controlling for velocity, and effects of angle of
approach and arrival time on judgment accuracy. Visual information was used more efficiently than
audiovisual and auditory information. Blind Ss used acoustical approach information as accurately as
sighted Ss used visual information. Radial, oblique, and transverse orientations were used to examine
effects of approach trajectory. Radial events were underestimated, whereas the more accurate transverse
approach was likely to be overestimated. Oblique angle events yielded intermediate accuracies implying a
spatiotemporal anisotropy. Women underestimated T-sub(a ) more than did men. Possible reasons for Ss'
judgment accuracy, including linear vs nonlinear optical changes and relation to spatial skills and
experience, were discussed. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Schwartz, A. E. (1977). “Being-in-time: A phenomenological exploration of the existential past, present

and future.” Review of Existential Psychology and Psychiatry 15(2-sup-3): 150-162.
Used phenomenological methodology to study the lived experience of time. 60 graduate students
in psychology and counseling were individually questioned as to how they perceived time, e.g. "what is the
past for you?" Their responses were recorded verbatim and then categorized intuitively into 4 areas:
temporal continuum, meaning-values, self-perception, and becoming and growth. In line with the
existential writings of M. Heidegger, the author attempted to analyze the modalities of time in terms of his
concept, "being-in-the-world." Results indicate that the Ss could be separated into those oriented in an
"active-internalized" way and those maintaining a "passively externalized" stance toward time. The former
are characterized by an attitude of responsibility for the nature of their experiences, while the latter assume
minimal responsibilities where memories, feelings, and events just seem to "happen." It is concluded that
"being-in-time is reflective of the way in which one relates to most aspects of being." ((c) 1997
Shannon, L. (1975). “Development of time perspective in three cultural groups: A cultural difference or an
expectancy interpretation.” Developmental Psychology 11(1): 114-115.
Administered T. J. Cottle and J. Peck's Lines Test to 120 10-12 and 14-17 yr old Anglo-American,
Indian-American, and Mexican-American boys. Significant main effects for cultural group, age level, and
Group * Age interactions support an expectancy interpretation of time perspective. ((c) 1997
Sheikh, A. A. and M. Twerski (1974). “Future-time perspective in Negro and White adolescents.”
Perceptual and Motor Skills 39(1): 308.
Compared future time perspective, using TAT stories, in 19 Black and 19 White high school
students of lower socioeconomic status. In cards depicting Black figures, White Ss exhibited a constricted
future time perspective as compared to cards depicting White figures. There were no differences in Black
Ss' responses to either set of cards. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Shirai, T. (1991). “Relationships between time perspective and time beliefs from adolescence to middle
age.” Japanese Journal of Psychology 62(4): 260-263.
Studied age and gender differences on (1) sense of time perspective and (2) type of time beliefs
and the relationships between them. Human Ss: 245 normal male and female Japanese adolescents and
adults (aged 16-24 yrs). 46 normal male and female Japanese adults (aged 25-39 yrs). 150 normal male and
female Japanese middle age adults (aged 40-55 yrs). A questionnaire consisting of the Time Perspective
Scale and the Time Beliefs Scale was administered. (English abstract) ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights
reserved)
Shybut, J. (1970). “Internal vs. external control, time perspective and delay of gratification of high and low
ego strength groups.” Journal of Clinical Psychology 26(4): 430-431.
Compared high (N = 45 undergraduates) and low (N = 45 undergraduates) ego strength groups on
the 3 measures. High ego strength Ss showed a more extended post- and future time perspective, assigned
higher values to hypothetical choices, and were willing to wait longer for the delayed reward than low ego
strength Ss. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Sopena Alcorlo, A. (1972). “Motivation and time perspective in their relationships with personality:
Empirical study: I.” Revista de Psicologia General y Aplicada 27(119): 955-981.
Compared data obtained on motivation, time perspective, and personality from the Method of
Motivational Induction (MMI) test (a sentence completion test) and the MMPI. Ss were 227 16-29 yr. old
students in northwestern Spain. A model of motivational structure was tested, focusing on such concepts as
the ego and self-realization. (French summary) (66 ref.) ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Sverko, B. and L. Fabulic (1985). “Stabilnost jutarnjosti-vecernjosti--retest promjene i korelacija nakon

sedam godina. / Stability of morningness-eveningness: Retest changes after seven years.” Revija za
Psihologiju 15(1-2): 71-78.
Administered a 12-item self-assessment questionnaire on daily morning and evening habits (i.e.,
arising and sleep times, ease in awakening in the morning, meal-taking habits, the time at which fatigue and
drowsiness appear, difficulties in staying awake after bedtime, and the most efficient and alert periods each
day) to 90 Ss twice--initially as undergraduates and after a 7-yr time interval. Seven years later, Ss had
graduated, and most (78%) were employed. Despite the time lapse and life changes, there were no marked
changes in questionnaire responses. The average score level merely indicated a slight shift toward increased
"morningness." On the interindividual consistency level, a significant correlation between the 2 scores
revealed a pronounced stability of Ss' rank orders over time. It is concluded that "morningness-
eveningness" was a relatively enduring, stable characteristic. (English abstract) (21 ref) ((c) 1997
Tismer, K. G. (1991). “Methoden der Zeiterlebensforschung. / Subjective time experience: Methodological

procedures and conceptual considerations.” Zeitschrift fuer Gerontologie 24(3): 146-153.
Reviews methods for assessing subjective experiences of time or time perspectives. The
conceptual bases and psychometric properties of various interview techniques, questionnaires, and life-
event lists are described, and terminological and conceptual issues in research on subjective perceptions of
time are discussed. In addition, a process model of objective and subjective factors that determine time-
related experiences and behaviors is proposed. In view of the heterogeneity of available procedures for
assessing time perspectives, a multimethod approach is recommended. (English abstract) ((c) 1997
Tiwari, S. and A. Agarwal (1989). “Future orientation and impression formation in relation to subjective
passage of time.” Psychological Studies 34(3): 166-174.
Investigated impression formation influenced by dispositional future orientation and subjective
passage of time (SPOT) in 45 university students, when (1) information about a target person was negative
and (2) situational manipulation led Ss to anticipate future interaction with a target person. Ss worked for
90 min in experimental conditions, but SPOT was manipulated by unobtrusively decreasing or increasing
the clock time. Future orientation was measured by a story writing technique. High vs low future-oriented
Ss gave fewer negative impressions about the target person when they expected to interact with him in the
near future. This effect increased with SPOT and was accompanied by a change in attributions. ((c) 1997
von Wright, J. M. and M. R. von Wright (1977). “Sex differences in personal and global future time
perspectives.” Perceptual and Motor Skills 44(1): 30.
Examined the extension of the personal and the global future time perspective of 84 male and 124
female Finnish adolescents. The global future time perspective was more extended than the personal one,
and the extension of the perspectives was longer for males than females. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all
rights reserved)
Winnubst, J. (1974). “Perspective of time: Overview, critique, and bibliography.” Nederlands Tijdschrift
voor de Psychologie en haar Grensgebieden 28(8): 581-617.
Surveys the extensive bibliography in psychology with respect to varying perspectives of time
(TP). TP varies from the norm with respect to atypical conditions and special groups: (a) the mentally ill,
(b) delinquents, (c) alcoholics, (d) retarded children, (e) members of the lower social classes, (f) the elderly,
and (g) certain ethnic minorities. Typically, (a) overemphasizes the contemporary and the past, (b) lives in
the here-and-now, (c) is oriented to the past considered to be the source of misfortune, (d) considers the
future as unpleasant and enjoys the contemporary situation, (e) is oriented to the immediate future, (f) is
oriented to the past and the immediate future, and (g) illustrates wide differences with respect to the future
because of varying religious and social ideologies. TP is important to the theories of achievement
motivation, dogmatism, and self-actualization. Systematization of TP includes TP extension, coherence,

density, kinetics, realism, valence, and predominance. The relevance of the time-perspective dimension in
psychological research is discussed. (150 ref) ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Winnubst, J. A. (1975). “Het Westerse Tijdssyndroom: Conceptuele integratie en eerste aanzet tot construct
validatie van een reeks molaire tijdsvariabelen in de psychologie. / The Western Time Syndrome: Concept
integration and preliminary scale construct validation from a survey of molar time variables in
psychology.” .
Surveys the variables of time perspective, delayed gratification, time anality, and time competence
in an effort to establish one comprehensive principle, the Western Time Syndrome. A preliminary
integration of theoretical orientations is made, and a progress report on validation of the Western Time
Attitude Scale is appended. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Cross-cultural research in business: Appendix 2
Table of Contents
This annotated appendix supplements the references in the report. It contains material
relevant to the various topics discussed. Only a fraction of the studies have been cited
although most were reviewed for background material. Individual articles and books are
displayed in alphabetic order. Many of the research studies are listed in several
categories.
TOPIC PAGE
Values research 268
Values measurement 347

Values research:
Achamamba, B. (1990). “The achievement value and manifest anxiety as related to time orientation.”
Journal of the Indian Academy of Applied Psychology 16(2): 53-56.
Examined the relationship between achievement values, manifest anxiety, and temporal
integration and temporal dominance. 80 female undergraduates completed a measurement of achievement
values, the Taylor Manifest Anxiety Scale, and a circles test. Achievement value was found to be related to
temporal integration among past, present, and future and to future dominance. Anxiety was associated with
unrelatedness between the time zones and not with future dominance. High achievement values were
associated with internal orientation in Ss. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Agarwal, M. K., N. S. Muthukumaran, et al. (1990). “A psychographic segmentation of the Indian youth
market.” Journal of the Market Research Society 32(2): 251-259.
Reports on an exploratory study of the Indian urban youth market using the 7,791 complete
responses from women and men (aged 15-29 yrs) living in towns and cities. Ss were administered an
abridged version of the Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16PF) along with questionnaires that
gathered personality, activity, and psychographic (i.e., Ss' opinions on shopping, sex roles, future
orientation, family, and religion) data. 43% of the women were married compared with 14% of the men.
39% of the men worked compared with 10% of the women. Household income was low for Ss with
traditional values and high for Ss with liberal values. Given that substantive intersegment differences in
activities and media habits were identified in these Ss, it is possible to improve the targeting of promotional
and communication efforts. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Allen, M.-W. (1994). “Personal values of Wellingtonians: A multi-dimensional scaling analysis.” New-
Zealand-Journal-of-Psychology; 1994 Dec Vol 23(2) 71-76.
Presented the personal value orientations of Ss living in the area of Wellington, New Zealand in
November and December 1993. The Rokeach Value Survey was completed by 372 Ss. Respondents
selected the 13 most important and 13 least important items from a list of values (e.g. honesty, freedom,
equality, etc). A multidimensional scaling map is shown, The map portrays the interrelationships among
values and shows which values are considered compatible by the society to which the Ss belong. The
dimensions found in the study, power vs self-direction and connectedness, and excitement and growth vs
accomplishment through social expectations, reveal the organization and structure of this cultural group.
rights reserved)
Allenby, G. M., N. Arora, et al. (1995). “Incorporating prior knowledge into the analysis of conjoint
studies.” Journal of Marketing Research 32(2): 152-162.
Used conjoint analysis to provide interval-level estimates of relative values (part-worths) allowing
tradeoffs among attribute levels to be examined. Recent developments in Bayesian computing that make it
possible to incorporate prior ordinal information are reviewed, and the application of these procedures to
models used in conjoint studies is presented. Subsequently, 3 examples that demonstrate improvements in
statistical inference and prediction, as a result of the proposed procedures, are provided. In contrast to
existing methods, it is argued that the proposed framework is more flexible because it can be used for both
ratings and choice-based conjoint studies, is more informative because it provides the distributional
properties of part-worth estimate, and is more accurate because it performs better on predictive tasks across
a variety of conditions. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1995 American Psychological Assn, all rights
reserved)
Allport, G. W. a. V., P. E. (1931). A study of values. Boston, Houghton Mifflin.

Developed a values measurement scale based on the 6 Spanger personality types.
Allport. G. W., V., P. E. and Lindzey, G. (1960). Study of Values (3rd. ed.). Chicago, Riverside Press.
Revised edition of the Allport, Vernon, Lindzey value measurement scale.
Studies; 1993 Vol 14(2) 235-260.
Ashton, D. (1984). “Cultural differences: Implications for management development.” Management-

Education-and-Development; 1984 Spr Vol 15(1) 5-13.
The author examines the influence of national culture on large business management, citing
examples from his own group management training center. A. Laurent (1980) found that North American
and North European countries take an instrumental view of business that emphasizes the national
organization of tasks and in which authority is associated with role in the organization. The Latin countries
of Europe were found to take a more social view of the work organization, emphasizing that the
organization is a group of people who need to be managed. The differences between Western and Oriental
values also strongly affect organizational life. G. Hofstede (1980) found 4 key dimensions that provide
maximum differentiation among nationalities: individualism, masculinity, power distance, and uncertainty
avoidance. In training delegates from around the world, the author emphasizes small group discussions, the
relating of specific experience to general concepts, and exposure to cultural differences. (4 ref) (PsycLIT
Bachtold, L.-M. and K.-L. Eckvall (1978). “Current value orientations of American Indians in northern
California: The Hupa.” Journal-of-Cross-Cultural-Psychology; 1978 Sep Vol 9(3) 367-375.
To determine the extent to which the Hupa have retained traditional values, 21 Hupa men and
women (ages 18-70) were administered the Kluckhohn-Strodtbeck (1961) questionnaire on 4 value
orientations: activity, relational, time, and man-nature. Results were compared with traditional Hupa value
orientations inferred from the literature. Current orientations indicated significant preferences for (a)
expression of oneself through accomplishment rather than self-actualization, (b) primacy of individual
goals and group welfare over lineal concerns, (c) focus on the present rather than the past, and (d) mastery
over nature rather than harmony with nature. The most visible change from earlier value orientations was
found in time, which shifted from traditional emphasis on future to present. The inconsistency of responses
to time items further indicated a struggle to maintain the uniqueness of their cultural identity without
forfeiture of their identity as participants in the mainstream culture. It is concluded than maintenance of
these dual identity systems depends on a continuing commitment of the Hupa to a collateral orientation. (7
ref) (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1980 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
Bagley, C., G. D. Wilson, et al. (1970). “The Conservatism Scale: A factor structure comparison of
English, Dutch, and New Zealand samples.” Journal of Social Psychology 81(2): 267-268.
The Wilson-Patterson scale of conservative values was administered to 3 samples, in London (n =
200), in the Hague (n = 200), and in Wellington, New Zealand (n = 325). Each sample was separately
factor analyzed by the principal components method, and the loadings for each of the 50 items in the scale
were compared for the 1st 4 factors. The factor structure in the 3 cultures was remarkably similar, all of the
correlations between the appropriate factor loadings being significant at the .1% level. The 1st factor was a
general factor, while the remaining factors loaded highly on racial, sexual, and religious items, respectively.
Bagley, C. A. and E. J. Copeland (1994). “African and African American graduate students' racial identity
and personal problem-solving strategies.” Journal of Counseling and Development 73(2): 167-171.
Compared the coping skills and racial identity of 34 African and 48 African-American graduate
students using the Racial Identity Attitude Scale (RIAS) and the Problem-Solving Inventory. Significant
differences were found in racial identity between Africans and African-Americans on the preencounter and
internalization scales of the RIAS. There was also an acculturation effect based on length of time in the US
for African Ss. After 3.5 yrs in the US, African Ss more frequently endorsed the EuroAmerican values of
the dominant culture and devalued their own race. There were no differences in coping strategies between
African and African-American Ss. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Bahr, K. S. and H. M. Bahr (1995). Autonomy, community, and the mediation of value: Comments on
Apachean grandmothering, cultural change, and the media. American families: Issues in race and ethnicity.
Garland library of sociology, Vol. 30; Garland reference library of social science, Vol. 1015. C. K.
Jacobson. New York, NY, USA, Garland Publishing, Inc: p. 229-260.
(from the introduction) [discuss] the role women, particularly grandmothers, play in the
transmission of culture / show how the influence of grandmothers among the Apache has declined with the
advent of TV and VCRs and Anglo education (from the chapter) draw upon interview and observational
data collected [in] 1989-1991 / the interviews . . . included questions about family change since the early
1900s, including changes in grandmothers' responsibility for the education of their grandchildren, changes
in contact time and the activities formerly shared between grandparents and grandchildren, and perceived
changes in filial responsibility and commitment between parents, grandparents, and grandchildren /
introduce Dorothy Lee's conceptual distinction between cultural and cognitive mediation of values / [note]
comparable concepts in other writings on Indian America / consider traditional parenting and
grandparenting as recalled by Apache and Navajo grandmothers / their childhood experiences are
contrasted with their reports about relationships with their own children and grandchildren today ((c) 1997
Ball Rokeach, S. J., M. Rokeach, et al. (1991). Attitudes and attitude change. Readings in social
psychology: General, classic, and contemporary selections, Allyn & Bacon, Inc, Boston, MA, US: 108-132.
Ball Rokeach, S. J., M. Rokeach, et al. (1994). Attitudes. Readings in social psychology: General, classic,
and contemporary selections (2nd ed.). W. A. Lesko. Boston, MA, USA, Allyn & Bacon, Inc: p. 89-116.
(from the book) [book section covering several chapters] /// "The Great American Values Test" /
Sandra J. Ball-Rokeach, Milton Rokeach and Joel W. Grube / investigate the impact of the media on the
attitudes and subsequent behavior of television viewers /// "Social Forces: Attitudes vs. Actions" / Richard
T. LaPiere / addresses the issue of attitude-behavior consistency /// "Cognitive Dissonance and Behavior
Change in Psychotherapy" / Danny Axsom / examines the role of cognitive dissonance in behavior change
in psychotherapy / attempts to determine if cognitive dissonance, rather than some other process, actually
accounts for the observed changes in behavior ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Ballard, L. and B.-H. Kleiner (1988). “Understanding and managing foreign-born and minority
employees.” Leadership-and-Organization-Development-Journal; 1988 Vol 9(4) 22-24.
Discusses aspects of culture, language, and communication that the manager of foreign-born or
minority employees should take into account. G. Hofstede's (1984) dimensions of cultural values (power
distance, individualism, masculinity, uncertainty avoidance) are outlined. It is suggested that
minority/foreign born employees be given a complete orientation to the organization and the corporate
culture and be told exactly what is expected of them and how they are to be evaluated. (PsycLIT Database
Banja, J.-D. (1996). “Ethics, values, and world culture: The impact on rehabilitation.” Disability-and-
Rehabilitation-An-International-Multidisciplinary-Journal; 1996 Jun Vol 18(6) 279-284.
Discusses cultural beliefs (CBs) and their effect on how health-care personnel and consumers
interpret health, illness, and disability. Topics include the therapeutic relevance of CBs, the implications of
cultural practices and values for rehabilitation theory, and the implications of CBs for social justice. CBs
cause people to learn "approved" ways of being ill, influence their attribution of illness or disability
etiologies, and determine their expectations of treatment and physicians. Medical professionals need to be
aware of cultural differences affecting treatment outcomes. Although rehabilitation can be culturally
diverse, a universal, transcultural understanding of rehabilitation is possible. If culture distinguishes how
individuals engage the world, rehabilitation universally addresses the physical, behavioral, and cognitive
forms of that engagement. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1997 American Psychological Assn, all rights
reserved)
Bardi, A. and S. H. Schwartz (1996). “Relations among sociopolitical values in Eastern Europe: Effects of
the communist experience.” Political Psychology 17(3): 525-549 Issn: 0162895x.
Explains the nature and origins of a special value pattern observed in East European (EE)
countries in terms of ideological inculcation under Communist regimes. Ss in each of 20 samples from 8
EE countries completed the Schwartz (1992) value survey in which they rated each of 56 single values as to
whether they were considered guiding principles in their lives. Separate smallest space analyses of the
structure of value relations were carried out for each of the 20 samples. In all but 3 samples, the 5
sociopolitical values (SPVs) emerged in closer proximity to one another than expected. This pattern
suggests a shared meaning for the SPVs similar to that of conformity values and opposed to that of self-
direction values. It is hypothesized that this unusual meaning of SPVs reflects the experience of living
under EE communist regimes. Comparison of the value priorities among the communist regime in Poland
supports this hypothesis. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1997 American Psychological Assn, all rights
reserved)
Bartos, R. (1994). “Point of view: Bartos responds to "The Bartos Model.".” Journal-of-Advertising-
Research; 1994 Jan-Feb Vol 34(1) 54-56.
Replies to the comments by C. M. Schaninger et al (see PA, Vol 80:43542) on R. Bartos's (1989)
model of wife's work or the "new demographics." This typology reflects a spectrum of values ranging from
the most traditional attitudes, held by stay-at-home housewives, to the most non-traditional attitudes
expressed by career women. The author suggests that the most useful application of the model would be to
build it into each stage of the marketing process. This can be done by defining or redefining the target
group, by constructing a value index, and by determining the optimum media plans for reaching the
different segments in the market. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1994 American Psychological Assn, all
rights reserved)
Beatty, S. E., L. R. Kahle, et al. (1991). “Personal values and gift-giving behaviors: A study across
cultures.” Journal of Business Research 22(2): 149-157.
Examined the linkage between gift-giving behaviors and personal values in 240 US university
students and 82 Oriental university students. Ss in active, social value segments reported higher levels of
gift giving, as well as greater exertion of effort in gift selection, than Ss in passive, nonsocial value
segments. These relationships existed in both cultures. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Becker, B. W. and P. E. Connor (1981). “Personal values of the heavy user of mass media.” Journal of
Examined the theory that values may be perceived as global beliefs about desirable end states that
underlie attitudinal and behavioral processes, that attitudes are cognitive and affective orientations toward
specific objects and situations, and that behavior is a manifestation of one's fundamental values and
consequent attitudes. It is hypothesized that mass-media usage is one form of such behavior. The Rokeach
Value Survey was administered to 58 Ss, and data were collected on the number of hours Ss spent each day
watching TV and reading magazines. Results show that personal values influenced Ss' media-usage
behavior. (17 ref) ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Belk, R.-W. (1995). “Collecting as luxury consumption: Effects on individuals and households. Special
Issue: Household and individual economic psychology.” Journal-of-Economic-Psychology; 1995 Sep Vol
16(3) 477-490.
Offers an assessment of collecting based on interviews with 200 collectors, considering the
problems and benefits for the individual collector, the collector's household, and society. While extreme
cases are found in which collecting is addictive and dysfunctional for the individual and his/her family, it is
more commonly found to be a beneficial activity, at least for the collector. But interpersonally, collections
are found to be perceived as nonhuman rivals for the affection of collectors in the household and to leave a
cultural legacy of material artifacts that over-represent powerful social classes. (PsycLIT Database
Bell, S. S., M. B. Holbrook, et al. (1991). “Combining esthetic and social value to explain preferences for
product styles with the incorporation of personality and ensemble effects.” Journal of Social Behavior and
Personality 6(6): 243-274.
Examined the function of personality and Gestalt-like ensemble effects in the explanation of taste-
based preferences for product styles. 227 graduate students rated photographs of 5 types of furniture in
terms of perceived unity, aesthetic response, social impression, general liking, and intention to own. Results
show that general liking (which determines intention to own) may depend on 2 key determinants that
involve aesthetic response and social impression. Aesthetic response appears to depend indirectly on
ensemble effects via the mediating role of perceived unity. Social impression appears to depend indirectly
on personality via the interactive mediating effect in which ideal impression (which depends directly on
personality) moderates the impact on social impression of person perception. A conceptual model is
presented. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Berkowitz, D. (1993). “Work roles and news selection in local TV: Examining the business-journalism
dialectic.” Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media 37(1): 67-81.
Explored the relationship between work roles and perceptions of news selection in local TV
through a mail survey of local TV journalists at 12 stations. Data suggest that work roles have some
relationship to values and orientations, but socialization and professionalism produce much more striking
contrasts in the views of local TV journalists. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Berlin, I.-N. (1982). “Prevention of emotional problems among Native-American children: Overview of
developmental issues.” Journal-of-Preventive-Psychiatry; 1982 Vol 1(3) 319-330.
Argues that the Native-American (NA) child's achievement of developmental tasks may be
seriously interfered with by the depression and alcoholism of the nurturing adults. NAs are caught between
a hostile Anglo society and a not very powerful NA culture. Generations of such conflict are in some cases
being altered by more militant use of their ancient heritages along with finding ways to keep adolescents
employed and a part of the community. Examples of early intervention and secondary prevention efforts at
several development stages indicate that constructive changes are possible, although difficult. Problem-
solving approaches in education, which involve adolescents learning about child development through their
engagement in early intervention programs, alter the adolescents' understanding of children, enhance
cultural values, and provide adolescents with marketable skills. Teaching NA paraprofessionals techniques
of early identification and early intervention is an important step in prevention programming in NA
communities. (64 ref) (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1984 American Psychological Assn, all rights
reserved)
Bilsky, W. and S. H. Schwartz (1994). “Values and personality.” European Journal of Personality 8(3):
163-181 Issn: 08902070.
Examines relations between values and personality and attempts a theoretical integration. Recent
concepts in values theory were used to develop a theoretical framework for structurally relating value
concepts to personality variables, through which hypotheses regarding value-personality relations were
derived and tested on 331 18-33 yr old German undergraduates. Measures included the Rokeach Value
Survey and the Freiburg Personality Inventory. The addition of personality variables to a similarity
structure analysis of the values had little effect on the structure of value relations, suggesting similar
motivational dynamics underlying both sets of concepts. Findings reveal systematic associations of value
priorities with personality variables, confirming the hypothesized structural relationships. (PsycLIT
Birnbaum More, P. H., G. Y. Y. Wong, et al. (1995). “Acquisition of managerial values in the People's
Republic of China and Hong Kong.” Journal of Cross Cultural Psychology 26(3): 255-275.
Examined the 4 managerial values of power distance, uncertainty avoidance, masculinity, and
individualism measured by self-reports from 350 managerial trainees in China and Hong Kong. Assessment
was by the English and translated Chinese version of the Values Survey Module (G. Hofstede, 1980). A
meta-analysis of validity coefficients was conducted for cultural values to establish the extent of cultural
variability; cultural values were found to be homogenous, although there was less variation in China than in
Hong Kong. Analysis revealed that it was the younger Chinese managerial trainees who had values that
were closest to those of Hong Kong managers of all ages. Most significant in discriminating group
membership was the acquisition of the managerial value of individualism. Results support the proposition
that managerial values converge with increased industrialism. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1995
Birnbaum More, P. H., G. Y. Y. Wong, et al. (1997). “"Acquisition of managerial values in the People's
Republic of China and Hong Kong": Erratum.” Journal of Cross Cultural Psychology 28(1): 125.
Reports an error in the original article by Philip H. Birnbaum-More ( Journal of Cross-Cultural
Psychology , 1995(May), Vol 26(3), 255-275). On page 256, the second paragraph in the "Background"
section contains an author error. The third sentence should read "Research on individual values and
increased industrialization (Berry, 1980) has indicated that values of more individualism (Hofstede, 1980;
Hui & Triandis, 1985; Triandis, 1983) and less uncertainity avoidance (Hofstede, 1980) are associated with
economic growth, whereas less power distance (Hofstede, 1980) is associated with national wealth." (The
following abstract of this article originally appeared in PA, Vol 82:42194.) Examined the 4 managerial
values of power distance, uncertainty avoidance, masculinity, and individualism measured by self-reports
from 350 managerial trainees in China and Hong Kong. Assessment was by the English translated Chinese
version of the Values Survey Module (G. Hofstede, 1980). A meta-analysis of validity coefficients was
conducted for cultural values to establish the extent of cultural variability; cultural values were found to be
homogenous, although there was less variation in China than in Hong Kong . . . (PsycLIT Database
Blankenhorn, D. G., S. Bayme, et al., Eds. (1990). Rebuilding the nest: A new commitment to the
American family. Milwaukee, Family Service America.
(from the introduction) The book is organized into three sections. Part One is descriptive, focusing
on the actual conditions of contemporary family life. It asks the question: Is the family an institution in
trouble? Part Two moves from conditions to causes. What is the source of our current dilemma? This
section focuses on changing cultural values and changing social institutions. Part Three begins a discussion
of solutions. If we have an idea of the challenges we face, what is the agenda for the future? ((c) 1997
Blatt, B. (1988). Bureaucratizing values. Prevention, powerlessness, and politics: Readings on social
change. G. W. Albee. Newbury Park, CA, USA, Sage Publications, Inc: p. 80-81.
(from the book) incisive indictment of American business values that cause human damage / well
reflected in the cynical use of the media to sell consumer goods ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights
reserved)
Bochenska, D. (1995). “A case of international perception: Selected data from a Polish-American study.”
Polish Psychological Bulletin 26(2): 129-144.
Examined the national auto-, hetero-, and metaimages perceptions among 77 American (mean age
19.5 yrs) and 112 Polish female students (mean age 21.9 yrs). A list of 18 terminal and 18 instrumental
values from a modified Polish version of the Value Survey (M. Rokeach, 1973) was used to estimate 3
types of auto and 2 types of hetero-images. The most stereotypical elements of the national images of both
groups were selected and described according to the criteria of their typicality, uniformity, intensity, and
the Ss' certainty of the images' accuracy. Results show 2 types of national stereotypes in operation; familiar
and internalized stereotypes. Favoritism of the other national group was registered among both groups.
Polish Ss distanced themselves from the communist past of their nation and aspired to be like Americans.
American Ss' distancing from the typical American and favorism of Poles can be attributed to social
desirability. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1996 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
Boehnke, K., H. Dettenborn, et al. (1994). “Value priorities in the United Germany: Teachers and students
from East and West compared.” European Journal of Psychology of Education 9(3): 191-202 Issn:
02562928.
Studied the value orientations of teachers and students of the teaching profession in East and West
Germany based on a theory that discriminates 10 types of values (universalism, benevolence, tradition,
conformity, security, power, achievement, hedonism, stimulation, and self-direction). 188 West German
and 204 East German teachers and 377 West German and 274 East German students were studied using a
56-item value survey. Values in the East and the West opposed each other most strongly on the polarity of
self-direction vs security, with the former more important in the West, and the latter in the East.
Differences between teachers and students (regardless of area of origin) were at least equally large as those
between East and West. From a cross-national perspective, however, the differences between East and
West appear less substantial. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1995 American Psychological Assn, all rights
reserved)
Bogner, F. X. and M. Wiseman (1997). “Environmental perspectives of Danish and Bavarian pupils:
Towards a methodological framework.” Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research 41(1): 53-71.
Evaluated 725 Danish pupils' (aged 11-16 yrs) environmental worldviews and behavior toward the
environment. Ss responded to a paper-and-pencil questionnaire and rated items on the multiple-choice basis
of a Likert-scale. Results were compared with data from a Bavarian sample in a study (Bogner and M.
Wilhelm, 1996) that used the same objective test. The goal was first to evaluate a factor structure valid for
the Danish sample and then, within the factor structure previously extracted from the instrument in the
Bavaria study, to identify items common to both samples. A 2nd goal was to apply a factor analysis based
on the reduced item set for the combined samples. The correlation values of the separate analyses matched
those of the common analysis closely. Following construct-validation procedures, a comparison of the
mean within-region factor values revealed substantial between-country differences. ((c) 1998
Bond, M.-H. (1988). “Finding universal dimensions of individual variation in multicultural studies of
values: The Rokeach and Chinese value surveys.” Journal-of-Personality-and-Social-Psychology; 1988 Dec
Vol 55(6) 1009-1015.
Both cross-cultural psychology and theories of value would benefit from the empirical
identification of value dimensions that are pancultural and comprehensive. Accordingly, in this article, I
report the results of a 21-culture study of the Chinese Value Survey (CVS) and a 9-culture study of the
Rokeach Value Survey (RVS). The analysis began with a "deculturing" of the data to remove the cultural
positioning effect, then proceeded with a pooled factor analysis to discover pancultural patterns of
association among the values. Two factors emerged from the CVS, four from the RVS. The individuals in
each survey were then given factor scores, which were analyzed for sex and culture effects. Average scores
for individuals from the cultures common to both surveys suggest that the CVS contained a dimension of
valuing not found in the RVS. The discussion focuses on the factors' validity, their use in cross-cultural
research, and the potential of different cultural traditions for extending psychology's conceptual net.
Bond, M. H. (1988). “Finding universal dimensions of individual variation in multicultural studies of

values: The Rokeach and Chinese value surveys.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 55(6):
1009-1015.
Both cross-cultural psychology and theories of value would benefit from the empirical
identification of value dimensions that are pancultural and comprehensive. Accordingly, in this article, I
report the results of a 21-culture study of the Chinese Value Survey (CVS) and a 9-culture study of the
Rokeach Value Survey (RVS). The analysis began with a "deculturing" of the data to remove the cultural
positioning effect, then proceeded with a pooled factor analysis to discover pancultural patterns of
association among the values. Two factors emerged from the CVS, four from the RVS. The individuals in
each survey were then given factor scores, which were analyzed for sex and culture effects. Average scores
for individuals from the cultures common to both surveys suggest that the CVS contained a dimension of
valuing not found in the RVS. The discussion focuses on the factors' validity, their use in cross-cultural
research, and the potential of different cultural traditions for extending psychology's conceptual net. ((c)
Bond, M.-H. (1991). “Chinese values and health: A cultural-level examination.” Psychology-and-Health;
1991 Mar Vol 5(2) 137-152.
Examined the scores of approximately 50 male and 50 female undergraduates from 23 countries
on the Chinese Value Survey (Chinese Culture Connection; see PA, Vol 75:25189). Previous research has
identified 2 factors from the Chinese Value Survey, Integration vs Inwardness and Reputation vs Morality.
These value profiles developed from Ss' scores were used as predictors of a number of health indices. This
country-level analysis revealed many relationships between the 2 value dimensions and (1) longevity
measures, (2) modes of death, (3) health-endangering behaviors, and (4) indicators of social well-being.
Findings are related to theorizing about cultural emphases on individualism and on material success.
Bond, M.-H. and M.-K. Pang (1991). “Trusting to the Tao: Chinese values and the re-centering of
psychology. Conference on Moral Values and Moral Reasoning in Chinese Societies (1989, Taipei,
Taiwan).” Bulletin-of-the-Hong-Kong-Psychological-Society; 1991 Jan-Jul No 26-27 5-27.
Describes the development of the Chinese Value Survey and results from its use with more than
2,000 undergraduates in 23 countries (including China). Analyses at both the culture level and the
individual level revealed that part of the Chinese value spectrum is invisible to Western instruments. Two
bipolar factors were isolated at the individual-level analysis: social integration vs cultural inwardness and
reputation vs social morality. The predictive power of the unique Chinese factors in the value area was then
presented in the domains of economics, health, and social morality. It is hoped that this successful example
of inter-cultural synergy will inspire other psychologists to use the various heritages more resourcefully in
advancing scientific reach. An argument is made for less culturally bounded psychology. (Chinese abstract)
Bond, M. H. (1994). Finding universal dimensions of individual variation in multicultural studies of values:
The Rokeach and Chinese value surveys. New research in moral development. Moral development: A
compendium, Vol. 5. P. Bill, Garland Publishing, Inc, New York, NY, US: 385-391.
Bond, M. H. (1996). Chinese values. The handbook of Chinese psychology. B. Michael Harris, Oxford
University Press, Hong Kong, Hong Kong: 208-226.
Bond, M. H. and V. M. Y. Chi (1997). “Values and moral behavior in mainland China.” Psychologia: An
International Journal of Psychology in the Orient 40(4): 251-264.
This is an empirical study exploring the relationship between a comprehensive measure of values
(the Schwartz Value Survey) and an indigenous, self-report measure of moral behaviors in Chinese
secondary students. Value constructs were identified using both a factor analysis and a Smallest Space
Analysis of an 11-region sample (N6n = 1,841) of high school students in the People's Republic of China.
These value constructs were then correlated with single-factor measures of prosocial and antisocial
behavior in a separate sample of 360 secondary students (aged 11-17 yrs) from Beijing and Tianjin.
Regression equations showed that the factor labeled Social Harmony and the domain labeled Universalism-
Benevolence-Conformity were the most powerful predictors of both prosocial and antisocial behaviors.
Results are discussed in light of prior research on moral behavior, and their implications for adolescent
socialization are explored. ((c) 1998 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Boote, A. S. (1981). “Market segmentation by personal values and salient product attributes.” Journal of
Describes an application of an approach to market segmentation that relies on personal values as
the key variable in the underlying prediction model. The use of values in conjunction with 3 more common
psychographic variables yielded results that have implications for marketing and advertising strategy. Data
from 450 restaurant diners support the conclusion that brand preference is not differentiated with respect to
demographic characteristics of consumers who ate at each of 2 restaurant chains and had a stated
preference for one or the other. However, market segments based on value orientations of these fast-food
restaurant customers did reveal differences in brand preference. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights
reserved)
Boote, A. S. (1982). “Psychographic segmentation in Europe.” Journal of Advertising Research 22(6): 19-
25.
Reports the results of a research study of comparative values structure in 3 European countries
(UK, Germany, and France) and the implications for an advertising campaign directed to these markets.
Large samples of women were screened in each country to identify owners of household appliances.
Approximately 500 Ss were then randomly sampled from the pool of qualified respondents. Ss were asked
to rate 29 "value" scales in terms of their importance. Pairwise T-tests between countries showed that
nearly all differences between means were significant at or beyond the 0.01 level. Q-factor analyses
uncovered more similarities between countries than the T-tests of individual mean ratings. Findings provide
tenuous evidence in support of mounting a common advertising campaign in these 3 countries. However, a
major analytical implication is that data from several countries should not be combined into a common base
for a segmentation analysis. While the resulting output may be interpretable, it is likely to conceal country
differences that should be considered when developing advertising themes. (15 ref) ((c) 1997
Boski, P. (1994). “Psychological analysis of a culture: Stability of core Polish values in the homeland and
among immigrants.” Polish Psychological Bulletin 25(4): 257-282.
Three historical processes impacted Polish culture formation: Catholicism, agriculture as the
dominant mode of production and social structure formation, and preoccupation with national sovereignty.
Value structures of 100 adult Poles (24-70 yrs old) in Poland and of 151 direct immigrants to the US and
Canada and Polish-Americans/Canadians were compared, using the Emic Culture Values Test. A joint
principle components analysis yielded 6 factors: Humanism^Materialism, Cognitive Openness, Political
Involvement, Self-constraint vs Hedonism, Traditionality, and Social Trust. Across S groups and
generations, Ss tended to construe Self and Polish prototype high on the Humanist side of the dimension;
American and Canadian prototypes were construed as Materialist. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights
reserved)
Braithwaite, V., T. Makkai, et al. (1996). “Inglehart's materialism-postmaterialism concept: Clarifying the
dimensionality debate through Rokeach's model of social values.” Journal of Applied Social Psychology
26(17): 1536-1555.
Addresses an ongoing debate concerning the dimensionality of R. Inglehart's (1971, 1977, 1981,
1990) concept of materialism-postmaterialism (MPM) through psychological models of social values. It is
argued that MPM involves a prioritizing of values from 2 orthogonal value orientations which have grown
out of the work of M. Rokeach (1973). To test the nature of Inglehart's 4-item measure of MPM, 197
college students (aged 17-64 yrs) completed a questionnaire measuring values, social and political attitudes,
personality characteristics, and behaviors. Inglehart's 4-item MPM index was included in the measure.
Results show that MPM was linked with several factors including 2 social value orientation scales, national
strength and internal harmony, and equality. Findings suggest that the measurement of the Inglehart battery
is taking place at the value, rather than the attitude of analysis. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights
reserved)
Brink, P. J. (1984). “Value orientations as an assessment tool in cultural diversity.” Nursing Research
33(4): 198-203.
"Value orientations" is the term used for a theoretical construct and its cultural assessment tool
that was developed by F. Kluckhohn in the 1950's. The tool, tested in rural and urban areas, has been useful
in identifying the dominant and variant values and beliefs that characterize groups. The present paper
describes the tool, its theoretical underpinnings, and data-analysis techniques with the Annang of Nigeria as
an example of how the tool is used in context of a single culture. In addition, use of the tool with individual
clients to establish possible areas of culture conflict in values is examined. (21 ref) ((c) 1997
Brink, P.-J. (1984). “Value orientations as an assessment tool in cultural diversity.” Nursing-Research;
1984 Jul-Aug Vol 33(4) 198-203.
clients to establish possible areas of culture conflict in values is examined. (21 ref) (PsycLIT Database
Brown, T. J. and P. A. Dacin (1997). “The company and the product: Corporate associations and consumer
product responses.” Journal of Marketing 61(1): 68-84.
Although brand theorists suggest that what a person knows about a company can influence
perceptions of the company's products, little systematic research on these effects exists. The authors
examine the effects of 2 general types of corporate associations on product responses: One focuses on the
company's capabilities for producing products (corporate ability associations), and the other focuses on the
company's perceived social responsibility (corporate social responsibility associations). The results of 3
studies demonstrate that (1) what consumers know about a company can influence their beliefs about and
attitudes toward new products, (2) corporate ability associations and corporate social responsibility
associations may have different effects on consumer responses, and (3) products of companies with
negative associations are not always destined to receive negative responses. (PsycLIT Database Copyright
Brunso, K. and K. G. Grunert (1998). “Cross-cultural similarities and differences in shopping for food.”
To overcome previous criticism regarding lifestyle research, this paper proposes a new definition
of lifestyle, which is based on theoretical assumptions about what motivates and directs consumer behavior
and which distinguishes lifestyle from values and behavior. Lifestyle is regarded as a mental construct that
explains, but is not identical with, actual behavior, and is defined as the system of cognitive categories,
scripts, and their associations, which relate a set of products to a set of values. Based on this theoretical
approach, a cross-culturally valid instrument for measuring food-related lifestyle (ways of shopping) was
developed and tested with 4,200 Ss from France, Germany, Denmark, and Great Britain. The instrument
was assessed using a LISREL model. Results show that the developed instrument had acceptable levels of
cross-cultural validity in relation to ways of shopping, though item loadings and item reliabilities revealed
some problems that must be addressed. ((c) 1998 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Buj, V. (1981). “Average IQ values in various European countries.” Personality-and-Individual-

