Design of a high performance drivetrain for the URE 05

H.M.A. Smetsers DCT 2009.080

Masters thesis Coach(es): Supervisor: Committee: dr. ir. A.F.A. Serrarens (DTI) prof. dr. ir. M. Steinbuch prof. dr. ir. M. Steinbuch dr. ir. A.F.A. Serrarens (DTI) dr. ir. A.A.H. Damen

Technische Universiteit Eindhoven Department Mechanical Engineering Dynamics and Control Technology Group Drivetrain Innovations B.V. Eindhoven, August 17, 2009

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Summary
The goal of this thesis is the design of a high performance drivetrain for the University Racing Eindhoven (URE) Team. The team competes in the international Formula Student (FS) competition in which students design, build, develop, market and compete with a small single seater racing car. With the design of the new car the management wants to focus on innovations in the drivetrain as this is one of the key research areas of the Eindhoven University of Technology. The starting point of this innovative approach is a CVT (continuously variable transmission). First the current powertrain/drivetrain is analyzed for instance which engine is used and what is the layout of the drivetrain is. Torque measurements are performed to know what the actual torques are in the driveline. These torques are also a selection criterium of what kind of CVT would be suitable for the URE car. With the use of simulations the benets of the CVT on acceleration are compared with that of the current drivetrain. Next all the disciplines that are driven with the car are analyzed. Finally a short overview on suitable CVTs is given and a selection is made. In the next chapter the selected CVT is thoroughly analyzed, the type of belt that is used is and the functional mechanical aspect of the CVT is claried. To know in which area the CVT has to operate the previous mentioned disciplines are evaluated and the working area of the CVT is chosen. For those working area all the ratios, engine and pulley speeds, torques, belts speeds, running radii and wrapped angle of the CVT are calculated. For the control of the CVT several quantities are measured on an unloaded test bench. First the shifting speed of the CVT is measured, for up and down shifting. Then a transfer function is derived for the pulley position actuation. With the measured data a controller is designed and stability and robustness of the controlled system is evaluated. For the complete ratio control of the CVT a transfer function is derived as well. Two controller have been designed to control the ratio and for the selected controller the stability and robustness is evaluated as well. To look at the performance of the controllers for the pulley position and the ratio, several test have been performed and evaluated. Finally a full acceleration and deceleration is simulated with real data. Now the CVT is approved the CVT is optimized for performance. A global layout on the design is given, the connection with the CVT and the engine, a new clutch mechanism and how the CVT is xed and positioned in the car.

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Contents
Summary List of gures List of tables 1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ii vi x 1 3 3 4 4 6 6 8 8 9 10 11 12 14 15 16 19 19 20 21 22 27 27 27 27 29 30 30 35 35 35 36 37

2 Basic Requirements for the CVT 2.0.1 Current drive line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.0.2 Engine power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.0.3 Power requirement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.0.4 Available traction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1 Torque peaks in the shaft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 Track data and simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.1 Acceleration event . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.2 Skid-Pad event . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.3 Autocross and endurance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.4 Simulation parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 Results of the acceleration simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4 Selection of a suitable CVT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.1 Snowmobile CVT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.2 The Suzuki Electronically-controlled Continuously Variable Transmission 3 Analysis of the CVT 3.1 Working principle of the SE-CVT 3.2 Ratio selection . . . . . . . . . . 3.3 Variator calculations . . . . . . . 3.3.1 Variator geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4 CVT Control and Actuation System 4.1 CVT-control in race cars . . . 4.2 CVT control unit . . . . . . . 4.2.1 MoTeC . . . . . . . 4.3 Sensors . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4 Pulley position mechanism . 4.5 Thrust forces . . . . . . . . . 5

System Identication and Control Design 5.1 Unloaded test bench for shifting speeds 5.1.1 Shifting behaviour results . . . . 5.2 Controller demands . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3 Unloaded test bench for control . . . . .

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CONTENTS Pulley position control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ratio Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37 40 45 45 46 51 51 52 53 55 56 57 59 59 59 61 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 63 63 63 63 67 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 71 73 73 74 77 77 81 81 81 83 83

6 Experimental Validation of the Controlled CVT 6.1 Results of Pulley Position Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2 Results of Ratio Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 CVT Modications and Power-train Design 7.1 Pulleys . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2 Torque cam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3 Drivetrain topology . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4 Engine and CVT connection . . . . . . 7.5 Clutch actuator . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6 Final drive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

8 Conclusions and Recommendations 8.1 Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2 Recommendations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bibliography A Nomenclature A.1 Denitions A.2 Acronyms . A.3 Symbols . . A.4 Subscripts .

B The snowmobile CVT C Drive Shaft Torque Measurement C.1 Resistor Tuning . . . . . . . . . . . C.2 Torque during dierent disciplines C.2.1 Torque on the skidpad . . . C.2.2 Dierent shift speeds . . .