Differences; 1981 Vol 2(2) 168-169.
Reports the averaged IQ scores of 10,737 persons (CA 16 yrs and older) in 21 European countries,
collected using the Cattell Scale CFT3, a nonverbal, culture-fair test. One person for each 40,000
inhabitants was tested, and 3 subgroups were represented proportionally: (1) men and women, (2) age, and
(3) socioeconomic status. Results show that the mean of the total population was 2.2 IQ points above the
expected value of 100 and that the mean value was similar to the standardization value for previous
American samples. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1982 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
Bumstead, D. and J. Eckblad (1984). “Developing organisational cultures.” Leadership-and-Organization-

Development-Journal; 1984 Vol 5(4) 21-26.
Contends that the purpose and values associated with the organization are crucial to the
development of viable organizational cultures. Organizational responses, the life-business approach,
energy, internal and external management teams, creativity and focus, innovation, structuring
organizational systems, and regenerating market orientation are discussed in terms of attention to
qualitative goals or values. It is suggested that the life-business approach to cultural change helps
individuals confront key questions, builds on the answers, and regenerates both markets and organizational
culture. (18 ref) (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1985 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
Burgess, S. M. (1988). Personal values, consumer behavior and branch image perceptions. South African
Marketing Research Association, Mbabane, Swaziland, SA, So. African Mkt. Research Assn.
Burgess, S. M., S. Schwartz, et al. (1994). “Do values share universal content and structure? A South
African test.” South African Journal of Psychology 24(1): 1-12 Issn: 00812463.
Examined the validity of S. H. Schwartz's (1992) theory on the universal content and structure of
values in 2 studies of diverse groups not previously tested. In Study 1, 1,364 Ss from the 4 major South
African racial groupings completed the Rokeach Value Survey, a values scale applicable to Schwartz's
theory. In Study 2, 387 multiethnic Ss completed the new Schwartz Value Survey. Results, with the
exception of the Black subsample, are consistent with Schwartz's contention that values serve individual,
collective, and mixed interests. Results also compare favorably with those from other international samples.
The authors conclude that Schwartz's theory applies to South African values. (Afrikaans abstract) (PsycLIT
Butz, H. E., Jr. and L. D. Goodstein (1996). “Measuring customer value: Gaining the strategic advantage.”
Organizational Dynamics 24(3): 63-77.
Presents an approach to developing winning business strategies based on a structured process for
gauging customer values. Customers make selection decisions based on their own values. By understanding
those values and how they influence decisions to buy, a provider of goods or services can develop a
strategy that provides a distinctive and sustainable competitive advantage, an emotional bond with the
customer. This bond leads the customer to buy repeatedly and sometimes even exclusively from the
provider. The recommended 5-step approach includes identifying the customer, planning the data
collection, collecting the data on customer values, measuring the levels of customer bonding, and
implementing appropriate strategies suggested by the research. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1996
Caillat, Z. and B. Mueller (1996). “The influence of culture on American and British advertising: An
exploratory comparison of beer advertising.” Journal of Advertising Research 36(3): 79-88.
Used content analysis and semiology to compare cultural variables manifest in beer commercial
messages created between 1990 and 1994 in the US and Great Britain. These variables included dominant
values, rhetorical style, advertising appeals, and occasion for product use. US advertisements perpetuated
mainly American values, specifically achievement, individualism/independence, and modernity/newness.
British ads presented mainly British cultural values, specifically tradition/history and eccentricity. While
the portrayal of modernity/newness differed in US and British ads, both samples were more likely to avoid
representing the value. British ads used humor appeals almost exclusively; US ads relied on emotional and
sex appeals. US ads had a high frequency of direct speech; British ads had an even higher frequency of
indirect speech. Results suggest that a standardized advertising strategy among the 2 countries may not be
feasible. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Carter, R.-T. (1991). “Cultural values: A review of empirical research and implications for counseling.
Special Issue: Multiculturalism as a fourth force in counseling.” Journal-of-Counseling-and-Development;
1991 Sep-Oct Vol 70(1) 164-173.
Reviews the literature using the F. R. Kluckhohn and F. L. Strodtbeck (1961) model to identify
literature pertaining to cultural values. Kluckhohn and Strodtbeck believed that value-orientations represent
a limited number of common human problems; the need to find solutions to these problems is common to
all cultures, and cultures are limited in the number of solutions that are possible. The differential solutions
chosen by each account for differences between cultural and racial groups. The problems, or orientations,
involve human activity, social relations, time, person-nature relationships, and the innate character of
human nature domains. Findings show that value orientations may be influenced by a number of variables;
when any culture is assessed for its value system, psychological and demographic characteristics (e.g., age,
sex, socioeconomic status (SES), education) must also be considered. (Spanish abstract) (PsycLIT Database
Cattell, R. (1994). How good is your country? What you should know. Washington, D. C., Institute for the
Study of Man.
One hundred countries were rated based on 19 dimensions of exogenous characteristics. The
dimensions were 1) Vigorous development, 2) Intelligent affluence, 3) Morale, 4) Size, 5) Careless
integrated conservatism, 6) Cultural pressure reaction, 7) Efficient use of resources, 8) Cultural pressure
with sublimation, 9) Cosmopolitan Muslim, 10) Political cultural awareness, 11) International concern, 12)
Anxious responsibility, 13) General productivity, 14) Orderly self sufficiency, 15) Population control, 16)
Stability and responsibility, 17) East Asian Buddhist culture, 18) Non-conformism in religion, 19) Self
sufficient work values. World maps showed the closeness of similar national groups.
Celuch, K., M. Slama, et al. (1997). “Concern for appropriateness and ad context effects.” Psychology-and-
Marketing; 1997 Jan Vol 14(1) 19-28.
Examined whether concern for appropriateness (CFA) moderates the influence of a negative
advertisement context. 289 college students assessed brand attitude in 3 alcoholic beverage print ads and 2
1-page articles. One advertisement encouraged irresponsible drinking and the other 2 ads were neutral. Ss
then completed the Concern For Appropriateness scale (R. Lennox and R. Wolfe; 1984). A median split
was used to classify the sample into high and low scoring groups on the basis of their CFA scores. Results
imply that people who score high in CFA are particularly sensitive to socially inappropriate context effects
for ads. Findings for brand attitude are significant and support this notion. Results obtained refer to
negative context effects. Additional research is needed to determine whether CFA would moderate the
influence of positive context effects. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1997 American Psychological Assn, all
rights reserved)
Chakravarti, B. (1984). “Sensitivity training and value orientation for strengthening social defence.” Social-
Defence; 1984 Jul Vol 20(77) 21-24.
Discusses the disparity between high crime rates in urban India and low crime rates in rural India,
due to the urban break from traditional Indian culture and values of moderate living and kindness and
concern for fellow human beings and animals. The urban industrial culture emphasizes individualism, self-
interest, competitiveness, and consumerism, ascribing to acquisition a higher value than the quality of
human life. Sensitivity training and value orientation through adult and childhood education and helping
criminals learn income-generating trades are recommended to combat the spread of crime. The emotional
process in value acquisition and analysis requiring introspection and experience-based learning is
discussed. The foundation of these processes on Freudian psychology is discussed. A change in lifestyle
and behavior patterns is called for to check the rise in crime in India. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1987
Chan, S. and C. W. Leong (1994). “Chinese families in transition: Cultural conflicts and adjustment
problems.” Journal of Social Distress and the Homeless 3(3): 263-281.
Examines how Chinese American immigrant families, faced with many stressors and conflicts, are
challenged to cope with 2 different cultures. Such difficulties faced by these individuals usually stem from
language, religious, and basic cultural value differences. Furthermore, family members are faced with role
and status changes due to differing rates and levels of acculturation. Cultural mythology about femininity
and masculinity, men's and women's roles in Chinese families, and elder status are explored. There is a
great need for mental health services. However, due to cultural barriers, mental health services are not
accessible nor acceptable to many Chinese Americans. Effective intervention strategies and treatment
approaches that integrate the Chinese cultural values and norms with psychotherapy are recommended. ((c)
Cheng, H. and J. C. Schweitzer (1996). “Cultural values reflected in Chinese and U.S. television
commercials.” Journal of Advertising Research 36(3): 27-45.
Conducted a content analysis of 1,105 Chinese and US TV commercials and identified 8 cultural
values that dominate Chinese or US TV advertising. US commercials tend to use symbolic and utilitarian
values; Chinese commercials resort more often to symbolic ones. Findings indicate that Chinese advertising
is a melting pot of Eastern and Western cultural values and a double-distorted mirror that reflects
advertising's commercial nature with a strong tendency to fit into China's idiosyncratic social reality. The
openness of the melting pot and the closing tendency in the double-distorted mirror have implications for
advertising professionals and researchers. Cultural values depicted in Chinese TV commercials have much
to do with product categories and origins. Commercials for imported products are currently the pacesetter
for Western cultural values conveyed in Chinese TV advertising, followed by commercials for joint-
venture products. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Chinese Culture, C. (1987). “Chinese values and the search for culture-free dimensions of culture.” Journal
of Cross Cultural Psychology 18(2): 143-164.
Constructed a survey of Chinese values and administered it to university students in 22 countries
around the world. An ecological factor analysis was run on the culture means for the 40 scale items and
revealed 4 dimensions of cultural valuing. In a search for validities, country scores on these 4 factors were
correlated with those derived from a Western survey of work-related values by G. Hofstede (1980). Three
of the factors from the Chinese Value Survey (CVS) correlated at high levels with 3 of Hofstede's 4,
strongly suggesting the robust value dimensions of collectivism and compassion. The 2nd CVS factor,
Confucian work dynamism, was unrelated to any of Hofstede's, but correlated .70 with economic growth
from 1965 to 1984. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1988 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
Christians, C. G. and M. Traber, Eds. (1997). Communication ethics and universal values. Thousand Oaks,
(from the cover) This volume identifies a broad-based ethical theory of communication. Returning
to bedrock ethical principles found across cultures, the book transcends the world of mass media practice to
uncover a more humane and responsible code of values that society as a whole can adopt and accept. ///
The authors collectively approach the foundational issues of ethics from diverse perspectives and defend
the possibility of universal moral imperatives. As the authors examine the values in which their cultures are
grounded, a short list of ethical principles emerges--truth, respect for another person's dignity, and no harm
to the innocent. The ethical standards that resonate within each of the 6 cultures represented form the
common ground on which one can stand and face today's media crises and conundrums. /// This book
provides communication scholars with inspiration and direction for their ongoing work in mediation,
conflict resolution, and relationship and personal communication. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights
reserved)
Church, A. T. and W. J. Lonner (1998). “The cross-cultural perspective in the study of personality:
Rationale and current research.” Journal of Cross Cultural Psychology: Cultural-Psychology.
Examines the rationale for and current research that is based on the cross-cultural or culture-
comparative approach to personality study. Notes the uncertain cross-cultural relevance of mainstream
personality theories, and addresses current cross-cultural research on the following personality-relevant
topics: personality structure and assessment, implications of individualism-collectivism for traits and their
measurement, values and beliefs, emotions and subjective well-being, and motivation. Some of the best
support for cross-cultural universality has been obtained in studies of the 5-factor model of personality, the
content and structure of values, a limited number of basic emotions, and higher order mood dimensions.
Topics that need to be studied further include the following: (1) how to separate the many factors that
influence personality scores across cultures, (2) the degree of cross-cultural comparability of the
nomological nets of personality dimensions, and (3) the integration of trait-psychology and cultural-
psychology perspectives. ((c) 1998 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Claxton, R. P., R. P. McIntyre, et al. (1996). “Cognitive style as a potential antecedent to values.” Journal
of Social Behavior and Personality 11(2): 355-373.
Used a structural equation model to test whether cognitive style dimensions are related to, and at
times may be antecedent to, formation of some values and/or value system factors. Data from 416 adults
(aged 25-70 yrs) offer structural model evidence that the information intake and information
processing/decision making dimensions of Jungian (1971) cognitive style may be antecedently related to
List of Values value factor formation. The cognitive style classifications of intuiting and thinking both had
significant paths to an internal values factor. To an external values factor, the classification of feeling had a
significant path, but sensing did not. To a hedonistic values factor, both feeling and sensing had significant
paths. Implicitly, tendencies to rely on particular groups of values may depend on individual cognitive
styles. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1997 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
Cofer, L. F. and R. S. Jacobvitz (1990). The loss of moral turf: Mass media and family values. Rebuilding
the nest: A new commitment to the American family. D. G. Blankenhorn. Milwaukee, WI, USA, Family
Service America: p. 179-204.
(from the chapter) how do the visual media portray families and children / would sensational
content violate family and community values / how could a democratic society regulate commercial
interests in order both to harness their potential and reign in their powerful social influences / how could
parents and communities compete with the attractions of motion pictures and television for the time and
energies of young people /// in analyzing these issues historically, several key themes emerge: the inability
of local communities to turn profit-oriented media industries away from sensationalism, often focusing on
youth, that features distorted portrayals of family life; the inability of social scientists and policymakers to
achieve the long-cherished goal of tapping the educational potential of movies and television; the inability
of our society to offer young people opportunities that challenge them to recognize not only their rights, but
also the responsibilities of citizenship and parenthood; and finally, the inability of our society to preserve
and expand free-press ideals ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Conrad, G. (1975). “Counselling the adolescent girl in a time of changing values.” Mental-Health-and-
Society; 1975 Vol 2(3-6) 219-224.
The position of the adolescent girl has always been somewhat ambiguous in Western culture. No
more a little girl and not yet a woman, she remained in limbo waiting for the time when she would marry
and no longer be the responsibility of her family. Counselors who work with adolescent girls have been
expected to reinforce a value system that prized "innocence" in young women, emphasized the romantic
view of love, and looked on marriage as an eternal bond. Developing trends in the Women's Liberation
Movement, ability to obtain contraceptive information and easy abortion, and experiments by young people
with varied forms of interpersonal relationships and family structures all indicate that the traditional value
system is changing. There is a new reality; women are now free to follow more than one way of life. For
the counselor this presents the same dilemma that faces the adolescent girl: how to leave the security of the
known and prepare for the potential choices that are inherent in the unknown. (PsycLIT Database
Corfman, K. P., D. R. Lehmann, et al. (1991). “Values, utility, and ownership: Modeling the relationships
for consumer durables.” Journal of Retailing 67(2): 184-204.
A conceptual model is developed that describes the relationships among consumer values, utility,
and ownership of durables. These relationships are tested empirically using data on a variety of
discretionary durables collected from 735 adults. Five broad categories were included: home entertainment,
sports and exercise, pets, convenience, and luxury. Questions included L. R. Kahle's (1983) 9-item List of
Values (LOV) scale. Consumer values and the experience of ownership affected utility directly, while
utility, time, and income affect ownership directly. Social values, stimulation, and materialism were
important to Ss' utility for the durables. Findings support the model structure and suggest that augmenting
the LOV with a measure of materialism improves prediction of value-related consumer behavior. ((c) 1997
Coupey, E. and K. Jung (1996). “Forming and updating of product category perceptions: The influence of
goals and discrepancy.” Psychology-and-Marketing; 1996 Oct Vol 13(7) 695-713.
Examined the joint effect of learning goal and discrepancy on the differential formation of
category structures. 69 undergraduates were randomly assigned to 1 of 6 treatment conditions. In Part 1, Ss
examined a set of brand cards of laptop computers, sorted brands into similar groups, and indicated which
brand they would like to own. In Part 2, Ss were asked to recall brands and attributes, attribute level and
frequency information, and high and low values of each attribute. In Part 3, Ss were given a new brand card
and asked to place the card relative to the brands previously examined, and indicate their preference.
Results indicate that Ss who must make judgments about a new, strongly discrepant brand are influenced
more by learning goal than are Ss presented with a moderately discrepant brand. Implications for marketing
strategy are discussed. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1997 American Psychological Assn, all rights
reserved)
Cover, J. (1983). “Theological reflections: Social effects of television.” Religious Education 78(1): 38-49.
Discusses (1) the ideologies of power and consumerism that govern and are reflected in TV and
(2) the subservience of this ideology and of the media to technology and large global corporations. The
ideology inherent in the advertising and majority of TV programs reveals the social sin and collective
blindness condemned by Jesus and the Hebrew prophets, and it is due largely to false consciousness.
Examples are provided of the false values supported by TV. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Cowan, R. S., M. H. Rose, et al. (1985). “Clean homes and large utility bills 1900-2940.” Marriage and
Family Review 9(1-2): 53-66.
Contends that patterns of cleanliness (CLN), both in the home and of the person, and the
consequent deployment of energy require historical explanations rooted in social and geographic factors. It
is suggested that immigrants to the US, especially those from impoverished backgrounds, quickly
understood that success in their new lives would depend, in some measure, on CLN. After 1900, a large
coalition of reformers focused attention on securing improved, cleaner housing, especially for workers and
their families. The introduction of gas heating resonated with intellectual and social currents of the
preceding decades, especially the idea of CLN. In the 1920's and 1930's, utility executives combined
modern advertising techniques with popular ideology to boost the demand for gas house-heating
equipment. Homebuilders worked closely with utility operators to capitalize on the demand for modern
appliances. The experiences of householders, especially women, with technological systems such as gas
and electricity were related to levels of education and differed according to economic class. It is concluded
that immigrants to the US selected energy-consuming machines with a view toward securing a
technological fix for the lengthy and generally awkward process of Americanization. (24 ref) ((c) 1997
Croteau, D. and W. Hoynes (1992). Men and the news media: The male presence and its effect. Men,
masculinity, and the media. Research on men and masculinities series, Vol. 1. S. Craig. Newbury Park, CA,
(from the chapter) examine the male presence in the news media and its effect on the news product
/ use our research on the guest list of ABC News "Nightline" to illustrate several points about men as both
sources and subjects of the news / discuss some of the consequences resulting from male domination of the
process of news production / these images portray a particular type of both male perspective and male
behavior that may not be resonant for a vast number of men / what programs like "Nightline" bring viewers
are interpretations of the world largely from elite, white men / men who are not white, or who are not part
of the culture of power, will find little in the news media to validate their experiences / what this suggests is
that access to "Nightline" and other media is structured by the intersection of gender, race, and class ((c)
D'Amorim, M. A. (1989). “Valores e atitudes em relacao ao futuro em estudantes universitarios

canadenses. / Values and attitudes in relation to the future in Canadian university students.” Arquivos
Brasileiros de Psicologia 42(1): 115-126.
Studied attitudes toward behavior, time, and the future among Canadian university students.
Human subjects: 118 male and female Canadian adults (aged 18-40 yrs) (university students). Among
attitudes and values considered in the study were self-respect, inner harmony, equality, beauty, peace,
family security, social recognition, comfort, life excitement, loving behavior, honest behavior, imagination,
and intellectual behavior. These attitudes were evaluated using the Value Scale by M. Rokeach (1973) and
the Time Attitude Scale by J. Nuttin (1980). The results were evaluated according to age and sex. Statistical
tests were used. (English abstract) ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Daboval, J., R. Comish, et al. (1995). “Influences on decision-making behavior.” Psychological-Reports;

1995 Feb Vol 76(1) 176-178.
Examined the association of ethical values and decision-making behavior of marketing managers,
using a series of vignettes. 539 practicing marketing managers gave responses to a mailed questionnaire,
assuming the role of the decision-maker and indicating how they would resolve each situation. Six
categories of ethical problems were included as vignettes: coercion and control, conflict of interest,
physical environment, personal integrity, others' rights, and discrimination. Results reveal that the
respondents tended to make ethical decisions based on costs and benefits of the consequences of the
decision rather than absolute moral imperative. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1996 American
Darden, D. K. (1983). “Values and policy: The case of legal services.” Basic and Applied Social
Used responses of 355 Ss to questionnaires of a household research panel to examine differences
between those who used the services of an attorney and those who did not. The questionnaire included a
version of the Rokeach Value Survey. Use of an attorney in the last 5 yrs, SES, and value systems were
analyzed. Results show that Ss who had used attorneys were more likely to value independence more
highly than those who did not use attorneys and that although differences in instrumental values were found
between the groups, no differences were found in terminal values. Earlier findings of D. Phillips (1963)
showed that those who value self-reliance were more likely to shun the services of mental health
professionals. It is suggested that lawyers may function as aids to those who value independence highly,
and psychiatrists may function as aids for those who do not. Results of this study cast doubt on simpler
models of the delivery of legal services based on traditional marke! ting approaches. (25 ref) ((c) 1997
the U.S.” Sex Roles 38(11-12): 953-974.
Davis, S., E. Gerstner, et al. (1995). “Money back guarantees in retailing: Matching products to consumer
tastes.” Journal-of-Retailing; 1995 Spr Vol 71(1) 7-22.
Presents a model for determining the conditions in which money-back guarantees (MBG) work
best to enhance profits and social welfare. Retailers often offer customers MBGs in order to reduce
customer risk in buying products that consumers cannot fully evaluate before purchase. According to this
model, the profitability of an MBG for a particular product can be assessed by estimating salvage values of
returned merchandise, the probabilities of mismatching the product to consumers, transaction costs of
returning merchandise, and consumer value of product trial. An MBG can be profitable if the retailer has a
salvage value advantage over consumers that is greater in value than the consumer transaction costs of
returning merchandise. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1996 American Psychological Assn, all rights
reserved)
Davis, S. S. and D. A. Davis (1995). “"The Mosque and the satellite": Media and adolescence in a
Moroccan town.” Journal of Youth and Adolescence 24(5): 577-593.
Reports on the exposure of 100 Ss (9-21 yrs old) in a semirural Moroccan town (Zawiya) to a
variety of Western, Middle Eastern, and locally produced media. Media images included economic
affluence, relatively free sexual behavior, and nontraditional social roles for females. Data collected mainly
in 1982 reveal relationships between media exposure and adolescents' use of media images in their social
behavior, choice of mate, and career aspirations. Male adolescents were exposed to more Western media
and were able to develop a more individual taste, but both sexes appeared eager to use media to reimagine
and redefine the culture's gender roles while still preserving core traditional values. ((c) 1997
Dean, P. J. and M. M. Banks (1993). “A selected review of the underpinnings of ethics for human
performance technology professionals: II. Professional resources.” Performance Improvement Quarterly
6(4): 33-49.
Provides information about resources to aid in the implementation of ethical projects and
programming by human performance technology (HPT) professionals. Prominent individuals and their
writings in the field of ethics are listed in 18 categories. These categories are early influences on ethical
thought, contemporary writers in ethics, journals related to business ethics, ethics overview, ethical issues,
advertising ethics, educational ethics, international ethics, management ethics, marketing ethics, values and
morals, professional ethics, social responsibility, ethics codes, decision-making ethics, economic ethics,
health care ethics, and ethical theory. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1994 American Psychological Assn, all
rights reserved)
Diamond, W. D. (1992). “Just what is a "dollar's worth"? Consumer reactions to price discounts vs. extra
product promotions. Special Issue: Contributions of panel and point of sale data to retailing theory and
practice.” Journal of Retailing 68(3): 254-270.
Two studies examined how shoppers equate different types of promotions. In Study 1, 20 female
grocery shoppers (aged 21+ yrs) determined indifference points between discounts and "free extra product"
promotions. The "nominal values" of promotions, rather than their effects on unit price, predicted shopper
preferences. In Study 2, 40 grocery shoppers (aged 21+ yrs) developed value functions for 3 types of
promotions. As promotions became larger, shoppers preferred promotions of the form "free extra ounces"
less than other types, and increasingly favored discounts. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1993 American
Dines, G. (1995). “Toward a critical sociological analysis of cartoons.” Humor: International Journal of
Humor Research 8(3): 237-255.
Develops a critical sociological framework for the analysis of cartoons, which addresses the nature
of cultural production and the role that media plays in disseminating norms and values to a socially
differentiated audience. Sociologists have tended to focus almost exclusively on the humor aspect of
cartoons, at the expense of production and consumption. However, recent trends within the critical media
sociology (e.g., J. Thompson, 1988) have emphasized the importance of understanding the communication
process in terms of the social, economic and political conditions which inform both the encoding and
decoding ends of the communication chain. Though critical theory is based on the interconnectedness of
different parts of this chain, 3 separate areas of analysis need to be distinguished (cartoon production,
textual analysis, and reader reception), each of which has characteristic forms and processes. ((c) 1997
1986 Vol 8 27-70.
Domino, G. and A. Acosta (1987). “The relation of acculturation and values in Mexican Americans.”
Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences 9(2): 131-150.
Studied the correspondence between degree of acculturation and values in 1st-generation
Mexican-Americans, 42 identified as highly acculturated and 42 as low acculturated, by administration of
the Rokeach Value Survey in either English or Spanish. The obtained protocols were compared with
national norms and with scores of a local group of 62 Anglos. Results show considerable variability across
groups for specific values and minimal sex differences. However, there was a greater correspondence of
values between high-acculturation and comparison groups than between low-acculturation and comparison
groups. Six of 7 factors distinguished high- from low-acculturation Ss, with a hit rate of 78%. (Spanish
Durgee, J. F., G. C. O' Connor, et al. (1996). “Observations: Translating values into product wants.”
Examined a new method for identifying core life values, based on the belief that values impact
attitudes, which in turn impact behavior, and traced their direct impact on consumption. 55 mothers (aged
30-50 yrs) were shown a list of values and asked to indicate which 5 were most important in their life. Ss
were then shown a list of products from many different categories and asked which made the value
possible, and if value was thought of as a feeling, which 5 products would most give them this feeling.
Results indicate the 5 highest ranked values are good health, family security, happiness, freedom and moral
goodness. Good health is sought in exercise, diet products, and low cholesterol. Certain possessions signify
family security to Ss. Findings suggest by focusing on consumer value systems and how they can evolve,
marketers can identify ways to add new meanings to products. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights
reserved)
Edwards, D. and S. Johnson (1986). The meaning of products in consumers' lives: The grid approach.
Advertising and consumer psychology, Vol. 3. Advertising and consumer psychology conferences. J. C.
Olson. New York, NY, USA, Praeger Publishers: p. 259-274.
(from the chapter) Grid Research proposes that consumers are trying to understand their
experiences with products by building models of the experiences / they then use their models to make the
decisions that they believe will allow them to maximize their opportunities to fulfill their "needs and
desires" (Kelly, 1955) / the following points of view are taken: [cognitive, affective, responsive,
electrochemical, social/cultural, spiritual/symbolic] /// consumers want to satisfy their personal needs and
feelings associated with personal values, which in turn are associated with product benefits tied to product
attributes / there are associations in the minds of respondents that link attributes/benefits, values, and
feelings and then summarize the experience in personal images that (taken as a whole) define the character
of the products / during an interview with a consumer, we systematically record that data on the conceptual
grid ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Eisenberger, R. (1989). Blue Monday: The loss of the work ethic in America. New York, NY, USA,
Paragon House Publishers.
(from the jacket) Here is a clear analysis of an important social issue. A book that pleads for major
changes in America's child-rearing methods, educational policies, corporate culture, and media practices.
(from the introduction) This book examines the loss of the work ethic and the pursuit of leisure by
contemporary Americans and the forces that have destroyed traditional work values. To understand today's
pervasive indolence, we must analyze the factors that produced a strong work ethic in the past and the
conditions that led to its historic decline. /// To gain a clearer picture of cultural influences on work values,
we must consider the causes of greater diligence generally found among Japanese students and employees
than found among Americans. To understand how individual parents, teachers, and employers reinforce
positive or negative attitudes toward work, we must examine those carefully-controlled psychological
experiments that have yielded new insights concerning the learning of laziness and industriousness. To
comprehend how individuals acquire distinctive styles of industriousness, we must study the stories of
individuals who work steadfastly toward long-term goals, of others who rise to the occasion with intense,
concentrated effort, and of still others who pursue goals flexibly, continually searching for more efficient
ways to reach their objectives. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Elliott, J. (1994). “Clarifying values in schools. Special Issue: Values and the school: Contexts, principles
and strategies.” Cambridge-Journal-of-Education; 1994 Vol 24(3) 413-422.
Defends an approach to the clarification of values by British schools which involves reflexive
evaluative inquiry or action research rather than an abstract or armchair approach. An analysis is offered of
the implications for this activity from the context of market choice in which it must now be undertaken.
According to the government, schools have an important role in promoting moral and spiritual values
through students' experience of its culture, climate, or ethos. Schools are required to manufacture the moral
glue which holds individuals together in communities and prevents outbreaks of antisocial behavior. The
ethos of a particular school could reflect one of a variety of moral and spiritual preferences. (PsycLIT
Elliott, R., D. Jobber, et al. (1995). “Using the theory of reasoned action to understand organizational
behaviour: The role of belief salience.” British-Journal-of-Social-Psychology; 1995 Jun Vol 34(2) 161-172.
Investigated the role of personal belief salience in improving the predictive abilities of the theory
of reasoned action, and in providing additional guidance as to key differences in belief salience between
groups. Marketing directors of 70 medium and large companies, 35 users of market research and 55 non-
users, were interviewed about their attitudes toward the commissioning of market research, and their
perceptions of the beliefs of their socially normative referents. Data on actual behavior were collected 12
mo later. Results demonstrate that the model is at least as successful at explaining behavior at an
organizational level as at an individual level. With the use of a measure of personal belief salience not only
can overall attitudes be predicted much more accurately, but these salient attitudes differentiate between
users and non-users of marketing research and can thus be used for differential targeting of persuasive
communications. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1995 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
Englis, B. G., Ed. (1994). Global and multinational advertising. Advertising and consumer psychology.
Hillsdale, NJ, US, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

32(2): 233-237.
Ewalt, P. L. and N. Mokuau (1995). “Self-determination from a Pacific perspective.” Social Work 40(2):
168-175.
It has been proposed that the principle of self-determination is universal. However, in its current
use, the term "self-determination" is overly reliant on Northern European-American individualistic values.
Practice that urges individuals toward self-realization without consideration of group-oriented values is
discordant with non-Western and some Western orientations. The authors examine prevailing
interpretations of self-determination and present the high valuation on group preferences among Hawaiian
and Samoan peoples using case examples. Implications for social work practice, including the definition of
self-determination, assessment, goal setting, and intervention, are discussed. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all
rights reserved)
Fasick, F.-A. (1984). “Parents, peers, youth culture and autonomy in adolescence.” Adolescence; 1984 Spr
Vol 19(73) 143-157.
Proposes that the expansion of the high school system with its emphasis on continued dependence
in adolescence and the rise of the market economy with its emphasis on economic independence of young
adults creates potential discontinuity in the socialization of adolescents. The claim of T. Parsons (1951) and
W. V. Burlingame (1970) that adolescents cope by transferring their allegiance from parents and some
parental values to peers and the associated youth culture as a transitional phase in achieving full
independence is examined and an alternative scheme is proposed. This posits that adolescents remain
committed to the adult-related values of parents and maintain warm emotional ties with them. Close
relationships with peers represent an extension of emotional bonds rather than transference. Peer
relationships and the youth culture that make up their cultural content provide an independent social life
focusing on leisure activities that co-exists with continued commitment to parents and their adult-related
values. It is concluded that youth culture in this form is most characteristic of the middle class. (45 ref)
Feather, N. T. and M. A. Hutton (1974). “Value systems of students in Papua New Guinea and Australia.”
1,100 indigenous English-speaking Ss from Papua New Guinea, enrolled in tertiary institutions
and training programs or serving as headmasters, and making up 12 subsamples (mean age 18.74 yrs for
university students, 29.23 yrs for inspectors and headmasters) completed the Rokeach Value Survey
anonymously, and provided information about age, sex, course of study, religion, clan, home, and district.
Average value systems of these Ss were compared with those of approximately 3,900 Australian secondary
and university students with Papua New Guinea Ss, revealing greater concern among Papuan students with
general social values, with orthodox religious values, and with values implying deference to authority, and
among Australian students greater concern with personal, humanistic values. Factor analyses of the 12
Papua New Guinea subgroups revealed general similarities in average value systems across all groups but
suggested some differences in the case of instrumental values, a finding hard to interpret since it is
confounded with differences in age. Results in Papua that reflect emphasis upon safety and security needs,
contrast with emphasis in Australian Ss upon competence and self-actualization. The differences are related
to level of development of the respective countries and to history of the areas (especially the missionary
influence, extended families, and concern with emerging nationhood). (30 ref) (PsycLIT Database
Feather, N. T. (1975). Values in education and society. New York, The Free Press.
Feather, N. T. (1976). “Value systems of self and of Australian expatriates as perceived by indigenous
students in Papua New Guinea.” International Journal of Psychology 11(2): 101-110.
Administered the Rokeach Value Survey to 112 students at Goroka Teachers' College in Papua
New Guinea. About half of the respondents ranked the values for self and the remainder ranked for
Australian expatriates working in Papua New Guinea. There were several differences in the 2 rankings of
the terminal and instrumental values. Ss assigned more importance to general social and orthodox religious
values, to some moral values, and to values involving rules of conduct related to status and authority when
rankings were for self than when they were for expatriates. They ranked stimulus-seeking and materialistic
values and values concerned with striving and competence higher when rankings were for expatriates than
when they were for self. The average values for self and for expatriates were also compared with those
obtained from groups previously tested in Papua New Guinea and Australia. Similarity coefficients
involving average rankings for self were much higher when compared within each nation than between the
2 nations. These and other results are discussed in relation to the consequences of discrepancies in value
systems between the indigenous population and expatriates and more generally as illustrating the
importance of developing an ecology of values within and across nations. (French summary) (PsycLIT
Feather, N. T. (1979). “Accuracy of judgment of value systems: A field study of own and attributed value
priorities in Papua New Guinea.” International Journal of Psychology 14(3): 151-162.
75 Australians (mean age 16.6 yrs) and 231 Niugineans (mean age 17.05 yrs) ranked either the
terminal or instrumental values from the Rokeach Value Survey, first for themselves and then for the other
group. Results indicate that there were distinctive differences in the average value systems pertaining to
self when the 2 groups were compared and that neither group was able to make accurate judgments of the
value priorities of the other. Results are discussed in terms of the various influences affecting value systems
in different national groups, the effects of limited social contact on accuracy of judgment, and the difficulty
of making accurate judgments about the value priorities of other groups considered in the aggregate.
(French abstract) (11 ref) (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1981 American Psychological Assn, all rights
reserved)
Feather, N. T. (1980). “Similarity of values systems within the same nation: Evidence from Australia and
Papua New Guinea.” Australian Journal of Psychology 32(1): 17-30.
Average value systems involving the Rokeach Value Survey were available for 13 samples of
young Australians and Papua New Guineans tested over a 10-yr period. Most samples had ranked the
values in each set in their order of importance for self but some had ranked them in their perceived order of
importance for the other group. Four factors emerged accounting for 90.9% of the total variance and,
following varimax rotation, they were identified as an Australian own values factor, a Papua New Guinean
own values factor, a Papua New Guinean perceived Australian values factor, and an Australian perceived
Papua New Guinean values factor. The same 4 factors emerged from analysis of the average value systems
for the 18 instrumental values, and these 4 factors accounted for 89.8% of the total variance. There was no
evidence for separate male and female factors and the results of each factor-analysis indicated that the
value systems of the other group were not perceived accurately. The distinctive characteristics of the value
systems of young Australians and Papua New Guineans are described and discussed. (20 ref) (PsycLIT
Feather, N. T. (1986). “Cross-cultural studies with the Rokeach Value Survey: The Flinders program of
research on values.” .
Feather, N. T. (1986). “Value systems across cultures: Australia and China.” International Journal of
Psychology 21(6): 697-715.
Administered the Rokeach Value Survey to 140 Australian university students and, in translated
form, to 68 university students in China. Australian Ss ranked the following values as significantly higher
in importance compared with the Chinese Ss: an exciting life, a world at peace, family security, happiness,
inner harmony, being cheerful, being forgiving, being helpful, being honest, being loving, and being
responsible. Chinese Ss assigned significantly higher importance than the Australian Ss to a world of
beauty, national security, pleasure, social recognition, wisdom, being ambitious, being capable, being
courageous, being imaginative, being intellectual, being logical, and being self-controlled. Results are
related to other evidence about the 2 cultures. (French abstract) (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1988
Feather, N. T. (1986). “Cross-cultural studies with the Rokeach Value Survey: The Flinders program of
research on values. Special Issue: Contributions to cross-cultural psychology.” Australian Journal of
Psychology 38(3): 269-283.
Reviews cross-cultural studies from a university research program on values that have involved
use of the Rokeach Value Survey (RVS). These studies fall into 2 main classes: (a) comparisons of
Australian value priorities with those of other countries and (b) research into the value priorities of different
ethnic groups within Australia as part of an interest in migrant assimilation. The RVS is described and
modifications to it are noted; analytic procedures based upon individual data and group data are discussed
with examples; and questions of cross-cultural appropriateness and equivalence are addressed. The
interpretation of value differences across cultures is discussed with specific reference to findings from
student samples from Australia, Papua New Guinea, and China. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1988
Feather, N. T., R. E. Volkmer, et al. (1992). “A comparative study of the value priorities of Australians,
Australian Baha'is, and expatriate Iranian Baha'is.” Journal of Cross Cultural Psychology 23(1): 95-106.
Examined value differences in 3 samples: Iranian Baha'is (35 males, 35 females) resident in
Australia, Australian Baha'is (22 males, 37 females), and unselected Australians (35 males, 31 females). Ss
rated a set of 30 terminal values and 26 instrumental values for importance, using the Schwartz Value
Survey (S. H. Schwartz and W. Bilsky, 1987). The 2 Baha'i groups rated restrictive conformity, tradition,
and spirituality as more important and hedonism, self-direction, and stimulation as less important, when
compared with the unselected Australian sample. The values endorsed were consistent with Baha'i
teachings. Men assigned more importance than women to hedonism, achievement, power, and stimulation.
Women rated benevolence and spirituality as more important. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights
reserved)
Feather, N. T. (1994). “Values and national identification: Australian evidence.” Australian-Journal-of-

Psychology; 1994 Apr Vol 46(1) 35-40.
Examined relations between a measure of identification with Australia and scores on 10 value
types for a sample of 213 male and female university students who identified themselves as Australians.
The 10 value types involved sets of values from the Schwartz Value Survey (S. H. Schwartz, 1992)
concerning power, achievement, hedonism, stimulations, self-direction, universalism, benevolence,
tradition, conformity, and security. Results of correlational and regression analyses show that identification
with Australia was positively related to the importance of values classified into the hedonism, security, and
achievement value types. Relations were also examined between identification and more abstract value
dimensions. It was proposed that the values linked positively (or negatively) with national identification are
likely to be those that are seen to be either fulfilled (or obstructed) by the culture. (PsycLIT Database
Feather, N. T. (1995). “Values, valences, and choice: The influences of values on the perceived
attractiveness and choice of alternatives.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 68(6): 1135-1151.
Hypotheses about relations between values, valences, and choice were tested in a study in which
239 university students completed the Schwartz Value Survey (S. H. Schwartz, 1992) and then responded
to 10 hypothetical scenarios, each of which presented them with 2 alternative courses of action assumed to
prime different value types from the Schwartz circular structure. For each scenario, participants rated the
attractiveness or valence of each alternative and then indicated which one they would choose. Results
showed that, as predicted, valences were related to value types, and choice of alternative was a function of
both value types and valences. The pattern of relations was consistent with the assumption that values may
induce valences on potential actions and outcomes and that value types may be organized into 2 bipolar
dimensions, one of which contrasts openness to change with conservation and the other of which contrasts
self-enhancement with self-transcendence. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Feather, N. T., M. A. Norman, et al. (1998). “Values and valences: Variables relating to the attractiveness
and choice of food in different contexts.” Journal of Applied Social Psychology 28(7): 639-656.
Investigated relations between values and the attractiveness and choice of food in different
contexts for a sample of 464 participants (mean age 41.8 yrs) who completed a mail survey distributed in
supermarkets. Participants read 5 hypothetical scenarios describing situations, each of which presented 2
alternatives relating to the presentation or consumption of different foods, and rated each alternative for its
attractiveness and indicated which alternative they would choose. Participants also completed the Schwartz
Value Survey (S. H. Schwartz, 1992). Results showed that measures of the attractiveness (or valence) of
each alternative and choice of alternative were related to specified value types for some scenarios,
depending on context and structural relations among the value types engaged by each alternative. Results
also implied that choice of alternative was mediated by the valences. ((c) 1998 APA/PsycINFO, all rights
reserved)
Feldman, S. S., R. Mont Reynaud, et al. (1992). “When East moves West: The acculturation of values of
Chinese adolescents in the U.S. and Australia.” Journal of Research on Adolescence 2(2): 147-173.
Studied the acculturation (ACL) of values among high school youths (aged 15.5-28 yrs) of
Chinese ancestry in the US and Australia. Eight domains of values were derived from Chinese and Western
value scales. Within the US and Australian samples, the values of 144 1st- and 102 2nd-generation youths
of Chinese origin were compared to one another, to 251 Euro-Anglo youths in the host cultures, and to an
anchor group of 109 Chinese adolescents in Hong Kong. Results were similar in both ACL contexts, with
ACL quite marked among the 1st generation of Chinese Ss and proceeding gradually in the 2nd generation.
The rate and extent of ACL depended on the value. The domain of tradition showed rapid ACL. ((c) 1997
Fellous, M. (1975). “(The mother-child relationship in the traditional Bambara (Mali) environment.).”
Revue-de-Medecine-Psychosomatique-et-de-Psychologie-Medicale; 1975 Vol 17(2) 121-131.
Discusses how the mother's image, family roles, and group norms influence the relationship
between mother and child in Bambara society. Motherhood is seen as the desirable role for women, and
Bambara mothers are charged with creating a liaison between their children, husbands, and society. The
father's role is to provide authority, while the mother is responsible for the affective and moral aspects of
her children's upbringing. A close bond is established between mother and child after birth; close physical
contact is maintained, and the baby is fed on demand. However, mothers are criticized for becoming too
attached to their infants, and the fondling of the baby is shared by other women in the group. The security
and confidence produced by this constant attention abates when the child is weaned. Regression often
occurs, and children turn to each other for the maternal fondling they miss. The severance of the intimate
mother-child bond represents the child's entry into society; the teaching of sex roles and societal values
then begins. The relationship between mother and child thus becomes the first step in the sociocultural
learning of the infant. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1977 American Psychological Assn, all rights
reserved)
Fennell, G. (1997). Value and values: What is the relevance for advertisers? Values, lifestyles, and
psychographics. Advertising and consumer psychology. L. R. Kahle. Mahwah, Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates, Inc., Publishers: p. 83-110.
(from the chapter) In the 1st section of this chapter, the author examines the behavioral
implications of the advertiser's task. In a 2nd section, she uses that analysis to comment on views of
selected values theorists and, in the 3rd section, discusses the relevance of value and values to the
advertiser's task from the present theoretical perspective. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Fernandez, D. R., D. S. Carlson, et al. (1997). “Hofstede's country classification 25 years later.” Journal of
Nearly 3 decades have passed since G. Hofstede (1980) collected the data used to classify
countries by their underlying work-related value structures. The present study, in which 1989 and 1990 data
from 7,201 business professionals and advanced business students from 9 countries in 4 continents was
collected, is a reexamination of his country classifications. The results suggest that many shifts have
occurred since Hofstede's study in 1980. These shifts are related to some of the major environmental
changes that have occurred. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1997 American Psychological Assn, all rights
reserved)
Fishman, D.-B. (1984). “The real-world imperatives of organizational adoption.” Journal-of-

Organizational-Behavior-Management; 1984 Sum Vol 6(2) 5-15.
Discusses introducing behavioral technology into human service organizations, particularly the
organizational realities involved in the adoption of an innovative program product. The marketing
imperative dictates that values, needs, and behavioral preferences of relevant organizational decision-
makers be assessed. The political imperative can be met when behaviorists achieve positions of significant
decision-making power within the organization. A profile of organizational dynamics (ability, values,
information, felt need, and outcome) can be a first step toward innovative programming. Strategies in the
personal-relationship imperative include orientation to, exploration and collaborative development with,
and nondefensive responses to the client. In addition, it is contended that the governmental,
economic/financial, ideological-culture, and ethical imperatives will influence the adoption of behavioral
programs by human service organizations as much as will scientific validity. (PsycLIT Database Copyright
Fox, R. F. (1996). Harvesting minds: How TV commercials control kids. Westport, CT, USA, Praeger
Publishers/Greenwood Publishing Group, Inc.
(from the book) This book describes how 200 students attending Channel One schools respond to
TV commercials: their language, attitudes, values, and behavior. The study describes not only what the kids
say but also how, when, and why they say it. /// The main source of data for this study consisted of small
focus groups of 5 to 8 [high school] students. /// Most of the interviews occurred during the school day at 2
rural, public high schools in central Missouri. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Freitas, K. i. B. and P. W. Dixon (1997). “A cosmology of Hawaiian and Western values.” Social Behavior
and Personality: and-Personality.
A value study was conducted using a modified form of Rokeach's Value Schedule (D) on a
research sample of 96 residents of Hawaii divided into 4 groups of 24, with an equal number of men and
women. This sample included incarcerated men and women and non-incarcerated men and women. As this
study was conducted in Hawaii, it was hypothesized that the now dominant, competitive corporate societal
model would give rise to societal pressures which would force those holding the traditional Aloha or love-
oriented model of societal values into a conflicting role in this current society. This hypothesis was borne
out in these transgenerational observations which showed that when using a Varimax orthogonal rotation
on 18 values, both the incarcerated men and women had factors which showed retention of the traditional
family-oriented system of values. The non-incarcerated men had a very subordinate factor which included
love-oriented values while the non-incarcerated women had no family-oriented value factor. This last
group's absence of Aloha was interpreted as showing a non-conflicting integration into the now dominant,
materialistic corporate value structure of Hawaiian society. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Friedlander, B.-Z. (1977). “Against the effect of advertising.” Fernsehen-und-Bildung; 1977 Vol 11(3) 186-
191.
Outlines the significance of the Action for Children's Television (ACT) organization and the tasks
it has to tackle as a result of TV programming and children's viewing habits in the US. The author presents
TV as the great persuader that gives viewers, particularly children, the illusion of a consumer world where
everything is in order and all wishes are fulfilled. This view of the world is contrasted with what the author
sees as the realities of the foreseeable future: a shortage of fundamental commodities and a population
explosion with disastrous economic and political consequences. It is suggested that worldwide catastrophes
can only be avoided if the values produced by the TV culture can be gradually removed--with the aid of the
medium and those responsible for it. The future tasks of ACT are to make those in politics, commercial
industry, and TV stations aware of their responsibility to American children in this matter. (French &
Spanish summaries) (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1979 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
Furnham, A. F. (1984). “Value systems and anomie in three cultures.” International Journal of Psychology
19(6): 565-579.
Administered the Rokeach Value Survey and an anomie scale to 3 groups of South Africans--54
Africans (aged 19-21 yrs), 25 Indians (aged 17-21 yrs), and 44 Europeans (aged 18-21 yrs) to examine
similarities and differences in the value systems of 3 distinct cultures and their relationship to anomie. It
was hypothesized that a number of differences would occur between these groups based on the
socioeconomic structure of the country, their respective affluence, and traditional cultural differences.
Values assigned relatively high importance by the Africans concerned equality and peace, while the
Europeans placed higher value on friendship and love. Although there were large significant differences
between the Black and White groups on anomie, these scores did not correlate highly with the instrumental
or terminal values. Results are interpreted in terms of the history and culture of the 3 groups and the
sociopolitical structure of the society in which they live. (French abstract) (32 ref) (PsycLIT Database
Furnham, A.-F. (1984). “Value systems and anomie in three cultures.” International-Journal-of-
Psychology; 1984 Dec Vol 19(6) 565-579.
Administered the Rokeach Value Survey and an anomie scale to 3 groups of South Africans--54
Africans (aged 19-21 yrs), 25 Indians (aged 17-21 yrs), and 44 Europeans (aged 18-21 yrs) to examine
similarities and differences in the value systems of 3 distinct cultures and their relationship to anomie. It
was hypothesized that a number of differences would occur between these groups based on the
socioeconomic structure of the country, their respective affluence, and traditional cultural differences.
Values assigned relatively high importance by the Africans concerned equality and peace, while the
Europeans placed higher value on friendship and love. Although there were large significant differences
between the Black and White groups on anomie, these scores did not correlate highly with the instrumental
or terminal values. Results are interpreted in terms of the history and culture of the 3 groups and the
sociopolitical structure of the society in which they live. (French abstract) (32 ref) (PsycLIT Database
Gengler, C. E. and T. J. Reynolds (1993). A structural model of advertising effects. Advertising exposure,
memory, and choice. Advertising and consumer psychology. A. A. Mitchell. Hillsdale, NJ, USA, Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates, Inc: p. 283-301.
(from the introduction) present a methodology for estimating a hierarchical means-end analysis to
determine the effectiveness of television commercials / demonstrate that advertisements that affect values
result in greater attitude change than advertisements that only affect beliefs about product attributes ((c)
Georgas, J. (1991). “Intrafamily acculturation of values in Greece.” Journal of Cross Cultural Psychology
22(4): 445-457.
Administered a questionnaire to 226 3-person families (mother, father, son or daughter [mean age
18 yrs]) to replicate J. Georgas's (see PA, Vol 76:32639) finding that acculturation was greater in Athens,
Greece, than in small communities (SMCs). 110 families were from Athens and 116 families were from
SMCs. There were 226 fathers, 226 mothers, 96 sons, and 130 daughters. As in the Georgas study, values
associated with hierarchical father^mother roles were rejected by young people from both Athens and
SMCs. Athenian parents were in a middle position, and parents from SMCs still agreed with these values.
Daughters rejected the traditional family hierarchical structure more than did sons, and fathers of daughters
were more traditional. There were 2 stages in the acculturation of the collectivist family values: the father's
authority and the active disobedience of paternal authority. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Georgas, J. and A. Kalantzi Azizi (1992). “Value acculturation and response tendencies of biethnic
adolescents.” Journal of Cross Cultural Psychology 23(2): 228-239.
Investigated the modes of acculturation and the response tendencies of 133 adolescents of biethnic
families living in Athens, as compared to 113 adolescents of homoethnic families in Athens and 80
homoethnic adolescents of Greek immigrants in Germany and the Netherlands, by means of a scale of
family values. Ss were 16-27 yrs old. Biethnic adolescents manifested different forms of acculturation of
values as compared to homoethnic Greeks in Athens, Germany, and the Netherlands. The biethnic
adolescents appeared to be integrating primarily to the disparate value systems of their biethnic parents.
The response tendencies appeared to be a form of accommodation. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights
reserved)
Georgas, J., J. W. Berry, et al. (1996). “Acculturation of Greek family values.” Journal of Cross Cultural
Psychology 27(3): 329-338.
Examined whether Greek family values were sustained after immigration to Canada more than
they were after immigration to European countries and whether older people and males subscribed to these
values to a greater extent than younger people and females. 951 Ss from Greece, Canada (Greek and
English Canadians), Netherlands (1st- and 2nd-generation Greek immigrants), and Germany (1st- and 2nd-
generation Greek immigrants) completed a 65-item questionnaire assessing their values. Ss included rural
and urban, older and younger, native and 1st and 2nd generation immigrants from the 4 countries. Results
indicate that there was a significant value change in relation to acculturation, generations within families
and across generations within a culture. Implications for international surveys of values are suggested. ((c)
Ghaffarian, S. (1987). “The acculturation of Iranians in the United States.” Journal of Social Psychology
127(6): 565-571.
110 Iranian students at US colleges completed a questionnaire assessing acculturation, depression
and anxiety, and traditional family ideology. Results show that Iranian men were more acculturated than
Iranian women, possibly because of their greater experience of self-determination. For both sexes,
acculturation was also positively related to better mental health. Women were more depressed and anxious
than men. Family values did not differ between men and women, except that women had modern ideas
concerning the role of females in society. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Ghuman, P. A. (1991). “Best or worst of two worlds? A study of Asian adolescents.” Educational Research
33(2): 121-132.
Studied the acculturation of 465 Asian students (aged 13-25 yrs) and compared the findings with
those from a sample of 98 students (aged 14-25 yrs) used by P. A. Ghuman (1974) to construct and validate
an acculturation scale. Analysis showed significant differences between the 2 samples; the reliability of the
acculturation scale was found to be 0.83 and the Cronbach alpha was 0.78. These values are high for this
type of instrument. The present sample scored higher than the 1974 sample, indicating a greater degree of
acculturation. In the present sample, girls scored higher than boys, Hindus and Sikhs scored higher than
Muslims, and Ss from nonmanual backgrounds scored higher than those from manual backgrounds. The
acculturation scale is appended. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Ghuman, P. A. S. (1994). “Canadian or Indo-Canadian: A study of south Asian adolescents.” International

Journal of Adolescence and Youth 4(3-4): 229-243.
Investigated the acculturation attitudes of Indo-Canadian young people and explored the reliability
and validity of a previously validated acculturation scale (P. A. Ghuman; see PA, Vol 78:29218) in a
different cultural milieu. The acculturation attitudes of 51 boys and 49 girls (all aged 14-26 yrs) from
ethnically mixed schools were measured using the scale. The Ss scored very highly on the scale, showing
their willingness to take up the norms and values of Canadian society. However, they also wanted to retain
some key elements of their parents' culture. Girls scored higher than boys, but not significantly so. The
Canadian sample showed more favorable attitudes toward acculturation than did an equivalent British
sample in the previous study using this scale. The split-half reliability of the scale was very high. ((c) 1997
Goff, B. G. and H. W. Goddard (1994). “Selected values, perceived control, and reasons for choice.”
Perceptual and Motor Skills 78(Jun): t 2), Spec Issue 1171-1178.
This study related terminal core values measured by the List of Values and perceived control with
reasons for an exercise program. Data ( N = 531) were derived from a national sample of treadmill owners.
Principal components analysis confirmed 5 categories for the 9 values laid out by J. Veroff et al (1981);
however, the hierarchy of needs previously postulated in the list was not substantiated. For this sample,
self-fulfillment appears to be a type of self-gratification. These social cognitions (i.e., values) and perceived
control appear to capture different domains and both are linked to reasons for choice. (PsycLIT Database

Review; 1991 Apr Vol 16(2) 396-415.

Grossbart, S., L. Carlson, et al. (1991). “Consumer socialization and frequency of shopping with children.”
Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science 19(3): 155-163.
Self-report questionnaires completed by 451 mothers who shop with their children (co-shoppers)
who were classified as either heavy, moderate, or light co-shoppers indicate that these 3 groups differed in
desires to develop their children's consumer competence, their children's consumer roles, consumption
motivations and values, and potential efforts to mediate marketing influence. The greater emphasis on the
importance of co-shopping and concept-orientation by more frequent co-shoppers reflects more concern
with children's development as consumers. Results generally support expected differences in the consumer
socialization orientations and potential marketing mediation behaviors of co-shopper groups. (PsycLIT
cross-cultural comparison with North America. Special Issue: Social values.” Journal of Business Research
20(2): 97-107.
Grunert, S.-C. and G. Scherhorn (1990). “Consumer values in West Germany underlying dimensions and
cross-cultural comparison with North America. Special Issue: Social values.” Journal-of-Business-
Research; 1990 Mar Vol 20(2) 97-107.
cross-cultural comparison with North America.” Journal of Business Research 20(2): 97-107.
among cultures. Findings have implications for the corporate culture of multinational business. ((c) 1997
Grunert, K. G., K. Brunso, et al. (1997). Food-related lifestyle: Development of a cross-culturally valid
instrument for market surveillance. Values, lifestyles, and psychographics. Advertising and consumer
(from the chapter) The chapter begins with a listing of the criticisms of lifestyle research
instruments developed and used by most of the larger market research firms. The remainder of the chapter
is devoted to discussing some ways towards improvement of lifestyle research in marketing, and especially
in the food sector. The authors attempt to present a new view of lifestyle, based on a cognitive perspective,
which makes lifestyle specific to certain areas of consumption. They attempt to develop an instrument that
can measure food-related lifestyle in a cross-culturally valid way. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights
reserved)
Grunert Beckmann, S. C. and S. Askegaard (1997). "Seeing with the mind's eye": On the use of pictorial
stimuli in values and lifestyle research. Values, lifestyles, and psychographics. Advertising and consumer
(from the preface) In this chapter, the authors address the semantic ambiguity inherent in the
abstractness of value constructs and how they are usually presented. They propose the use of pictorial
stimuli in advertising and consumer behavior research and in values and lifestyle research and explore the
consequences of their suggestions. A research study is presented to illustrate. Ss for the study were
graduate business students. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Grunig, L. A. and J. E. Grunig, Eds. (1990). Public relations research annual, Vol. 2. Hillsdale, Lawrence
(from the preface) Our purpose in this second volume of a fledgling series is to challenge and
extend the field of research in public relations. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Gunther, H. (1981). “Uma tentativa de traduzir e adaptar a Escala de Valores de Rokeach para uso no
Brasil. (An attempt to translate and adapt the Rokeach Scale of Values for use in Brazil.).” Arquivos
Brasileiros de Psicologia 33(3): 58-72.
Translated the Rokeach Value Survey into Portuguese using the backtranslation method.
Reliability studies were undertaken with high school, graduate, and undergraduate students. On the whole,
the survey showed itself to be reliable in all 4 studies, but individual items were not always reliable. This
inability to establish the reliability of the scale in the Brazilian context raises the specific question of the
pertinence of the instrument, as well as the more general question about restrictions of cross-cultural
research. (English abstract) (63 ref) (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1982 American Psychological Assn, all
rights reserved)
Hallahan, M., F. Lee, et al. (1997). “It's not just whether you win or lose, it's also where you play the game:
A naturalistic, cross-cultural examination of the positivity bias.” Journal of Cross Cultural Psychology
28(6): 768-778.
The positivity bias (the tendency to make internal attributions for others' successes and external
attributions for others' failures) was examined in newspaper sports articles from the US and Hong Kong.
The positivity bias was observed in both cultures; however, the cultures manifested this bias differently.
There was a greater emphasis on enhancing winners (making internal attributions for successes) in the US
and on protecting losers (making external attributions for failures) in Hong Kong. The concept of
preserving others' face as a universal social motivation may provide an explanation for the cross-cultural
consistency of the positivity bias. East-West differences in attributional tendencies and in the values of
independence vs interdependence may explain cross-cultural differences in the expression of this bias. ((c)
Halton, W. (1995). “Institutional stress on providers in health and education.” Psychodynamic-Counselling;

1995 Feb Vol 1(2) 187-198.
Uses ideas from M. Klein and W. R. Bion to provide a broad overview of institutional changes in
health and education in England, such as the change in philosophy from the values of dependency culture
to the values of market forces. The author connects these changing values with the professional distress
brought to supervisors by counselors working in higher education and the National Health Service. The
author posits that the role of the supervisor in these situations is to provide for the expression of counselors'
distress and to help counselors to analyse the dynamics of institutional pressure. The author argues that
supervision provides an opportunity for counselors to repair their professional attitude and working
capacity and to regain a positive identification with client needs. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1996
Hanke, R. (1989). “Mass media and lifestyle differentiation: An analysis of the public discourse about
food.” Communication 11(3): 221-238.
This essay examines the public discourse about food in The Philadelphia Inquirer and Philadelphia
Magazine. Analysis of changes in American food journalism reveals the popularization of gastronomy and
the promotion of conspicuous culinary consumption. These changes do not merely reflect changes in public
tastes in food and cooking, or social structure. Rather, the mass media diffuse the meanings and values that
are attached to the preparation and consumption of food and display the choices to be made in this domain
of esthetic consumption, thereby reproducing "lifestyles" as the dominant cultural frame of reference for
the organization of everyday urban life. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Hargreaves, J. (1985). “From social democracy to authoritarian populism: State intervention in sport and
physical recreation in contemporary Britain.” Leisure-Studies; 1985 May Vol 4(2) 219-226.
Discusses the main features of the nature of state intervention in the UK in sport and recreation
since the mid-1960's. It is concluded that state intervention in sport and recreation under the influence of
authoritarian populism (1) reinforces class divisions, (2) reproduces inequality between ethnic groups, (3)
preserves gender divisions, (4) is permeated with the values of consumer culture, and (5) induces
subordinate groups to identify with the greater good of the nation. (17 ref) (PsycLIT Database Copyright
Harpaz, I. (1998). “Cross-National comparison of religious conviction and the meaning of work.” Cross-
Cultural Research 22(2): 143-170.
Religious conviction and its relationship to the meaning of work are examined in samples from
Germany, Netherlands and Israel. High conviction enhances intrinsic work values in Protestant Germany
and the Netherlands, decreases intrinsic values in Israel.
Harrington, T. F. (1993). “A comparison of work-related values of adolescents from five countries.”

International Journal for the Advancement of Counselling 16(2): 81-87.
Examined different lists of values for commonality and the comparability of the frequency of
Career Decision-Making System (CDM) value selections among high school student samples in 5 countries
(1,726 from Australia, 1,958 from Canada, 302 from Finland, 144 from Japan, and 759 from the US). A
convergence of work values appeared among the American value listings. Correlations showed substantial
commonality of CDM value rankings between countries. The CDM's methodology of value data collection
and its use with clients are discussed. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Harris, R. J. and J. I. Bechtold (1987). “"The Psychology of Mass Communication" course.” Teaching of
Psychology 14(3): 177-179.
Describes a psychology course on television and other mass media that focuses on group
portrayals and stereotyping, advertising, values, sex and violence, and the use of mass media for prosocial
purposes. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Harris, R. J. (1989). A cognitive psychology of mass communication. Hillsdale, NJ, USA, Lawrence
(from the introduction) This chapter [chapter 1] has introduced the theme of the way our
cognitions create a perceived reality from media. The next chapter explores the psychology of mass
communication in a general sense. The rest of the book is topically organized to explore the basic theme of
media creating reality in several different content areas. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Hastak, M. and S. t. Hong (1991). “Country-of-origin effects on product quality judgments: An information
integration perspective.” Psychology and Marketing 8(2): 129-143.
Functional measurement methodology was used to examine the simultaneous effects of country-
of-manufacture and price information on judgments about product quality and overall product evaluation.
46 undergraduates judged hypothetical automobile brands described on 2 attributes: country of manufacture
(4 levels) and price (4 levels). Ss also judged additional brands that were described on a single attribute:
either country of manufacture or price. Results suggest that a simple (constant weight) averaging model
adequately accounted for the cognitive algebra used by Ss to integrate country image and price cues. Also,
the derived scale values for country image and price suggest that these variables produced roughly
equivalent (and strong) effects on product judgments. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1991 American
Henry, W.-A. (1976). “Cultural values do correlate with consumer behavior.” Journal-of-Marketing-
Research; 1976 May Vol 13(2) 121-127.
Analyzed data from 498 usable questionnaires returned by family units (31.1% response rate), to
examine the effects of value dimensions on the number of automobiles owned or operated by each unit.
Data included value dimensions of culture (man's relation to nature, time dimension, personal activity, and
man's relation to others), standard demographic variables (social class, age of head of household, family
size, and annual family income), and number of family workers and drivers. The application of a simple
multivariate additive model showed that one or more of the value dimensions used appeared in each of the
4 automobile models established. For each model (full size, compact, subcompact, and sports model), there
was a significant interaction, involving the total number of cars in the family and the family's personal
activity value dimension. Both the value dimensions and the demographic variables of social class, age, and
family size apeared to influence ownership through somewhat similar extended causal paths containing one
or more intervening variables. It is suggested that value dimensions may be helpful short-term predictors of
market segmentation for auto industry sales. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1977 American Psychological
Hernandez, C. (1986). “Los valores sociales, un instrumento para el conocimiento social del nino. Su
reflejo en la comunicacion publicitaria. / Social values, an instrument for social knowledge of the child:
Their reflection in advertising.” Infancia y Aprendizaje 35-36(3-sup-4): 109-122.
Considers social values and the role they play in the acquisition of social knowledge in children.
The way in which the social system controls and provides the rules for social construction processes of
individuals through social values is described. Advertising messages are suggested as one of the most
effective tools for spreading social values, and the effects of such messages on juvenile recipients is
examined. (English & French abstracts) ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Hetzel, P. (1993). “Les mutations du design d'environnement comme expression de la postmodernite dans
le secteur de la lingerie feminie. (Changes in environmental design: An expression of postmodernism in
feminine lingerie.).” Architecture-and-ComportementArchitecture-and-Behaviour; 1993 Dec Vol 9(4) 443-
461.
Discusses the influence of postmodernist values on the marketing of lingerie in France. The
postmodern cultural trends of consumerism and display are identified and their impact on client-product
interactions, shopping behaviors, and merchandise display is described. The transformation of shops from
places where merchandise is displayed into displays themselves is discussed and illustrated with the
example of a French department store specializing in lingerie and toiletries. Environmental design and
marketing strategies targeted to specific needs of individual customers are described. (English abstract)
Hoffman, R.-C. and W. H. Hegarty (1993). “Top management influence on innovations: Effects of
executive characteristics and social culture.” Journal-of-Management; 1993 Fal Vol 19(3) 549-574.
Examined the extent to which executive characteristics explain top management influence on
product/market (PM) and administrative (ADM) innovations in 4 Western cultures (Anglo, European Latin,
Germanic, Nordic). 361 45-54 yr old top managers (primarily male) from 9 countries completed a research
questionnaire. Results support the proposition that different executive characteristics explain influence on
each type of innovation. The influence process differed across cultures for ADM but not for PM
innovations. Cultures differed mostly on values/behaviors concerning human relations; cultural differences
existed in the processes and the strategic outcomes of administrative decisions (e.g., planning systems).
Hofstede, G. (1976). “Nationality and espoused values of managers.” Journal of Applied Psychology 61(2):
148-155.
372 24-45 yr old middle-level managers from 40 nationalities who attended resident management
development programs in Lausanne, Switzerland, scored their espoused values on 2 paper-and-pencil
values tests, L. V. Gordon's Surveys of Personal and of Interpersonal Values. All used the English language
form. Scores differentiated meaningfully by the age group of respondents. For the 15 nationalities
represented by at least 7 respondents, a Q analysis of the scores per nationality group was carried out,
which sorted the 15 nationalities into 5 clusters--Nordic, Germanic, Anglo, Latin, and Asian. The value
profiles of each country and cluster are shown. Differences between clusters show significant agreement
with differences between student samples from the same countries, obtained with translated versions of the
instruments. The cluster composition can be explained by both linguistic and other cultural reasons.
Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture's consequences: International differences in work related values. Newbury
Park, CA, Sage Publications.
Hofstede, G. (1982). “Energy and human nature.” Indian-Psychologist; 1982 Oct Vol 1(2) 1-9.
Contends that a society's need for energy is partly determined by psychological, sociological, and
anthropological forces. Engineered energy has acquired a symbolic value that differs from one society to
another. It is posited that the symbolic value of energy is related to 4 dimensions of national culture: (1)
individualism vs collectivism, (2) extreme inequalities of power and wealth vs egalitarianism, (3) strong vs
weak uncertain avoidance, and (4) masculinity vs femininity. 1975 maximum allowed speeds of vehicles
on highways in 14 Western European countries are shown to be statistically related to the culture
dimensions of "uncertainty avoidance" and "masculinity," which have implications for basic values
dominant in countries. It is proposed that the supposedly "scientific" conclusions of traffic specialists from
different countries reflect their country's dominant value pattern. (7 ref) (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1984
Hofstede, G. (1983). “National cultures revisited. XI International Congress of Anthropological and

Ethnological Sciences (1983, Quebec, Canada).” Behavior-Science-Research; 1983 Win Vol 18(4) 285-
305.
Asserts that anthropology can make a holistic contribution to the study of the complex societies of
today's nations by identifying key issues relevant to both the individual and the social system on which
these nations differ in empirically verifiable ways. The author describes a research project in which data
from 32 survey questions about employee values and beliefs were analyzed for 53 countries. Four
dimensions of national culture were derived and are discussed in terms of issues relevant to psychology,
sociology, political science, and anthropology. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1987 American Psychological
Review 9(3): 389-398.
Hofstede, G. and M.-H. Bond (1984). “Hofstede's culture dimensions: An independent validation using
Rokeach's Value Survey.” Journal-of-Cross-Cultural-Psychology; 1984 Dec Vol 15(4) 417-433.
S. H. Ng et al (1982) collected data among approximately 1,000 college students in 9 Asian and
Pacific countries using a modified version of the Rokeach Value Survey. Their data were reanalyzed by the
present authors through an ecological factor and analysis that produced 5 factors: World of Peace, Equality,
Pleasure, Self-Determination, and Freedom. Six of the countries were also covered by G. Hofstede in his
(1983) extended study of work-related values among employees of a multinational corporation in 53
countries and regions. For the overlapping countries, a correlation analysis was done between the 5 factor
scores of the Ng et al reanalysis and the 4 dimension scores of Hofstede (i.e., Power Distance, Uncertainty
Avoidance, Individualism, and Masculinity). This correlation analysis revealed that each of Hofstede's
dimensions could be distinctly identified in the Ng et al data as well. Findings are an example of synergy
between different cross-cultural studies. (8 ref) (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1985 American
Hofstede, G. a. B., M. H. (1988). “The Confucius connection: From cultural roots to economic growth.”
Organizational Dynamics 16(4): 4-21.
Incorporation of Confucian work values into Hofstede's four dimension structure. Confusian work
values correlate r=.70 with economic development among 23 Asian countries.
Hofstede, G. (1990). “A reply and comment on Joginder P. Singh: "Managerial culture and work-related
values in India.".” Organization Studies 11(1): 103-106.
Criticizes research methods by J. P. Singh (see PA, Vol 78:2883) and states that several
comparisons should only have been done for individual questions from the questionnaire. Singh's main
conclusion cannot be drawn from his analysis. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1991 American Psychological
Hofstede, G., B. Neuijen, et al. (1990). “Measuring organizational cultures: A qualitative and quantitative
study across twenty cases.” Administrative-Science-Quarterly; 1990 Jun Vol 35(2) 286-316.
Studied task, structure, and control characteristics of 20 units from 10 organizations in Denmark
and the Netherlands. 180 unit members were interviewed, and 1,295 unit members completed a
questionnaire. In contrast to the findings of T. J. Peters and R. H. Waterman (1982), shared perceptions of
daily practices were the core of each organization's culture. Measurements of employee values differed
more according to the demographic criteria of nationality, age, and education than according to
membership in the organization. The values of founders and key leaders appear to shape organizational
cultures, but the way these cultures affect ordinary members seems to be through shared practices.
Hofstede, G., M. H. Bond, et al. (1993). “Individual perceptions of organizational cultures: A

methodological treatise on levels of analysis.” Organization Studies 14(4): 483-503.
Re-analyzed data from a survey study (G. Hofstede et al; see PA, Vol 77:32178) of organizational
cultures at the individual level (after elimination of between-unit variance) in 20 organizational units in
Denmark and the Netherlands. A factor analysis showed individuals' values to be composed of 6
dimensions (personal need for achievement, need for supportive relationships, machismo, workaholism,
alienation, and authoritarianism) and individuals' perceptions of their organization's practices of another 6
dimensions (professional, distance from management, trust in colleagues, orderliness, hostility, and
integration). The scores on these new dimensions are related to various demographic characteristics of the
respondents. This case is used for a methodological treatise stressing the need to choose the proper level of
analysis for the problem at hand, a need which is too seldom recognized. (PsycLIT Database Copyright
Hogan, H. W. (1980). “German and American authoritarianism, self-estimated intelligence and value
priorities.” Journal of Social Psychology 111(1): 145-146.
Administered the Rokeach Value Survey, Form E, in German to 168 German university students
(mean age 20 yrs) and in English to 312 American students (mean age 18 yrs). The study was designed to
extend the dimensions previously correlated with M. Rokeach's (1973) values by including self-estimated
intelligence and symbolically measured authoritarianism. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1981 American
Hogan, H. W. and H. N. Mookherjee (1981). “Values and selected antecedents.” Journal of Social
Studied 316 White high school students' responses to M. Rokeach's (1973) Survey of Values and
compared them with his earlier American responses and with N. T. Feather's (1975) data obtained from
university students in Australia. Intra- and intersample comparisons indicated a high degree of
measurement reliability for Rokeach's terminal/instrumental values. The independent variables of student's
age, sex, objectively measured IQ, self-estimated IQ, birth order, number of siblings, and parents'
educational level were both expectedly and unexpectedly correlated with the various values. Factor analysis
separately reduced the 18 terminal and 18 instrumental values to 7 and 6 factors, respectively. Regressing
these 13 factors on the 7 independent variables yielded 38 of 84 resulting F values that were statistically
significant at the .05 level or better. Objectively measured IQ and sex were the 2 variables accounting for
most of the Ss' preferences for values. (8 ref) ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Homer, P. M. and L. R. Kahle (1988). “A structural equation test of the valueâttitude behavior hierarchy.”
The role of values has received limited empirical attention relative to its potential significance,
especially within a causal modeling approach. A series of multivariate and structural equation analyses
supported the hypotheses that values have internal and external dimensions that influence attitudes. In turn,
attitudes were found to influence behaviors, as the final phase in the value-attitude-behavior hierarchy.
These analyses were performed on data derived from a survey about natural food shopping. As
hypothesized, we found that people who have more internally oriented and less externally oriented value
structures like natural foods more than other people, and these attitudes then lead to behaviors appropriate
to the structure. Theoretical implications are discussed. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Homer, P. M. (1993). “Transmission of human values: A cross-cultural investigation of generalization and

reciprocal influence effects.” Genetic, Social, and General Psychology Monographs 119(3): 343-367.
104 US and 106 West German parent and undergraduate student pairs completed a questionnaire
measuring values. Using a structural equation approach, analyses compared the structures of value
measurement in students vs parents across and within the US and West German cultures. Similar value
dimensions emerged. Additional causal analyses examined the transmission of values between parents and
students, including reciprocal influences. Value transmission varied across cultures and by the value
domain. Among US respondents, reciprocal influences were apparent for the esteem and social values, but
only the child to parent influence emerged for the hedonism values. In contrast, there was little evidence of
value transmission for the West German sample. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Horster, D. (1993). “Sind wir der zunehmenden Individualisierung in der Moderne ohnmaechtig
ausgeliefert? Reflexionen zum Rechtsbegriff Gemeinschaftsgefuehl. / Are we helplessly surrendered to the
increasing individualization in modern time? Reflections regarding the juridical notion of social interest.”
Zeitschrift fuer Individualpsychologie 18(1): 4-16.
Discusses a current phenomenon cited with alarm by American social scientists (communitarians),
namely, the increasing individualization of community members to the detriment of solidarity and social
interest, or community feeling in the Adlerian sense. The concept of social interest is considered in its
juridical and ethical aspects. The alarming individualization trend is examined in terms of traditional values
and the universal morality governing the interactions of individuals within a community. The findings of
sociological analyses by many authors are quoted in support of the necessity for the individual to depend on
a community. The concept of community feeling can be understood only in the context of concrete
communities, rather than in abstract, universal terms. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Howard, A., K. Shudo, et al. (1983). “Motivation and values among Japanese and American managers.”
Personnel Psychology 36(4): 883-898.
There have been recent claims in the popular literature about the superiority of the Japanese-
inspired participative principles of management for business productivity. Yet motivational and value
differences that might support these principles have seldom been evaluated psychometrically. In the present
study, 100 Japanese (27-57 yrs old) and a sample of American (29-52 yrs old) business managers were
administered the Rokeach Value Survey and the Sarnoff Survey of Attitudes Toward Life, which measures
desire for upward mobility. Results show that the Japanese attached greater importance to socially
beneficial values in contrast to the American emphasis on individuality and straight-forwardness. Yet the
Japanese also showed greater valuation of accomplishments and, on the motivational instrument, more
interest in advancement, money, and forward striving. It is suggested that achievement and advancement
motivation may be important for Japanese productivity and that collective actions may be only their method
for disciplining and rewarding it. (15 ref) (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1984 American Psychological
Huismans, S. and S. H. Schwartz (1992). Religiosity and value priorities: A study of Protestants, Catholics,
and Jews. Innovations in cross cultural psychology. Y. K. K. L. Saburo Iwawaki, Swets & Zeitlinger,
Amsterdam, Netherlands: 237-249.
Irwin, J. R. (1994). “Buying/selling price preference reversals: Preference for environmental changes in
buying versus selling modes.” Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 60(3): 431-457.
Investigated the discrepancy between maximum buying price and minimum selling price in 4
experiments consisting of undergraduate Ss. The literature indicates a possible interaction between
buying/selling prices and commodity type; buying/selling price differences seem greater for environmental
improvements than for market items. In other words, people show more relative preference for
environmental improvements in selling modes than they do in buying modes. A significant difference in
preference due to elicitation mode is commonly termed a preference reversal. The present experiments
reveal a pervasive difference in preference for environmental vs market items in buying vs selling modes.
They also provide information about the valuation process and risky items such as environmental change.
Iwawaki, S., Y. Kashima, et al., Eds. (1992). Innovations in cross-cultural psychology. Amsterdam, Swets
and Zeitlinger.
(from the cover) Part I addresses conceptual issues, in which the key question is 'whither
indigenous psychology?' Papers in this section form a collage of interests in and concerns for indigenous
psychology, a trend clearly seen in the conference. Some are position papers about indigenous psychology;
others realize indigenous psychology in research; and still another examines its impact on psychological
research. Whether one agrees with or criticizes indigenization of psychology as an approach, it appears that
cross-cultural psychology, and possibly psychology at large, has to come to terms with the trend. /// Parts II
through IV collect papers in three general areas of 'social and organizational psychology,' 'cognitive
processes,' and 'values, self, and personality.' Clearly active research is being conducted around the world
in these traditionally strong areas of cross-cultural psychology. Three discernible trends are (1) an emphasis
on communication processes, (2) a continuing research program on values, and (3) an emergence of
interests in self processes. The concepts of individualism and collectivism, however, continue to provide
underlying themes for many of the papers. /// Parts V and VI are devoted to more specific areas of cross-
cultural research: 'culture and health' and 'culture and schooling.' ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights
reserved)
Jandt, F. E. (1998). Intercultural communication: An introduction (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA, USA,
(from the book) Using a reader-centered approach, the author covers a wide range of material and
presents a historical framework to view the development of current topics and an integration of media as a
variable in the advancement of issues and ideas. A number of illustrative material--vignettes, quotes, cases,
and stories--are used to keep the student's attention and provoke thought while challenging existing
viewpoints. /// This text is written for introductory courses in culture and communication at the sophomore
or junior level in departments of communication, business, and anthropology. ((c) 1998 APA/PsycINFO,
Johansson, O. (1991). “Youth and mass media: On the co-variation between mass media use and
democratic values.” Politics-and-the-Individual; 1991 Vol 1(1) 49-65.
Examined the correlation between different degrees of exposure to the mass media (MM) and
young people's political knowledge and values. Ss were 911 Swedish 14- and 15-yr-old school children.
The analysis distinguished between Ss with high exposure to different types of MM and those with low
exposure. Ss with both strong direct and indirect exposure tended to have different political values. There
was a connection between the Ss' political values and their degree of exposure to the MM. Regarding Ss'
attitudes toward democracy, there were no unambiguous connections between high and low consumers of
different media. MM exposure should be regarded as one among many factors influencing young people's
political culture rather than as an agent of political socialization in its own right. (PsycLIT Database
Jorgenson, D. O. (1981). “Agency and communion trends in consumer goods advertising.” Personality and
Social Psychology Bulletin 7(3): 410-414.
Examined the content of consumer goods advertising for trends in the relative incidence of agency
and communion themes in 5,486 ads from a popular women's magazine published from 1910 to 1979.
Findings show evidence of distinct changes in the ratio of agency themes to communion themes over this
time period. Specifically, this ratio was significantly larger from 1970 to 1979 than in prior decades. There
were also increases and decreases in this ratio in prior decades as well, changes that were consistent with
other evidence of changes in related values. (13 ref) ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Chicago Press.
rights reserved)
Kagan, H. and J. Cohen (1990). “Cultural adjustment of international students.” Psychological Science
1(2): 133-137.
Examined whether cultural adjustment was affected by behavioral, cognitive, affective, and
demographic attributes and by different levels of acculturation. 92 international and 67 US college students
responded to questionnaires that assessed demographics, values, and acculturation. Ss also completed the
Decision Making Inventory and the Personality and Social Network Adjustment Scale (A. W. Clark; see
PA, Vol 42:14054). Cultural adjustment was simultaneously affected by employment level, language
spoken at home, having both American and native friends, internal decison making, and work value.
Cultural assimilation and cultural transmutation were the only acculturation levels that accounted for a
significant portion of the variance in international students' personal and social adjustment. Findings
support a native-extinction, host-association model of cultural adjustment. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all
rights reserved)
Kahalas, H. and D. L. Groves (1979). “An exploration of graduate business students' values.” Journal of
Instructional Psychology 6(2): 18-24.
Investigated the general values of graduate business students in relation to selected demographic
variables and to the perceived functional role of the business organization in society. The 44 Ss were
selected according to level and types of courses taken and major and minor areas of study. The Rokeach
Value Survey was used to assess general values, and demographic data and Ss' perceived functional role of
the business organization in society were used to assess specific values. Results show a high degree of
consistency between Ss' general values and their perception of the organizational role within society. Ss
held low opinions of the business institution (a) in meeting its responsibility to provide employee benefits,
(b) as a social and cultural force, and (c) in consumer protection. (20 ref) ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all
rights reserved)
Kahle, L. R. (1984). The values of Americans: Implications for social action. Personal values and consumer
psychology. R. E. P. a. A. G. Woodside. Lexington, MA, Lexington Books: 72-86.
Evidence offered that consumer purchasing pattterns can be predicted by a study of consumer
values.
Kahle, L. R., S. E. Beatty, et al. (1986). “Alternative measurement approaches to consumer values: The List
of Values (LOV) and Values and Life Style (VALS).” Journal of Consumer Research 13(3): 405-409.
Compared the VALS and the LOV methods of measuring consumer values to determine whether
LOV has greater predictive utility than does VAL in consumer behavior trends. 71 North American and
122 foreign undergraduates studying at an American university completed the VALS and the LOV. Results
indicate that the LOV was in the public domain and support the hypothesis that LOV significantly
predicted consumer trends more often than did VALS. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1987 American
Kahle, L. R. (1986). “The Nine Nations of North America and the value basis of geographic segmentation.”
Journal of Marketing 50(2): 37-47.
Tested the utility of J. Garreau's (1981) concept of the 9 Nations of North America for
segmentation by comparing several geographic segmentation systems with values reported by 2,235 adults
(aged 20+ yrs) residing in the coterminous US. Findings fail to support the pattern predicted by Garreau's
theory and argue against abandoning the Bureau of Census regions. Implications for marketing managers
are discussed in terms of managing employees, the meaning of a product, various marketing activities, and
the usefulness of value-based marketing strategies. (41 ref) ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Kahle, L. R., B. Poulos, et al. (1988). “Changes in social values in the United States during the past
decade.” Journal of Advertising Research 28(1): 35-41.
In 1976, 2,264 adults (aged 21+ yrs) were asked in an interview to select their 1st and 2nd most
important values from a list of 9: self-respect, sense of accomplishment, being well respected, security,
warm relationships with others, sense of belonging, fun and enjoyment in life, self-fulfillment, and
excitement. 10 yrs later, 997 new Ss (aged 18+ yrs) were asked to rate the same 9 values. Results indicate
that overall, in the more recent survey, more Ss were concerned with a sense of accomplishment and warm
relationships with others, and fewer showed concern with security and self-fulfillment. Implications of
these changes for marketing and advertising strategies are discussed. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights
reserved)
Kahle, L. R., S. Beatty, et al. (1994). Implications of social values for consumer communications: The case
of the European community. Global and multinational advertising. Advertising and consumer psychology.
G. E. Basil, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc, Hillsdale, NJ, US: 47-64.
Kahle, L. R. (1995). “Observations : Role-relaxed consumers: Empirical evidence.” Journal of Advertising