D Simulink model D.1 Model Verication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E Test benches E.1 Unloaded test at DTI bench for determining shifting speeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E.1.1 Primary pulley position control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . F Part Failure F.1 Shift Gear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

List of Figures
1.1 1.2 The URE 05 race car. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Two dierent operation positions of the CVT. LOW is shown on the left, this is the largest reduction. Over Drive (OD) can be seen on the right. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 2 4

2.1 The current drive line topology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 The maximum power en torque lines of the tuned Suzuki GSX-R600 K2 engine at the crankshaft, measured in the engine test bed of URE. Power and torque is measured at the output shaft and thus available at the wheels. For power at the crankshaft 10% has to be added. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 In point x and y the normal force and resistance of the tire are connected and acting on the chassis. For the front wheel, the driving torque Td is zero and only the rolling resisting acts on the wheel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4 The traction diagram with the sequential six-speed gearbox. The adhesion limit is indicate by the maximum traction force possible at the rear wheels. The traction hyperbola indicates the maximum possible traction from the powertrain capabilities. The road load indicates the tractional resistance line for 0 % slope. The Traction available in each gear step is indicated by the gear number. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5 A picture of the drive shaft with the strain gauges. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6 Strain gauges are used to determine the torque and torque peaks in the driveshafts. On the left the conguration on the shafts is shown. On the right the Wheathstone bridge which is applied to read out the change of resistance of the gauges. . . . . . . . . . . . 2.7 Torque and velocity during a long acceleration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.8 The engine speed and throttle position during a long acceleration. . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.9 An overview of the acceleration event. After 0.3 [m] the timing starts, after 75 [m] the car nishes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.10 Determination of the maximum theoretical possible cornering speed on the Skid-Pad . 2.11 The vehicle speed versus the skid pad radius. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.12 On the smallest radius, the fastest single Skid Pad time can be set, although the driving speed is slower. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.13 Vehicle speed vs. time. Only on the left wheel speed was measured, therefore an oset can be seen in clockwise driving, till 12 seconds, and anti clockwise driving . . . . . . . 2.14 Engine speed vs. time during the skid-pad. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.15 The speed of the formula student race car during a single lap of the endurance in Italy. 2.16 The distribution of the speed during a single endurance lap. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.17 The time vs the vehicle speed of the car with sequential gear box and with CVT. . . . . 2.18 The time vs the traveled distance of the car with sequential gear box and with CVT. . . 2.19 The time vs the engine speed of the car with sequential gear box and with CVT. . . . . 2.20 The time vs the longitudinal acceleration of the car with sequential gear box and with CVT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.21 The time vs ratio of the car with sequential gear box and with CVT. It looks like the geared transmission is holding the lowest gear longer, but this is only the shifting time. vii

7 7

8 8 8 9 10 10 10 11 11 12 12 13 13 14 14 14

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LIST OF FIGURES 2.22 On the left the principle of the hydraulic CVT is depicted, on the right Van Doornes Transmissie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.23 An open snow mobile CVT in LOW. On the right the primary pulley with clutch are depicted, on the left the secondary pulley. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.24 A cutaway picture of the SE-CVT of the Burgman AN 650 in the LOW position. On the right the primary pulley can be seen with the electro motor for the actuation of the primary pulley width. On the left the secondary pulley is depicted. . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.25 The eciency of the snow mobile CVT.[18]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.26 The eciency of the SE-CVT in medium [17]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1 3.2 The dry hybrid v-belt of bando chemicals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . On the left the primary pulley with the actuation system. On the right the secondary pulley with the torque cam and the pretensioned spring. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3 The simplied power/drivetrain for the race car. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4 The torque at the output shaft of the engine. The maximum input torque of the CVT is 150 [Nm] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5 The variogram of the new driveline with adapted CVT-ratio. The CVT starts shifting at 12500 rpm. The 3th gear (32/20) is maintained, with a nal drive of 50/11. . . . . . . . 3.6 The denitions for the variator geometry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7 The vehicle speed vs the engine speed. The engine speed is kept constant from 48.64 [km/h] until 110.5 [km/h]. During this period the engine speed is kept constant at 12.500 [rpm]. The maximum speed is limited by the maximum engine speed of 13.500 [rpm] to 125 [km/h]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.8 Shifting starts at 48.64 [km/h] till 110.5 [km/h]. The medium ratio is chosen at high vehicle speed. There is more eciency is desirable. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.9 The calculated maximum engine torque vs the vehicle speed. The maximum torque of 150 [Nm] will not be reached. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.10 The belt speeds is equal at both pulleys and remains well below the limit of 40 [m/s]. . 3.11 The pulley radius for the primary and secondary pulley vs vehicle speed . . . . . . . . 3.12 The wrapped angle vs the vehicle speed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1 The MoTec m400 programmable engine management and data acquisition system . 4.2 The layout of the custom made current amplier. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3 The layout of sensors in the vehicle. The target and actual CVT ratio are calculated. The outcome determines if the CVT has to shift up or down. With the pulley position sensor, slip of the belt can be detected [?]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4 Curve tting of the pulley position sensor with a 4th order polynomial. . . . . . . . . . 4.5 Curve tting of the pulley position sensor with a 1th order polynomial. . . . . . . . . . 4.6 On the left the gear train reduction with the electric DC-motor is depicted. On the right the spindle mechanism which converts the rotational movement into a translation. . . 4.7 Pulley tilting and bending on the geometry results in radial sag. This results in skew running of the belt between the two pulleys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.8 The torques and forces that are present in the variator. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.9 The secondary thrust force consists of two forces, the spring force and the cam force. These forces are shown for the maximum torque of 150 [Nm]. The primary thrust force is calculated from the secondary thrust force. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 The unloaded testrig at Drivetrain Innovations in Eindhoven to measure the shifting speed of the SE-CVT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Up shifting of the CVT with a continuous primary speed of 1000 [rpm]. Shifting through the complete working range takes place in 2.5 [s]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Down shifting of the CVT with a continuous primary speed of 1000 [rpm]. Shifting through the complete working range takes place in 1.47 [s]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pictures of the unloaded testrig at the TU/e. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