Research 35(3): 59-62.
633 adults completed a market facts questionnaire regarding role-relaxed behavior to assess
concepts of L. R. Kahle (see PA, Vol 82:35250), using 7 Likert items generated based on anticipation of
ability to forecast consumer trends. Results suggest that level of consumer role-relaxed behavior is related
to importance of different values to consumers. Ss scoring high in role-relaxed behavior assigned high
importance to independence values and low importance to social comparison values. The more role-relaxed
the consumer is, the more important are the substantive product attributes and the less important are the
style attributes. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1995 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
Kahle, L. R. (1995). “Observations: Role-relaxed consumers: Empirical evidence.” Journal of Advertising

Research 35(3): 59-62.
633 adults completed a market facts questionnaire regarding role-relaxed behavior to assess
concepts of L. R. Kahle (see PA, Vol 82:35250), using 7 Likert items generated based on anticipation of
ability to forecast consumer trends. Results suggest that level of consumer role-relaxed behavior is related
to importance of different values to consumers. Ss scoring high in role-relaxed behavior assigned high
importance to independence values and low importance to social comparison values. The more role-relaxed
the consumer is, the more important are the substantive product attributes and the less important are the
style attributes. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Kahle, L. R. (1996). Social values and consumer behavior: Research from the list of values. The
psychology of values: The Ontario symposium, Vol. 8. The Ontario symposium on personality and social
psychology, Vol. 8. C. Seligman. Mahwah, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc: p. 135-151.
(from the chapter) provide an overview to the work . . . [in which the] List of Values (LOV) [has
been applied] to issues in consumer psychology / begin with a description of the guiding theory [social
adaptation theory], followed by a discussion of the methodological research and some specific theoretical
and practical issues ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Kahle, L. R. and L. Chiagouris, Eds. (1997). Values, lifestyles, and psychographics. Advertising and
consumer psychology. Mahwah, NJ, US, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., Publishers.
Kamakura, W. A. and T. P. Novak (1992). “Value-system segmentation: Exploring the meaning of LOV.”
Journal of Consumer Research 19(1): 119-132.
Describes a measurement model (W. A. Kamakura and J. A. Mazzon; see PA, Vol 79:5435) that
identifies latent (unobserved) value-system segments derived from a ranking of the "list of values" (LOV)
items suggested by L. R. Kahle (1983). LOV is a common approach to market segmentation in which the
top-ranked value is used to assign consumers to segments. In the model, higher-order value-system
segments reflect the reality that multiple values will affect an individual's behavior. A values map was
constructed that allows dimensions underlying the value-system segments to be identified. Data from a
survey (T. P. Novak and B. MacEvoy, 1990) of 1,331 Ss show that the resulting value-system segments
and values map had face validity consistent with the psychological structure of values proposed by S. H.
Schwartz and W. Bilsky (see PA, Vol 75:1444). (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1992 American
Katz, B., S. Juni, et al. (1993). “The values of Chinese students: At home and abroad.” International Journal
Administered the Rokeach Value Survey to 2 groups of Chinese students (aged 16-20 yrs), 58
residing in the People's Republic of China (PRC) and 95 who had emigrated to the US. Results indicate that
the 2 groups have very different value hierarchies. The traditional stereotypes, which depict the Chinese as
dependent and collectivistic in nature, in contrast to the independent and individualistic Americans, were
not confirmed; instead, the converse appeared. PRC Ss assigned greater importance to individualistic
values, while the US group deemed collectivistic values more salient. The dimension of class as a
meaningful variable is discussed as a tentative explanation of the results. (French abstract) (PsycLIT
Kavanaugh, J. (1983). “Capitalist culture as a religious and educational formation system.” Religious
Education 78(1): 50-60.
Discusses the impact of TV, especially TV commercials, on the formation of values. Commercials
promise fulfillment through consumption. Products are personalized, but family life and intimacy are
trivialized. In counteracting the values imparted to children by TV, educators must offer alternative models
for identity, relationships, justice and human dignity, life priorities, and compassion. ((c) 1997
Kelly, E. W., Jr., A. Aridi, et al. (1996). “Muslims in the United States: An exploratory study of universal
and mental health values.” Counseling and Values 40(3): 206-218.
Surveyed the universal and mental health values of 121 Muslims (aged 12-62 yrs) in the US and
their counseling preferences. The Ss were generally well educated and highly religious. They responded
high in the universal values of benevolence and conformity; low in power, hedonism, and stimulation, and
high in many humanistic mental health values. A comparison with typical counselor values showed both
similarities and differences. A substantial minority indicated a willingness to go to a non-Muslim counselor
but most would want a counselor with an understanding of Islam. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights
reserved)
Kent, T. C. (1986). Conflict resolution: A study of applied psychophilosophy. Woodbridge, CT, USA, Ox
Bow Press.
(from the introduction) This book presents four constructs that may be useful in achieving the
resolution of conflict and perhaps in offering some clarifications of some puzzling aspects of human
behavior. /// The ideas encompassed are not restricted to any one or even several disciplines. I hope that the
inclusion of concepts from the field of philosophy--both Eastern and Western--contributes to giving the
ideas a broad, universal application. /// As a study of human behavior the contents of this book have been
taught at universities in the United States and several other countries in Asia in departments of psychology,
behavioral science, philosophy, and medicine. The ideas in this work have been applied in the mental
health professions, in personnel management, and in industrial relations. /// The first construct focuses on
apperception of reality among people having different views of what is true and appropriate. It identifies six
different criteria of reality and describes how these are utilized to facilitate interpersonal relationships. ///
The second construct focuses on eight life areas in which conflicts often arise. /// The third construct, the
developmental levels, offers a description of a theoretical continuum of human potentiality. I identify eight
levels of human social maturation which provide a progression of life-styles. /// The fourth construct, the
social values, consists of four prescriptions of behavior considered essential for maintaining harmonious
social interaction. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Kim, U., Triandis, H. C., Kagitcibasi, C., Choi, S. C., and Yoon, G., Ed. (1994). Individualism and
collectivism. Cross cultural research and methodology. Vol. 18. Thousand Oaks, CA, Sage Publications.
Survey articles on cross cultural values by prominent researchers in field.
Kimhi, S. and N. G. Bliwise (1992). “Perceived change of values and intention to return among Kibbutz
people who emigrated from Israel.” Journal of Psychology 126(6): 661-670.
Examined perceived changes of values and intentions to return to Israel among 149 Kibbutz
people (aged 25-55 yrs) who had lived for 3-22 yrs in New York, Los Angeles, and San Francisco. In
answering standardized attitude questionnaires, Ss reported significantly less general agreement today with
Kibbutz values, but more support for the idea that Israel should compromise on occupied territories and
more support for the idea that people should live where they choose. Political opinions also moved toward
more liberal attitudes. Most Ss intended to return to Israel without specifying a clear time frame. Values
were significantly associated with behavioral intentions, with those endorsing Zionist values the most likely
to report that they would return to Israel in times of war or peace. Results suggest acculturation to
American society and political opinions. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Kluckhohn, C. (1951). Values and value orientations in the theory of action: An exploration in definition
and classification. Toward a general theory of action. T. P. a. E. Shils. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University
Press.
Kohn, M. L., K. M. Slomczynski, et al. (1986). “Social stratification and the transmission of values in the
family: A cross-national assessment.” Sociological Forum 1(1): 73-102.
Developed measurement models of the family's social-stratification position and of parents' and
children's valuations of self-direction for both the US and Poland. Data were collected on 352 US families
with a 13-25 yr old child and on 177 Polish families with a 13-27 yr old child. In both countries, the
family's stratification position had an impressive bearing on the values of adolescents and young adults.
Although parents' and children's values may be reciprocally related, the predominant effects were from
parents' to children's values. One notable cross-national difference found was the relative roles of fathers
and mothers in the intergenerational transmission of values. In the US, fathers played as important a role as
mothers; in Poland, mothers played the predominant role. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Kohn, M. L. and K. M. Slomczynski (1990). Social structure and self-direction: A comparative analysis of
the United States and Poland. Oxford, England UK, Basil Blackwell, Inc.
(from the jacket) This book presents the results of a major research project on the relationship
between social structures and personality in both capitalist and socialist societies. Based on a formidable
array of original empirical work and using new and sophisticated cross-national methodologies, it gives a
profound comparative interpretation of the links between social class and social stratification, working
conditions and personality in the US and Poland. /// Melvin Kohn's earlier work, "Class and Conformity," is
commonly regarded as a classic in the field, providing an explanation of the causal connection between
social stratification and values in terms of the close relationship between social stratification and the
conditions of work that facilitate or restrict occupational self-direction. This new work goes far beyond this,
integrating an entire corpus of research and interpretation into a generalized model of the social structure
and personality relationship in industrialized societies, demonstrating the key role of social class, and
developing an innovative method for cross-national comparative inquiry. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all
rights reserved)
Kunkel, D. and D. Roberts (1991). “Young minds and marketplace values: Issues in children's television
advertising.” Journal of Social Issues 47(1): 57-72.
Reviews research on young children's responses to TV commercials (CMs) in the historical
context of TV advertising regulation. Concern with regulation emerged in the 1960s, when children were
recognized as a market in their own right. Research has demonstrated that young children have difficulty
distinguishing between programs and CMs, that most manifest little or no understanding of CMs'
persuasive intent, and that those who do not understand persuasive intent are highly vulnerable to CM
claims and appeals. These findings led the Federal Trade Commission (1978) to attempt to ban TV
advertising to children too young to understand persuasive intent. However, the history of regulatory
attempts demonstrates that research findings are not a dominant influence on policy decisions. ((c) 1997
Lachman, R. (1988). “Factors influencing workers' orientations: A secondary analysis of Israeli data.”
Organization Studies 9(4): 497-510.
Studied 544 Israeli factory workers to test the validity of a causal model where nonwork
influences are assumed to precede organizational ones, and both are assumed to affect workers' value
orientations. Personal modernity, which reflects the capacity for adaptation, flexibility, and increased
complexity in the way of perceiving, expressing, and valuing the world, was measured. Results show that,
compared with the nonwork socializing influences tested, the organizational influence (measured by length
of exposure to industrial organizations) had little effect on modernity of values. Core values were affected
by home and educational influences early in life. Periphery values were affected mostly by core values and
nonwork influences (e.g., education, media exposure) early and later in life. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all
rights reserved)
LaFromboise, T., H. L. K. Coleman, et al. (1995). Psychological impact of biculturalism: Evidence and
theory. The culture and psychology reader. N. R. Goldberger. New York, NY, USA, New York University
Press: p. 489-535.
(from the book) review the literature on the psychological impact of being bicultural / of particular
importance . . . is arriving at a model of individual development that posits that an individual can gain
competence in more than 1 culture without having to lose one's cultural identity or chose between cultures /
most of the literature on bicultural individuals assumes that a person living in 2 cultures will necessarily
suffer some kind of psychological distress and disadvantage (from the chapter) cultural competence /
models of 2nd-culture acquisition [assimilation model, acculturation model, alternation model,
multicultural model, fusion model] / bicultural competence [knowledge of cultural beliefs and values,
positive attitudes toward both groups, bicultural efficacy, communication ability, role repertoire,
groundedness] / model of bicultural competence ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Lago, A.-D. (1978). “Simulation, struggle and strategy: The function of games.” Rassegna-Italiana-di-
Sociologia; 1978 Aug-Sep Vol 19(3) 459-489.
Discusses 3 meanings of the concept of play in social sciences. The first is connected with the
crisis of culture in the industrial society. In G. Simmel's (1918) sociology, for instance, the "social games"
construct emphasizes the importance of forms in regard to the content of social relationships. In this
context, the concept of play indicates the exhaustion of solidarity and values in the middle class. The 2nd
concept of play does not mean mimicry, as in Simmel's sociology, but struggle and risk. According to M.
Mauss's (1968) works on primitive societies, the play-form is the core of social relationships built on
symbolic competition. From this perspective, the market and economic competition are subsystems of a
more complex system in which individuals and tribes exchange feelings, values, and symbolic goods: The
individual's values are continually compared with those of other social actors. E. Goffman (1970) employs
a 3rd approach, in which the play-form describes the social actor's struggle in defense of the self in the
capitalistic society, where there are no culture systems to protect individuals against the power of the
market. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1980 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
386.
Laroche, M., C. Kim, et al. (1996). “An empirical study of multidimensional ethnic change: The case of the
French Canadians in Quebec.” Journal of Cross Cultural Psychology 27(1): 114-131.
Provided empirical evidence to support the view that ethnic change is a multidimensional process.
Using data from 477 French Canadian (FC) Ss, ethnic affiliation and acculturative tendency were identified
as 2 key dimensions of ethnic change experienced by FCs in their contacts with English Canadians (ECs).
The ethnic affiliation dimension was indicated by measures of FC social interaction, FC family, FC self-
identification, and attachment to FC culture, whereas acculturative tendency was indicated by attachment to
EC culture, attitude toward cultural change, and EC social interaction. The 2 dimensions were used to
develop a typology of FC ethnic orientation. Findings supported the ethnic pluralism or multiculturalism
perspective in the description of ethnic change. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1996 American
Lau, S. (1992). “Collectivism's individualism: Value preference, personal control, and the desire for
freedom among Chinese in Mainland China, Hong Kong, and Singapore.” Personality and Individual
Differences 13(3): 361-366.
Examined whether the value choices of 346 Chinese university students in mainland China, Hong
Kong, and Singapore would reflect a collectivistic emphasis. Measures included a locus of control scale (H.
Levenson, 1973) and the Rokeach Value Survey. Overall results instead showed a heavy emphasis on
individualistic values, especially among mainland Chinese. Marked differences were found between the 3
Chinese groups, with the mainland and Singapore groups showing the greatest contrasts. Data on locus of
control showed that the greater individualistic orientation of mainland Chinese coincided with their greater
external control beliefs. In comparing the Chinese groups with 105 US university students, it was found
that the differences did not reflect any distinct individualistic or collectivistic pattern. Chinese Ss were not
less individualistic than US Ss. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1992 American Psychological Assn, all
rights reserved)
Lawless, D. J. (1989). “Religious values in the workplace: Implications for management in Canada.”
Organization Development Journal 7(1): 83-88.
Addresses the renewed interest in religion and ethics in the workplace reflected by the media and
argues that religious values are not dead nor are they completely secularized. Acceptance of the theological
and religious dimension of the work ethic has important implications for organizational structures and
management practices. These dimensions may be more important and have more influence on productivity
and quality than all the extrinsic, economic rewards combined. Recent changes in the meaning of work
require the attention of contemporary psychologists. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
rights reserved)
Lee, K.-C. (1991). “The problem of appropriateness of the Rokeach Value Survey in Korea.” International-
Journal-of-Psychology; 1991 Vol 26(3) 299-310.
Examined the extent to which the Rokeach Value Survey (RVS) samples are relevant to all
cultures, especially East Asian societies. The appropriateness of the RVS in the Korean setting was
investigated through (1) a value analysis of 12 Moral and 12 Language Korean school textbooks, and (2) a
value survey of 132 Korean managers. Whereas the RVS provides many important values relevant to
Korean culture, it does not involve the facets of Confucian group-oriented values such as filial piety,
harmony and unity with others, cooperation, and loyalty. Further areas not measured in the RVS are
frugality, initiative, and aggressiveness. Findings are discussed in relation to other studies, and implications
for using the RVS in cross-cultural studies are examined. (French abstract) (PsycLIT Database Copyright
Lee, L. C. and G. Q. Zhan (1991). “Political socialisation and parental values in the People's Republic of
China.” International Journal of Behavioral Development 14(4): 337-373.
Examined the content of societal mandates of the People's Republic of China as conveyed in the
mass media between the 1950s and early 1960s and the expressed views of parents who grew up during
that period. The mandates of political socialization (PS) were assessed by content analyses of an official
youth magazine published during the 1950s and 1960s, and parental values were obtained from 274 urban
families responses to a 1981-2982 parent questionnaire. Ss expressed values that differentially reflected the
content of PS of their youth. Moral and work/study values appeared in the lexicon of values during
adulthood, but the political values mandated by the leadership of their youth were absent. ((c) 1997
Lew, A. S., R. Allen, et al. (1998). “Achievement orientation and fear of success in Asian American college
students.” Journal of Clinical Psychology 54(1): 97-108.
185 Asian American undergraduates participated in a study designed to examine the relationships
among gender, acculturation, achievement orientation, and fear of academic success. Acculturation was
modestly correlated with achievement orientation. Endorsement of Asian and Anglo values was
significantly related to individual-oriented achievement. Marginal significance, however, was obtained for
endorsement of Asian values and beliefs to social-oriented achievement. These findings suggest that
persons with a bicultural identity tend to adopt a multifaceted achievement style. Achievement orientation,
in turn, predicted fear of academic success, with gender and perceived discrepancies from parental
achievement values contributing minimal additional variance. Social-oriented achievement was related to
high fear of academic success, whereas an individualistic orientation buffered against such conflicts. ((c)
Li, P.-S. (1994). “A world apart: The multicultural world of visible minorities and the art world of
Canada.” Canadian-Review-of-Sociology-and-Anthropology; 1994 Nov Vol 31(4) 365-391.
Argues that Canada's policy toward the arts has produced 2 unequal art worlds, the 1st a formal,
legitimized, and high-status art world of White Canadians, and the 2nd a marginal, folkloric, and low-status
multicultural circle reserved for recent immigrants of mainly nonWhite origin. These art worlds are
distinguishable by their social organization, rules of operation, standards of evaluation, source of patronage,
and forum of communication. Their products differ in form and content and carry unequal aesthetic and
market value. The government's patronizing attitude toward minorities' art and culture and the
institutionalization of these 2 separate art worlds stifle the artistic creativity and aesthetic development of
visible minorities. Canada's art and multicultural policies reflect and reinforce a cultural hegemony that
upholds the dominance of Occidental values and culture. (French abstract) (PsycLIT Database Copyright
Li, C. (1998). “Impact of acculturation on Chinese-Americans' life and its implications for helping
professionals.” International Journal of Reality Therapy 17(2): 7-11.
Presents a critical look at the impact of acculturation on Chinese-Americans with resulting
implications for helping professionals. The article illustrates through case studies and research findings,
how different rates of acculturation between parents, grandparents, and children, and how mismatch of
content domains of acculturation cause cultural conflicts in the family, the extended family, and
interpersonal tension in general. How Chinese-American students struggle with acculturation issues is also
explored. How concepts of lens values of Reality Therapy can help with the understanding of conflicts
among family members due to acculturation differences is also discussed. ((c) 1999 APA/PsycINFO, all
rights reserved)
Lichtenstein, D. R., R. G. Netemeyer, et al. (1990). “Distinguishing coupon proneness from value
consciousness: An acquisition-transaction utility theory perspective.” Journal of Marketing 54(3): 54-67.
Conducted a study to test the existence of the constructs of coupon proneness (CP) and value
consciousness (VC) and to test a theoretical distinction between the 2 concepts based on acquisition-
transaction utility theory. Measures of CP and VC were created, using 263 business students. Responses to
these measures from 350 adults were used to test 8 hypotheses that reflect theoretical differences between
the 2 constructs. Results support the premise that coupon redemption behavior is a manifestation of CP and
VC. The more appropriate level of measurement of CP is the psychological vs the behavioral level.
Low, G. S. and D. R. Lichtenstein (1993). “The effect of double deals on consumer attitudes.” Journal of
Retailing 69(4): 453-466.
Manipulated 2 types of consumer sales promotions, advertised reference price (ARP) and free
premium (FP) with purchase, to investigate the effect of double retail deals on consumer attitudes. 533
undergraduate business students were randomly assigned to 1 of 9 experimental conditions in a 3 * 3
between-Ss design. The 2 factors and levels were (1) high, medium, and low advertised price, and (2) high,
low, and absent FP. Results suggest that the effect of an FP on consumer attitudes depends on the level of
the ARP. Counter to expectations, when ARP was at its highest level, brand image and perceived quality
were more favorable when the premium value was also at its high level. However, when the advertised
price was at its low level, the high premium value led to less favorable attitudes for both dependent
variables. At a medium level of ARP, Ss' product attitudes were similar across FP values. (PsycLIT
Lueptow, L. B. (1992). “Change and stability in the sex typing of adolescent work orientations: 1976-
2989.” Perceptual and Motor Skills 75(3, Pt 2): 1114.
An analysis of the occupational values of 45,503 high school seniors from 1976 to 1989 shows
stability in differences in intrinsic and people-oriented values, but substantial convergence on extrinsic
values. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Luk, C.-L. and M.-H. Bond (1993). “Personality variation and values endorsement in Chinese university
students.” Personality-and-Individual-Differences; 1993 Mar Vol 14(3) 429-437.
Proposes that people with different personalities have different needs which in turn define what is
desirable and should be valued. To evaluate this hypothesis, personality was assessed using the NEO
Personality Manual questionnaire measure of the 5 basic dimensions of individual variation; values were
measured, using S. H. Schwartz's (1992) survey of 10 universal domains of desirable goals. Ss were 114
Chinese university students. All personality traits were related to value domains either alone or in
interaction, but Agreeableness was most frequently related. The pattern of these connections provided
confirming evidence for the circumplex model of Schwartz's value domains. Results were also discussed in
terms of possible cultural influences, and similar research in other cultures was encouraged to distinguish
universal from culture-specific processes. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1993 American Psychological
Luk, C. L. and M. H. Bond (1993). “Personality variation and values endorsement in Chinese university
students.” Personality and Individual Differences 14(3): 429-437.
Proposes that people with different personalities have different needs which in turn define what is
desirable and should be valued. To evaluate this hypothesis, personality was assessed using the NEO
Personality Manual questionnaire measure of the 5 basic dimensions of individual variation; values were
measured, using S. H. Schwartz's (1992) survey of 10 universal domains of desirable goals. Ss were 114
Chinese university students. All personality traits were related to value domains either alone or in
interaction, but Agreeableness was most frequently related. The pattern of these connections provided
confirming evidence for the circumplex model of Schwartz's value domains. Results were also discussed in
terms of possible cultural influences, and similar research in other cultures was encouraged to distinguish
universal from culture-specific processes. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Lynn, M., G. M. Zinkhan, et al. (1993). “Consumer tipping: A cross-country study.” Journal of Consumer
Research 20(3): 478-488.
Tipping differs from most economic transactions in that consumers are paying a nonobligatory
amount for a service they have already received. Research on this behavior has focused on the determinants
of individual tipping with little attention directed at macrolevel issues. In this study, secondary data sources
were used to test the theory that cross-country differences in the prevalence of tipping (N. Star, 1988)
reflect cross-country differences in values (G. Hofstede, 1983). Tipping practices for 33 service professions
in 30 countries were analyzed. Tipping was less prevalent in countries with low tolerance for interpersonal
status and power differences and in countries with values that emphasize social over economic
relationships. Tipping was more prevalent in countries with low tolerance for uncertainty and in
communistic countries that valued close employee ties to work organizations. Results generally support the
theory. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
MacIntosh, R. (1998). “Global attitude measurement: An assessment of the World Values Survey
Postmaterialism Scale.” American Sociological Review 63(3): 452-464.
The World Values Survey is the product of an unprecedented collaboration of investigators from 5
continents. Using this survey, an international "postmaterialism" scale was developed. This scale shows a
worldwide trend away from concerns with material well-being toward a postmaterialist value system that
emphasizes the free expression of ideas, greater democratization, and the development of more humane
societies. The author tested the assumption that a single latent trait of postmaterialism accounts for the
observed response patterns to items that make up the scale. Applying a log-linear Rasch model, he tested
the assumption that the scale is a consistent cross-national measuring device and find that the scale is not
unidimensional. Item bias was identified after controlling for the common stratification variables of gender,
education, age, and country. ((c) 1998 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Macintosh, R. (1998). “"A confirmatory factor analysis of the Affect Balance Scale in 38 nations: A
research note": Erratum.” Social Psychology Quarterly 61(3): [journal insert].
Reports an error in the original article by R. Macintosh (Social Psychology Quarterly, 1998, Vol
61[1], 83-95). Table 3 was printed incorrectly; the correct table is provided. (The following abstract of this
article originally appeared in record 1998-02134-006). Assessed the validity of the positive and negative
subscale of the Affect Balance Scale for use in cross-national research by applying confirmatory factor
analysis. The Affect Balance Scale is a widely used measure of social psychological well-being.
Specifically, this study tested whether 2 latent variables of positive and negative affect explain the observed
variation in the indicators. Data for 38 nations and societies were collected as part of the World Values
Survey. Results indicate that the data collected in the World Values Survey do not fit the model developed
by N. Bradburn (1969) in any of the 38 countries surveyed. As many as 4 factors were required to fit these
data. Criticisms of the Affect Balance Scale that grew out of earlier research on American samples provide
some possible explanations for the disconfirmation of the measurement model. ((c) 1998 APA/PsycINFO,
Macintosh, R. (1998). “A confirmatory factor analysis of the Affect Balance Scale in 38 nations: A
research note.” Social Psychology Quarterly 61(1): 83-95.
Assessed the validity of the positive and negative subscales of the Affect Balance Scale for use in
cross-national research by applying confirmatory factor analysis. The Affect Balance Scale is a widely used
measure of social psychological well-being. Specifically, this study tested whether 2 latent variables of
positive and negative affect explain the observed variation in the indicators. Data for 38 nations and
societies were collected as part of the World Values Survey. Results indicate that the data collected in the
World Values Survey do not fit the model developed by N. Bradburn (1969) in any of the 38 countries
surveyed. As many as 4 factors were required to fit these data. Criticisms of the Affect Balance Scale that
grew out of earlier research on American samples provide some possible explanations for the
disconfirmation of the measurement model. ((c) 1998 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Magana, J. R., O. de la Rocha, et al. (1996). “Revisiting the dimensions of acculturation: Cultural theory
and psychometric practice.” Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences 18(4): 444-468.
Differentiates the dimensionality of the various domains of behavior, values, and preferences
(latent constructs) assessed in most measures of acculturation from the dimensionality associated with the
way measures of acculturation are scored. In this study the acculturation patterns of 178 Hispanic patients
(aged 19-70 yrs) were assessed using the Cultural Life Style Inventory (CLSI; R. H. Mendoza, 1989) and a
unidimensionally scored scale. The analysis compared the characteristics of the CLSI's bidimensional
scoring system which allows for the identification of individuals who identify equally with Latino and
Anglo American cultures, with the unidimensional scoring system of the other scale which places
individuals on a continuum from unaccultured to accultured. Results found several variations in patterns of
acculturation including that Ss who incorporate both cultures and those who have shifted to the English-
speaking culture have significantly more years of education and have lived in the US longer than Ss who
identify predominantly with Spanish-speaking culture. The variations in patterns of acculturation were
uncovered by comparing what can be learned using the 2 types of scoring algorithm. ((c) 1997
Mahoney, J. (1976). “The relation of anticipated effectiveness, alienation, and values structure to planned
participation in a national meat boycott.” Psychology 13(2): 39-47.
Examines factors that distinguish "true believers," who accept an ideological commitment, from
"fellow travellers," who contribute some support but who are not fully committed to a cause. Results are
reported from 47 supermarket shoppers who were asked what impact they anticipated from a nationwide
meat boycott in protest of rising prices. Findings reveal a composite of the boycott supporter. The
collective image of the full supporter group depicted an individual dedicated to more distant goals who
expected control through group support. The partial supporter anticipated less impact; he/she hoped for but
did not necessarily expect a reduction in prices. The partial supporter's values were more present-oriented
and intellectual, in contrast to those of the full supporter. The advantages of using values as a fundamental
measure of social behavior, as suggested by M. Rokeach (1968), are discussed. (15 ref) ((c) 1997
Mahoney, J. (1977). “Values and neurosis: A comparison of American and Israeli college students.”
Journal-of-Social-Psychology; 1977 Aug Vol 102(2) 311-312.
Examined the relation of values to neurosis among US college students and compared the findings
to those obtained from a similar study of Israeli college students by Y. Rim (1970). Data from 220
American undergraduates who completed the Emotionality scale of the Pittsburgh revision of the Maudsley
Personality Inventory (A. W. Bendig, 1962) and Form E of the Rokeach Value Survey support the view
that values associated with neuroticism are culture- and gender-specific. (PsycLIT Database Copyright
Maio, G. R., N. J. Roese, et al. (1996). “Rankings, ratings, and the measurement of values: Evidence for the
superior validity of ratings.” Basic and Applied Social Psychology 18(2): 171-181.
Examined the predictive validity of value rankings vs ratings by comparing the magnitude of their
correlations to conceptually related attitudes. 211 university students ranked and rated the importance of 42
values, indicated their attitudes toward 30 controversial issues, and judged the ethical acceptability of 74
behaviors. Ss were grouped based on the number of values rated differently, and correlations between
conceptually related values and attitudes were determined for each group. Overall, forcing Ss to
differentiate between values (rankings) yielded smaller value-attitude correlations than allowing Ss to
freely differentiate between values to whatever extent they deemed appropriate (ratings). Within moderate-
and low-differentiating participants, the validity of ratings was greater than for rankings. ((c) 1997
Manaster, G. J., C. Rhodes, et al. (1998). “The role of birth order in the acculturation of Japanese
Americans.” Psychologia: An International Journal of Psychology in the Orient 41(3): 155-170.
Explored the relation between birth order position and acculturation among 1,042 2nd- (Nisei) and
802 3rd-generation (Sansei) Japanese Americans. The study tested the hypothesis that 1st-born (including
only) children will be less assimilated to the dominant culture than will their siblings in families where the
parents are trying to maintain their identity with the culture of origin. Data support this hypothesis.
Compared with later-born Nisei, 1st-born Nisei were less assimilated. First-born Nisei were more likely to
live in Japanese American neighborhoods, to use and learn Japanese language, to have stronger Japanese
family values, and to be Buddhist or Shinto. Likewise, compared with later-born Sansei, 1st-born Sansei
seemed to be more informed and interested in Japanese values and culture and to have more culturally
traditional perspectives. In general, 1st-born Ss in both generations were more traditionally Japanese. ((c)
Marin, G., H.-C. Triandis, et al. (1983). “Ethnic affirmation versus social desirability: Explaining
discrepancies in bilinguals' responses to a questionnaire.” Journal-of-Cross-Cultural-Psychology; 1983 Jun
Vol 14(2) 173-186.
Examined possible explanations for the fact that bilinguals provide different responses when
answering in each of their 2 languages. 60 Spanish/English bilingual college students completed a
questionnaire that contained both general value and culture-specific items (Hofstede's Values Survey
items). Cultural "anchors" were obtained from 50 monolingual Hispanic high school students, and 4
Hispanic and 4 Anglo psychologists rated the social desirability of all items. Results show that although
some differences in responses to the English and Spanish versions of the questionnaire could be explained
in terms of ethnic affirmation, social desirability explained the largest number of differences found. (27 ref)
Marin, G. (1993). Influence of acculturation on familialism and self-identification among Hispanics. Ethnic
identity: Formation and transmission among Hispanics and other minorities. SUNY series, United States
Hispanic studies. M. E. Bernal. Albany, NY, USA, State University of New York Press: p. 181-196.
(from the chapter) analyzes the influence that acculturation has on a key Hispanic cultural value
(familialism) and on self-identification among Hispanics / data reported here are from respondents from
various Hispanic subgroups (Mexican, Cuban, and Central American) as well as from non-Hispanic, white
respondents ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Marquez, J. T. and J. K. Matsuoka (1986). “Value orientation and acculturation among Asian, Black and
White Americans.” Asian American Psychological Association Journal: Association-Journal.
Asian, Black, and White American students' judgments of the similarity of their personal values,
beliefs, and feelings about things to their own group and to those of other ethnic and racial groups were
analyzed using multidimensional scaling. Results are consistent with what might be expected of a pattern of
bicultural adaptation to the host culture in the case of Asian Americans, and of the influence of strong
within-group norms that foster the development of a separate and unique ethnic social identity in the case
of Black Americans. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Martin Baro, I. (1985). “Valores del universitario salvadoreno de primer ingreso. (Values of students
entering universities in El Salvador.).” Boletin de Psicologia El Salvador 4(1): 5-12.
Investigated the personal values of 1,734 students entering 2 universities in El Salvador, using an
abbreviated form of the Rokeach Value Survey. The questionnaire was administered in 1985 to 869 new
students at the Universidad Centroamericana "Jose Simeon Canas" and 865 new students at the Universidad
de El Salvador. Similar to students in other countries, these Ss rated love as their highest value. However,
these Ss rated values concerning social character higher than did Ss in other Latin-American countries. This
difference is attributed to the social climate in which these Ss live. It appears that a relatively acute social
consciousness has been developed among young (mean age 20 yrs) Salvadoran university students. (9 ref)
Mason, E. S. (1994). “Work values: A gender comparison and implications for practice.” Psychological-
Reports; 1994 Apr Vol 74(2) 415-418.
Explored the work values of 7,629 managerial and clerical women and men across various US
industries. Ss were presented with 14 work values and asked to select the 7 most relevant. Results show
that each group's patterns or rankings of values lacked an overall similarity. Clerical women and men (total
of 5,145 Ss) were the least similar to each other while the value patterns of managerial men and women
approached similarity. Being treated with respect in the workplace was of paramount importance to both
clerical and managerial women. Managerial women ( n = 752) also ranked working for a supervisor whom
they respect at the top of their value hierarchy. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1994 American Psychological
Mathur, L. K. and I. Mathur (1995). “The effect of advertising slogan changes on the market values of
firms.” Journal of Advertising Research 35(1): 59-65.
Used event study methodology (E. Fama et al, 1969) and a return-on-investment estimation
procedure (S. Brown and J. Warner, 1985) to examine the effects of announcements of advertising slogan
changes on the market values of 87 publicly traded firms. On average, a change in a firm's advertising
slogan increased the firm's annual profit by $6 million to $8 million. Investors reacted to announcements of
slogan changes on a delayed basis (rather than in the days immediately prior to the announcements) and, in
general, assessed the revised strategies of the firms in a positive light. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1995
Mayton, D. M. and R. L. Sangster (1992). “Cross-cultural comparison of values and nuclear war attitudes.”
Journal of Cross Cultural Psychology 23(3): 340-352.
Investigated differences in values and attitudes toward nuclear threat and war among 67 Native
American (NAM) and 337 Caucasian (CAS) adolescents in Grades 10-12. Ss completed the Rokeach Value
Survey. CAS Ss placed higher value on the terminal value of freedom. NAM Ss placed higher value on the
instrumental values of helpful and obedient, while CAS Ss placed higher value on the instrumental values
of ambitious, independent, and capable. NAM Ss felt more positive about the effect of a nuclear weapons
freeze on reducing the threat of nuclear war, were less pessimistic about the effectiveness of civil defense,
and were more likely to support escalation in nuclear confrontation. NAM Ss were neutral about the future,
while CAS Ss were more positive. NAM Ss who placed higher priority on a world at peace showed more
concern about the nuclear threat than did their CAS peers. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1993 American
Mayton, D. M. and A. Furnham (1994). “Value underpinnings of antinuclear political activism: A cross-
national study.” Journal of Social Issues 50(4): 117-128.
Assesses the relationships between selected value types (S. H. Schwartz, 1992; see also PA, Vol
82:36748) and peace activist behavior. Participants included 350 college students from Idaho and
California in the US, from London, England, and from Osaka, Japan; 800 adults from the general
population in the Pacific Northwest of the US; and 65 physician-activists from New Zealand. Each
respondent completed a written questionnaire, which included the Rokeach Value Survey--Form G and the
Brief Measure of Activism Regarding the Nuclear Arms Race. Results demonstrate that personal and social
values, when viewed as components of certain value types, are significant correlates of political activist
behavior directed toward assuring a lasting peace. The universalism value type was especially robust in
integrating previous value-political activism findings and in having influential predictive powers across
multiple cultural groups. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1995 American Psychological Assn, all rights
reserved)
McCarty, J. A. and L. J. Shrum (1994). “The recycling of solid wastes: Personal values, value orientations,
and attitudes about recycling as antecedents of recycling behavior. Special Issue: Linking theory to policy.”
Using a structural modeling framework, this study investigated the relationships of personal
values, value orientations, and attitudes about recycling with the frequency of recycling behaviors as
assessed for 134 undergraduates. The goals of the study were to provide a practical concern of providing
further understanding about the antecedents of recycling, and to present a theoretical interest of testing the
value-attitude-behavior hierarchy. Results show that values did not have direct relationships with
behaviors. Values did, however, have direct influences on attitudes about the inconvenience of recycling
and attitudes about the importance of recycling. As expected, attitudes about the inconvenience of recycling
had a negative relationship with recycling behaviors. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1994 American
McNally, S., N. Eisenberg, et al. (1991). “Consistency and change in maternal child-rearing practices and
values: A longitudinal study.” Child Development 62(1): 190-198.
Examined changes in mothers' reported child-rearing practices over time in regard to
independence and control, expression of positive and negative affect, and disciplinary practices. The Child-
Rearing Practices Report developed by J. H. Block (unpublished) was administered to the same 32 mothers
5 times over an 8-yr time period (from when their children were aged 7-8 yrs until they were 15-26 yrs
old). A substantial degree of stability in behaviors and values was noted, even over the 8-yr period. In
addition, some practices increased or decreased with age, with most changes being consistent with prior
theorizing and research, as well as commonsense notions related to child rearing. ((c) 1997
Menasco, M. B. and D. J. Curry (1989). “Utility and choice: An empirical study of wife/husband decision
making.” Journal of Consumer Research 16(1): 87-97.
Examined the effects of cognitive conflict, role dominance, and persuasive messages on husband-
wife decisions, using 67 couples. Training each spouse individually to learn a specific male or female
utility function determined spouse dominance and level of conflict (inverted or simple). Couples then
received either a slight or extreme advertising message and made a joint choice of 1 fictitious investment
from a set of options described by unique values of yield and safety. Couples tended to choose options that
were equitable and centered in their negotiation set, even though neither spouse had explicit information
about the other's utility function. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Menezes, I. and B. P. Campos (1997). “The process of value-meaning construction: A cross-sectional

study.” European Journal of Social Psychology 27(1): 55-73.
Investigated the process of values construction using a values psychological structure model
developed by S. H. Schwartz and W. Bilsky (see records 75-01444 and 77-25308). This model postulates
the existence of a universal organization of values on 10 content domains or motivational types. The value
priorities (values structure, motivational types content, and values meaning) of 200 Portuguese secondary
school students (medium age 16.6 yrs), 200 Portuguese university students (medium age 24 yrs), and 200
Portuguese teachers (medium age 30.1 yrs) were measured using Schwartz's (1992; see also record 82-
37648) survey. Results reveal the validity of the predefined motivational types on the 3 samples, although
there are some structural variations between the samples. Such variations may be attributed to the
development characteristics of each group. Cognitive-developmental theory emerges as an adequate
framework for the analysis of results. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Menon, A. and A. Menon (1997). “Enviropreneurial marketing strategy: The emergence of corporate
environmentalism as market strategy.” Journal-of-Marketing; 1997 Jan Vol 61(1) 51-67.
Environmental concerns have begun to reshape the landscape in which global organizations
compete. The demands and influences of the environmental movement are evident in the dollar value size
of the environmentally conscious marketplace. In addition, the growing regulatory concerns over the
environmental impact of corporate practices have begun to influence corporate strategies. The authors
discuss the concept of an enviropreneurial marketing strategy, which reflects the confluence of social
performance goals, corporate entrepreneurship orientations, and marketing strategy by integrating
environmental concerns when developing marketing policies and practices. They provide a brief overview
of the emergence of the enviropreneurial strategy paradigm, identify 3 types of enviropreneurial marketing
strategies, and develop a model of the antecedents and consequences of an enviropreneurial marketing
strategy. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1997 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
Migone-de-Faletty, R.-C. and J.-E. Moreno (1985). “Los valores, posturas eticas y actitudes de los
aspirantes a ingresar en la carrera de abogacia. (Values, ethical positions and attitudes of new law school
students.).” Acta-Psiquiatrica-y-Psicologica-de-America-Latina; 1985 Mar Vol 31(1) 43-52.
Administered the Study of Values, a survey of interpersonal values, and an ethical position
questionnaire to new law students at a city university and to new students in law, medicine, psychology,
and publicity in a Catholic university. Findings show that Ss in the Catholic university had a predominant
Religious value, followed by the Social value. In the city university, Ss had a predominant Social value,
followed by the Political value. Beginning law students could be considered absolutists, using the scale
developed by D. Forsyth (see PA, Vol 66:2467), and scored high on benevolence and conformity in
comparison with other students. Law students considered ethical education and enhancement of the
national culture more important than university culture. Results confirm previous findings that beginning
law students can be differentiated from beginning students in other professions in their attitudes about
interpersonal bonds and university objectives. (6 ref) (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1986 American
Mishra, P. K., C. Mishra, et al. (1990). “Attitudes towards HRD climate and work related values of
executives.” Managerial Psychology 1(2): 24-32.
Examined the attitudes of 60 front-line and 60 middle-level executives (aged 28-40 yrs) of a
public sector organization in India toward human resources development (HRD) climate as well as work-
related values. Ss completed the HRD Climate Survey (Center for Human Resources Development, 1988)
and the Work-Related Values Questionnaire (G. Hofstede, 1980). Findings show that middle-level
executives attached more importance to HRD values related to corporate growth, autonomy, self-esteem,
and advancement. Front-line executives attached more importance to the appraisal system, promotion
training, and career opportunities. Results suggest that executives need to integrate their value system on
the need saliency model. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1992 American Psychological Assn, all rights
reserved)
Mitchell, A. A. (1986). Theoretical and methodological issues in developing an individual-level model of

advertising effects. Advertising and consumer psychology, Vol. 3. Advertising and consumer psychology
conferences. J. C. Olson. New York, NY, USA, Praeger Publishers: p. 172-196.
(from the chapter) discussed . . . use of a 1-factor vs 2-factor model of persuasion, affective
reactions to advertisements, "feeling" advertising, persuasion effects over time, visual components in
advertisements, knowledge, goals, and values, and the attitude change process / methodological issues
include what dependent variable to measure, what type of advertising stimulus to use, and the mode of
analysis /// a number of themes seem to underlie the theoretical issues / extent to which attitude formations
and change are determined by nonverbal processes / examination of advertising effects over time ((c) 1997

4(2) 147-158.
Moore, M. (1976). “A cross-cultural comparison of value systems.” European Journal of Social Psychology
6(2): 249-254.
Administered a Hebrew version of the Rokeach Value Survey to 68 Israeli Jews and 101 Israeli
Arabs to investigate the degree of similarity in values among various cultural groups. Ss' scores were
compared with those obtained by N. T. Feather (see PA, Vol 52:10067), H. Gunther, and M. Rokeach
(1973), who studied 382, 400, and 169 and 125, Australian, German, and American and Canadian Ss,
respectively. The generally high level of correlations between value systems of the different cultural
groups, particularly those traditionally described as belonging to the western world, support the construct
validity of the Rokeach Value Survey. Both Israeli samples correlated with the other 4 groups at a
considerably lower level than the intercorrelations among the latter. Results suggest that intracultural
comparisons of value systems over time can supply information descriptive of changes that a cultural group
undergoes due to environmental factors. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1977 American Psychological Assn,
reserved)
Morello, G. (1993). “The hidden dimensions of marketing.” Journal-of-the-Market-Research-Society; 1993

Oct Vol 35(4) 293-313.
In a discussion of the role of marketing at both the conceptual and operational levels, nonobvious
factors underpinning the contemporary market are examined. The following concepts provide a profile:
marketing as a system, needs and wants (the process of exchange), consumer behavior and distribution,
products and innovation, the value of values, segmentation and fragmentation, change and learning,
ambivalence, quality and satisfaction, time perception, and the poetic dimension of marketing. It is
concluded that the foundations of marketing are solid; but the edifice must be restored, if not rebuilt. The
new rules of marketing are not yet fully understood nor completely accepted. (PsycLIT Database Copyright
Moriarty, S. E. (1996). “Effectiveness, objectiveness, and the EFFIE awards.” Journal of Advertising
Research 36(4): 54-63.
Studied how briefs are constructed for the EFFIE award program, which showcases effectiveness
in advertising. The study investigated the campaign objectives used and the design of the evaluation
mechanisms by which the effectiveness of briefs was assessed. Results show that most of the objectives
were not measurable as stated. Of the 29 cases used in the analysis, only 17% stated measurable objectives.
50% of the cases were focused on communication objectives, although some were centered primarily on
marketing effects (25%); the remaining 25% were split between communication and marketing effects. The
marketing effects were dominated by sales and share objectives; the communication effects were
dominated by persuasive effects that focused on behavior and attitude. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1997
Morris, R. and P. Wander (1990). “Native American rhetoric: Dancing in the shadows of the ghost dance.”
Quarterly-Journal-of-Speech; 1990 May Vol 76(2) 164-191.
Examines the way Native Americans (NAMs) have used rhetoric to create a social hegemony
strong enough to enable them to overcome the consequences of a long-standing historic bloc (a coalition of
groups bonded loosely together by cultural, political, and economic interests and values). Historical and
political conditions are outlined that led to rhetoric generated by NAMs during a 1973 protest. Rhetoric
produced by the protesters is examined to demonstrate how discursive strategies both reflect the influence
of context and reveal the significance of rhetoric's role in revitalizing culture. Implications for NAM
rhetoric and the problems attending rhetorical strategies in light of living history are considered. (PsycLIT
Morrison, N. K. and S. K. Severino (1997). “Moral values: Development and gender influences.” Journal
of the American Academy of Psychoanalysis 25(2): 255-275.
Discusses moral values and development, referring to moral values as the right and wrong of
behavior with self and others. It is proposed that the universal existence of morals throughout culture
suggests that human beings develop moral values out of inherent, innate capacities. Humans enter life in
powerful attachment based on mutual interactive attunement with primary caregivers. Mutual attunement
continues throughout life, expressed in experiences of approval and disapproval. It is proposed that this
ongoing, maturing, mutual attunement lays the foundation for the capacity to develop moral values. Gender
difference in morality is discussed as well, in the context of different developmental pathways between
males and females. ((c) 1998 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Moschis, G. P. and R. L. Moore (1982). “A longitudinal study of television advertising effects.” Journal of
Consumer Research 9(3): 279-286.
Examined the short- and long-term effects of TV advertising on the development of specific
consumption-related orientations in 4 areas: consumer role perceptions, normative consumer activities,
materialistic values, and sex-role perceptions. A 2-wave panel of 683 6th-22th graders, with a 14-mo lag
between waves, was used to explore relationships between TV advertising and consumer learning. Findings
indicate that increased advertising exposure decreased Ss' likelihood of performing socially desirable
consumer behaviors, but only among Ss who were likely to perform such activities in the first place. It also
seemed to contribute to the development of materialistic values and traditional sex-role perceptions among
those who had not yet developed such predispositions. These findings are not consistent with the selective
exposure/perception hypothesis advanced in studies of TV violence and aggression, but are consistent with
findings in the related area of political socialization. TV advertising appeared to affect the development of
materialism and traditional sex-roles when parents did not discuss consumption matters with their children,
perhaps placing Ss at the mercy of advertising, a finding consistent with previous research. (35 ref) ((c)
Muller, T. E. (1997). The benevolent society: Value and lifestyle changes among middle-aged baby
boomers. Values, lifestyles, and psychographics. Advertising and consumer psychology. L. R. Kahle.
Mahwah, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., Publishers: p. 299-316.
(from the chapter) This chapter argues that significant value changes can be expected among baby
boomers and predicts some of the implications of these shifts for American society. These ideas are
presented in 2 parts. The first half of the chapter highlights the chief environmental forces that will reshape
the value systems of baby boomers, as they experience middle age and continue to endure the generational
competition that has been present throughout their lives. The second half lays out the implications of this
realignment in boomers' value priorities and predicts the types of attitudes and behaviors that will become
commonplace among baby boomers. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Munson, J. M. and S. H. McIntyre (1979). “Developing practical procedures for the measurement of
personal values in cross-cultural marketing.” Journal of Marketing Research 16(1): 48-52.
Investigated the applicability of the Rokeach Value Survey to cross-cultural marketing. The
relative merits of 3 value measurement elicitation procedures were examined: ranking per Rokeach, normal
via Likert-type scales, and anchored by scanning least and most important. Different test combinations
were administered in different orders to 49 undergraduate marketing students at 2 times, separated by a 14-
day period. Results show that in measuring values, a Likert-type of scaling approach was not significantly
less reliable than the more cumbersome ranking approach used by psychologists. Scaling also may be better
suited to marketing applications. A "multiprofile-multimethod" matrix analysis suggests that the Rokeach
"terminal" and "instrumental" profiles are reliable and distinctive. (18 ref) (PsycLIT Database Copyright
Ng, S.-H. (1982). “Choosing between the ranking and rating procedures for the comparison of values
across cultures.” European-Journal-of-Social-Psychology; 1982 Apr-Jun Vol 12(2) 169-172.
Discusses the use of the Rokeach Value Survey in cross-cultural research. Two drawbacks to the
ranking procedure that disallows tied ranks (i.e., restriction to respondents whose value systems are already
or almost fully hierarchized, and interdependence) are described. It is argued that the psychometric
superiority of the rating over the ranking procedure supports the recommendation that the rating procedure
be chosen for cross-cultural studies when a choice must be made. (9 ref) (PsycLIT Database Copyright
Ng, S. H. (1982). “Choosing between the ranking and rating procedures for the comparison of values across
cultures.” European Journal of Social Psychology 12(2): 169-172.
be chosen for cross-cultural studies when a choice must be made. (9 ref) ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all
rights reserved)
Ngole, J.-P. (1986). “Social relations and group identity among women fishsellers in the Congo. Special
Issue: Women and folklore.” Women's-Studies-International-Forum; 1986 Vol 9(3) 287-293.
Assesses social relations and group identity embedded in the folklore of Congolese women
fishsellers and focuses on cultural values and social practices that constitute the backbone of the fishsellers'
identity and solidarity. The Congolese culture in general, and the pattern of social interaction among buyers
and sellers in particular, are discussed in relation to the concept of primary community. (PsycLIT Database
Niemczynski, A., D. Czyzowska, et al. (1988). “The Cracow study with Kolberg's Moral Judgment
Interview: Data pertaining to the assumption of cross-cultural validity.” Polish Psychological Bulletin
19(1): 43-53.
Investigated the universality of social-moral development and the validity of the Moral Judgement
Interview on a Polish sample of 291 men and women (aged 15-80 yrs). The study followed J. R. Snarey's
(see PA, Vol 72:19212) formulation of empirical assumptions underlying L. Kohlberg's (1971, 1981) claim
for cross-cultural universality (culturally diverse sampling, universal moral questions, invariant stage
sequence, full range of stages, and general applicability of the stages). It is concluded that the data
generally support each of the assumptions. Some difficulties were identified regarding the range and
general application of stages. It is suggested that certain traditional Polish moral values are not adequately
represented by the criterion judgments in the present manual (A. Colby and L. Kohlberg, in press). ((c)
Novak, T. P. and B. MacEvoy (1990). “On comparing alternative segmentation schemes: The List of
Values (LOV) and Values and Life Styles (VALS).” Journal of Consumer Research 17(1): 105-109.
Compared 2 segmentation schemes, the VALS system and the LOV (L. R. Kahle et al; see PA,
Vol 74:17567). Data were taken from a national probability sample of 2,591 adults who responded to
questionnaires and telephone contacts concerning product ownership, media use, and various activities. The
role of a set of demographic variables in conjunction with VALS and LOV was also evaluated. A
regression model including both demographics and LOV was superior to a model including only VALS.
LOV alone was significantly less predictive than VALS alone. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1990
O'Toole, J. (1982). “Work and love (but mostly work).” Journal of Psychiatric Treatment and Evaluation
4(3): 227-237.
Summarizes what organizational behavior psychologists are learning about the changing work
values of American men and women. The positive and negative influences of psychologists on the
organization of work is traced from the early century to the contemporary era. Whereas early psychologists
attempted to identify a universal pattern of work values, attitudes, and motivations, today's reseachers are
concluding that each worker's needs and wants are not only different, but are constantly changing over
time. It is argued that work must now be organized to meet the various and changing worker needs for
diversity, choice, flexibility, mobility, participation, responsibility, and security on the job. Failing this,
workers should not be reluctant to seek out new employment that meets their needs. A reluctance to change
jobs may be a source of poor mental health. (19 ref) ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Obot, I. S. (1988). “Value systems and cross-cultural contact: The effect of perceived similarity and
stability on social evaluations.” International Journal of Intercultural Relations 12(4): 363-379.
Tested the effect of perceived value similarity and stability on the evaluation of culturally similar
and dissimilar targets in 160 Black American college students. Stimulus persons were described as either
Black American (ingroup) or African (outgroup) students in the same institution. Each S was asked to
evaluate 1 stimulus person defined by conditions of value similarity and stability. Measures used included
the Interpersonal Judgment Scale and Social Distance Scale. Results show that targets with similar values
were evaluated more positively on all measures than dissimilar targets. The stability main effect was
significant only on traits of competence. A stability by cultural group interaction was also obtained on the
same dimension, indicating a denigration of the unstable Black American target. (French & Spanish
abstracts) ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Oskamp, S., Ed. (1988). Television as a social issue. Applied social psychology annual, Vol. 8. Beverly
Hills, Sage Publications, Inc.
(from the foreword) Most of the chapters in this volume were initially presented, in a briefer form,
at a conference on "Television as a Social Issue" sponsored by the Society for the Psychological Study of
Social Issues (SPSSI) as part of the celebration of its fiftieth anniversary. (from the introduction) This
volume is unique in several ways. First, it focuses on the social issues related to television, asking
important questions about public policy regarding broadcasting. Second, it combines the views of several
different interest groups: media researchers, television industry representatives, media critics, and public
officials involved in regulation of public communication. Third, it focuses on a mix of topic areas. It begins
with consideration of the environmental context of television, including the technological, economic, and
organizational constraints under which the industry operates, the views of critics and of the public, and
public policy considerations involved in regulation of the industry. Next it takes up the issue of television's
portrayal of various social subgroups, such as women and ethnic minorities, and how the industry monitors
such role portrayals and other program content. Then it turns to the controversial issue of violence on TV
and assesses the evidence concerning its effects on viewers. The following topic presents the other side of
the coin: television's potential for promoting prosocial values, and how that potential can be actualized.
Finally, the volume discusses social science research on television and speculates about the future of
television in terms of viewers' attitudes and behavior, technological changes, and developments in
theoretical views about media effects. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Osson, D. (1989). “Horizons temporels d'adolescents d'adujourd'hui. / Temporal horizons of today's

adolescents.” Psychologie Medicale 21(6): 738-741.
Explores the attitudes of today's adolescents regarding their future, which appears obscured by the
long shadow cast by a triumphant technology that awards personal prospects and human values. 250 French
high school students were queried about their sense of time (past, present, and future). Ss' responses
showed that their concern was the future and what is held for each of them. On the whole, Ss appeared to
hope for a better world in the future. (English abstract) (0 ref) ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights
reserved)
Ottati, V., H. C. Triandis, et al. (1999). Subjective culture and the workplace: Comparing Hispanic and
mainstream naval recruits. Personality and person perception across cultures. Y.-T. Lee. Mahwah, NJ,
USA, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc., Publishers: p. 235-253.
(from the chapter) Examined determinants of work-related values held by 73 Hispanic and 81
mainstream (mostly White) US Navy recruits, and investigated the extent to which these values are
associated with corresponding differences in the way Hispanic and mainstream recruits view supervisor-
subordinate relations. G. Hofstede's (1980) 4 dimensions (i.e., individualism-collectivism, power distance,
uncertainty avoidance, and masculinity) were used to illustrate the extent to which cultural differences can
be moderated by selection into a power subculture. Ethnic differences were clearly obtained for certain
value dimensions (power distance and uncertainty avoidance). Acculturation was found to lead Hispanic
recruits to resemble mainstream recruits along certain dimensions. Linkage to a common military culture
led both groups to differ from most civilian populations in certain respects (e.g., power distance). Thus, it
appears that ethnic tradition, acculturation to mainstream values, and membership in a common military
culture all combine to influence work-related values. ((c) 1999 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Padilla, A. M., Y. Wagatsuma, et al. (1985). “Acculturation and personality as predictors of stress in
Japanese and Japanese-Americans.” Journal of Social Psychology 125(3): 295-305.
Studied the experience of stress and personality variables among 114 Japanese and Japanese-
American undergraduates undergoing differing degrees of acculturation. The Self-Esteem Inventory,
Rotter's Internal-External Locus of Control Scales, and a measure of introversionêxtraversion were
administered to Ss. A stress scale designed for immigrant students was used as well as new scales for
acculturation and values. Ss were grouped into 1st, 2nd, and 3rd or later generations. Results from several
analyses indicate that different generational groups reported different levels of stress, values, and
acculturation. In addition, generational groups differed in self-esteem and locus of control: First-generation
Ss experienced the most stress, were low in self-esteem, and were more externally oriented than 3rd/later
generation Ss. Also, self-esteem and acculturation level were good predictors of stress in all generations.
(19 ref) ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Papajohn, J. (1979). “Intergenerational value orientation and psychopathology in Greek-American

families.” International-Journal-of-Family-Therapy; 1979 Sum Vol 1(2) 107-132.
Examined the effect of culture change on the mental health of Greek-American families living in
the Boston area through the use of value orientation theory (F. R. Kluckhohn and F. L. Strodtbeck, 1961).
A comparison was made between a sample of 34 families with a 2nd generation schizophrenic member and
a matched group of 17 families without a history of manifest psychopathology. A detailed statistical
analysis of the data obtained through the use of the Value Orientation Schedule is provided. Among the
results it was found that parents in the patient families were more likely to have adhered closely to
traditional Greek value orientations, even after 40 yrs in the US. (11 ref) (PsycLIT Database Copyright
Park, S. E. and A. A. Harrison (1995). “Career-related interests and values, perceived control, and
acculturation of Asian-American and Caucasian-American college students.” Journal of Applied Social
Psychology 25(13): 1184-1203.
184 Asian-American and 130 Caucasian-American undergraduates completed the Career Anchor
Inventory, Self-Directed Search (SDS), and Spheres of Control Scale (SOC). Asian-American Ss also
completed the Suinn-Lew Asian Self-Identity Acculturation Scale. Compared with Caucasian-American Ss,
Asian-American Ss showed higher interest in the Investigative and Conventional vocational categories but
lower interest in the Social category on the SDS. Asian-American Ss had lower perceived control in the
Personal and Interpersonal spheres of the SOC. Among Asian-Americans, acculturation was positively
correlated with perceived control in the Personal and Interpersonal spheres and with the Enterprising
vocational category. Acculturation was negatively correlated with Investigative and Conventional interests.
Parks, C. D. (1994). “The predictive ability of social values in resource dilemmas and public goods games.”
Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 20(4): 431-438.
Compared the predictive ability of several methods of assessing social values, including the Trust
Scale (e.g., T. Yamagishi; see PA, Vol 73:27153) and an older measure of trust, the Fascism Scale. Social
values, as assessed by G. P. Knight and A. R. Dubro's (see PA, Vol 71:28710) judgmental measurement
technique, were predictive of resource dilemma behavior. Trust, measured with Yamagishi's Trust Scale,
predicted contribution to public goods. The trust and social values scales were not correlated, suggesting
that they are distinct concepts; however, the social value scales did not correlate with each other. A testable
explanation for the results, centering on the nature of payoffs in the different games, is offered. ((c) 1997
Patel, N., T. G. Power, et al. (1996). “Socialization values and practices of Indian immigrant parents:
Correlates of modernity and acculturation.” Child Development 67(2): 302-313.
Examined 3 predictors of parental attitudes and behavior (modernity, acculturation, and time in the
US) and aspects of socialization practices, including characteristics that parents encourage in their children,
and methods used in encouraging these characteristics. 100 Gujarati Indian immigrant mothers and fathers
of 12-19 yr old children were interviewed and completed questionnaires about their socialization values
and practices. Results show effects of the predictors varied as a function of parent and child gender.
Whereas modernity and acculturation predicted socialization values for fathers of girls, only time in the US
predicted the socialization values of mothers. Parental modernity, acculturation, and time in the US
predicted the use of induction and psychological control, but differently as a function of parent and child
gender. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Perkins, W. S. and T. J. Reynolds (1995). “Interpreting multidimensional data with cognitive differentiation
analysis.” Psychology and Marketing 12(6): 481-499.
Examined the usefulness of cognitive differentiation analysis (CDA) in interpreting
multidimensional data in consumer research, using simulated data sets and a benefit segmentation study. In
Study 1, 300 simulations were generated in 3 series, for 9 stimuli on 2-4 dimensions. Study 2 studied
benefit segments for 9 fast-food restaurants, on 6 attributes. 125 marketing undergraduates rated each
restaurant on a 7-point scale, and completed a graded preference task to obtain a pairwise comparison.
CDA regression was applied to both data sets. Results show that CDA improved the interpretability of
individual-level multidimensional data by estimating a multi-regression equation relating pair-wise product
judgments to product attributes. In Study 1, CDA performed well statistically. CDA correlations and rho
values in Study 2 converged. CDA-generated segments successfully predicted unidimensional preferences,
while rho values did not. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1996 American Psychological Assn, all rights
reserved)
Perlaki, I. (1994). “Organizational development in Eastern Europe: Learning to build culture-specific OD

theories.” Journal-of-Applied-Behavioral-Science; 1994 Sep Vol 30(3) 297-312.
Discusses organizational development (OD) values and national culture in Eastern Europe (EE)
and examines differences in these variables between EE countries and the US using G. Hofstede's (1980) 4
dimensions of national culture (power distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism, and masculinity).
The role of social development in prerevolutionary EE counties is also described. Barriers to successful OD
applications in EE countries include fundamental incongruence between prerevolutionary EE culture and
OD values. Positive effects of social development plans in EE countries include increased managerial
awareness about areas such as quality of work life, work satisfaction, and goals and needs of individual
employees. Strategies for successful OD application in EE include choosing OD interventions that are
compatible with EE culture, choosing EE organizations that are compatible with OD values, and building a
culture-specific OD theory. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1995 American Psychological Assn, all rights
reserved)
Peterson, R. A. (1994). “A meta-analysis of Cronbach's coefficient alpha.” Journal of Consumer Research

21(2): 381-391.
Sought to empirically document the magnitudes of alpha coefficients obtained in behavioral
research, compare these obtained values with guidelines and recommendations set forth by other
researchers (e.g., J. C. Nunnally (1967, 1978)), and provide insights into research design characteristics that
may influence the size of coefficient alpha. To obtain a large number of alpha coefficients, a census of 8
psychology- and marketing-related journals, a convenience sample of 16 other journals, and a sample of
unpublished manuscripts was conducted. Average reported alpha coefficients ranged from .70 for values
and beliefs to .82 for job satisfaction. Findings document the magnitudes of alpha coefficients obtained in
behavioral research over the past 3 decades and demonstrate that, with few exceptions, the magnitudes
appear to be more of a function of the construct being measured than of the characteristics of the
underlying research design. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1995 American Psychological Assn, all rights
reserved)
Ping, R. A., Jr. (1996). “Latent variable interaction and quadratic effect estimation: A two-step technique
using structural equation analysis.” Psychological Bulletin 119(1): 166-175.
The author proposes an alternative estimation technique for latent variable interactions and
quadratics. Available techniques for specifying these variables in structural equation models require adding
variables or constraint equations that can produce specification tedium and errors or estimation difficulties.
The proposed technique avoids these difficulties and may be useful for EQS, LISREL 7, and LISREL 8
users. First, measurement parameters for indicator loadings and errors of linear latent variables are
estimated in a measurement model that excludes the interaction and quadratic variables. Next, these
estimates are used to calculate values for the indicator loadings and error variances of the interaction and
quadratic latent variables. Then, these calculated values are specified as constants in the structural model
containing the interaction and quadratic variables. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1996 American
Pitts, R. E. (1981). “Value-group analysis of cultural values in heterogeneous populations.” Journal of

Suggests an improved methodology for the examination of cultural values in which homogeneous
groups are presented as an alternative to the examination of measures of central tendency for population
and a priori determined groups. Rokeach Value Survey and demographic data for the present study were
collected from 672 members of the University of South Carolina Consumer Panel. A cluster-analytic
approach was utilized to determine 4 groups of Ss with homogeneous and statistically distinct value
systems. Membership in a homogeneous value group was related to education level, job type, and family
income. Race and sex differences were not determined for group membership; however such differences
were evident when race and sex a priori groups were examined singularly. It is suggested that
determination of groups with homogeneous value structures is a viable alternative to the use of a priori
stereotype groupings, such as sex, race, or age. (19 ref) ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rig! hts reserved)
Pitts, R. E. and A. G. Woodside (1983). “Personal value influences on consumer product class and brand
preferences.” Journal of Social Psychology 119(1): 37-53.
Tested 4 hypotheses that relate to values as basic criterion variables for market segmentation: (1)
Consumers with different value structures use different criteria in selecting products; (2) consumers with
different value structures exhibit different product preferences; (3) consumers with different value
structures state different purchase intentions toward product classes and brands; and (4) groups of
consumers with similar choice criteria (benefit segments) can be differentiated in terms of their values. A
5th hypothesis was tested regarding the usefulness of values in enriching market segmentation: Groups of
consumers with similar product class/brand preferences can be differentiated in terms of their values. The
authors investigated market segmentation procedures at 2 levels--product class preference and brand
preference within a class--for 3 products: automobiles, underarm deodorants, and weekend recreation
activities. The Rokeach Value Survey was sent to 830 consum! er panel members. Several months later
each 3rd of the panel received a 1-product survey concerning class and brand choice criteria, beliefs,
preferences, intentions, and past behavior. Consumer value structures were linked to the importance of
choice criteria for product classes and brands. (20 ref) ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Pitts, R. E., D. J. Whalen, et al. (1989). “Black and White response to culturally targeted television
commercials: A values-based approach.” Psychology and Marketing 6(4): 311-328.
Examined the effect of 4 national television advertisements for product category leader brands
developed expressly for Black consumers on 82 Black and 189 White undergraduates. Through the use of
cultural values, responses to ethnic or subculturally oriented marketing communication were measured. A
multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) revealed that, not only did Black Ss display a more positive
affect toward a commercial message featuring Black actors than did White Ss, but, as the targeted audience,
Black Ss were more likely to perceive the underlying value messages contained in the advertisements. ((c)
Plas, J. M. (1996). Person-centered leadership: An American approach to participatory management.

Thousand Oaks, CA, USA, Sage Publications, Inc.
(from the book) Person-centered leadership is an approach to management that is uniquely suited
to American organizations because it works with--rather than against--US individualism values. It
emphasizes process, creative risk taking, learning, teamwork, and other successful participatory
management strategies but relentlessly shifts the focus off those strategies and onto the individual. The
emphasis on the individual means that there is an emphasis on psychology tools as well as management
tools. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
center for children and youth.” Residential-Group-Care-and-Treatment; 1984 Sum Vol 2(4) 71-83.
Discusses the need by clinicians in the human services field for a conceptual model of culture that
is complementary to, and can be easily integrated with, other clinical constructs and approaches. The author
presents such a model currently being used in a psychiatric residential treatment center servicing Hawaii's
multicultural population of children, youth, and their families. This value orientations model was adapted
for clinical use from the anthropological works of F. Kluckhohn and C. Strodtbeck (1961). (10 ref)
center for children and youth.” Residential-Treatment-for-Children-and-Youth; 1995 Vol 12(4) 29-42.
Presents a value orientations model (F. Kluckhohn and C. Strodtbeck, 1961) that can be used by
clinicians in the human services field for a conceptual model of culture that is relatively simple and can be
easily integrated with other clinical constructs. This model is used in a psychiatric residential treatment
center servicing Hawaii's multicultural population of children, youth, and their families. The model
suggests that the dimensions of time, human activity, relations to other people, relations to nature and
supernature, and innate human nature have cognitive, affective, and directive elements in them such that
they influence an individual or group's behavior. Clinical applications of the model are discussed, and
examples are provided. Applications on a group or systems level are also addressed. (PsycLIT Database
Prensky, D. and C. Wright Isak (1997). Advertising, values, and the consumption community. Values,
This chapter discusses the importance of communities in transmitting values. The authors provide
evidence that "virtual" communities of mass-media consumers receive and enact values differently today
from communities of the past. They discuss the increasing salience of the consumption community and
decreasing salience of residential and occupational communities as the basis for value enactment. The
authors propose that consumption communities do not require face-to-face contact with other community
members because media, both mass and individualized, provide examples and feedback about appropriate
behavior. A relationship is suggested between the values expressed in TV programs and the values
expressed in the advertising in those shows and their affect on consumers' response to advertising.
Implications for theory and practice of advertising are discussed. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights
reserved)
Pryor, R. G. (1990). “An investigation of factors affecting the stability of work aspect preferences.”
Australian Psychologist 25(2): 189-209.
Investigated person variable and compromise situation influences on the stability of values and
preferences related to the work of 144 adult students who were sitting initially for their matriculation
examination and subsequently, 6 mo later, had entered a course or occupation. Using 4 types of stability
(characteristic, factor, hierarchical, and response pattern), 4 facets of human valuing were examined.
Overall, the impact of the person variables, age and sex, on the different types of stability did not appear to
be major. Compromise in career decision making as a situational variable appeared to have very little
influence on the stability of values/work aspect preferences. Results reveal sufficient stability for work
aspect preferences to be considered as traits. However, the data do not discount the possibility of state
effects. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Punnett, B. J. (1991). “Language, cultural values and preferred leadership style: A comparison of
Anglophones and Francophones in Ottawa.” Canadian Journal of Behavioural Science 23(2): 241-244.
Examined cultural values, language, and preferred leadership style among 113 English-speaking
and 77 French-speaking managers. The 2 groups were similar on leadership style preferences and 3 of the
cultural indices, and significantly different in terms of individualism. Differences were found on 3 of the
cultural indices between this group and an earlier Canadian sample (G. Hofstede, 1980), suggesting that
organizational influences may have more impact on expressed cultural values than differences attributable
to language background. (French abstract) (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1992 American Psychological
Punnett, B. J., J. B. Singh, et al. (1994). “The relative influence of economic development and Anglo
heritage on expressed values: Empirical evidence from a Caribbean country.” International Journal of
Intercultural Relations 18(1): 99-115.
Punnett, B.-J., J. B. Singh, et al. (1994). “The relative influence of economic development and Anglo
heritage on expressed values: Empirical evidence from a Caribbean country.” International-Journal-of-
Intercultural-Relations; 1994 Win Vol 18(1) 99-115.
Qribi, A. (1997). “Acculturation et education familiale chez les Maghrebins dans le contexte francais de
l'immigration. / Acculturation and family education among Moroccans, Algerians, and Tunisians in the
French context of immigration.” Bulletin de Psychologie 50(428): 237-242.
Studied the cultural determinants of the family educational values of immigrant populations in
France. Human Ss: Normal male and female Moroccan, Algerian, and Tunisian adults (fathers and mothers
in 41 families that had been living in France an average of 15 yrs). Ss were administered oral
questionnaires and interviews about their individual and family histories, their educational views and
practices, and their hopes for the future. Responses were categorized as modern or traditional. Within each
category, the degree of flexibility or rigidity of the family environmental structure was analyzed. ((c) 1998
Ralston, D.-A., M.-K. Cunniff, et al. (1995). “Cultural accommodation: The effect of language on the
responses of bilingual Hong Kong Chinese managers.” Journal-of-Cross-Cultural-Psychology; 1995 Nov
Vol 26(6) 714-727.
Examined the influence of language on the responses of bilingual Hong Kong Chinese managers.
104 Chinese managers responded to either a Chinese or an English version of S. H. Schwartz's (1992)
Values Survey instrument. 52 American managers also completed the English version. For the 7
dimensions with a significant culture effect (including achievement, hedonism, stimulation, self-direction,
tradition, conformity, and security), the direction of the means supported the individualism-collectivism
typology. The results suggest that the language in which an instrument is administered may produce
culturally accommodating responses that can affect the results of a cross-cultural study. (PsycLIT Database
Reardon, K. K. (1991). Persuasion in practice. Newbury Park, CA, USA, Sage Publications, Inc.
(from the cover) What is persuasion? How is it maintained? How is it practiced and applied?
Offering a unique blend of theory, research, and application, "Persuasion in Practice" deftly answers these
questions and helps debunk many of the myths surrounding this topic. According to Reardon, persuasion is
not something one does to another but something he or she does with another. The constructs, schemata,
rules, illusions, attitudes, and values of persuasion are explored, and various contemporary theories are
presented. In addition, the author examines persuasion as it is practiced in a number of different settings,
including politics, organizations, and the mass media. For the scholar or student wishing to better
understand the theoretical and research origins of current thinking on persuasion--or for the practitioner in
all of us wanting to know how this current thinking translates into practice--you can't find a better resource
than "Persuasion in Practice." ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Reynolds, B. K. (1984). “A cross-cultural study of values of Germans and Americans.” International

Journal of Intercultural Relations 8(3): 269-278.
Examined the values of 199 German university students (aged 18-49 yrs) and 231 US university
students (aged 17-61 yrs), using the Rokeach Value Survey. Germans ranked "a world at peace" 1st and the
Americans ranked it 9th. Also, Americans ranked "family security" 3rd and Germans ranked it 11th. There
were 2 distinct differences between the 2 groups: (1) Germans were more competence oriented in the
means they desired to attain their end-states of existence; however, their end-states of existence were
society-oriented and interpersonal. (2) Americans were morality oriented in the modes of conduct they
desired to attain their end-states of existence, and their end-states of existence were more personal or self-
centered and intrapersonal than those of Germans. Thus, the means to the end, as well as the end, differed
for both groups. Results parallel those of a similar study by D. C. McClelland et al (see PA, Vol
36:1GB45M) completed in 1958. (French & Spanish abstracts) (12 ref) (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1985
Reynolds, T. J. and J. P. Rochon (1991). “Meansênd based advertising research: Copy testing is not
strategy assessment.” Journal of Business Research 22(2): 131-142.
Discusses the use of a meansênd methodology to develop advertising strategy through a
procedure (the Meccas model) including message elements, consumer benefits, driving force, and the use
of leverage points to activate values. The Meccas methodology consists of 5 key specification elements--4
strategic and 1 executional. The methodology and a strategy assessment paradigm are demonstrated
through the analysis of an advertisement for a type of beer, using 42 Ss. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all
rights reserved)
Rice, B. (1988). “The selling of life-styles.” Psychology Today 22(3): 46-50.