15 17

17 17 17 19 21 21 22 23 23

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LIST OF FIGURES 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10 5.11 5.12 5.13 5.14 5.15 The schematically layout of the unloaded testrig at the TU/e. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The desired position, the actual position and the error on position during the friction measurement. The position error is similar to the actuation current. . . . . . . . . . . The current during the friction measurement. From 0.2 it rises to 1.6 [A]. This is the value that is needed for the shift motor to overcome the friction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . The coherence of the measurements is after 10 [Hz] unreliable. . . . . . . . . . . . . . A transfer function is tted to the measurement data. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Layout of the feedback system for the pulley position control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The controller for the primary pulley position control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bode plot of the open loop respons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bode plot of the sensitivity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Layout of the feedback ratio control system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The coherence of the frequency response measurements. The input is from 0.001 up to 10 [Hz]. This can be seen in the reliability of the measurement, above those frequencies the coherence is poor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The measured and tted transfer function of the CVT at a ratio of 1.3. The green line is the t of the FRF respons around ratio 1.7 [-] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bode plot of the open loop respons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bode plot of the sensitivity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . HC The transfer function HCV T and the closed loop respons 1+ HC . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

ix 37 38 38 39 39 39 40 40 40 41

41 41 42 42 43 45 45 46 46 46 47 47 47 47 48 48 48

5.16 5.17 5.18 5.19 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 6.9 6.10 6.11 6.12 6.13

The desired and controlled path for the pulley width. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The error on the postition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . A step signal of the desired path. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The error on the position. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The current during the step respons. When the error is almost zero chattering occurs. The desired and actual ratio respons for a sinus input for controller C1 . . . . . . . . . . The tracking error of the sinus input for controller C1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The desired and actual ratio respons for a sinus input for controller C2 . . . . . . . . . . The tracking error of the sinus input for controller C2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The most extreme possible shift behavior. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The error on the most extreme possible shift behavior. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vehicle speed of a full acceleration and deceleration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The rotational speeds of the primary and secondary pulleys. Note that electro motor is not capable of delivering the maximum drive speed, and has therefore a constant speed at which the CVT shifts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.14 The ratio during the full acceleration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.15 The ratio error during the full acceleration. For a small period the ratio error is larger than the desired value of 0.05 [-]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1 Three possible geometries for pulley optimization. The left geometry is manufactured by turning, the middle one by drilling holes and the right one by milling chambers. . . 7.2 The stresses in the torque cam with a uniformly distributed load of Fspring = 4.5 [kN] at the contact surface of the spring, and a Fcam of 2 [kN] (6 [kN] total) at the contact surfaces. Where normally the cam is xed by the shaft a xed constraint The highest stresses occur at the center where the distance between two holes is the smallest. There is the maximum stress 159 [MPa] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3 The stresses in the torque cam with a uniformly distributed load of Fspring = 4.5 [kN] at the contact surface of the spring, and a Fcam of 2 [kN] (6 [kN] total) at the contact surfaces. The highest stresses occur at the center where the distance between two holes is the smallest. There is the maximum stress 159 [MPa]. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4 The machined pulleys and all the main CVT components. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.5 The drive line topology with the CVT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.6 The mock up of the engine with the CVT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

48 49 49 51

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54 54 55 55

x 7.7 7.8

LIST OF FIGURES The engine and CVT-connection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The new designed hydraulic clutch actuator. On the left the space and actuation mechanism are depicted. On the right a 3-D CAD picture of the newly designed actuator. . . 7.9 A 2-D cross section of the engine connected to the CVT. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.10 A top view of the new designed drivetrain. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . B.1 C.1 C.2 C.3 C.4 C.5 C.6 C.7 C.8 C.9 C.10 C.11 C.12 Three possible geometries for pulley optimization. The left geometry is manufactured by turning, the middle one by drilling holes and the right one by milling chamers. . . . The functional block diagram of the torque measurement system. . Calibration of the strain gauges. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The maximum torque peak in the drive shaft is 640 [Nm]. . . . . . Engine speed during the maximum torque peak in the drive shaft. Torque during launch with slipping wheels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . The engine speed and throttle position during launch. . . . . . . . Torque and velocity during a skid-pad. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The engine speed and throttle position during skid-pad. . . . . . . Torque and velocity during . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The engine speed and throttle position during a long acceleration. . Torque and velocity during a long acceleration. . . . . . . . . . . . The engine speed and throttle position during a long acceleration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 56 57 58 67 71 72 73 73 73 73 74 74 74 74 75 75

D.1 The Free Body Diagram of the current driveline. The primary and secondary inertias represent the input and output shafts with the gears. In case of the CVT they represent the pimary and secondary pulley. Then the dierential has an extra ratio to synchronise the topspeed, to be able to make a good comparison. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D.2 The Simulink model of the URE vehicle. For the gearbox with gears the output of xrdot is zero. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D.3 The time vs the vehicle speed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D.4 The time vs the travelled distance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D.5 The time vs the engine speed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D.6 The time vs the longitudinal acceleration. The green line indicates the acceleration dierentiated from the speed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . D.7 The time vs ratio. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E.1 The Simulink model for D-space. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E.2 The desired position, the actual position and the error on position during the friction measurement for the negative area. The position error is the measure for the actuation current. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E.3 The current during the friction measurement for the negative area. The 10th peak in the measurement is caused by the corresponding peak in the position. . . . . . . . . . F.1 The broken shift gear. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

78 78 79 79 79 79 80 81

82 82 83

List of Tables
2.1 Inertias for the drivetrain components. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 Debugging parameters for the SimDriveline simulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 Working range of the Bando Avance belt. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1 3.2 3.3 4.1 5.1 7.1 7.2 7.3 Parts and materials of the Bando Avance belt. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The ratios for the new drive line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Parameters for the variator calculation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The parameters that are used for the thrust force calculation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The parameters and properties of the controllers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The maximum stresses and displacements of the primary and secondary pulleys . . . . The maximum stresses and displacements under a load of Fspring of 4.5 [kN] and Fcam of 6 [kN] (sf 1.5) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Weight and inertia reduction of the pulleys. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 13 16 20 22 24 32 42 52 53 53 72 72 82

C.1 The strain gauge parameters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . C.2 Shaft properties for determination of the calibration and gain resistance. . . . . . . . . E.1 Working range of the sensors and actuator for the unloaded test bench. . . . . . . . . .

xi

xii

LIST OF TABLES

Chapter 1

Introduction
The Eindhoven University of Technology has a racing team that participates in the Formula SAE racing competition. The competition is about the designing, building, developing , marketing and competing with a small single seater racing car, Figure 1.1. For this competition each year a new formula style car has to be designed, build and tested by a group of students. The team of Eindhoven consists of 60 students. This team participates in the Formula Student races in England at the Silverstone Circuit, in Germany at the Hockenheim-Ring and in Italy at the Ferrari Fiorano Racetrack. The rules stated by the SAE [25] impose the limitations on the design. This report is about the design of the high performance driveline of the URE 05.

Figure 1.1: The URE 05 race car.

With the car of 2009 the management of URE (University Racing Eindhoven) wants to focus on innovations on the drivetrain, as this is one of the key research areas at the TU/e. The starting point of this research is to apply a Continuous Variable Transmission (CVT) in the car. The choice of what kind of CVT will be used is completely free. One of the reasons to choose for a CVT as the transmission are the successes that were achieved with the Formula 1 car, the Williams Renault FW15c. In 1993 David Coulthard tested the car on a wet July day at Pembrey in Wales. The car proved to be seconds faster each lap than the other cars at that time. Before the Williams Renault actually had competed in the Formula 1 competition, CVTs were already banned by the FIA. To enable the application of a CVT, rst will be looked at what it takes to become a champion. Past 1

CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION

races will be evaluated and simulated. With this data the ideal transmission layout will be designed analyzed and experimentally evaluated. A study on (commercially) available CVTs will be discussed. Designing, manufacturing and testing a new dedicated CVT in one year is hard, that is why an existing CVT is selected. Pros and cons are summarized on a few excisting CVTs. The CVT that matches the requirements most, is selected for the URE 05. Because the selected CVT is not suitable for racing yet, it has to be modied. The design is optimized in order of maximize performance. The control strategy for the the actuation is adapted as well. The largest benets of the CVT are minimizing revving up and down of the engine and the lack of gear shifting time. With a CVT most of the time the engine runs at a constant engine speed at maximum power. The engine is tuned for this speed range. Components of the drive train have to be (re-)designed/revisited as well. LOW is dened as highest reduction (comparable to the 1st gear) and high is dened as Over Drive (comparable to the 6st gear). Neutral is when the ratio of the CVT-transmission is one. In Figure 1.2 the dierent states for the CVT are shown. With the redesign of the drive line, several components out of the current drivetrain are modied. In chapter 7 the modications for the drivetrain are explained.

IN

IN

TIN

TIN

TOUT
OUT OUT

TOUT

LOW

OD

Figure 1.2: Two dierent operation positions of the CVT. LOW is shown on the left, this is the largest reduction. Over Drive (OD) can be seen on the right.

Chapter 2

Basic Requirements for the CVT

To be able to transmit the maximum power from the engine to the driven wheels, a thorough research is performed. What is the maximum torque that the engine can transmit to the wheels, and the wheels can transmit to the road. Out of this research the design parameters for the gearbox occurs. Afterwards the current, physical gearbox is simulated, to look what the current capabilities are of the driveline. This is the benchmark. The new drivetrain design with CVT has to perform substantially better than the current one. To be able to maximize the use of the engine power in order to create maximum performance at the rear wheels a CVT can be a useful device to develop a winning combination. The current conguration with the xed gear steps allows only a limited set of xed gear steps and the working ratio of the engine is limited. Applying a CVT creates the possibilities for working in the ideal maximum power region of the engine. The throttle then functions only as a device to regulate the amount of power. A few benets of the CVT: 1. No more missed/ badly chosen gears 2. Smooth entry/exit to corners, allowing driver to stay right on the limit of traction 3. Less revving up and down of the engine, almost continuously at the maximum engine power 4. Tuning advantages around the ideal working point of the engine 5. No torque interruption 6. Constant pressure at the rear wheels while accelerating and braking at the engine A few disadvantages of the CVT: 1. More weight 2. Larger build in space needed 3. Smaller eciency of the CVT in comparison with the current gear box

2.0.1

Current drive line

The current drive line is depicted in Figure 2.1. The engine speed is reduced by the primary reduction, the clutch connects the primary reduction with the gearbox, it is a wet-plate type clutch. The gearbox consists of a six-speed sequential gearbox, at the output shaft of the gearbox a sprocket is connected. The sprocket wheels and chain connect the gearbox with the dierential, this is also the nal drive. A Torsen dierential is used, it has no reduction but is only used for power and speed split for left and right. The dierential and wheels connected to the shafts with special FS designed constant velocity joints made by Taylor Race .

4
1

CHAPTER 2. BASIC REQUIREMENTS FOR THE CVT

2 3 1. Engine 2. Primary reduction 3. Clutch 4. Gearbox 5. Final reduction (sprockets and chain) 6. Differential 7. Drive shaft 8. Rear wheel

4 5 7

Figure 2.1: The current drive line topology.