Discusses psychographics (PSGs), the attempt to classify consumers by their beliefs, motivations,
and attitudes. The development of a commercial marketing-research program called Values and Lifestyles,
the country's most widely used system of PSG research, is described. There are also smaller firms that do
custom-tailored research, and some companies do their own PSG research. Criticisms of PSGs are
discussed (e.g., because PSG research firms guard their methods very carefully, outsiders have been unable
to test the data's validity and reliability). Although the accuracy of the research is debatable, the system still
has many believers. (0 ref) ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Rifkin, J. (1987). Time wars: The primary conflict in human history. New York, NY, USA, Henry Holt and
Co, Inc.
(from the jacket) Jeremy Rifkin sets the stage for the coming battle between advocates of speed
and efficiency and those who find other values more consistent with the needs of our species and the
dictates of nature. /// On one side are those who favor an artificial world where past, present, and future
blur together without benefit of real time or memory--a fully simulated "paradise." On the other side stand
the time rebels. They question society's capitulation to computer models, nanosecond culture, and
computerspeak, arguing instead for a new time orientation that would retain past achievements and
language, accommodate our activities with the biological and physical rhythms of the natural world. ///
Jeremy Rifkin offers persuasive evidence to demonstrate what happens when time is snatched from its
biological and environmental moorings. He provides a context for the emerging "time wars" by arguing that
the great political battles in history have been waged over competing temporal visions; he concludes that
changes in civilization take place only with corresponding changes in our conception of time. ((c) 1997
Rinfret-Raynor, M. and T.-E. Raynor (1983). “Cross-cultural counselling in perspective with recommended
areas for training.” Canadian-Journal-of-Community-Mental-Health; 1983 Mar Vol 2(1) 49-58.
Presents elements that one must be sensitive to when entering into a counseling relationship with
individuals who do not share North American cultural heritage and values. 10 factors and attitudes that
have a significant impact on the counseling process and outcome are reviewed: language, physical gestures,
physical distance, eye contact, verbal behavior, social class, therapeutic counseling and language, labeling,
culture-class bond values and differences, and counseling expectations and cultural diversity. Training
areas for professional counselors planning to provide counseling services to ethnics and minorities are
recommended. It is stressed that providing services to cultural and minority groups is a complicated
process: Not only is it necessary to provide services in the language of the clients but it is also essential to
examine and possibly change counselor
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Ritchie, J. R. (1974). “An exploratory analysis of the nature and extent of individual differences in
perception.” Journal of Marketing Research 11(1): 41-49.
Investigated the extent of individual differences in consumer perceptions of 12 leisure activities
and the degree to which these differences are real or simply a function of error in the method of data
collection. The measure used to define an individual's perception was his weighting of different dimensions
obtained from J. Carroll and J. Chang's individual differences (INDSCAL) model. A consumer panel of
200 females in a Canadian city was used to obtain 6 types of data on 12 leisure activities:
similarity/dissimilarity judgments, criteria of similarity judgments, preference data, bipolar scales
describing stimuli, familiarity with stimuli, and Rokeach Value Survey scores. Results show that (a)
differences in perception among Ss were significantly greater than chance, (b) 5 perceptual segments were
identified as best describing the range of perceptions found in the sample, and (c) these perceptual
segments did not significantly differ in their familiarity with the stimuli! , personal values, or demographic
variables. (28 ref) ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Robinson, C. (1996). “Asian culture: The marketing consequences.” Journal-of-the-Market-Research-

Society; 1996 Jan Vol 38(1) 55-62.
Provides an overview of the cultural dimensions of Asian orientations and discusses their
implications on brand values. Many Asian packaged goods markets are characterized by a level of single
brand dominance and entrenched market shares and it is suggested that this is due to the shared value
systems held by people in this region (belief in power distance, consensus, and uncertainty avoidance).
Strategies for overcoming the entrenched loyalty phenomenon are discussed, including tapping the strong
desire for identification through status product ownership. The effect of the collective orientation of all the
Confucian-influenced markets in Asia is especially evident in qualitative research and particular
importance must be placed on precise recruitment and moderating skills. It is recommended that target-user
segments be evaluated in terms of their alignment positions relating to the general cultural values of the
region. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1996 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
Rogers, R. S., W. S. Rogers, et al. (1995). “Future imperfect? The aspirations of Slovak and UK young
people.” Studia Psychologica 37(3): 192-194.
Reoperationalized the Rokeach Value Survey (RVS) from the standpoint of Q methodology in
order to comparatively assess the aspirations of Slovak and UK youth. 60 Slovak and 60 UK college
students were administered a set of modified Rokeach Values, the results of which were analyzed by Q
pattern factor analysis. Results indicate that 3 accounts of instrumentality were broadly shared across the 2
cultures, suggestive of the diversity of social narratives among the Ss in both sites as to what is viewed as a
desirable or undesirable value strategy. The 3 cross-national configurations differ in that the 1st stresses a
"caring" kind of tribalism, the 2nd a "bohemian" collectivism, and the 3rd a "postmodern" perspective. A
more self-concerned instrumentality that appeared to owe more to anarchistic values than to traditional
notions of conditions for achievement. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1996 American Psychological Assn,
Roizblatt, A. and D. Pilowsky (1996). “Forced migration and resettlement: Its impact on families and
individuals.” Contemporary Family Therapy: An International Journal 18(4): 513-521.
An increasing number of families are forced to migrate as a result of political turmoil, civil wars,
and "ethnic cleansing." This paper describes the impact of forced migration on individuals and their
families. We suggest that forced migrants reject the new culture while their children are likely to embrace
it. This discrepancy between the "old" values of the migrants and the values to the new culture espoused by
their children is a frequent source of intrafamilial tension. We also describe a second acculturation process
that takes place when forced migrants return to their country of origin. Families who migrate back to the
country of origin realize, often to their surprise, that both they and their country of origin have changed
significantly. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Postulated a human values structure made up of 18 instrumental values (behavioral processes) and
18 terminal values (end states). Used a ranking technique to measure values in a college population.
Rokeach, M. and S. J. Ball Rokeach (1989). “Stability and change in American value priorities, 1968-
1981.” American Psychologist 44(5): 775-784.
In 1968 and 1971, the National Opinion Research Center (NORC) obtained national data for
rankings of 18 terminal and 18 instrumental values. In 1974 and 1981, the Institute for Social Research
(ISR) obtained additional data for the same 18 terminal values. In a 1985 study, Inglehart compared the 4
sets of terminal value rankings thus obtained and found them to be remarkably stable. These same data also
show, however, that Americans underwent dramatic value changes during the same period. The most
disturbing finding is that equality, the value previously found to be highly correlated with antiracist and
liberal attitudes, decreased more than any other value. This and other value changes contradict well-
established NORC, Gallup, and ISR findings showing (a) impressive increases in antiracist attitudes and (b)
a "much more variable" and (c) "much lower level of support" for attitudes toward implementation of
integration. We propose a theoretical explanation of the three sets of contradictory findings. Moreover, we
offer a theoretical explanation of naturally occurring stability and change in American value priorities. ((c)
Rokeach, M. and S. J. Ball Rokeach (1989). “Stability and change in American value priorities, 1968-
2981.” American Psychologist 44(5): 775-784.
In 1968 and 1971, the National Opinion Research Center (NORC) obtained national data for
rankings of 18 terminal and 18 instrumental values. In 1974 and 1981, the Institute for Social Research
(ISR) obtained additional data for the same 18 terminal values. In a 1985 study, Inglehart compared the 4
sets of terminal value rankings thus obtained and found them to be remarkably stable. These same data also
show, however, that Americans underwent dramatic value changes during the same period. The most
disturbing finding is that equality, the value previously found to be highly correlated with antiracist and
liberal attitudes, decreased more than any other value. This and other value changes contradict well-
established NORC, Gallup, and ISR findings showing (a) impressive increases in antiracist attitudes and (b)
a "much more variable" and (c) "much lower level of support" for attitudes toward implementation of
integration. We propose a theoretical explanation of the three sets of contradictory findings. Moreover, we
offer a theoretical explanation of naturally occurring stability and change in American value priorities. ((c)
Ronen, S. (1994). An underlying structure of motivational need taxonomies: A cross-cultural confirmation.

Handbook of industrial and organizational psychology, Vol. 4 (2nd ed.). H. C. Triandis. Palo Alto, CA,
USA, Consulting Psychologists Press, Inc: p. 241-269.
(from the chapter) reports research conducted in various countries and cultures / summarizes the
available data pertaining to the taxonomies of various [work motivational] need categories, concentrating
on those theories that have been developed primarily in the US but which have been found to have external
validity in other cultures as well / this theoretical integration is based on an analysis of work values and the
underlying dimensions that persist across cultures / these underlying dimensions suggest a
multidimensional structure discernible through multivariate techniques / suggests that valence categories of
various job characteristics form universal dimensions that can serve as a basis for understanding culturally
bound organizational reward systems ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Rorer, B. A. and R. C. Ziller (1982). “Iconic communication of values among American and Polish
students.” Journal of Cross Cultural Psychology 13(3): 352-361.
Many of the major value surveys are forced-choice questionnaires based on the theoretical
assumption that values are variable only in the ranking patterns of universal components. In order to test
the assumption of universalism across 2 diverse cultures, a free-response method was employed in which
36 Polish and 40 American college freshmen took photographs of preferred objects in their everyday
environment. The resulting value orientations reveal a behavioral component of values in everyday life.
Polish Ss depicted a narrower range of orientations, and institutional as opposed to private orientations.
Results are interpreted in terms of the more limited range of alternatives of choice afforded by the Polish
environment relative to that of the American Ss, and an orientation toward values associated with enduring
aspects of Polish life within a culture marked by instability. (17 ref) ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights
reserved)
Rose, G. M., A. Shoham, et al. (1994). “Social values, conformity, and dress.” Journal of Applied Social
Psychology 24(17): 1501-1519.
Examined the influence of social values on the importance of various clothing features. A model
was hypothesized in which social values lead to differing needs for group identification, affiliation, and
conformity, which influence clothing feature importance. 663 male and female heads of households
completed questionnaires. In general, social values were associated with a high need for affiliation and
group identification, conformity, and a greater emphasis on both the utilitarian and the display aspects of
clothing (style and brand name). (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1995 American Psychological Assn, all
rights reserved)
Rose, G. M. (1997). Cross-cultural values research: Implications for international advertising. Values,
(from the chapter) This chapter examines current practices in international advertising and
summarizes cross-cultural values research. It attempts to identify consistent and important value
dimensions, and to assess the implications of these dimensions for international advertising. Initially,
current trends in advertising are examined. Then the distinction between the individualist and a collectivist
culture is described, and the cross-cultural research of both social psychologists and consumer behaviorists
is summarized. Finally, suggestions for future research are advanced. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights
reserved)
Rosenthal, D. A., R. Bell, et al. (1989). “From collectivism to individualism? The acculturation of Greek
immigrants in Australia.” International Journal of Psychology 24(1): 57-71.
Examined whether Greek immigrants in Australia have retained traditional Greek values and
behaviors or moved to an integration of these with Anglo-Australian values and behaviors. The sample
consisted of 3 members (mother, father, adolescent) of 40 working-class families in Melbourne, Australia
and 20 working-class families residing in Greece. Of the Australian sample, 20 were Greek-Australian and
20 were Anglo-Australian. Results show that Greek-Australians retained the collectivistic values of their
Greek culture while Anglo-Australians demonstrated a more individualistic orientation. There was
evidence for convergence of Anglo- and Greek-Australian perceptions of appropriate behaviors and support
for a view that acculturation is more likely to be manifested in behaviors than in core values. Overall, there
was little evidence for a cultural gap between Greek-Australian parents and their adolescents. (French
Rosenthal, D., N. Ranieri, et al. (1996). “Vietnamese adolescents in Australia: Relationships between
perceptions of self and parental values, intergenerational conflict, and gender dissatisfaction.” International
Journal of Psychology 31(2): 81-91.
Studied traditional family and independence values among 204 Vietnamese adolescents and young
adults (mean age 18.2 yrs) living in Australia, their perceptions of parental values, and the impact of
different parent-child acculturation on intergenerational conflict and sex-role satisfaction. Demographic
data were obtained, and Ss were administered a modified version of the Values Questionnaire (N. A.
Nguyen and H. L. Williams, 1988). Conflict was measured with a 12-item scale (D. A. Rosenthal, 1984),
and sex-role satisfaction was measured with an 8-item scale (Rosenthal and N. R. Grieve, 1990).
Preliminary analysis replicated the factor structure of the Nguyen and Williams (1988) study. Especially for
girls, traditional Vietnamese family values decreased with time spent in Australia, while independence
values increased. For girls but not for boys, the discrepancy between adolescents' values and perceived
parental values was associated with more conflict and greater sex-role dissatisfaction. (French abstract) ((c)
Ross Sheriff, F. (1992). Adaptation and integration into American society: Major issues affecting Asian
Americans. Social work practice with Asian Americans. Sage sourcebooks for the human services series,
Vol. 20. S. M. Furuto. Newbury Park, CA, USA, Sage Publications, Inc: p. 45-63.
(from the book) discusses Asian adaptation and integration / adaptation of Asians involves
acculturation to Euro American values, norms, attitudes, and expectations at both the individual and group
levels / the adaptation process, which moves from welcome-acceptance to opposition-hostility to
marginalization and finally to assimilation-integration, is analyzed in structural, economic, social, and
political dimensions ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Rousseau, D. (1990). “Developing and testing a model of psychographic market segmentation.” South
African Journal of Psychology 20(3): 184-194.
Developed and tested an integrated model and psychographic inventory (PI) of market
segmentation for furniture buyers in South Africa. The model describes market segment (consumer type
and demographics), consumer value perspective (general, product, and consumption-specific values), and
product attribute perspective (categories, attributes, and positioning). Hypotheses relating to values and
lifestyle groups were formulated and tested on 357 White and 150 non-White households in the Eastern
Cape. Data confirmed 4 of the 5 lifestyle groups identified in the model: home-centered, outer-directed,
trend-setters, and inner-directed. The PI had modest reliability. (Afrikaans abstract) (PsycLIT Database
Sabo, D. and S. C. Jansen (1992). Images of men in sport media: The social reproduction of gender order.
Men, masculinity, and the media. Research on men and masculinities series, Vol. 1. S. Craig. Newbury
Park, CA, USA, Sage Publications, Inc: p. 169-184.
(from the chapter) explore emerging research on gender in sport media in order to demonstrate
how male images in sport media contribute to the social reproduction of cultural values and structural
dynamics of dominance systems within the gender order / drawing upon both feminist theory and a concept
of hegemony loosely derived from Gramsci, we try to identify some of the ways in which sports media
contribute to the social constructions of hegemonic masculinity, and enable dominant groups within the
gender order to extend their material control to the cultural sectors /// critical feminist analysis of sport and
media / the gendering of sport media [the glorious presence of men, the trivialization of women, socially
structured silences] / black athleticism and racial stereotypes / from gender emblem to class icon ((c) 1997
Sabogal, F., G. Marin, et al. (1987). “Hispanic familism and acculturation: What changes and what
doesn't?” Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences 9(4): 397-412.
Investigated the effects of acculturation on attitudinal familism in 452 Hispanics compared with
227 White non-Hispanics. Despite differences in national origin, Mexican-, Central-, and Cuban-Americans
reported similar attitudes toward the family, indicating that familism is a core characteristic in the Hispanic
culture. Three basic dimensions of familism were found: familial obligations, perceived support from the
family, and family as referents. Findings show the high level of perceived family support, invariable
despite changes in acculturation, was the most essential dimension of Hispanic familism. Familial
obligations and the perception of the family as referents appeared to diminish with the level of
acculturation, but the perception of family support did not change. (Spanish abstract) ((c) 1997
Sandoval, V.-A. (1994). “Smoking and Hispanics: Issues of identity, culture, economics, prevalence, and
prevention.” Health-Values-The-Journal-of-Health-Behavior,-Education-and-Promotion; 1994 Jan-Feb Vol
18(1) 44-53.
Discusses the prevalence and patterns of smoking among Hispanics and presents results from the
National Center for Health Statistics Hispanic Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (J. L. Delgado et
al, 1990). Smoking initiation in Hispanics and cigarette advertising and the Hispanic market are discussed.
Prevention/intervention programs geared to Hispanics should address socioeconomic factors, the influence
of family and community, and language. The role of the mass media in prevention is described. It is
concluded that smoking prevention programs geared to Hispanics should be bilingual, available at the grade
school level, and in multimedia formats. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1994 American Psychological Assn,
Schaninger, C. M., M. C. Nelson, et al. (1993). “An empirical evaluation of the Bartos model of wife's
work involvement.” Journal of Advertising Research 33(3): 49-63.
Investigated whether wife's work involvement, as operationalized by the classification scheme
proposed by R. Bartos (1978, 1982; see also PA, Vol 60:4250), is a viable basis for segmenting married-
couple households and for predicting meaningful hypothesized consumption differences. 444 households,
of which 280 were married-couple households, completed a questionnaire addressing topics such as
ownership of major and minor durable goods, use of services, work involvement, attitudes, and deal
proneness and shopping behavior. Results demonstrate the usefulness of the Bartos segmentation model
across a variety of attitudinal and consumption areas. There were clear differences among the 4 Bartos
segments for sex-role norms, traditional values, self-fulfillment aspirations, work and time pressures, deal
proneness and shopping behavior, use of services, and food and beverage consumption. ((c) 1997
Schifferstein, H. N. J. (1995). “Contextual effects in difference judgments.” Perception and Psychophysics

57(1): 56-70.
Manipulating stimulus spacing, frequency, or range usually affects intensity judgments. The locus
of analogs of these contextual effects in a "difference" estimation task was investigated in 6 taste
experiments (24 Ss in each; aged 19-28 yrs) using aqueous solutions. When all stimuli elicited the same
taste quality, stimulus distribution affected the scale values only when water was included in the stimulus
set (Exps 1-3). When the subjective ranges of 2 taste qualities were manipulated, different scale values
were obtained for the separate qualities (Exp 4). Manipulation of the expected response distribution did not
affect the scale values or the responses (Exps 5-6). Shifts in stimulus distributions or ranges resulted in
shifts in subjective scale values. The contextual effects can be interpreted as relative shifts of a number of
gustatory continua, with water lying on a separate continuum. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1995
Schiffman, L. G. and E. Sherman (1991). “Value orientations of new-age elderly: The coming of an ageless
market. Special Issue: Examining the structure of personal values and consumer decision making.” Journal
of Business Research 22(2): 187-194.
Describes an emerging elderly age-subcultural segment, the new-age elderly, which differs
substantially in terms of values from the stereotypical or traditional elderly. They perceive themselves as
younger in age and outlook; feel more self-confident and in control of their lives; and are less concerned
with the accumulation of possessions and more involved in seeking novel experiences, personal challenges,
and new adventures. These experience-oriented elderly seem well-adjusted and generally satisfied with
their lives. A comparison model of the new-age vs traditional elderly is presented. (PsycLIT Database
Schleidt, M., P. Neumann, et al. (1988). “Pleasure and disgust: Memories and associations of pleasant and
unpleasant odours in Germany and Japan.” Chemical Senses 13(2): 279-293.
166 German and 88 Japanese Ss (aged 17-84 yrs) were asked to name pleasant and unpleasant
odors from memory and to give associations regarding them. The Ss enumerated 2,040 odors and 3,520
associations. The results for both cultures were similar in quality as well as quantity. The odor memories
included the whole physical and social environment, and the associations showed the far-reaching effect of
odor experiences. Both pleasant and unpleasant odors were remembered to an equal extent. Most of the
odors recalled were assessed similarly by the Ss. The possibility that this finding reflects preprogrammed
survival strategies is discussed. The few cultural differences that were found seem to reflect different life
habits, norms, and values in the 2 countries. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
schmitt, M. J., Schwartz, S. H., Steyer, R. and Schmitt, T. (1993). “Measurement models for the Schwartz
Values Inventory.” European Journal of Psychological assessment 9: 107-121.
Schmitt, B. H. (1994). “Contextual priming of visual information in advertisements.” Psychology and

Marketing 11(1): 1-14.
Two experiments showed that the interpretation and evaluation of the visual component of an
advertisement is determined in part by a primed context. In Exp 1, 31 undergraduates first reflected about
either social values or personal values (PVs) and then were asked to share their thoughts about the central
visual theme of a public service drug commercial. Results show that PV Ss' free responses contained
significantly more references to personal considerations. In Exp 2, 37 undergraduates were presented with
either positive or negative image concepts or, in the control group, with concepts unrelated to image, and
then judged a clothing advertisement. Results show that Ss primed with positive image terms generated
more positive thoughts about the print advertisement. During debriefing sessions Ss demonstrated that they
were unaware of the influence of the prime. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Schnurr, P. P., S. D. Rosenberg, et al. (1993). “Change in MMPI scores from college to adulthood as a
function of military service.” Journal of Abnormal Psychology 102(2): 288-296.
Examined changes in MMPI scores from adolescence to adulthood in a longitudinal study of 540
men who attended college during the Vietnam War. Using change scores that were adjusted for initial
values, civilians were compared to veterans who were grouped according to combat exposure: none,
peripheral, or direct. In cross-sectional analyses, the groups differed only as adults. Groups were similar in
relative stability but differed by multivariate analysis in absolute change on the clinical scales. Only
veterans with peripheral exposure differed from civilians in multivariate contrasts, even after controlling
for premilitary variables. Effect sizes were small. Results suggest that combat exposure does not produce
uniformly negative outcomes and may have positive effects in select populations. ((c) 1997
Schoenpflug, U. and R. K. Silbereisen (1992). Transmission of values between generations in the family
regarding societal keynote issues: A cross-cultural longitudinal study on Polish and German families.
Innovations in cross cultural psychology. S. Iwawaki. Amsterdam, Netherlands, Swets & Zeitlinger: p. 269-
278.
(from the chapter) research on the transmission of values between generations focusses on a
central topic of cross-cultural psychology: the tradition of cultural values over generations in a society /
culture may be defined by its core values, which when changed, alter the features of the culture / closely
related to the notion of core value is the concept of "keynote issue" / keynote issues refer to life domains in
which cohorts or generations attempt to challenge or support core values of the main stream culture, each
generation in its own way /// the following hypotheses will be tested [in this study]: (1) the transmission of
values between parent and child generations in the family in Poland and West Germany is bidirectional:
parents will influence their children's values and children their parents' values / (2) in Polish families
mothers influence their children's values more than fathers do, while in German families both parents are
equally influential / (3) children's influence on their parents will be stronger in German families than in
Polish families /// the parents and children were asked for their opinions on three keynote issues: (a)
importance of belief in God, (b) usefulness of technical developments for mankind and (c) belief in need of
a strong army to prevent aggression and wars /// analyses are based on data from the Berlin and Warsaw
Longitudinal Study on Youth Development and Substance Use / the Berlin Longitudinal Study started in
1982 and was joined by the parallel Warsaw Study in 1985 with the aim of cross-cultural comparisons / the
cohort of adolescents in this study was between 13 and 14 years old in the first year of measurement / their
parents were also included in the study; they were on the average in their forties ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO,
reserved)

reserved)
Schwartz, A. E. (1977). “Being-in-time: A phenomenological exploration of the existential past, present

and future.” Review of Existential Psychology and Psychiatry 15(2-sup-3): 150-162.
Used phenomenological methodology to study the lived experience of time. 60 graduate students
in psychology and counseling were individually questioned as to how they perceived time, e.g. "what is the
past for you?" Their responses were recorded verbatim and then categorized intuitively into 4 areas:
temporal continuum, meaning-values, self-perception, and becoming and growth. In line with the
existential writings of M. Heidegger, the author attempted to analyze the modalities of time in terms of his
concept, "being-in-the-world." Results indicate that the Ss could be separated into those oriented in an
"active-internalized" way and those maintaining a "passively externalized" stance toward time. The former
are characterized by an attitude of responsibility for the nature of their experiences, while the latter assume
minimal responsibilities where memories, feelings, and events just seem to "happen." It is concluded that
"being-in-time is reflective of the way in which one relates to most aspects of being." ((c) 1997
Schwartz, D. (1985). “Carribbean folk beliefs and Western psychiatry.” Journal-of-Psychosocial-Nursing-

and-Mental-Health-Services; 1985 Nov Vol 23(11) 26-30.
Discusses questions surrounding the practice of psychiatry with selected Caribbean groups,
particularly Puerto Ricans and Haitians, and suggests that the treatment of mental/emotional disorders
needs to be based in the world view of the people being served. Western diagnostic systems and rational
psychiatry models are not effective where people conceptualize differently and may lead to cultural
imperialism (i.e., imposition of the rational psychiatry belief system on others). Certain stress-producing
behaviors may be viewed as problematic both by members of the culture and by Western psychiatrists.
While the form of these behaviors may show cross-cultural similarity, the content is influenced by cultural
values and beliefs. Thus, the ability to identify pathology presupposes a knowledge of the culture with
which the psychiatrist is working. The role of folk healing in the Caribbean and the factors that contribute
to its effectiveness are described. It is suggested that an important part of the mental health care system for
certain Caribbean groups is to include folk healers in the treatment network. (4 ref) (PsycLIT Database
Schwartz, S. H. and W. Bilsky (1987). “Toward a universal psychological structure of human values.”
We constructed a theory of the universal types of values as criteria by viewing values as cognitive
representations of three universal requirements: (a) biological needs, (b) interactional requirements for
interpersonal coordination, and (c) societal demands for group welfare and survival. From these
requirements, we have derived and presented conceptual and operational definitions for eight motivational
domains of values: enjoyment, security, social power, achievement, self-direction, prosocial, restrictive
conformity, and maturity. In addition, we have mapped values according to the interests they serve
(individualistic vs. collectivist) and the type of goal to which they refer (terminal vs. instrumental). We
postulated that the structural organization of value systems reflects the degree to which giving high priority
simultaneously to different values is motivationally and practically feasible. To test our theory, we
performed smallest space analyses on ratings given by subjects from Israel ( N = 455) and Germany ( N =
331) of the importance of 36 Rokeach values as guiding principles in their lives. Partitioning of the
obtained multidimensional space into regions revealed that people discriminate among values according to
our a priori specifications of goal types, interests served, and motivational domains in both societies.
Moreover, the motivational domains of values are organized dynamically in relation to one another in both
societies. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1988 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
Schwartz, S. H. and W. Bilsky (1990). “Toward a theory of the universal content and structure of values:
Extensions and cross-cultural replications.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 58(5): 878-891.
The universality of S. H. Schwartz and W. Bilsky's (see PA, Vol 75:1444) theory of the
psychological content and structure of human values was examined with data from Australia, Finland,
Hong Kong, Spain, and the United States. Smallest space analyses of the importance ratings that
individuals assigned to values revealed the same 7 distinct motivational types of values in each sample as
had emerged earlier in samples from Germany and Israel: achievement, enjoyment, maturity, prosocial,
restrictive conformity, security, self-direction. Social power, studied only in Hong Kong, also emerged. The
structural relations among the value types suggest that the motivational dynamics underlying people's value
priorities are similar across the societies studied, with an exception in Hong Kong. The interests that values
serve (individual vs. collective) and their goal type (instrumental vs. terminal) also distinguished values in
all samples. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1990 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
Schwartz, S. H. (1990). “Individualism-collectivism: Critique and proposed refinements.” Journal of Cross

Cultural Psychology 21(2): 139-157.
Presents 3 criticisms of the individualism-collectivism dichotomy (ICD) in cross-cultural
psychology research. First, the ICD leads one to overlook values that serve both individual and collective
interests. The ICD also ignores values that foster the goals of collectivities other than the ingroup. Finally,
the ICD promotes the mistaken assumption that individualistic and collective values each form coherent
syndromes that are in polar opposition. These problems are illustrated by applying a theory of universal
value types to data from studies by M. Rokeach (1973), D. A. Ellerman et al (unpublished manuscript), H.
C. Triandis et al (see PA, Vol 75:25273), and A. Uutela (1988). The analysis supported the criticisms and
revealed group differences that are obscured by the ICD. Hypotheses are offered about the types of values
likely to discriminate between societies with collectivist vs individualistic social structures. (PsycLIT
Schwartz, B. (1990). “The creation and destruction of value.” American-Psychologist; 1990 Jan Vol 45(1)
7-15.
Science characteristically pursues generalizations thought to approximate eternal truths. Thus, a
science of values would be expected to specify the natural laws that govern human values and their effects
on action. However, research in psychology suggests that values often are contextually determined,
sociohistorical phenomena that can be created or destroyed. Traditional approaches to a science of values
would be likely to reify historically specific and context-dependent phenomena into timeless
generalizations that may then take on a normative force, shaping social life and institutions. An
illuminating and useful science of values must include a critical examination of history and culture. By
making the historical contingency of values clear, such a science could encourage discussion of what
values people ought to have and what social arrangements best contribute to the development of those
values. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1990 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
Schwartz, S. H. (1992). Universals in the content and structure of values: Theory and empirical tests in 20
countries. Advances in experimental social psychology. M. Zanna. New York, Academic Press. vol. 25: 1-
65.
Schwartz, S. H. (1994). Beyond individualism/collectivism: New cultural dimensions of values.

Individualism and collectivism: Theory, method, and applications. Cross cultural research and
methodology series, Vol. 18. H. C. T. C. K. S.-C. C. G. Y. Uichol Kim, Sage Publications, Inc, Thousand
Oaks, CA, US: 85-119.
Schwartz, S. H. (1994). Studying human values. Journeys into cross cultural psychology. F. J. R. v. d. V. P.
B. P. G. S. Anne-Marie Bouvy, Swets & Zeitlinger, Amsterdam, Netherlands: 239-254.
Schwartz, S. H. (1994). “Are there universal aspects in the structure and contents of human values?”
Journal of Social Issues 50(4): 19-45 Issn: 00224537.
Presents a theory of potentially universal aspects in the content of human values. 10 types of
values (power, achievement, hedonism, stimulation, self-direction, universalism, benevolence, tradition,
conformity, and security) are distinguished by their motivational goals. The theory also postulates a
structure of relations among the value types, based on the conflicts and compatibilities experienced when
pursuing them. This structure permits one to relate systems of value priorities, as an integrated whole, to
other variables. A new values instrument, based on the theory, is described. Evidence from 25,863
schoolteachers, university students, adults, and adolescents in 44 countries is summarized. Relations of this
approach to M. Rokeach's (1973) work on values and to other theories and research on value dimensions
are discussed. Application of the approach to social issues is exemplified in politics and intergroup
relations. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1995 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
Schwartz, S.-H. and L. Sagiv (1995). “Identifying culture-specifics in the content and structure of values.”
Journal-of-Cross-Cultural-Psychology; 1995 Jan Vol 26(1) 92-116.
Reevaluates the propositions of S. H. Schwartz's (1992) values theory using data from 88 samples
in 40 countries and provides criteria for identifying what is culture-specific (CSP) in value meanings and
structure. Data confirm the widespread presence of 10 value types (VTs), arrayed on a motivational
continuum and organized on virtually universal, orthogonal dimensions: openness to change vs
conservation and self-transcendence vs self-enhancement. 44 values show high cross-cultural consistency
of meaning. In the average sample, about 16% of single values diverge from their prototypical VTs, and 1
pair of motivationally close VTs is intermixed. Test-retest and randomly split sample analyses reveal that
some two-thirds of deviations represent unreliable measurement and one-third represent CSP
characteristics. Subsamples from Japan and Australia show how to identify consistent deviations that
represent potentially CSP value meanings and structures. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1995 American
Schwartz, S. H. and L. Sagiv (1995). “Identifying culture-specifics in the content and structure of values.” .
Schwartz, S. H. and M. Ros (1995). Value priorities in West European nations: A cross-cultural
perspective. Studies in psychology in honor of Solomon Kugelmass. Publications of the Hebrew University
of Jerusalem, Vol. 36. A. L. Gershon Ben-Shakhar, Magnes Press, Jerusalem, Israel: 322-347.
Schwartz, S. H. and S. Huismans (1995). “Value priorities and religiosity in four Western religions.” Social
Psychology Quarterly 58(2): 88-107 Issn: 01902725.
Two experiments examined the relationship between religiosity and value priorities among
adherents of 4 religions: Judaism, Protestantism, Roman Catholicism, and Greek Orthodoxy. Single values
combined into 10 distinct value types: power, achievement, hedonism, stimulation, self-direction,
universalism, benevolence, tradition, conformity, and security. Exp 1 focused on a total of 1,731 members
of the 4 religions in 4 countries where each is the dominant religion: Greece, the Netherlands, Spain, and
Israel. Ss rated the importance of each of the 10 value sets as a guiding principle in their lives. Exp 2
compared responses of 849 Protestants and 827 Roman Catholics in West Germany. Results suggest that
valuing certainty, self-restraint, and submission to superior external verities inclines people to become more
religious in general; valuing openness to change and free self-expression inclines people to become less
religious. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1996 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
Schwartz, S. (1996). Value priorities and behavior: Applying a theory of integrated value systems. The
psychology of values: The Ontario symposium, Vol. 8. The Ontario symposium on personality and social
psychology, Vol. 8. J. M. O. M. P. Z. Clive Seligman, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc, Mahwah, NJ,
US: 1-24.
Schwartz, S. H. and A. Bardi (1997). “Influences of adaptation to communist rule on value priorities in
Eastern Europe.” Political Psychology 18(2): 385-410 Issn: 0162895x.
The basic value priorities prevalent in Eastern Europe are studied in a cross-national comparison.
Analyses of the implications of adaptation to life circumstances under communist regimes lead to the
hypotheses that East European samples are likely to attribute especially high importance to conservatism
and hierarchy values and low importance to egalitarianism, intellectual and affective autonomy, and
mastery values. The same hypotheses apply to differences between countries within Eastern Europe in
which there was greater or lesser communist penetration. These hypotheses are largely supported with data
both from samples of school teachers and of university students from 9 Eastern European and 12 Western
European countries. Various possible alternative explanations are discussed: national economic level,
religion, earlier shared history, effects of totalitarianism, and distinctiveness of Western Europe. (PsycLIT
Schwartz, S. H., M. Verkasalo, et al. (1997). “Value priorities and social desirability: Much substance,
some style.” British Journal of Social Psychology 36(1): 3-18 Issn: 01446665.
Hypothesizes that, as a stylistic bias, socially desirable responding (SD) would increase (1) the
importance people attribute to values in general and (2) lead people to match own value ratings to those of
importance in their social environment. As a substantive variable, SD would correlate positively with value
types that emphasize social harmony (conformity, security, benevolence, tradition) and negatively with
value types that challenge social conventions and harmony (hedonism, stimulation, self-direction,
achievement, power). In separate studies, 207 Israeli adults and 131 Finnish social work students completed
the Marlow--Crowne SD scale and a value survey. Both studies supported the substantive hypotheses.
There was weak evidence for the 1st stylistic hypothesis, but none for the 2nd. (PsycLIT Database
Scipione, P. A. (1995). “The value of words: Numerical perceptions associated with descriptive words and
phrases in market research reports.” Journal of Advertising Research 35(3): 36-43.
Surveyed representative market research reports of 315 market research, consumer goods, and
advertising agency executives. Ss rated perceived values of 30 descriptive words and phrases commonly
found in market research reports. Results show that descriptive words and phrases can play a crucial role in
engendering magnitude or value impressions in persons making business decisions based on market
research reports. Those who only read (but do not write) research reports have different word-value
perceptions than those who write them. Those who write and those who read research reports need to pay
more attention to word choice. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1995 American Psychological Assn, all rights
reserved)
Segal, U. A. (1991). “Cultural variables in Asian Indian families.” Families in Society 72(4): 233-241.
Explores the cultural values and mores of Asian Indian families in the US to identify and analyze
problems of acculturation by parents and their adolescent children. Changing characteristics between the
traditional joint family structure and the more contemporary nuclear family structure are discussed. Data
from 2 pilot focus-group seminars attended by 122 parents and 87 teenagers clarify the nature of parent-
child conflicts and show how many conflicts were couched in the cultural and value differences of
immigrant Indian families. Several issues consistently emerged as causing emotional difficulty: control,
communication, marriage, prejudice, and expectation of excellence. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights
reserved)
Segal, M. N., U. A. Segal, et al. (1993). “Value network for cross-national marketing management: A
framework for analysis and application.” Journal of Business Research 27(1): 65-83.
Aimed to identify measurable variations among the values of marketing managers from the US
and India, using the Cross-Cultural Value Network Paradigm (CCVNP). The CCVNP offers a theoretical
framework for identifying and explaining various cultural, subcultural, and cross-cultural influences on the
personal values of marketers that affect managerial actions and organizational behavior. Data were derived
from 56 American and 106 Indian business executives who were enrolled in graduate level marketing
courses. Results of the California Psychological Inventory administered to these Ss reveal observable
differences and similarities in American vs Indian value systems. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1993
Segall, M. H. (1986). “Culture and behavior: Psychology in global perspective.” Annual Review of
Psychology 37: 523-564.
Reviews the literature published between 1980 and 1985 that relates individual behavior to its
cultural context. Contextual factors of culture examined include subsistence patterns; social and political
institutions; languages; rules governing interpersonal relations; divisions of labor by sex, age, or ethnicity;
population density; and dwelling styles. The impact of the Handbook of Cross-Cultural Psychology (H. C.
Triandis et al, 1980) with regard to cross-cultural study relating to such areas as methodology, basic
processes, developmental and social psychology, and psychopathology is discussed. Research
developments in the areas of perception, cognition, socialization and personality development,
values/beliefs and motives, sex differences, sex roles and identity, sex identity conflict, aggression, and
ethnocentric attribution are examined. Also examined is the influence of modernization, urbanization,
contact with other cultures, and bilingualism on cultural identity. (8 p ref) (PsycLIT Database Copyright
Selmer, J. and C. de Leon (1996). “Parent cultural control through organizational acculturation: HCN
employees learning new work values in foreign business subsidiaries.” Journal of Organizational Behavior
17(Spec Issue): 557-572.
Explored and illustrated the effects of organizational acculturation in foreign subsidiaries by
comparing the work values of 54 host country national (HCN) Singaporean managers, employed by
Swedish companies in Singapore, and those of a control group of 115 Singaporean managers not employed
by Swedish companies. Results suggest that HCN Singaporean middle managers in Swedish subsidiaries
had experienced organizational acculturation. In the 2nd stage of the study, the effects of organizational
acculturation were clearly pronounced when results were compared with G. Hofstede's (1980)
measurements. In 3 of the 4 cultural dimensions, Singaporean middle managers seemed to have adopted
Swedish work-related values. Implications for international business practitioners are discussed. ((c) 1997
Shackleton, V. J. and A. H. Ali (1990). “Work-related values of managers: A test of the Hofstede model.” .
Shapiro, H. S. (1983). “Education and the transformation of bourgeois culture: Toward a critique of
Christopher Lasch's Culture of Narcissism.” Teachers-College-Record; 1983 Fal Vol 85(1) 57-72.
Reviews Lasch's (1979) account of schooling in The Culture of Narcissism, in which Lasch claims
that the production values of bourgeois culture in America have been replaced by those of consumption. It
is argued that Lasch fails to recognize that current emphasis on freedom, choice, satisfaction, and
fulfillment raises expectations and demands that may go beyond the consumer culture. (PsycLIT Database
Sharma, I. J. (1984). “The cultural context of Indian managers.” Management and Labour Studies 9(2): 72-
80.
A survey of the management scene in India and the US revealed that although management as a
science has universal applications, it operates in a social and cultural system whose values affect
managerial styles. The cultural forces that negatively affect Indian management are identified. ((c) 1997
Sheridan, J.-E. (1992). “Organizational culture and employee retention.” Academy-of-Management-

Journal; 1992 Dec Vol 35(5) 1036-1056.
Investigated the retention rates of 904 college graduates hired in 6 public accounting firms over a
6-yr period. Organizational culture values varied significantly among the firms. The variation in cultural
values had a significant effect on the rates at which the newly hired employees voluntarily terminated
employment. Ss voluntarily stayed 14 mo longer in the culture emphasizing interpersonal relationship
values than in the culture emphasizing work task values. The relationship between the employees' job
performance and their retention also varied significantly with organizational culture values. The cultural
effects were stronger than the combined exogenous influences of the labor market and the new employees'
demographic characteristics. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1993 American Psychological Assn, all rights
reserved)
Shokouhi Behnam, S. and C. Chambliss (1996). “Value priorities of Iranian and American college
students.” Psychological Reports 79(1): 251-256.
49 Iranian students studying in American colleges were divided into 2 groups based on their level
of acculturation, using a median split of their scores on S. Hannassab's (see record 78:18281) Acculturation
Scale. Using S. Schwartz's (1994) Value Survey, the authors compared values of 18 Iranian men and 20
women (aged 23-78 yrs) to values of 45 American men and women studying in the same US colleges.
Significant group differences were observed in the ratings given to the value domains of power,
benevolence, security, conformity, and tradition. Also as expected, the mean acculturation scores of the
Iranian students were significantly correlated with the number of years they had spent outside of Iran. ((c)
Shrum, L. J. and J. A. McCarty (1997). Issues involving the relationship between personal values and
consumer behavior: Theory, methodology, and application. Values, lifestyles, and psychographics.
Advertising and consumer psychology. L. R. Kahle. Mahwah, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.,
(from the chapter) The goal of this chapter is to initiate a discussion on the complex relationship
between personal values and consumer behavior. The authors propose 3 areas that they believe may help
accelerate values research: methodological issues with respect to measurement of personal values;
individual differences in value stability, value meaning and value importance; and theoretical and
conceptual issues relating to the importance of both antecedent and intervening variables in the value-
behavior relationship. They present some of their own studies addressing issues in these areas. ((c) 1997
Shybut, J. (1970). “Internal vs. external control, time perspective and delay of gratification of high and low
ego strength groups.” Journal of Clinical Psychology 26(4): 430-431.
Compared high (N = 45 undergraduates) and low (N = 45 undergraduates) ego strength groups on
the 3 measures. High ego strength Ss showed a more extended post- and future time perspective, assigned
higher values to hypothetical choices, and were willing to wait longer for the delayed reward than low ego
strength Ss. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Silghidjyan, H. (1985). “Value orientation and time horizons of personality during adolescence.”
Psikhologiia Bulgaria No 4: 22-32.
Studied the time perspective and value orientation of 120 male and 78 female adolescents. Ss were
asked how they viewed their life over the next 5 or 15 yrs. Responses indicated different attitudes toward
life goals depending on gender and life strategy. Two types of strategies for personality self-realization in
the area of value orientation were distinguished through time integration: adaptive and constructive. In the
time-horizon sphere, these strategies produced different orientations toward the future, different cognitive-
motivational hierarchies, and different means of reconciling contradictions between present and future
personality dimensions. Findings support the existence of a relationship between value orientation and time
horizons of personality in the selection of life strategies during adolescence. (English abstract) (20 ref) ((c)
Silver, H.-R. (1983). “Selective affinities: Connoisseurship, culture, and aesthetic choice in a contemporary
African community.” Ethos; 1983 Spr-Sum Vol 11(1-2) 87-126.
Conducted an experiment in the Ashanti region of Ghana to determine the aesthetic preferences of
66 Akuraa carvers, 17 Volta carvers, 45 university art students, 49 ordinary Ghanaians, 36 Ghanaian
consumers, and 33 Europeans. Ss completed 2 tests in which they rated their personal preferences for
drawings of Ashanti figures/masks and for carved stools. On the stool preference test, both groups of
professional artists indicated similar preferences. This result supports the primacy of enculturation in
molding aesthetic values. While the nonexpert Ss did not display this same correspondence with the
rankings of the experts, correlations between experts and nonexperts were usually significant. This last
trend may result from a complex sociocultural situation. On the figure/mask test, art students showed a
preference for abstraction over naturalism. Experts and nonexperts both showed a preference for
naturalism. Results of both tests dispute the assumption that all connoisseurs can be uniformly
differentiated from average populations on the basis of their allegedly unique reaction to aesthetic stimuli.
Simmons, D. D. and J. R. Penn (1994). “Stability and sharing of value norms among American university
student cohorts in 1970, 1980, and 1990.” Journal of Social Psychology 134(1): 69-78.
To examine the stability of normative value profiles at 1 university in the western US, a 100-item
survey was administered to student cohorts in 1970 (99 men and 100 women), 1980 (122 men and 122
women), and 1990 (101 men and 102 women). The findings reveal a striking continuation of the normative
value profile from decade to decade, with a high level of agreement between men and women in each
cohort. In addition, the average correlation of individuals with the group norm suggest considerable sharing
of the normative profile. Values themselves also seemed to become more important to these students, as
overall ratings of values increased from decade to decade. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Sindzingre, A. (1989). “Relativisme et universaux ethiques. / Relativism and universal ethics.”