2.0.2

Engine power

The restrictions for the FS-competion considering the engine are as follows: Four-stroke piston engine type with a maximum displacement of 610 cc per cycle The engine may be modied within the restrictions of the rules The number of cilinders is not dened To limit the power of the engine, a single circular air restrictor has to be placed in the intake system with a diameter of 20 [mm]. For propulsion of the car a Suzuki GSX-R600 K2 engine block out of a racing bike is selected. The standard maximum engine power is 83.9 [kW] at 13,000 [rpm] with a maximum torque of 67,6 [Nm] at 10,800 [rpm] [26]. The engine has undergone several modications to make the engine suitable for the URE-car to make it more powerful. The cilinder head is attened to increase the compression ratio. The intake camshaft is grinded for better performance at low engine speeds. The cylinder head is owed for an improved air ow into the combustion chamber. The crankshaft is balanced for less vibrations and higher eciencies. The wet-sump is removed and replaced by a dry-sump system to lower the build-in height of the engine, and thus lower the COG (centrum of gravity) of the complete car. The engine block is one of the heaviest components and weights 65 [kg]. The intake runner length and diameter are optimized to increase the power. In Figure 2.2 the power and torque lines are shown of the tuned engine. This data will be used to model the engine in Simulink. No additional eciencies have to be taken into acount, because the amount of power is measured at the output. This power is available at the wheels. After the modications, the maximum power is 53 [kW] at 11,000 [rpm], and a maximum torque of 58.64 [Nm] at 8,000 [rpm]. One of the biggest benets of the CVT is that the engine can be well tuned for a small working range. The runner length of the intake manifold has a specied length in which pressure waves occur. Due to these pressure waves, the engine is naturally pressure charged, more air enters the cilinder, which results in more power.

2.0.3

Power requirement

First a general overview is given about the power needed for propulsion of the car and how much is left for acceleration. The driving resistances is of importance to the vehicle. It consists of rolling resistance, air resistance, gradient resistance and acceleration resistance. The wheel resistance comprises out of rolling resistance, road surface resistance and slip resistance. These three are combined in one value roll , which gives a good representation of the magni-

70 power torque 60

power [kW]/ torque [Nm]

50

40

30

20

10

3000

4000

5000

6000

7000 8000 9000 10000 11000 12000 13000 14000 engine speed [rpm]

Figure 2.2: The maximum power en torque lines of the tuned Suzuki GSX-R600 K2 engine at the crankshaft, measured in the engine test bed of URE. Power and torque is measured at the output shaft and thus available at the wheels. For power at the crankshaft 10% has to be added.

tude of these resistances. In equation (2.1) this value is used to calculate the force generated by the rolling resistance. Fn is the normal force acting on the wheel, see Figure 2.3a. Froll = roll FN (2.1)

Fw FN Troll
FW
y mvg sin x

F drag vv

Fw

Td

mvg

mvg cos b

Rw Fw

w Fw

(b) Forces acting on the vehicle.

(a) The driving and rolling resistance torques of a tire generated by the normal force on the wheel.

Figure 2.3: In point x and y the normal force and resistance of the tire are connected and acting on the chassis. For the front wheel, the driving torque Td is zero and only the rolling resisting acts on the wheel. Air ow around and through a vehicle creates a pressure drag, induced drag (turbulence due to indierence in pressure), has surface resistance and internal resistance. Together they form the air

CHAPTER 2. BASIC REQUIREMENTS FOR THE CVT

resistance. It is a quadratic function of the ow rate, equation (2.2). In this equation v is sum of the wind and vehicle speed. The wind speed is taken zero and only the longitudinal speed of the vehicle is taken into account. Fdrag = 1 2 air cdrag Avv 2 (2.2)

The gradient resistance is the resistance a vehicle has to overcome when driving on a road which is not level, Figure 2.3b. The tracks where the competitions of FS are held are at. This resistance is left out of the calculations. The equation to calculate the gradient resistance is represented in equation (2.3). Fgrad = mv g sin() (2.3)

The acceleration resistance is the resistance which occurs during acceleration and deceleration of the vehicle. It consists of the total vehicle mass (mv ) as a translation component and of all the rotating parts in the drive line. All rotating inertias are lumped to the driving axle, equation (2.4) and (2.5). Facc mred,i = mred a = mv + Jred,i 2 rdyn (2.4) (2.5)

2.0.4

Available traction

The maximum power and torque of the engine of Figure 2.2 are used to construct the traction curve. The net traction that is available is calculated with equation (2.6). The eciency of the CVT is taken 96 %, the other eciencies are already present in the measurement data. The maximum torque that can be transmitted to the rear wheels is determined at the moment that the front wheels of the car just lift from the road and the normal force on the rear wheels is as large as possible. This can be calculated with equation (2.7). The length a of from the rear shaft to COG is 0.5 [m]. The total length of the wheelbase l is 1.5 [m]. The normal force at the rear wheels is then 1962 [N]. With equation (2.8), this results in a maximum torque at each of the rear wheels of 842 [Nm]. This corresponds with the measurements done on the URE 03 car which are 800 [Nm], without slipping wheels. Out of these values the traction diagram is made, Figure 2.4. The diagram shows that not all the power of the engine can be transmitted the the ground due to the adhesion limit of the tyres, and the gaps which are not covered by the transmission. Ftrac,max FN,rear,max Ftrac,max,rear Pmax tot vv mg (l a) = l = FN,rear,max = (2.6) (2.7) (2.8)

2.1

Torque peaks in the shaft

Previous competition seasons there were some troubles with breaking drive shafts. To get a better design parameter for the maximum torques and maximum torque peaks in the drive shafts, strain gauges are applied at drive shafts to measure those torques. It is also necessary to know if the CVT can transmit and withstand the measured torques.

2.1. TORQUE PEAKS IN THE SHAFT

5000 4500 4000 3500

Traction limit

FW [N]

3000 2500 2000 1500 1000 500 0 0 20

Traction hyperbola

Moving off range

Road load
(0% slope)

st

nd

th

th

th

th

40

60 80 100 vehicle speed [km/h]

120

140

160

Figure 2.4: The traction diagram with the sequential six-speed gearbox. The adhesion limit is indicate by the maximum traction force possible at the rear wheels. The traction hyperbola indicates the maximum possible traction from the powertrain capabilities. The road load indicates the tractional resistance line for 0 % slope. The Traction available in each gear step is indicated by the gear number.

By calibrating the shaft at a torsion bench the amount of torsion will be related to the resistance. The maximum torque that will be used by calibrating is 750 [Nm] to have a good measurement bandwidth. Four strain gauges, in sets of two, are glued at each side of the shaft, Figure 2.5 and 2.6. These have an angle of 90 to each other. Together they form of a Wheatstone bridge. Half a bridge compensates for bending of the shaft and a whole bridge compensates for temperature and introduces linearity. The change of resistance is based pure on torque. Of the gauges the strain imposed by the torsion in the shaft is measured. The strain of the strain gauges are related to the torque. The measurements are calibrated to the data results in the real strain [30].

Strain Gauge

Rotor Electronics

Transmission Coil

Figure 2.5: A picture of the drive shaft with the strain gauges.

During a full acceleration the torque has a maximum value of 350 [Nm] in rst gear in a single drive shaft, and gradually fades with the increase of the speed of the vehicle, Figure 2.7 and Figure 2.8. The most maximum torque occurs when the brake pedal is fully pressed, the engine speed is around 12000 [rpm], the gearbox is in second gear and then the clutch is released instantly. During this action the measured torque is 650 [Nm] in single drive shaft, Figure C.3.

8
45

CHAPTER 2. BASIC REQUIREMENTS FOR THE CVT

MICRODAC B1
1-Channel Telemetry
Power supply (Coil) HF-Signal Output (Coil) HF Gnd (Shaft)

OPTIM ELECTRONICS

Gnd +5

ln+
Gnd lnln+ +5

ln-

Figure 2.6: Strain gauges are used to determine the torque and torque peaks in the driveshafts. On the left the conguration on the shafts is shown. On the right the Wheathstone bridge which is applied to read out the change of resistance of the gauges.

600 500 400 300 200 torque [Nm] 100 0 100 200 300 400 500 120 122 124 126 128 130 time [s] torque vehicle speed 132 134 136

140 130 120 110 100 vehicle speed [km/h] engine speed [rpm] 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

14000 13000 12000 11000 10000 9000 8000 7000 6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0 120 122 engine speed throttle pos. 124 126 128 130 time [s] 132 134 136

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 throttle position [%]

Figure 2.7: Torque and velocity during a long acceleration.

Figure 2.8: The engine speed and throttle position during a long acceleration.

2.2

Track data and simulations

To get the ideal transmission, the drive speeds have to be known. During a race the following disciplines are driven: Acceleration event Skid-Pad event Auto cross event Endurance and fuel economy event

2.2.1

Acceleration event

The acceleration events objective is to evaluate the cars acceleration in a straight line on at pavement. The amount of points that can be achieved during this event are 75 points. The cars will accelerate over a distance of 75 m. The foremost part of the car will be staged 30 cm behind the starting line,

2.2. TRACK DATA AND SIMULATIONS

Figure 2.9. When the vehicle crosses the starting line the time starts counting. No burnouts or agents are allowed to increased the adhesion of the tires to the track. Two heats have to be driven. In each heat a driver has two runs. The second run may take place immediate after the rst run. Currently the fastest time set on the acceleration is 3.99 seconds 1 .

Start 0.3 [m] 75 [m]

Finish

Figure 2.9: An overview of the acceleration event. After 0.3 [m] the timing starts, after 75 [m] the car nishes.

2.2.2

Skid-Pad event

The objective of the Skid-Pad is to measure the vehicles cornering ability on a at surface while making a constant-radius turn. In the middle of two circles the car enters the track. First two circles are driven clockwise, then two circles anti-clockwise, Figure 2.10a. A single circle has to be driven in 5 [s]. The maximum cornering speed of the car can be calculated. While driving the second lap on the circle the acceleration is assumed to be zero. The centrifugal force Fc of the vehicle can be calculated with equation (2.10), Figure 2.10b. The limiting factor is the adhesion limit of the tyres. Assumed a 50/50 weight distribution 125 kg is acting on the rear tyres, the normal force can be calculated out of equation (2.9). Now the cornering speed follows out of equation (2.11), with a radius between 8.375 and 9.875 meter. The maximum speed at the largest possible circle is 45.5 [km/h], Figure 2.11. On the smallest possible circle the speed is 41.9 [km/h]. Although the maximum speed on the inner circle is slower, due the smaller radius the traveled distance is smaller and thus faster times can be set, driving on the inner circle. The fastest possible time on the Skid-Pad is 4,5 [s], Figure 2.12. The fastest driven Skid-Pad during the testing period was 4.9 seconds. A CVT can benet to faster times because less aggressive driving can be achieved, with milder throttle response. Another advantage is that the driver does not have to worry about in which gear he will start. One can just drive o and drive the Skid-Pad [4]. FN Fcorn vcorn tskid = = = = mv g FN Fc Rskid mv 2Rskid vv (2.9) (2.10) (2.11) (2.12)