Psychanalystes No 33: 80-89.
Discusses the paradoxical nature of defining universal and individual human rights and the role of
the individual in choosing between cultural or universal norms of ethical behavior. Difficulties in defining a
universal standard for human rights and problems that arise when the values of one culture are judged by
those of another are examined. (0 ref) ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Singhal, S. (1977). “Should value comparisons extend across cultures?” Indian Journal of Psychology
52(4): 320-328.
Tested the hypotheses that the value patterns of samples of college students are compatible across
cultures and scales, and that the value orientations of cultural samples of college students are time-valid in
the n-dimensional intercultural space. Data on value comparisons (using Ways to Live Scales and the
Allport-Vernon-Lindzey Study of Values) of 21 cultural samples of undergraduates were pooled together
and examined. The results reveal few compatibilities because comparisons lacked time-perspective and
suffered from inequivalencies in size, procedures of sampling, statistical treatment, and position of item in
the scale. Value comparisons are difficult in that they appear to be confounded into the socio-ecological
conditions of a culture. (24 ref) ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Singhapakdi, A. and S. J. Vitell (1991). “Research note: Selected factors influencing marketers'
deontological norms.” Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science 19(1): 37-42.
Examined the impact of personal experiences and organizational environment on an individual's
deontological norms (i.e., personal values or rules of behavior), using questionnaire responses of 483
professional marketers. Ss rated a set of 7 deontological statements. Results indicate that deontological
norms were a function of Machiavellianism (the degree to which one feels other people are manipulable)
and locus of control. Marketers high in Machiavellianism and with an external locus of control tended to be
lower in their deontological norms than their counterparts. Marketers with more business experience were
more likely to be ethical deontologically than those with less business experience. No relationship was
found between the gender of a marketer and his or her deontological norms. (PsycLIT Database Copyright
Singhapakdi, A., K. L. Kraft, et al. (1995). “The perceived importance of ethics and social responsibility on
organizational effectiveness: A survey of marketers.” Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science 23(1):
49-56.
Assessed the perceptions of marketers regarding the effectiveness of ethics and social
responsibility (ESR), and analyzed the relative influence of corporate ethical values (CEVs) and personal
moral philosophies (PMPs) on those perceptions. Questionnaires completed by 442 members of the
American Marketing Association were analyzed. The questionnaire included a scale of the relative
importance of ESR based on the Organizational Effectiveness (OE) Menu (K. L. Kraft and L. R. Jauch,
1992), a CEV scale (S. D. Hunt et al, 1989), and the Ethical Position Questionnaire (D. R. Forsyth, 1980).
Results indicated that marketers generally believe that ESR are important components of OE. Both the
CEVs and PMPs were seen as influencing marketers' perceptions of the importance of ESR. (PsycLIT
Slinger, P. (1983). “Television commercials: Mirror and symbol of societal values.” Religious Education
78(1): 29-37.
Discusses how TV commercials contradict the Christian message. Commercials urge a minority of
the world's population to consume a majority of its resources, including many unnecessary items, while
millions of others live in poverty. To avoid seduction by commercials, viewers should use critical analysis,
recognition of the devices of the persuaders, and constant reflection on what is being advertised. ((c) 1997
Smith, P. B., S. Dugan, et al. (1996). “National culture and the values of organizational employees: A
dimensional analysis across 43 nations.” Journal of Cross Cultural Psychology 27(2): 231-264.
Examined the replicability of studies of cultural dimensions of values including those by G.
Hofstede (1980), M. H. Bond (see record 76:14099), and S. H. Schwartz (1992, 1994). 8,841 business
organization employees from 43 nations completed questionnaires measuring universalism-particularism,
achievement-ascription, and individualism-collectivism. Results provide support for the replicability of the
surveys, with substantial differences found in Ss' modal cultural values consistent with previous results.
The individualism-collectivism and power distance dimensions were redefined as representing varying
orientations toward continuity of group membership and toward the obligations of social relationships.
Sodowsky, G. R. and B. S. Plake (1992). “A study of acculturation differences among international people
and suggestions for sensitivity to within-group differences.” Journal of Counseling and Development 71(1):
53-59.
490 international students, researchers, and permanent US residents and naturalized citizens at a
US university completed the American-International Relations Scale. Results showed that Africans, Asians,
and South Americans were less acculturated than Europeans in terms of perceived prejudice, observance of
cultural practices and social ties, and language usage. There also were significant differences for permanent
vs nonpermanent US resident status, length of residence in the US, and religion. Themes derived from
open-ended responses showed that Ss referred to their religion, values, a strong need to depend on or seek
freedom from an image or symbols of their nationality group, their physical appearance, and their language.
Findings suggest that cultural sensitivity involves deep empathy for substantial diversity between groups
and for a wide range of behavior within a group. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Spiggle, S. (1986). “Measuring social values: A content analysis of Sunday comics and underground
comix.” Journal-of-Consumer-Research; 1986 Jun Vol 13(1) 100-113.
Documented the social distribution of materialism as a value in US society by content-analyzing
character and commercial symbols in Sunday comic strips and underground "comix" books. Content
analysis of a sample of comix and a sample of comics drawn from 2 periods (1971-1972 and 1981-1982)
revealed that, unexpectedly, underground comix showed more concern with and more positive portrayal of
materialism and more endorsement of wealth and material comfort as goals than did comics. Findings
indicate the pervasiveness of a consumer culture in the mid-20th century and suggest that the baby boom
generation, reared in material abundance, may be unabashedly materialistic. Content analysis of media such
as comic art is advocated as a technique for measuring the distribution of social values of concern to
consumer researchers. (58 ref) (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1986 American Psychological Assn, all rights
reserved)
Steenkamp, J. B. E. (1990). “Conceptual model of the quality perception process.” Journal of Business
Research 21(4): 309-333.
Defines perceived product quality (PPQ) in the context of value judgments, explores the
psychological underpinnings of PPQ, and examines the role of personal and situational variables in quality
perception. A conceptual model of the PPQ process is developed to include (1) cue acquisition and
categorization, (2) attribute belief formation, and (3) integration of quality attribute beliefs. The model
highlights the distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic quality cues and between experience and credence
quality attributes. The model's potential for integrating future research on PPQ is discussed, as well as its
relevance for marketing strategy and public policy. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1991 American
Stumpf, H. and A. Angleitner (1989). “Langzeit-Stabilitaetskoeffizienten der deutschen Personality

Research Form (PRF; Form KB): psychometrische und differentielle Aspekte. / Long-term stability
coefficients of the German Personality Research Form (PRF; Form KB): Psychometric and differential
aspects.” Diagnostica 35(3): 211-216.
Reports results of a study of the long-term stability of the psychometric values of Form KB of the
German Personality Research Form (PRF) (Stumpf et al, 1985)--a multivariate personality questionnaire
for assessing basic personality traits in terms of H. A. Murray's personology (1938). Results from 214 male
and female West German adults, who had been among the standardization sample and completed the PRF
again 3 yrs later, yielded adequate stability coefficients for all test scales. The PRF-profiles of older Ss
were more stable than those of younger Ss; however, there were no significant sex differences in profile
stability. In addition, correlations between consistency in test responses and scores on various PRF-scales
are reported. (English abstract) ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Sue, D. (1990). Culture in transition: Counseling Asian-American men. Problem solving strategies and
interventions for men in conflict. D. Moore. Alexandria, VA, USA, American Association for Counseling
and Development: p. 153-165.
(from the chapter) present an overview of issues related to counseling with Asian-American men /
focus on: (1) the family structure and values of traditional Asian Americans, (2) counseling approaches
based on these values, (3) the impact of differences in acculturation and ethnic identity in Asian Americans,
(4) special problems Asian men face, and (5) treatment strategies ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights
reserved)
Sue, S. (1991). Ethnicity and culture in psychological research and practice. Psychological perspectives on
human diversity in America. The Master lectures. J. D. Goodchilds. Washington, DC, USA, American
Psychological Association: p. 51-85.
(from the chapter) this chapter is addressed to a general audience of psychologists and students,
especially practitioners, who are interested in ethnicity and who want to begin the important task of
integrating ethnic minority issues in teaching, research, and practice /// a brief description of the status of
different ethnic groups (primarily American Indians, Asian Americans, Blacks, and Latinos) is presented in
order to illustrate contemporary issues of concern / the concepts of culture, ethnicity, and minority group
status are introduced / these concepts are used to examine acculturation, personality development, mental
health, and mental health services / value conflicts that are pertinent to the understanding of ethnic minority
groups are presented / recommendations for teaching, research, and practice are given ((c) 1997
Sue, D. and D. M. Sue (1995). Asian Americans. Experiencing and counseling multicultural and diverse
populations (3rd ed.). N. A. Vacc. Muncie, IN, USA, Accelerated Development, Inc: p. 63-89.
Examines the history of Asian immigration to America and special problems of counseling this
population, including housing, testing and education, and personal stress and conflict. The chapter also
discusses the personal and counseling needs of Asian Americans, particularly Chinese and Japanese groups,
involving values, independence and self-reliance, educational expectations, emotional restraint, career
choices, acculturation, and presenting problems. Implications of cultural values for traditional counseling
are noted. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Sue, D. (1998). The interplay of sociocultural factors on the psychological development of Asians in
America. Counseling American minorities (5th ed.). D. R. Atkinson. Boston, MA, USA, Mcgraw-Hill: p.
205-213.
(from the chapter) The psychological characteristics exhibited by Asian Americans are related to
their culture and interaction with Western society. Although personality differences have been found, these
have been interpreted from the Western perspective and often viewed negatively. Acculturational forces
have also had an impact on the psychosocial development of Asian Americans. The degree of influence
varies from different Asian American groups, their generational status, and response to acculturation.
Women and children appear to acculturate more quickly than do older males. Although Asian cultural
values can be identified, it is not clear how they have been shaped or altered by societal forces. ((c) 1998
Sukhdial, A. S., G. Chakraborty, et al. (1995). “Measuring values can sharpen segmentation in the luxury
auto market.” Journal of Advertising Research 35(1): 9-22.
Tested the hypothesis that owners (85% aged >=35 yrs) of American (n = 58), German (n = 38),
and Japanese (n = 59) luxury cars would differ in terms of the values they consider important to them in
their daily life and the car attributes they desire. This study extends that of G. S. Omura (1980) by
classifying cars according to national origin (rather than "foreign") and by using the List of Values scale
(rather than the Rokeach Value Survey). Consistent with the hypotheses, results indicate that ownership of
American, German, and Japanese luxury cars can be predicted on the basis of the values owners endorse
and the car attributes they desire. Additionally, knowledge of owners' values contributes information above
and beyond that provided by their evaluations of car attributes alone. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights
reserved)
Sumner, W. G. (1993). Folkways. Being good and doing right: Readings in moral development. A. Dobrin.
Lanham, MD, USA, University Press of America: p. 85-92.
(from the preface) represents a relativistic view regarding moral psychology / rejects the idea that
there is a universal moral standard / rather, all values and morals are relative to the culture in which they
are found / presents several examples which seem to support his view that all ethics is a matter of meeting
the interests of particular cultures ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Super, D. E. (1970). The Work Values Inventory. Boston, Houghton-Mifflin.

Super, D. E. a. S., B., Ed. (1995). Life roles, values, and careers. San Francisco, Jossey-Bass.
International findings on the work importance study (WIS). Eighteen values scales measured
across 10 national cultures. Scales were: Ability utilization, Achievement, Advancement, Aesthetics,
Altruism, Authority, Autonomy, Creativity, Economics, Life-style, Personal development, Physical
activity, Prestige, Risk, Social interaction, Social relations, Variety, Working conditions. Nations surveyed
were Australia, Belgium, Canada, Croatia, Italy, Japan, Poland, Portugal, South Africa, USA. Five factors
accounted for most of the variance between nations. These factors were: 1) Self realization - abil.
utilization, pers. develop., achieve., creativity, aesthetics. 2) Material career progress - economics,
advance., achievement, prestige, authority. 3) Group orientation - social interaction, soc. relations, altruism,
aesthetics, variety. 4) Challenge - risk, authority. 5) Autonomy - autonomy and life style.
Super, D. E. and B. Sverko, Eds. (1995). Life roles, values, and careers: International findings of the Work
Importance Study. The Jossey Bass social and behavioral science series. San Francisco, Jossey-Bass Inc,
Publishers.
(from the jacket) Do the same values exist within traditionally capitalistic and socialistic
countries? What is the role of the homemaker in recently industrialized regions? How does the way
individuals in different countries view work affect their lives, families, communities, and nations? /// [This
book] answers fundamental questions about the nature of work in modern life based on the research from
an innovative, cross-national project of the Work Importance Study. This unique collaborative effort
includes data from Australia, Belgium, Canada, Croatia, Italy, Japan, Poland, Portugal, South Africa, and
the US. /// Using a cross-national measure indigenous to each participating country, the researchers explore
how values of individuals are expressed in different roles and in different settings and situations: work,
play, and school. The results support the universality and stability of values and reveal that the fulfillment
of personal potential is a life goal that cuts through the boundaries of culture, status, and gender. /// "Life
Roles, Values, and Careers" makes an important contribution to the global study of human development
across the lifespan. The editors offer concise and thought-provoking presentations on the wealth of data
collected and include an overview of the current relevant literature. The book also highlights the
differences and similarities the researchers discovered in focus groups, sampling, and findings. Written for
scholars and practitioners in psychology, sociology, anthropology, counseling, education, and political
science, this book contains a wealth of information and an assortment of instruments valuable for career
counseling and human resources development in business, industry, and government agencies. ((c) 1997
Sutherland, M. and J. Galloway (1981). “Role of advertising: Persuasion or agenda setting?” Journal of
Applied the agenda-setting theory of mass media to advertising by suggesting that its goal is to
focus the consumer's attention on what values, products, brands, or attributes to think about rather than
trying to persuade the consumer what to think of these products. This approach is combined with "top-of-
mind" or "first-brand-awareness" research to form a model of causal flow that begins with prominence in
the media, advances to salience in the public mind, and ends with behavioral outcomes (i.e., purchases).
Based on this, it was hypothesized that advertised products are perceived as superior to nonadvertised
products. 267 housewives were surveyed concerning what brands of toothpaste, color TV, and disposable
diapers they thought were used by the most people. Findings indicate that advertising (media prominence)
functions as a significant cue to the customer in judging what is and is not acceptable and popular with
others. Also presented is a model indicating that a link exists between salience and behavioral outcomes
and that it operates at least partially through perceived popularity or climate of opinion. It is considered
likely, however, that for low-involvement products or low-involvement decision areas, salience also
influences choice by determining or constraining the evoked set. (23 ref) ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all
rights reserved)
Suzuki, A. (1991). “Egalitarian sex role attitudes: Scale development and comparison of American and
Japanese women.” Sex Roles 24(5-6): 245-259.
Administered the English form of the Scale of Egalitarian Sex Role Attitudes (SESRA) to 238
American women (aged 20-79 yrs) after the original Japanese form of A. Suzuki (1987) was developed and
administered to 420 Japanese women. Data suggest the SESRA has a potential for use as a measurement of
an individual's sex role attitudes. American Ss had more egalitarian attitudes than their Japanese
counterparts. However, all Ss had basically similar attitudes toward more general egalitarian values.
Among the 4 roles of "woman," "wife," "mother," and "person," the majority of American Ss chose
"person" as the most important role, whereas Japanese Ss did not claim any clear dominant role. ((c) 1997
Swanson, A.-R. and P.-M. Hurley (1983). “Family systems: Values and value conflicts.” Journal-of-
Psychosocial-Nursing-and-Mental-Health-Services; 1983 Jul Vol 21(7) 24-30.
Presents an overview, with regard to clinical practice and nursing education, of F. R. Kluckhohn's
(1958) theory of values in family systems in which all cultural values are based on solutions to 5 basic
questions concerning (a) the character of innate human nature, (b) man-nature orientation, (c) time
orientation, (d) activity orientation, and (e) relational orientation. Cultures differ in their rank ordering of
these solutions to create value systems, and families and individuals within a particular culture differ in
interactions and relationships based on their given cultural solutions. Strains occur at these points of
difference between family members, between families, and between family members and society. A model
of relationship strains based on Kluckhohn's theory is presented that consists of a representation of the
overall societal structure within which strains and conflicts occur. Its purpose is to assist in
conceptualization of the larger context within which strain and conflict in human relationships occur, to
classify lines of strain within human systems, and to assist in resolution of clinical problems. Examples
from Kluckhohn's theory are located within the model, and 3 clinical examples are considered within its
structure. (4 ref) (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1984 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
Swenson, M. J. and J. Herche (1994). “Social values and salesperson performance: An empirical
examination.” Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science 22(3): 283-289.
Examines the underlying dimensions of the List of Values (LOV) of L. R. Kahle (1983) for
salespersons (SPs). 271 responses to a mail survey were analyzed. The importance of 9 social values in the
LOV was measured on a 9-point scale. SP performance was measured by a 31-item, 7-point scale of D. N.
Behrman and W. D. Perreault (1982), and correlated with the condensed LOV dimensions of adaptability,
customer orientation, achievement, and hedonism. SPs with a high achievement rating also reported higher
performance levels than did SPs who emphasized other values. No association was found between
hedonism and SP performance. It is concluded that social values have potential as predictors of SP
performance. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1995 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
Tamayo, A. and S.-H. Schwartz (1993). “Estrutura motivacional dos valores humanos. Motivational
structure of human values.” Psicologia-Teoria-e-Pesquisa; 1993 May-Aug Vol 9(2) 329-348.
Studied the motivational structure of human values among university students and school teachers.
Ss were 244 universiy students (mean age 21.5 yrs) and 154 school teachers (mean age 31.3 yrs).
Information on personal factors, cross-cultural values, and values specific to the Brazilian culture was
obtained by questionnaire. The results were evaluated according to motivational types and motivational
roots of values, and motivational categories were determined. (English abstract) (PsycLIT Database
Tamayo, A. (1993). “Valores de los adolescentes: ejes motivacionales. Adolescents' values: Motivational
axes.” Acta-Psiquiatrica-y-Psicologica-de-America-Latina; 1993 Jun Vol 39(2) 140-151.
Studied the effect of gender and nationality on the motivational dimensions of human values. Ss
were 70 American students (mean age 14 yrs) and 70 Brazilian students (mean age 14 yrs) at a US high
school. 56 cross-cultural values and 4 values specific to the Brazilian culture were assessed using S. H.
Schwartz's scale. An ANOVA was performed. (English abstract) (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1994
Tanaka, Y. (1990). “Women's growing role in contemporary Japan. International Symposium: Social
values and effective organizations (1988, Taipei, Taiwan).” International-Journal-of-Psychology; 1990 Dec
Vol 25(5-6) 751-765.
Examines the reciprocal relationships between the ongoing socio-cultural changes and the
changing role of women in Japan. Japanese women now constitute roughly a third of the labor force, and
current equal employment opportunities encourage more women to work outside the home. Increasingly,
working women are becoming an important part of corporate culture, as informunication (information +
communication) proliferates and dependence on womanpower deepens in many informunication-related
sectors of business and industry. Women influence both political candidates and mass media markets. In
contrast, the fate of Japanese men, especially that of husbands, seems increasingly obscure in contemporary
Japanese society. (French abstract) (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1991 American Psychological Assn, all
rights reserved)
Tang, T. L. P. (1995). “The development of a short Money Ethic Scale: Attitudes toward money and pay
satisfaction revisited.” Personality and Individual Differences 19(6): 809-816.
Presents the development of a short 12-item Money Ethic Scale to examine people's attitudes
toward money. Data were collected from 740 employees on demographic variables like sex, age, income,
educational level, and job satisfaction. The personality and work-related variables such as self-esteem, need
for achievement, internal-external locus of control, Type A behavior pattern, and study of values were also
assessed. The Money Ethic scale (T. L. P. Tang, 1992), having 6 factors (good, evil, achievement, respect,
budget, and freedom) was used to develop the short scale. The short 12-item Money Ethic scale had 3
factors: success (cognitive), budget (behavioral), and evil (affective). Positive and negative attitudes toward
money were not related to the same dimension. Ss who valued money did not necessarily have a higher
income than those who did not. The Ss who valued money tended to have a high level of pay
dissatisfaction. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1996 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
Thomas, L. E. (1974). “Generational discontinuity in beliefs: An exploration of the generation gap.”

Journal of Social Issues 30(3): 1-22.
Data from college students and their parents indicate striking generational differences on a
measure of time perspective. Results suggest that arguments that a counterculture is emerging among youth
concentrate on the value orientation level, while the debunkers of the notion of a generation gap focus
almost entirely upon level of attitudes. (47 ref) ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Thoren, M. (1996). “Systems approach to clothing for disabled users. Why is it difficult for disabled users
to find suitable clothing.” Applied-Ergonomics; 1996 Dec Vol 27(6) 389-396.
Today's clothing market is not adapted for disabled users, people who often have unusual body
dimensions and/or different kinds of functional impairments. The method of user-oriented product
development combined with the soft systems methodology is applied in order to understand and possibly
solve this problem. 65 disabled users were interviewed. The results show that the disabled users must be
divided into subgroups. Their requirements are very much dependent on their impairment not only
regarding the fit and function of the clothing, but also regarding shopping and service in the stores. The
symbolic values of clothing are just as important as the functional values. However, it is essential not to
focus on the end product only, but to look at the problem as a system consisting of: manufacturing,
marketing and end use. A new method of taking 3 dimensional measurements from range images of the
human body has been developed. In combination with other developments in information technology it will
be possible to synthesize a new system where the manufacturers and retailers of clothing can cooperate in
order to give service to disabled users. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1997 American Psychological Assn,
Triandis, H. C. (1979). “Values, attitudes, and interpersonal behavior.” Nebraska Symposium on

Motivation 27: 195-259.
Attempts a conscious move toward synthesis in social psychological theory and focuses on the
relationship of attitudes, values, and other behavioral dispositions to action or behavior. An attempt is made
to present a theoretical framework that pulls together relationships involving these concepts. Part 1 defines
a list of concepts--what is meant by each concept, what relationships the concept may or may not have with
other concepts, and what kinds of dimensions of variation are likely to emerge when studying the particular
concept. Part 2 presents a theoretical network consisting of theorems and propositions (relationships that
require testing). Under each theorem or proposition, when possible, a summary of the research that has
already been done that is consistent with the proposition is presented. (8 p ref) (PsycLIT Database
Triandis, H. C., K. Leung, et al. (1985). “Allocentric versus idiocentric tendencies: Convergent and
discriminant validation.” Journal of Research in Personality 19(4): 395-415.
Three studies tested allocentric tendencies in 250 undergraduates. In Study 1, using 91 Ss, scales
measuring different aspects of allocentrism had good reliability and were intercorrelated, thus showing
convergent validity. Factor analysis identified 3 aspects: Subordination of Personal to Group Goals, the
Ingroup as Extension of the Self, and Ingroup Identity. The scales also had satisfactory discriminant
validity. Those high on idiocentric tendencies used equity and those high in allocentric tendencies used
equality and need in distributing rewards. Studies 2 and 3, using male Ss, found that those who were
allocentric were more likely to emphasize the values of cooperation, equality, and honesty, and those who
were idiocentric to emphasize the values of comfortable life, competition, pleasure, and social recognition.
Those who were allocentric reported receiving more social support and a better quality of social support;
those who were idiocentric were higher in achievement motivation, alienation, anomie, and reported greater
loneliness. (64 ref) (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1987 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
Triandis, H. C., C. McCusker, et al. (1990). “Multimethod probes of individualism and collectivism.”
A theoretical framework concerning cultural patterns labeled individualism and collectivism is
probed. As predicted, it is shown that the content of the self includes more group-linked elements in
collectivist than in individualist cultures; members of collectivist cultures perceive their ingroups as more
homogeneous than their outgroups, and the opposite pattern is found among members of individualistic
cultures; and people in collectivist cultures perceive more intimate and subordinate social behaviors as
likely toward their ingroup members and more dissociative and superordinate behaviors toward members of
their outgroups than do members of individualistic cultures. Collectivists emphasize values that promote
the welfare of their ingroup, whereas individualists emphasize values that promote individual goals.
Triandis, H. C. (1990). Theoretical concepts that are applicable to the analysis of ethnocentrism.
(from the chapter) several major factors that underlie differences across cultures will be discussed
/ in addition, we will examine a way of thinking about culture that should help us look at these differences
with more tolerance, and less ethnocentrism / consider first what ethnocentrism does to us /// describe
several of these [cultural] syndromes such as cultural complexity, individualism versus collectivism, and
tight versus loose cultures /// three of these specific [cultural difference] dimensions will be mentioned:
masculinity-femininity; emotional control versus expressiveness; and contact versus no contact /
differences can be found (a) in values and (b) in behavior ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Triandis, H.-C., C. McCusker, et al. (1993). “An etic-emic analysis of individualism and collectivism.”
Journal-of-Cross-Cultural-Psychology; 1993 Sep Vol 24(3) 366-383.
An analysis of the responses of 1,614 Ss from 10 cultures shows that the Leung-Bond (K. Leung
and M. H. Bond; see PA, Vol 77:1082) procedure provided illuminating ways of extracting both strong
(Separation From In-Groups, Independence, and Personal Competence) and weak (Task Orientation) etics
relevant to individualism, and weak etics (Dependence on Others, Sociability) relevant to collectivism.
Additional richness in the available information was provided when intracultural factor analyses were
carried out in each culture. It appears that the most complete picture was obtained when both etics and
emics were examined. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1994 American Psychological Assn, all rights
reserved)
Tyler, L. E. and N. D. Sundberg (1991). Cross cultural research on perception of possibilities.

Contemporary approaches to cognitive psychology. M. I. Posner. Varanasi, India, Rishi Publications: p. 17-
29.
(from the chapter) in keeping with our interest in counselling and the development of individual
personalities, we have been concerned with a special kind of awareness, the 'awareness of possibilities' ///
we are interested especially in the 'choices' individuals make at certain turning points in their lives / to what
extent do such choices set the direction for development that follows / in considering how we might
approach this problem, it was natural for us to think of cross-cultural research as one strategy we might
adopt / because some of the factors influencing choices vary from culture to culture, we might obtain clues
as to what such influences are, and also as to whether there are universal factors characterizing different
cultures /// out of the many kinds of similarities and differences we analyzed, we are reporting here the
evidence bearing on three questions / 1. are there group and individual differences in the extent to which
young people [adolescents] are 'aware' of multiple possibilities for action and development / 2. in the
making of choices, what kinds of 'possibility processing' mental structures are used, such as concepts,
interests, values and the like / 3. how are awareness and the structures influenced by families, schools,
social class, culture, gender, and any other factor we are able to identify ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all
rights reserved)
van der Velde, M. E. G., J. A. Feij, et al. (1995). “Stability and change of person characteristics among
young adults: The effect of the transition from school to work.” Personality and Individual Differences
18(1): 89-99.
Examined stability and change of person characteristics (traits, attributional style, psychological
health, and work values) in 146 young adults who attended school in 1987 and in 1991 (Group 1) and 168
young adults who made the transition from school in 1987 to work in 1991 (Group 2). Following role
theory, it was hypothesized that person characteristics in Group 2 would change more than in Group 1.
Group 2 Ss were expected to experience positive change of characteristics in time. Using tests of
differences in over time correlation coefficients, t-tests and univariate ANOVAs of 1991 mean scores,
controlling for 1987 scores and biographical variables, hypotheses were confirmed to varying degrees.
However, the effects were small. Positive changes in characteristics were slightly larger for Group 2 Ss and
included less boredom, less depression, less neuroticism, and greater self-esteem. ((c) 1997
Van-Maanen, J. and S.-R. Barley (1984). “Occupational communities: Culture and control in
organizations.” Research-in-Organizational-Behavior; 1984 Vol 6 287-365.
Defines an occupational community as a group of people who consider themselves to be engaged
in the same sort of work; whose identity is drawn from the work; who share a set of values, norms, and
perspectives that apply to but extend beyond the work-related matters; and whose social relationships meld
work and leisure. The diverse origins of occupational communities are discussed in relation to how
physical and social conditions surrounding particular lines of work promote any or all of the definitional
characteristics. Occupational communities are seen to create and sustain relatively unique work cultures
consisting of task rituals, standards for proper and improper behavior, work codes surrounding relatively
routine practices, and compelling accounts attesting to the logic and value of these rituals and standards. It
is suggested that the quest for occupational self-control provides the special motive for the development of
occupational communities. Structural support is lent to a community's quest for self-control by state support
and by a relatively unorganized market in dire need of an occupational community's talents. The
professions are best viewed as occupational communities; they differ from other lines of work only by
virtue of the relative autonomy each is able to sustain within the political economy of a given society. The
implications of occupational communities are explored in 4 domains of organizational research: careers,
complexity, loyalty, and innovation. (254 ref) (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1984 American Psychological
Vasudev, J. and R. C. Hummel (1987). “Moral stage sequence and principled reasoning in an Indian
sample.” Human Development 30(2): 105-118.
Investigated the cross-cultural generality of L. Kohlberg's (1981) stages of moral development in
India, by interviewing 112 males and females (aged 11-50+ yrs) from an urban middle- and upper-middle-
class population on Kohlberg's dilemmas. An analysis of variance (ANOVA) performed on the moral
maturity scores indicated a significant effect of age but a nonsignificant effect of sex. A qualitative analysis
of postconventional reasoning among Indian adults revealed 2 themes: (a) the adaptation of principles to
real-life dilemmas and (b) the integration of indigenous moral and philosophical values in principled
thought. Findings support the cross-cultural generality of Kohlberg's model of moral development and raise
cross-cultural issues in morality that cannot be assimilated in an overly formalized theory of moral
reasoning. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Walker, L. J. (1984). “Sex differences in the development of moral reasoning: A critical review.” Child
Development 55(3): 677-691.
Discusses the bases for recent allegations of sex bias in Kohlberg's (1969, 1976, 1981) theory of
moral development and reviews studies comparing the development of moral reasoning between the sexes.
C. Gilligan, in writings published between 1977 and 1982, contends that Kohlberg's theory and scoring
system are insensitive to characteristically feminine traits of welfare, caring, and responsibility and that
there is an emphasis on traditionally masculine values in the "higher" moral stages that is reflected by the
assertion that justice is the universal principle of morality. The present author concludes that only few
inconsistent sex differences have been found in childhood and adolescence. Some studies indicate that in
adulthood, males evidence higher moral development than females, but in these studies sex differences are
confounded with differences in level of education and occupation. A meta-analysis was conducted of 79
studies of sex differences in moral reasoning. Results show that sex differences are nonsignificant and that
the moral reasoning of males and females is more alike than different. (93 ref) ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO,
Wallendorf, M. and E.-J. Arnould (1991). “"We Gather Together": Consumption rituals of Thanksgiving
Day.” Journal-of-Consumer-Research; 1991 Jun Vol 18(1) 13-31.
Used 10 data sets (e.g., depth interviews, participant-observation data, structured surveys) to study
the celebration of Thanksgiving Day in the US. Five conceptual themes were used to organize
interpretations of the meanings of Thanksgiving Day. These themes were negotiation of abundance;
extensiveness of inclusion; resolution of universalism and particularism; negotiation of values such as
cleanliness and hard work; and negotiation of the role of produce and branded food products in relation to
tradition and homemade foods. The consumption rituals of Thanksgiving Day are interpreted as a discourse
among consumers about the categories and principles that underlie US consumer culture. (PsycLIT
Way, R. T. (1985). “Burmese culture, personality and mental health.” Australian and New Zealand Journal
of Psychiatry 19(3): 275-282.
Discusses the unique problems of acculturation encountered by Burmese immigrants to Australia.
Issues outlined include the influence of Buddhism and Nat spirit worship on the thinking processes of the
Burmese; characteristics of the Burmese family, particularly kinship obligations; common personality
characteristics such as fatalism and resistance to expressing hostility and negative sentiments; and
conceptions of mental illness, which involve evil spirits and violations of traditional faith as causative
agents. The case of a female Burmese university student in Australia who suffered from a schizophreniform
psychosis illustrates regression from the new culture, passivity, and a sense of punishment. ((c) 1997
Welch, M. R. and D. C. Leege (1988). “Religious predictors of Catholic parishioners' sociopolitical

attitudes: Devotional style, closeness to God, imagery, and agentic/communal religious identity.” Journal
for the Scientific Study of Religion 27(4): 536-552.
Analyzed data on 2,667 registered Catholic parishioners surveyed in the Notre Dame Study of
Catholic Parish Life to predict the influence of religious values on specific lifestyle and public policy
questions and political ideology. Multiple regression analyses suggested that measures of imagery and
devotional style were important predictors of sociopolitical positions. Images depicting God as judge are
discussed, along with devotional styles that involve patterns of evangelical-style devotion, meeting minimal
religious obligations, and exposure to media ministry. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Wierzbicka, A. (1991). “Japanese key words and core cultural values.” Language in Society 20(3): 333-
385.
Proposes a culture-independent analytical framework based on natural semantic metalanguage to
examine a language's key words, which reflect the core values of the culture. Six Japanese concepts widely
regarded as being culture-specific and culturally revealing (amae, enryo, wa, on, giri, and seishin) are
examined under this framework. It is argued that the use of the natural semantic metalanguage (based on
universal semantic primitives) helps to make these concepts clear and facilitates better insight into Japanese
culture and society. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Wiles, C. R., J. A. Wiles, et al. (1996). “The ideology of advertising: The United States and Sweden.”
Compared values portrayed in magazine advertising in the US and Sweden. A content analysis of
269 advertisements (with 155 males and 358 females) from US and 123 ads (with 118 males and 157
females) from Swedish magazines compared portrayals of models in level of undress, skin color, and
activities (e.g., housework, childcare, leisure). Values conveyed were similar for both countries and
included a life of leisure, youthfulness, individualism, and ideal body shape. Results suggest that Swedish
and American advertisers subscribe to values that include the following: advertisers identify life with
leisure, not work; people enjoy life only when free of work; leisure is associated with consumption, not
activity; private life is what matters, mainly life as individuals; and life is best when there are no racial
differences. In general, these same values were found in the content analysis of US magazine ads by G.
Andren et al (1978) 20 yrs ago. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Wilson, E. O. (1980). Comparative social theory. The Tanner lectures on human values, Ann Arbor, MI,
University of Michigan.
Wilson, M. G. (1990). “Factors associated with, issues related to, and suggestions for increasing
participation in workplace health promotion programs.” Health Values Health Behavior, Education and
Promotion 14(4): 29-36.
Examines factors associated with participation (PTP) in workplace health promotion programs to
help health professionals better understand why people participate and how program planners can effect
PTP. The lack of results and contradictory findings of some studies emphasize the complex nature of PTP.
Studies have shown that participants are likely to be young with high education and income. Preliminary
studies have also shown a relationship between PTP and some behavioral and psychosocial variables,
although these studies have yet to be confirmed. The PTP issues of self-selection and comprehensiveness
are discussed. Strategies for increasing PTP include competitions, marketing, networking, public
monitoring, and health promotion events. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1992 American Psychological
Winett, R. A., J. F. Moore, et al. (1991). “Extending the concept of social validity: Behavior analysis for
disease prevention and health promotion. Special Issue: Social validity: Multiple perspectives.” Journal of
Applied Behavior Analysis 24(2): 215-230.
Proposes a broader definition of social validity wherein a socially valid behavior-change
intervention (INT) is directed to a problem of verifiable importance and the INT is valued and used
appropriately by designated target groups. The verifiable importance of a problem is based on
epidemiological data, and the value and appropriate use of an INT are enhanced through the use of
conceptual frameworks for social marketing and behavior change and considerable formative and pilot
research. Behavioral impact is assessed through efficacy and effectiveness studies. This approach to
defining social validity is related to critical analysis and INT issues, including individual and population
perspectives and "top-down" and "bottom-up" approaches to INT design. This broader definition of social
validity is illustrated by a project to reduce the risk of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection
among adolescents. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1992 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
Wood, V. R. and R. Howell (1991). “A note on Hispanic values and subcultural research: An alternative
view.” Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science 19(1): 61-67.
Reviews H. Valencia's (1989) data on how values differ within and between White and Hispanic
ethnic groups in a study in which 253 White and 150 Hispanic Ss responded to an instrument adapted from
the Rokeach Value Survey. Two alternative procedures of analyzing Valencia's data are presented that lead
to substantially different conclusions and a different set of marketing strategy recommendations. The
reanalysis highlights how differing perspectives enrich the understanding and questioning of cultural values
and related behaviors. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1992 American Psychological Assn, all rights
reserved)
Wright-Isak, C. and R.-J. Faber (1996). “Community: A hidden value in the advertising effectiveness
awards.” Journal-of-Advertising-Research; 1996 Jul-Aug Vol 36(4) 64-75.
Used observation of nondirective videotaped interviews of 30 judges of EFFIE advertising awards
(1) to examine the degree to which advertising and marketing professionals share values and normative
behaviors in their judgments and (2) to identify what values they have in common. From these interviews 4
common themes emerged regarding judging for EFFIE advertising awards. These were (1) the value of a
collective body of knowledge and learning; (2) respect for hard work and effort; (3) the importance of
fairness and objectivity in the judgment process; and (4) a sense of emergent community. Examples of the
ways each of these themes is expressed are provided. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1997 American
Yee, B. W. (1992). “Markers of successful aging among Vietnamese refugee women.” Women and
Therapy 13(3): 221-238.
Summarizes research describing several markers of successful aging for Vietnamese women.
Feelings of control have important implications for the life satisfaction and mental health of female
Vietnamese refugees. Adequate satisfaction with social relationships is also a key contributor to successful
aging. Methods are discussed in which mental health and health care professionals can assist elderly female
refugees in coping with family crisis, adaptation, and acculturation issues. Of key importance to the
understanding of this population are cultural values surrounding age and gender norms, differential rates of
acculturation across generations in the family, and cross-cultural differences in mental health and their
therapeutic implications. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Yiannakis, A. (1991). “Training the sport marketer: A social science perspective.” Journal of Sport
Behavior 14(1): 61-68.
Being a sport marketer is a complex task requiring knowledge and skills of a multidisciplinary
nature. Sport marketers must be cognizant of environmental forces that present the organization with a
multitude of threats and opportunities for growth. Since such forces are mostly of a sociocultural nature
(e.g., changes in attitudes and values, demographic shifts, fads and trends), there are compelling reasons to
include in the training of sport marketers a foundation in the social sciences, with emphasis on sociology
and psychology of sport. (French abstract) (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1991 American Psychological
Yoon, K. (1995). “Comparison of beliefs about advertising, attitude toward advertising, and materialism
held by African Americans and Caucasians.” Psychological Reports 77(2): 455-466.
Investigated the relationship between advertising and materialism across African American and
Caucasian groups and examined general attitudes toward advertising and beliefs about advertising. Ss were
57 Caucasian and 30 African American undergraduates (aged 17-26 yrs) and 56 Caucasian and 23 African
American community adults (aged 30-50 yrs). The association between attitude toward advertising and
materialism was positive. African Americans held more materialistic values than their Caucasian peers,
exhibited a more favorable general attitude toward advertising, and held more favorable beliefs about
advertising. Findings suggest advertising is connected with materialistic values in society. ((c) 1997
Zeitlin, L. R. (1999). Gender, race, and citizenship differences in work related values. Society for Cross
Cultural Research, Sante Fe, MN, SCCR.
A finding of gender, race and citizenship differences in work related values was the result of a
replication of Hofstede's 1980 study of national values in the multi ethnic population of CUNY business
students. A factor analysis of work value items on 780 questionnaires suggested that 2 factors, work
success and life styles, accountend for most of the response varience. Thefemal dispersion was marked
smaller than that of the males.
Zeitlin, L. R. (1999 (in press)). Behavioral science in business. New York, City Univ. of New York Press.
Zinkhan, G. M., J. W. Hong, et al. (1990). “Achievement and affiliation motivation: Changing patterns in
social values as represented in American advertising.” Journal of Business Research 20(2): 135-143.
Examined the course of the levels of achievement and affiliation motivation in US society from
1935 to 1985 by performing content analysis of 13,457 advertisements from 3 prominent mass circulation
magazines. As predicted by D. Riesman's (1950) theory of social character, the incidence of affiliation
motivation appeals was found to be on the increase in popular media advertising, while the use of
achievement motivation appeals was found to be decreasing. Achievement appeals were more common in
male-oriented than in female-oriented publications. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Values measurement:
Agarwal, A. and L. B. Tripathi (1979). “Time perspective: II. Development and empirical validation of a
new tool.” Psychological Studies 24(1): 59-65.
A projective measure of time perspective, which includes orientation and density, extension,
locomotion, and attitude toward different temporal zones, was developed in the form of a story-writing
technique. Empirical validation with 250 17-25 yr old students suggests that time perspective is a
representation of the past, present, and future, which shows the close relationship between motivation and
temporal orientation and extension. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
rights reserved)
Allenby, G. M., N. Arora, et al. (1995). “Incorporating prior knowledge into the analysis of conjoint
studies.” Journal of Marketing Research 32(2): 152-162.
Used conjoint analysis to provide interval-level estimates of relative values (part-worths) allowing
tradeoffs among attribute levels to be examined. Recent developments in Bayesian computing that make it
possible to incorporate prior ordinal information are reviewed, and the application of these procedures to
models used in conjoint studies is presented. Subsequently, 3 examples that demonstrate improvements in
statistical inference and prediction, as a result of the proposed procedures, are provided. In contrast to
existing methods, it is argued that the proposed framework is more flexible because it can be used for both
ratings and choice-based conjoint studies, is more informative because it provides the distributional
properties of part-worth estimate, and is more accurate because it performs better on predictive tasks across
a variety of conditions. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1995 American Psychological Assn, all rights
reserved)
Allport. G. W., V., P. E. and Lindzey, G. (1960). Study of Values (3rd. ed.). Chicago, Riverside Press.
Revised edition of the Allport, Vernon, Lindzey value measurement scale.
Bagley, C., G. D. Wilson, et al. (1970). “The Conservatism Scale: A factor structure comparison of
English, Dutch, and New Zealand samples.” Journal of Social Psychology 81(2): 267-268.
The Wilson-Patterson scale of conservative values was administered to 3 samples, in London (n =
200), in the Hague (n = 200), and in Wellington, New Zealand (n = 325). Each sample was separately
factor analyzed by the principal components method, and the loadings for each of the 50 items in the scale
were compared for the 1st 4 factors. The factor structure in the 3 cultures was remarkably similar, all of the
correlations between the appropriate factor loadings being significant at the .1% level. The 1st factor was a
general factor, while the remaining factors loaded highly on racial, sexual, and religious items, respectively.
Bearden, W. O. and R. G. Netemeyer (1999). Handbook of marketing scales: Multi-item measures for
marketing and consumer behavior research (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA, USA, Sage Publications, Inc.
(from the introduction) This book represents an updated, second edition of a compilation of multi-
item, self-report measures developed and/or frequently used in consumer behavior and marketing research.
For the most part, this second edition includes measures from articles whose major objective (or at least
one of the major objectives) was measurement development. With regard to this book's format and
presentation of measures, the authors divided the scales into 6 general topical areas (with subtopics) and
have devoted a chapter to each topic area, located in the table of contents. For each scale summarized, the
authors have provided the following information: construct, description, development, samples, validity,
scores, sources, other evidence, other sources, references, and scale items. ((c) 1999 APA/PsycINFO, all
rights reserved)
Bhushan, L. I. (1981). “Women social freedom scale.” Psychologia-An-International-Journal-of-

Psychology-in-the-Orient; 1981 Dec Vol 24(4) 239-243.
Presents a scale to measure women's desire for social freedom in the Indian culture. Dimensions of
"social freedom" are conceptualized: freedom from parental control, interference or control of husbands,
social customs as rituals, social taboos and control of girls, marriage bondage, and economic freedom and
equality. The final scale contains 24 items each possessing significant discriminative power. The scale was
administered to 180 female Indian college students. Findings indicate that the scale possesses high split-
half and test-retest reliabilities and convincing predictive and constant validities. (16 ref) (PsycLIT
Bogner, F. X. and M. Wiseman (1997). “Environmental perspectives of Danish and Bavarian pupils:
Towards a methodological framework.” Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research 41(1): 53-71.
Evaluated 725 Danish pupils' (aged 11-16 yrs) environmental worldviews and behavior toward the
environment. Ss responded to a paper-and-pencil questionnaire and rated items on the multiple-choice basis
of a Likert-scale. Results were compared with data from a Bavarian sample in a study (Bogner and M.
Wilhelm, 1996) that used the same objective test. The goal was first to evaluate a factor structure valid for
the Danish sample and then, within the factor structure previously extracted from the instrument in the
Bavaria study, to identify items common to both samples. A 2nd goal was to apply a factor analysis based
on the reduced item set for the combined samples. The correlation values of the separate analyses matched
those of the common analysis closely. Following construct-validation procedures, a comparison of the
mean within-region factor values revealed substantial between-country differences. ((c) 1998
Bond, M. H. (1996). Chinese values. The handbook of Chinese psychology. B. Michael Harris, Oxford
University Press, Hong Kong, Hong Kong: 208-226.
Brink, P. J. (1984). “Value orientations as an assessment tool in cultural diversity.” Nursing Research
33(4): 198-203.
clients to establish possible areas of culture conflict in values is examined. (21 ref) ((c) 1997
Butcher, J. N., Ed. (1996). International adaptations of the MMPI-2: Research and clinical applications.
Minneapolis, University of Minnesota Press.
(from the jacket) [A] most widely used objective clinical test of personality is the Minnesota
Multiphasic Personality Inventory-2 (MMPI-2). . . . "International Adaptations of the MMPI-2" discusses
cross-national personality assessment research generally and provides extensive documentation on the
adaptation of the MMPI-2 into other languages. (from the preface) Throughout this volume our goal is to
provide both research information and clinical case material to illustrate the clinical utility of the MMPI-2
in other countries. /// One of the primary goals of this volume is to discuss cross-national personality
assessment research and to explore the applicability of the MMPI-2 in a number of countries. A second
goal is to describe a number of specific clinical adaptations of the MMPI-2 that have been initiated by
psychologists in other countries, illustrating the increasing use of the instrument around the world. A third
goal is to provide, in some detail, an overview of the expanding clinical research base of the MMPI-2 that
has been accumulating through the work of scholars around the world. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights
reserved)
Carroll, J.-B. (1984). “Raymond B. Cattell's contribution to the theory of cognitive abilities.” Multivariate-
Behavioral-Research; 1984 Apr-Jul Vol 19(2-3) 300-306.
Describes Cattell's work on intelligence, its measurement, and the relationship between heredity
and intelligence. In 1933, Cattell and H. Bristol developed a series of intelligence tests for MAs of 4 to 8
yrs. They attempted to make the tests as free as possible of the effects of culture and schooling. Using data
from these tests, Cattell and colleagues made contributions to the question of the inheritance of intelligence
by enunciating principles for developing a culture-free intelligence test. Cattell proposed a series of items
of greatest common knowledge among diverse cultures. The Cattell Culture Free Intelligence Test was
published in the 1940's, although the name was changed to the Cattell Culture Fair Intelligence Test around
1965. Cattell went on to develop a theory of fluid and crystallized intelligence. The delay in the publication
of this theory was due to Cattell's research on personality factor structuring. The theory states that the
development of fluid intelligence is due primarily to genetic and constitutional factors, while the
development of crystallized intelligence is due chiefly to the investment of fluid intelligence in pursuits that
are dependent on environmental opportunities. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1985 American Psychological
Corbett, G. G. and I. R. L. Davies (1997). Establishing basic color terms: Measures and techniques. Color
categories in thought and language. C. L. Hardin. Cambridge, England UK, Cambridge University Press: p.
197-223.
(from the chapter) looking at the notion of basicness of color terms by comparing various tests / to
do this, we are using languages that are well studied / often this means the basic color terms in those
languages can be taken as given, so that we can then see how well particular types of tests perform in
identifying the basic color terms / there are 2 reasons for doing this / one is that it may tell us something
about the different types of tests and therefore about the notion of basicness / the second is a practical point
/ given the difficulties of fieldwork in particular places, it is worth looking for tests that are easy to run,
quick, and efficient, as opposed to those that are more elaborate /// outline the B. Berlin and P. Kay
hierarchy / then we look at the types of measure available and the statistical techniques for establishing how
well they fit with the predictions derived from Berlin and Kay / we then give examples of the tests in turn,
referring briefly to the results obtained and the degree of correspondence with the hierarchy / this leads to
an investigation of the interrelation between the measures, and to examining consistency across
investigators and across languages; certain measures give considerably better results than others / we
conclude that, while the indicators point in the same direction, supporting Berlin and Kay to varying
degrees, different measures serve different functions ((c) 1998 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Feather, N. T. (1986). “Value systems across cultures: Australia and China.” International Journal of
Psychology 21(6): 697-715.
Administered the Rokeach Value Survey to 140 Australian university students and, in translated
form, to 68 university students in China. Australian Ss ranked the following values as significantly higher
in importance compared with the Chinese Ss: an exciting life, a world at peace, family security, happiness,
inner harmony, being cheerful, being forgiving, being helpful, being honest, being loving, and being
responsible. Chinese Ss assigned significantly higher importance than the Australian Ss to a world of
beauty, national security, pleasure, social recognition, wisdom, being ambitious, being capable, being
courageous, being imaginative, being intellectual, being logical, and being self-controlled. Results are
related to other evidence about the 2 cultures. (French abstract) (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1988
Goldberg, L.-R., W.-T. Norman, et al. (1980). “The comparative validity of questionnaire data (16PF
scales) and objective test data (O-A Battery) in predicting five peer-rating criteria.” Applied-Psychological-
Measurement; 1980 Spr Vol 4(2) 183-194.
30 tests from the Objective-Analytic (O-A) Test Battery (R. B. Cattell, 1955) plus Forms A and B
of the 16 PF were administered to 82 male undergraduates. In addition, each S was rated by 7-11 close
associates on each of 20 bipolar rating scales, 4 scales tapping each of 5 peer-rating factors. These peer
ratings were used as criterion variables to be predicted by the 16 PF and by the O-A Battery. The O-A
measures were slightly more highly related to 1 peer-rating factor (Culture); the 16 PF scales were slightly
more highly related to another (Conscientiousness); and the 2 sets of variables were essentially equivalent
in predicting the other 3 factors (2 of which showed no significant relationships with either instrument).
The lack of consistent superiority of the objective test scores over the questionnaire scales, coupled with
some criticisms of the objective tests on logical grounds, should make one cautious in accepting the claims
being made for the comparative validity of the O-A Battery. (13 ref) (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1980
Gomez Mejia, L. R. (1986). “The cross-cultural structure of task-related and contextual constructs.” Journal
Developed a set of scales to measure the importance of different aspects of work across cultural
groups. These scales were validated on 2,500 US employees and later on 5,550 employees of a
multinational organization on 5 continents. A task-related scale measures amount of responsibility in the
job, autonomy, ability utilization, accomplishment, and challenge. A contextual scale measures working
conditions, company policy, company organization, human relations, supervisory attention, and job
security. Results indicate that the constructs have pan-cultural validity and that a cognitive structure of
work orientations can be delineated, measured, and applied. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Harrington, T. F. (1993). “A comparison of work-related values of adolescents from five countries.”

International Journal for the Advancement of Counselling 16(2): 81-87.
Examined different lists of values for commonality and the comparability of the frequency of
Career Decision-Making System (CDM) value selections among high school student samples in 5 countries
(1,726 from Australia, 1,958 from Canada, 302 from Finland, 144 from Japan, and 759 from the US). A
convergence of work values appeared among the American value listings. Correlations showed substantial
commonality of CDM value rankings between countries. The CDM's methodology of value data collection
and its use with clients are discussed. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Huang, C. D., A. T. Church, et al. (1997). “Identifying cultural differences in items and traits: Differential
item functioning in the NEO Personality Inventory.” Journal of Cross Cultural Psychology 28(2): 192-218.
Investigated the cross-cultural measurement equivalence of items on the English-language version
of the NEO Personality Inventory (NEO-PI), a measure of the 5-factor personality model, in a different
cultural context in which English is the language of instruction. Three models of differential item
functioning (DIF) were examined to identify the etic and emic items, and hypotheses about the cultural
mean differences in the traits associated with the 5-factor model were tested. The item responses of 432 18-
27 Filipino and 610 American 18-66 yr old college students were analyzed. All 3 methods for detecting
DIF showed fairly good agreement in the detection of DIF items. Nearly 40% of the 180 items showed
DIF. Several significant cultural mean differences that were found with the original raw scores were no
longer significant when "purified" scales obtained by deleting DIF items were analyzed. Findings conclude
that the NEO-PI can be used to assess personality constructs in Filipino populations. (PsycLIT Database
Hui, C. H. (1988). “Measurement of individualism^collectivism.” Journal of Research in Personality: in-

Personality.
Describes the development and validation of a pencil-and-paper measure of individualism (IND)-
collectivism (COL), the INDCOL scale (appended). 48 social scientists and Chinese and American college
students participated in its validation. The scale's reliability and validity (content, construct, and
discriminant) are discussed. It is concluded that the INDCOL scale measures a construct related to social
interest, but it is not identical to self-sacrifice. It is something socially valued in the Chinese culture but not
necessarily in the US society. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Hultsch, D. F. and R. W. Bortner (1974). “Personal time perspective in adulthood: A time-sequential

study.” Developmental Psychology 10(6): 835-837.
2 measures of personal time perspective were obtained from 1,247 adults using a time-sequential
data collection strategy. 2 cross-sectional studies, separated by 1 yr, were conducted to test for the effects
of age and time of measurement. Data analyses yielded significant main effects due to ages for both
dependent measures. Main effects due to Time of Measurement, Sex, and all interactions were
nonsignificant. The findings suggest that differences in personal time perspective during adulthood are
related to age rather than sociocultural change during the year. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights
reserved)
Ibrahim, F. A. and S. V. Owen (1994). “Factor analytic structure of the Scale to Assess World View-
super((c)).” Current Psychology: Developmental, Learning, Personality, Social 13(3): 201-209.
Examined the factor structure of the Scale to Assess World View (SAWV). Derived from C.
Kluckhohn's (1951) existential categories for value-emphasis or value orientation for all societies, the
SAWV examines attitudes toward human nature, nature, social relationships, time orientation, and activity
orientation. Results from 461 female and 293 male undergraduates (aged 18-53 yrs) reveal a 4-factor
solution (Optimistic, Traditional, Here and Now, and Pessimistic) that suggests a reconceptualization of
Kluckhohn's existential categories. Women favored the 1st and 3rd factors, believing that human nature
was good, acknowledging the power of nature, and emphasizing a present time focus. Men favored the
traditional world view, confirming research (B. Friedan, 1991) on socialization that shows men to be
caught in society's expectations of success at any cost. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Johnson, R. C., G. P. Danko, et al. (1989). “Cross-cultural assessment of altruism and its correlates.”
Personality and Individual Differences: Individual-Differences.
Administered a self-report altruism scale to university students in Australia, Egypt, Korea, China,
the US, and Yugoslavia. Measures of guilt, shame, psychoticism, neuroticism, extraversion, lying, and
intrinsic and extrinsic religiosity were also obtained. The scale had good psychometric properties. Mean
scores on 3 altruism measures differed significantly across samples. Sex differences, when significant,
indicated that males gave and received more help. For most samples, measures of altruism were positively
correlated with guilt, extraversion, and intrinsic religiosity; shame was negatively correlated with giving
and receiving help but positively correlated with the rated importance of helping. Lie scale scores generally
yielded low negative correlations with altruism scores. Amounts of giving and receiving help and the rated
importance of helping were highly correlated both within and across samples. Data support the existence of
reciprocal altruism. The altruism scale is appended. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Jones, J. M. (1994). An exploration of temporality in human behavior. Beliefs, reasoning, and decision
making: Psycho logic in honor of Bob Abelson. R. C. Schank. Hillsdale, NJ, USA, Lawrence Erlbaum
Associates, Inc: p. 389-411.
(from the chapter) summarize my attempts to understand time as a psychological construct with
meaning for cognitive and affective aspects of experience, as well as significant influence on human
behaviors / presents my overall conceptual understanding of time / describes preliminary data
demonstrating the utility of a scale to measure temporal orientation and its relationship to personality and
selected behavioral characteristics / suggests some implications of this way of thinking for understanding a
variety of psychological, affective, and interpersonal dynamics /// concentrated primarily on [individual and
cultural differences in temporality] ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Kahle, L. R., S. E. Beatty, et al. (1986). “Alternative measurement approaches to consumer values: The List
of Values (LOV) and Values and Life Style (VALS).” Journal of Consumer Research 13(3): 405-409.
Compared the VALS and the LOV methods of measuring consumer values to determine whether
LOV has greater predictive utility than does VAL in consumer behavior trends. 71 North American and
122 foreign undergraduates studying at an American university completed the VALS and the LOV. Results
indicate that the LOV was in the public domain and support the hypothesis that LOV significantly
predicted consumer trends more often than did VALS. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1987 American
Keith, K. D., L. W. Heal, et al. (1996). “Cross-cultural measurement of critical quality of life concepts.”
Journal of Intellectual and Developmental Disability 21(4): 273-293.
A semantic differential technique was used to assess the meaning of 10 quality of life (QOL)
concepts across 7 cultures. 156 post-B.A. level professionals working in the field of intellectual
disability/developmental disabilities in 7 countries completed the Cross Cultural Assessment of Quality of
Life Concepts Questionnaire. Each concept was rated on 9 pairs of adjectives representing 3 dimensions
(value, potency, or activity). Across the 7 countries all 10 of the QOL concepts received strong positive
ratings on the value dimension, and lower positive ratings on the potency and activity dimensions. Japan,
however, was an exception to the general pattern, with Japanese raters assigning negative ratings for value
and activity and positive ratings for potency. The results are discussed in relation to the differences between
individualistic and collective cultures. The present study provides only a superficial view of cross-cultural
perceptions of QOL of individuals with intellectual disability. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights
reserved)
Kovac, T. (1996). “K. Urban's creativity test: Some data gathered from Slovakia.” Studia Psychologica
38(4): 233-235.
Compared the achievements of some Slovak groups including 56 children (aged 6-10 yrs), 60
high-school students, 83 university students, 51 teachers, and 42 highly educated adults with the official
German norms using the Urban's Creativity Test - figural version (K. Urban, 1996). The test was selected
because it allowed for covering dimensions of creativity beyond the divergence principle including,
personality dimensions in the form of complex view, willingness to risk and overcoming common barriers.
Findings show that the Urban's Creativity Test represents a new methodological instrument that allows for
the testing of several aspects of creativity and is culturally fair. While the data are not mathematico-
statistically evaluated, it seems that the score achieved by Slovak Ss differs little from German norms.
Lee, Y. T. and M. E. P. Seligman (1997). “Are Americans more optimistic than the Chinese?” Personality
and Social Psychology Bulletin: sychology-Bulletin.
Investigated whether White Americans, Chinese Americans, and mainland Chinese differ in their
explanatory style. 257 White American, 312 mainland Chinese, and 44 Chinese American college students
completed the Attributional Style Questionnaire. Mainland Chinese were more pessimistic than Chinese
Americans, who were more pessimistic than White Americans. Mainland Chinese were less self-blaming
(i.e., attributed their failure less internally than the traditional Chinese culture expects) and attributed their
success to other people or circumstances. White Americans had more lopsidedness or self-serving bias than
Chinese Americans and mainland Chinese, i.e., White Americans attributed their success to themselves and
their failure to others or circumstances more often than did mainland Chinese. Mainland Chinese optimism
was associated more with academic and financial accomplishment, psychological confidence and
persistence, and physical health. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Maio, G. R., N. J. Roese, et al. (1996). “Rankings, ratings, and the measurement of values: Evidence for the
superior validity of ratings.” Basic and Applied Social Psychology 18(2): 171-181.
Examined the predictive validity of value rankings vs ratings by comparing the magnitude of their
correlations to conceptually related attitudes. 211 university students ranked and rated the importance of 42
values, indicated their attitudes toward 30 controversial issues, and judged the ethical acceptability of 74
behaviors. Ss were grouped based on the number of values rated differently, and correlations between
conceptually related values and attitudes were determined for each group. Overall, forcing Ss to
differentiate between values (rankings) yielded smaller value-attitude correlations than allowing Ss to
freely differentiate between values to whatever extent they deemed appropriate (ratings). Within moderate-
and low-differentiating participants, the validity of ratings was greater than for rankings. ((c) 1997
McNally, S., N. Eisenberg, et al. (1991). “Consistency and change in maternal child-rearing practices and
values: A longitudinal study.” Child Development 62(1): 190-198.
Examined changes in mothers' reported child-rearing practices over time in regard to
independence and control, expression of positive and negative affect, and disciplinary practices. The Child-
Rearing Practices Report developed by J. H. Block (unpublished) was administered to the same 32 mothers
5 times over an 8-yr time period (from when their children were aged 7-8 yrs until they were 15-26 yrs
old). A substantial degree of stability in behaviors and values was noted, even over the 8-yr period. In
addition, some practices increased or decreased with age, with most changes being consistent with prior
theorizing and research, as well as commonsense notions related to child rearing. ((c) 1997
Morris, J.-D. (1995). “Observations: SAM: The self-assessment manikin: An efficient cross-cultural
measurement of emotional response.” Journal-of-Advertising-Research; 1995 Nov-Dec Vol 35(6) 63-68.
Examined the Self-Assessment Manikin (SAM), which provides a promising solution to the
problems associated with measuring emotional response to advertising. SAM depicts each pleasure,
arousal, and dominance dimension with a graphic character arrayed along a continuous 9-point scale. For
pleasure, SAM ranges from a smiling, happy figure to a frowning, unhappy figure; for arousal, SAM ranges
from sleepy with eyes closed to excited with eyes open. The dominance scale shows SAM ranging from a
very small figure representing a feeling of being controlled or submissive to a very large figure
representing in-control or a powerful feeling. The use of SAM to measure consumers' emotional responses
to advertising messages has been demonstrated in studies both in the US and abroad (e.g., J. D. Morris et al,
1994). SAM is a useful, easy to implement tool for measuring affective responses with a wide range of
applications in marketing communications. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1996 American Psychological
Narayanan, S. and C. R. Paramesh (1978). “Paramesh Remote Associates Test (PRAT) and its relation to
convergent and divergent tests.” Indian-Journal-of-Psychology; 1978 Mar Vol 53(1) 8-12.
Describes the development of the Paramesh Remote Associates Test (PRAT), which is applicable
to the cultural experiences of a Tamil-speaking population. The PRAT was administered to 90 10th-grade
boys to assess its reliability and validity; data on its correlations with the Wallach-Kogan Tests of
Creativity, J. W. Getzels and P. W. Jackson's battery of creativity test, Raven Standard Progressive
Matrices, and Cattell Culture-Fair Intelligence Test are presented. (13 ref) (PsycLIT Database Copyright
Nawrat, R. (1981). “Orientacja temporalna. Przeglad technik pomiaruk i wynikow badan. / Temporal
orientation: A review of measurement techniques and research data.” Przeglad Psychologiczny 24(1): 97-
124.
Defines the notion of psychological time and distinguishes basic concepts such as calculation of
time, time orientation, rating of time, and time perspective. Five aspects of temporal orientation that are
most frequently subjected to psychological research are presented (attitude toward past, present, and future;
differentiation of attitudes toward different time areas; saturation; range; and consistency). Research
techniques are reviewed, main assumptions that underlie construction of techniques for measuring temporal
orientation are presented, and the most frequently used techniques are described. (Russian abstract) (3 p
Neel, R.-G., O.-C. Tzeng, et al. (1983). “Comparative studies of authoritarian-personality characteristics
across culture, language and methods.” International-Journal-of-Intercultural-Relations; 1983 Vol 7(4) 393-
400.
Three groups of university students from the US and Turkey were administered language-
appropriate versions of the F Scale, the Rokeach Dogmatism Scale, and a multiple-choice measure of
authoritarianism developed previously by the 1st author (1977). The Turkish/English group ( n = 78)
attended a Turkish university where all classes were in English; the Turkish/Turkish (TT) group ( n = 62)
attended a Turkish university where all classes were in Turkish; and the American/English (AE) group ( n =
357) attended a Midwestern university in the US. Interculture and language comparisons resulted in 2
significant differences on both the dogmatism and authoritarian scales. Analysis of group composite scales
showed that these differences were due to disparities between the AE and TT groups. Differences across
language and culture groups for the author-developed scale were nonsignificant. For the AE group, the 3
measures were almost undifferentiable. Results suggest the effect of measurement instruments on
intercultural difference and intermeasure comparisons; this indicates a response-format effect (agreer bias
or acquiescence set). (French & Spanish abstracts) (11 ref) (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1984 American
Ng, S. H. (1982). “Choosing between the ranking and rating procedures for the comparison of values across
cultures.” European Journal of Social Psychology 12(2): 169-172.
be chosen for cross-cultural studies when a choice must be made. (9 ref) ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all
rights reserved)
Niemczynski, A., D. Czyzowska, et al. (1988). “The Cracow study with Kolberg's Moral Judgment
Interview: Data pertaining to the assumption of cross-cultural validity.” Polish Psychological Bulletin
19(1): 43-53.
Investigated the universality of social-moral development and the validity of the Moral Judgement
Interview on a Polish sample of 291 men and women (aged 15-80 yrs). The study followed J. R. Snarey's
(see PA, Vol 72:19212) formulation of empirical assumptions underlying L. Kohlberg's (1971, 1981) claim
for cross-cultural universality (culturally diverse sampling, universal moral questions, invariant stage
sequence, full range of stages, and general applicability of the stages). It is concluded that the data
generally support each of the assumptions. Some difficulties were identified regarding the range and
general application of stages. It is suggested that certain traditional Polish moral values are not adequately
represented by the criterion judgments in the present manual (A. Colby and L. Kohlberg, in press). ((c)
Noller, P., H. Law, et al. (1988). “Factor analysis of the Comrey Personality Scales in an Australian
sample.” Multivariate Behavioral Research: Behavioral-Research.
The Comrey Personality Scales (CPS) were administered to 326 male and 343 female Australians
(aged 16-65 yrs). The 40 subscales that define the 8 CPS factors were intercorrelated along with 2
validation scores, age and sex. This matrix of correlations was factor analyzed to determine if the same
structure of personality traits previously found in other groups (R. F. Booth [see PA, Vol 66:7030]; A. R.
Forbes et al [see PA, Vol 53:7408]) would also hold for Australians. All 8 CPS personality factors appeared
as expected showing excellent agreement with past findings in other groups. This agreement in factor
structure occurred despite many significant differences in personality factor score means between this
sample and the normative group sample. Findings support the premise that the 8 personality factors
measured by the CPS have considerable stability across cultural boundaries. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all
rights reserved)
Novak, T. P. and B. MacEvoy (1990). “On comparing alternative segmentation schemes: The List of
Values (LOV) and Values and Life Styles (VALS).” Journal of Consumer Research 17(1): 105-109.
Compared 2 segmentation schemes, the VALS system and the LOV (L. R. Kahle et al; see PA,
Vol 74:17567). Data were taken from a national probability sample of 2,591 adults who responded to
questionnaires and telephone contacts concerning product ownership, media use, and various activities. The
role of a set of demographic variables in conjunction with VALS and LOV was also evaluated. A
regression model including both demographics and LOV was superior to a model including only VALS.
LOV alone was significantly less predictive than VALS alone. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1990
Perusse, D., M.-C. Neale, et al. (1994). “Human parental behavior: Evidence for genetic influence and
potential implication for gene-culture transmission.” Behavior-Genetics; 1994 Jul Vol 24(4) 327-335.
Used a 14-item version of the Parental Bonding Instrument (PBI) to assess child-rearing practices
of 1,117 pairs of adult twins (mean age 56.5 yrs) who were concordant for having had children. The 2
factors of Care and Overprotection were recovered from this analysis of the PBI's parent form. Model-
fitting analyses indicate that human parental behavior is under significant genetic influence. Findings
suggest that this influence is sex limited, with a higher heritability in mothers than in fathers, and that it
may result partly from the expression of dominant genes. For both PBI factors and both parents, the best-
fitting models invariably assumed sex-limited genetic effects and unique environmental influences only.
Broad heritability ranged from 19% (father overprotection) to 39% (mother care). (PsycLIT Database
Randall, D. M. (1993). “Cross-cultural research on organizational commitment: A review and application

of Hofstede's Value Survey Module.” Journal of Business Research 26(1): 91-110.
Reviews 27 research articles on organizational commitment outside of the US to (1) organize what
is known about cross-cultural commitment into a coherent form and (2) illustrate the value of an
overarching theoretical framework for interpreting variation in level of organizational commitment across
cultures. G. Hofstede's (1980) Value Survey Module (VSM) is offered as a theoretical framework to add
coherence to the cross-cultural study of organizational commitment. The VSM identifies differences in the
way people in different countries perceive and interpret their worlds. The VSM permits the culture of a
country to be summarized across 4 dimensions: power distance, uncertainty avoidance, masculinity vs
femininity, and individualism vs collectivism. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Postulated a human values structure made up of 18 instrumental values (behavioral processes) and
18 terminal values (end states). Used a ranking technique to measure values in a college population.
Sanders, S. A. (1986). “Development of a tool to measure subjective time experience.” Nursing Research
35(3): 178-182.
Reports the development and testing of Time Experience Scales, which was designed to identify
temporal experience in ill persons. Semantic differential and Likert scale items indicated 4 conceptual
dimensions of subjective time experience. A mail questionnaire was completed by 587 male and 475
female 18-92 yr old healthy adults. Factor analysis identified 6 robust factors: Meaning, Fast Tempo, Slow
Tempo, Attention to Death, Future Orientation, and Past Orientation. Product-moment correlations between
subscales (.01^.45) indicated the validity, and coefficient alpha (.68^.88) indicated the reliability of
measurement, using the factors. Results suggest that at least 6 distinct temporal experiences help people
assign order, rhythm, and meaning to life events, thereby creating a continuing and optimal life story. ((c)
Singelis, T. M., H. C. Triandis, et al. (1995). “Horizontal and vertical dimensions of individualism and
collectivism: A theoretical and measurement refinement.” Cross Cultural Research The Journal of
Comparative Social Science 29(3): 240-275.
Studied the theoretical and measurement distinctions between vertical and horizontal
individualism and collectivism. 268 undergraduates (18-55 yrs old) from various ethnic backgrounds
completed a test that included items from J. B. P. Sinha's scale (1994), T. Singelis' Self-Construal scale (see
PA, Vol 82:11881), and previous individualism and collectivism measurements. Horizontal-vertical
individualism were found to be distinct constructs. Vertical collectivism included perceiving the self as part
of a collective and accepting inequalities within the collective. Horizontal collectivism included perceiving
the self as part of the collective, seeing all members of the collective as the same; thus, equality is stressed.
Vertical individualism included the conception of an autonomous individual and acceptance of inequality.
Horizontal individualism included the conception of an autonomous individual and emphasis on equality.
Tang, T. L. P. (1995). “The development of a short Money Ethic Scale: Attitudes toward money and pay
satisfaction revisited.” Personality and Individual Differences 19(6): 809-816.
Presents the development of a short 12-item Money Ethic Scale to examine people's attitudes
toward money. Data were collected from 740 employees on demographic variables like sex, age, income,
educational level, and job satisfaction. The personality and work-related variables such as self-esteem, need
for achievement, internal-external locus of control, Type A behavior pattern, and study of values were also
assessed. The Money Ethic scale (T. L. P. Tang, 1992), having 6 factors (good, evil, achievement, respect,
budget, and freedom) was used to develop the short scale. The short 12-item Money Ethic scale had 3
factors: success (cognitive), budget (behavioral), and evil (affective). Positive and negative attitudes toward
money were not related to the same dimension. Ss who valued money did not necessarily have a higher
income than those who did not. The Ss who valued money tended to have a high level of pay
dissatisfaction. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1996 American Psychological Assn, all rights reserved)
Thorson, J. A. (1992). “Another look at pastoral candidates' personality traits.” Journal of Psychology and
Theology 20(1): 47-50.
Compared data for 15 different dimensions of personality identified by the Edwards Preference
Schedule by A. L. Edwards (1959) for 760 male and 749 female college students, 35 male and 32 female
pastoral students (J. Patrick; see PA, Vol 78:34845), and 171 male and 51 female medical students. There
were no significant differences for either sex among the 3 samples in scores on needs for Achievement. The
male medical Ss were lower in Order than were males in the other groups, but female medical Ss did not
differ from other female Ss. Pastoral students differed from their peers in several personality traits. They
were higher in Deference, Affiliation, Intraception, and Nurturance. Males scored lower in Heterosexuality,
and both men and women scored lower in Autonomy, Abasement, and Aggression. (PsycLIT Database
Triandis, H. C., R. Bontempo, et al. (1986). “The measurement of the etic aspects of individualism and
collectivism across cultures. Special Issue: Contributions to cross-cultural psychology.” Australian Journal
Studied the dimension of individualism-collectivism (I-C) as identified by G. Hofstede (1980),
using items developed both theoretically and emically in 9 diverse cultures. The dimension was found to be
analyzable into 4 stable etic factors: Individualism had 2 aspects (separation from ingroups and self-
reliance with hedonism) and collectivism had 2 aspects (family integrity and interdependence with
sociability). These 4 factors are orthogonal to each other. The location of 9 cultures on these 4 factors was
used to compute a collectivism score that correlated with Hofstede's collectivism scores for the 9 cultures.
This approach enables the measurement of I-C in each culture as well as across cultures, and shows that
different methods for measuring I-C converge. (PsycLIT Database Copyright 1988 American
Triandis, H. C. and M. J. Gelfand (1998). “Converging measurement of horizontal and vertical

individualism and collectivism.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology: Social-Psychology.
The constructs of horizontal (H) and vertical (V) individualism (I) and collectivism (C) were
theoretically defined and empirically supported. Study 1 confirmed, via factor analysis, that the 4
constructs, HI, V1, HC, and VC, which were previously found in the United States, which has an
individualist culture, also were found in Korea which has a collectivist culture. Study 2 investigated
multimethod-multitrait matrices measuring the constructs and generally supported their convergent and
divergent validity. Study 3 showed how these 4 constructs relate to previously identified components by H.
C. Triandis and colleagues. Study 4 showed the relationships of the measurement of the 4 constructs to
some of the measures used by other researchers. ((c) 1998 APA/PsycINFO, all rights reserved)
Whitbourne, S. K. and W. D. Dannefer (1985). “The "life drawing" as a measure of time perspective in
adulthood.” International Journal of Aging and Human Development 22(2): 147-155.
Examined the sensibility and stability of the life drawing measure, a measure of time perspective
and a variation of the life graph. The measure was administered to 47 men and 47 women (aged 24-60 yrs).
It was expected that age would be related positively to past vs present temporal dominance and lack of
future extension of the life drawing. The effects of sex, work status, and geographic mobility were also
assessed through log-linear analyses. Age was found to relate to past temporal dominance, particularly for
men. 12 mo test-retest analyses of data from 55 respondents showed that the time perspective measure was
reliable. Life changes in that interval appeared to precipitate movement from past to present temporal
dominance. Temporal dominance also showed a relationship to behavioral observations made by
interviewers at the 1st testing occasion. Of interest was the lack of support in the life drawings for age-stage
theories of adult development in that the events depicted as markers had no relationship to age. ((c) 1997
Wright, L., S. McCurdy, et al. (1992). “The TUPA Scale: A self-report measure for the Type A
subcomponent of time urgency and perpetual activation.” Psychological Assessment 4(3): 352-356.
A self-report measure for the Type A subcomponent of time urgency and perpetual activation
(TUPA) was developed. An original pool of 137 items for measuring TUPA was created with the help of
10 Type A patients with coronary heart disease (CHD). An attempt was then made to validate these items
by correlating them with interview-based ratings for TUPA while using 48 additional CHD patients. On the
basis of these latter ratings, 47 items were retained for the final scale. That instrument was then cross-
validated on an additional sample of 40 non-CHD Ss. The internal consistency and testetest reliabilities for
this scale, combined with validity and cross-validation data from this and previous studies, indicate the
scale to be sufficiently refined for initial clinical and research use. ((c) 1997 APA/PsycINFO, all rights
reserved)
Yik, M. S. and M. H. Bond (1993). “Exploring the dimensions of Chinese person perception with
indigenous and imported constructs: Creating a culturally balanced scale.” International Journal of
Psychology: of-Psychology.
Compares the relative effectiveness of imported and indigenous measures of personality
perception for Hong Kong Chinese. The 1st study reports on the extraction of 6 factors of self-perception
using bipolar, adjective rating scales from the US tapping the Big Five (J. M. Digman; see PA, Vol
77:17097) and Openness to Experience (R. R. McCrae and P. T. Costa; see PA, Vol 74:15614; see also
1985). The 2nd study reports on the extraction of 6 factors of self-perception derived from scales developed
indigenously by Chinese psychologists. The 3rd study examines the overlap of the imported and the
indigenous dimensions and assesses their relative power in explaining various criterion measures. The
imported factors adequately explained all but one of the indigenous factors, although in complex
combinations. Neither scale was better than the other in predicting the criterion variables. (French abstract)

Applied Cross-Cultural Research

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APPLIED

An annotated review of cross-cultural research in

APPLIED CROSS-CULTURAL RESEARCH IN BUSINESS

APPLIED CROSS-CULTURAL RESEARCH

The nature of culture:

Fundamental problems of cross-cultural research:

While researchers in industry and academia have reached a consensus on measuring a

A cross-cultural sporting analogy is appropriate. In American football the objective is to

Figure 1. Culture block diagram.

CULTURAL INFLUENCE ON BASIC PSYCHOLOGICAL PROCESSES

Culture and perception:

Figure 2. The perceptual process.

CROSS-CULTURAL STUDIES OF VISUAL PERCEPTION

Colour preferences and meanings:

Perception of visual illusions:

Perception of pictorial material:

Conclusions about visual perception:

COGNITIVE PROCESSES AND CULTURE

1. Are there qualitative differences in cognitive processes among different cultural

General intelligence and culture:

This characteristic is interesting from a marketing viewpoint, particularly because so many

Learning and memory across cultures:

Business applications of variations in cognitive performance:

At a first approximation, each 1% change in worker productivity results in a 6% change in

FOOD PREFERENCES AND CULTURE

Wallendorf used depth interviews, participant-observation data, and structured surveys to

A. Physical and environmental factors

or the bitterness of caffeine, to genetic characteristics (Bertino, Beauchamp et al. 1983). A

SCENT, ODOUR, PERFUME AND CULTURE

Both familiarity and culture influence response to odours. In a recent experiment

1) promotion of relaxation and stress reduction,

CULTURAL VALUES RESEARCH

The nature of values:

Cultural values are hypothesised to be generalised attitudes that serve as modifiers of

Landmark studies in cross-cultural values:

Value Orientations is the name given to a theoretical construct developed by Florence

Working from a somewhat different perspective, Abraham Maslow proposed a hierarchical

Influenced by the concept of a value hierarchy, Rokeach, in 1973, proposed a set of 18

Terminal Values Instrumental Values

a comfortable life ambitious

The practical application of values research was recognised by management scientists

Power Distance - acceptance of unequal distribution of power as legitimate;

Individualism/Collectivism - individual as opposed to group orientation;

Uncertainty Avoidance - valuing beliefs that provide certainty and conformity;

Masculinity/Femininity - valuing achievement, assertiveness, and material success

Figure 6 is a graphic representation of national work value similarities based on

Figure 7. E.U. Trading partner national work value groupings.

Figure 8. “World map” of national cultural values.

Some contemporary values studies:

1) To be well adjusted, in harmony with my environment, in a good relationship with others.

1) Persistence and perseverance.

The results could be explained by invoking 6 dimensions, Adventurous Orientation,

Figure 11 is a schematic representation of the clusters of values of the various cultures

RELIGION AND CULTURAL VALUES

Figure 12. Work values and religion.

Figure 13. Work values of adult business students by national origins.

GENDER AND CULTURE

Cross-cultural gender roles are characterised by:

3) Gender based rules on emotional expressivity – in Northern Europe and North

4) Degree of normal contact between unrelated members of the opposite sex – In

5) Culturally based sexual mores and traditions – Cultural restrictions on sexual

The consequences of gender role differentiation for marketing are straightforward. It

TIME PERSPECTIVES AND CULTURE

THE STABILITY OF VALUES