In the following gures testing data is provided. The speed during a Skid-Pad is around 40 [km/h] Figure 2.13. In a single gear with the throttle the speed is maintained, Figure 2.14

1 Formula

Student competition at Silverstone England 2008

10

CHAPTER 2. BASIC REQUIREMENTS FOR THE CVT

Exit

ps La

1&

.2 15 5m
18.25m

.2 15 5m
3.0m

3.0m

FD

3.0m

r
Entry

(a) The Skid-Pad layout. First two runs are driven clockwise on the right circle. Then two runs are driven counter clockwise on the left circle.

(b) Parameters to calculate maximum cornering speed.

Figure 2.10: Determination of the maximum theoretical possible cornering speed on the Skid-Pad

46 45.5 45 44.5 speed [km/h] time [s] 44 43.5 43 42.5 42 41.5 8.2

5 4.95 4.9 4.85 4.8 4.75 4.7 4.65 4.6 4.55 8.4 8.6 8.8 9 9.2 9.4 radius [m] 9.6 9.8 10 4.5 8.2 8.4 8.6 8.8 9 9.2 9.4 radius [m] 9.6 9.8 10

Figure 2.11: The vehicle speed versus the skid pad radius.

Figure 2.12: On the smallest radius, the fastest single Skid Pad time can be set, although the driving speed is slower.

2.2.3

Autocross and endurance

The autocross event is designed to evaluate the cars manoeuvrability and handling qualities on a tight course without other competing cars on the track. The combined performance of acceleration, braking and cornering is tested in this event. The track has general layout which consists of: Straights: No longer than 60 [m] with hairpins at both ends or no longer than 45 [m] with wide turns on the ends Constant turns: 23 [m] to 45 [m] in diameter Hairpin turns: minimum of 9 [m] outside diameter of the turn Slaloms: cones in a straight line with 7.62 [m] to 12.19 [m] spacing in between Miscellaneous: Chicanes, multiple turns, decreasing radius turns, etc. The minimum track width will be 3.5 [m] The length of each single lap will be approximately 0.805 [km] and the driver will complete a specied number of runs. Currently the fastest lap time set on the sprint is 54.6 [s].

2.2. TRACK DATA AND SIMULATIONS

11

55 50

14000 N 12000
e

throttle

45 40 35 speed [km/h] 30 25 20 15 10 2000 5 0 0 5 10 15 time [s] 20 25 0 0 5 10 15 time [s] 20 25 engine speed [rpm] 10000

8000

6000

4000

Figure 2.13: Vehicle speed vs. time. Only on the left wheel speed was measured, therefore an oset can be seen in clockwise driving, till 12 seconds, and anti clockwise driving

Figure 2.14: Engine speed vs. time during the skid-pad.

The objective of the endurance is to evaluate the cars overal performance and its reliability. During the endurance the fuel used by the vehicle is measured. The team that consumes the smallest amount of fuel, wins the fuel economy event. The endurance track consists of: Straights: No longer than 77 [m] with hairpins at both ends or no longer than 61 [m] with wide turns on the ends with passing zones, at several locations Constant turns: 30 [m] to 54 [m] in diameter Hairpin turns: minimum of 9 [m] outside diameter of the turn Slaloms: cones in a straight line with 9.00 [m] to 15.0 [m] spacing in between Miscellaneous: Chicanes, multiple turns, decreasing radius turns, etc. The minimum track width will be 4.5 [m]. The total covered distance during the endurance is 22 km, halfway at approximately 11 km a driver change has to be done. The average speed is between the 48 till 57 [km/hr], with top speeds of 105 [km/hr]. Currently the fastest time set on the endurance event is 1454.654 seconds. During the endurance more cars are driving on the track. Figure 2.15 show speed prole of the endurance in Italy of 2008, Figure 2.16 the average speed. The top speeds are not that high. The brakes were not functioning well what resulted in lower top speeds. During the endurance of Germany the top speed driven is 115 km/h.

2.2.4

Simulation parameters

In order to make a good comparison between the present gear transmission and a CVT transmission, simulations are performed. A Matlab Simulink model is made of the vehicle, one with a sequential gearbox, one with a CVT. To get a fair comparison between those two the same ratio coverage for both vehicles is chosen. The RC of the geared transmission is 2.56 and is calculated with equation (2.13). RC = rmax rmin (2.13)

With equation (2.14) and (2.15) the inertia of the drive line components and the car are calculated. The small gear of the primary reduction is connected to the motor. The inertia of the clutch is together with the clutch positioned at the primary shaft of the gearbox. All the gears on the input shaft of the gearbox are xed on one shaft and rotate always with the shaft independent of the gear selection. The

12

CHAPTER 2. BASIC REQUIREMENTS FOR THE CVT

100 90 80 70 speed [km/h] 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 10 20 30 time [s] 40 50 60 time samples

2000 1800 1600 1400 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0 0 20 40 60 speed [km/h] 80 100

Figure 2.15: The speed of the formula student race car during a single lap of the endurance in Italy.

Figure 2.16: The distribution of the speed during a single endurance lap.

same yields for the output shaft. The inertia values that have been calculated for the driveline can be seen in table 2.1, the other parameters in table 2.2. Jyy Jv = = 1 2 2 ) + Ri m(Ro 2 2 mv Rw (2.14) (2.15)

Part: Vehicle + driver Engine components (crank shaft, DOHC, pistons, piston rods.) Clutch, clutch housing, rst gear set, pump, input shaft Output shaft including gears and small sprocket wheel Dierential and large sprocket wheel steel drive shafts

mass [kg] 300 5 5.78 2.54 1.6 1.2

inertia Jyy [(kg m2 )] 20.33 0.05 4.624 103 1.3414 103 9.1125 104 6 105

Table 2.1: Inertias for the drivetrain components.

2.3

Results of the acceleration simulation

The results on the acceleration event are in favour of the CVT. The car with the CVT passes the nish line at 3.76 seconds. The car with gears at 3.84 seconds [9] and [11]. This shows that the car with CVT is almost 0.1 of a second faster on the acceleration. In Figure 2.17 the speed versus time is shown, because the CVT is capable of transmitting constantly power to the wheels this shows a very smooth speed behavior. The shifting of the gearbox shows that the lack of constant transmitting power gives the CVT advantage. The car with CVT is also faster in reaching top speed. In Figure 2.18 the traveled distance of the car is shown. Till 2.5 seconds the cars have traveled the same distance. From 2.5 seconds the CVT is faster in accelerating and is driving 5 meters ahead of the geared car, Figure 2.20 and 2.21. In Figure 2.19 the engine speed can be seen. The clutch is released at 8000 rpm, to prevent the clutch from slipping too much. Even when the standard gear design would be optimized by a

2.3. RESULTS OF THE ACCELERATION SIMULATION Parameter: Quantity Maximum engine speed 13500 Shifting engine speed 12500 Engine speed at launch 11500 Clutch engagement at launch 0.3 (between 0.1 and 0.5) Shifting gears full load/full load 0.100 Maximum speed 150 The time for the sprint should be around 4 seconds Inertias are as in table 2.1 The gear at 75 meters should be around the 4th or 5th Unit [rpm] [rpm] [rpm] [s] [s] [km/h]

13

Table 2.2: Debugging parameters for the SimDriveline simulation.

larger nal drive, a big increase can be achieved. In appendix D the Simulink model is veried with real data.

160 140 120 CVT gears

300 CVT gears 250

200 speed [km/h] distance [m] 0 1 2 3 4 5 time [s] 6 7 8 9 100 80 60 100 40 50 20 0 0

150

4 5 time [s]

Figure 2.17: The time vs the vehicle speed of the car with sequential gear box and with CVT.

Figure 2.18: The time vs the traveled distance of the car with sequential gear box and with CVT.

14

CHAPTER 2. BASIC REQUIREMENTS FOR THE CVT

14000

10 CVT gears

12000

10000 engine speed [rpm] acceleration [m/s2] CVT gears 0 0 1 2 3 time [s] 4 5 6 7 2 0 1 2 3 4 5 time [s] 6 7 8 9
2.8 2.6 2.4 2.2 ratio [] 2 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1 CVT gears 0 2 4 time [s] 6

8000

6000

4000 0

2000

Figure 2.19: The time vs the engine speed of the car with sequential gear box and with CVT.

Figure 2.20: The time vs the longitudinal acceleration of the car with sequential gear box and with CVT.

10

Figure 2.21: The time vs ratio of the car with sequential gear box and with CVT. It looks like the geared transmission is holding the lowest gear longer, but this is only the shifting time.

2.4

Selection of a suitable CVT

Because it is very hard to develop, make and test a CVT within a year, a suitable existing CVT will be selected. The ratio coverage of the current gearbox is 2.56, this quantity is a guideline for the CVT that will be selected. There are a lot of dierent types of CVTs with dierent working principles. First an overview of the types will be given. Then a rst selection will be made. The selection is based on working principles, availability, maximum allowable torque, speeds, weight, cost and size. CVTs can be divided in three main categories. 1. Hydrostatic CVTs 2. Ratcheting CVTs 3. Friction CVTs A hydrostatic CVT makes use of a variable uid ow, Figure 2.22. A variable displacement pump is directly attached to the cranckshaft. It pumps hydraulic uid into a hydro motor. It can perfectly work

2.4. SELECTION OF A SUITABLE CVT

15

Figure 2.22: On the left the principle of the hydraulic CVT is depicted, on the right Van Doornes Transmissie

in a whole range of speeds and torques. However, the costs are high and the overall eciency is poor because of the hydraulic losses. This system is commonly used in lawnmowers, construction, agriculture and material handling equipment. Hydraulics are already present in these type of machines for actuating the hydraulic systems and thus easy to build in. With a hydraulic CVT the possibility of engine braking is harder to realize. The oil ow is designed to run in one way with a high eciency. There are no hydraulics present in the URE-car. Other disadvantages are the costs, eciencies and availability. The hydraulic CVT will not be applied in the URE-car. Ratcheting CVTs convert a translational movement into a rotating movement. The direction of rotation is secured by a y wheel. An example of a commercial available Ratcheting CVT is of Barloworld CVT Technologies. Those systems are quite complicated, expensive, relative large and designed for the higher torque segment. Because of the small build-in space in the URE-car not very suitable. And most important of all, the design is still in the prototype phase, and only the patents are sold, not the CVT itself. The working principle of a friction CVT is simple. The radius of the contact point between two rotating bodies is varied in order to vary the tangential velocity. By varying the normal force in this point, the amount of transmittable torque can be controlled. There are a lot of dierent type of friction CVTs. For the pulley based CVTs Van Doornes Transmission (VDT) has developed a metal pushbelt. Two sets of conical pulley sheaves are pushed together under hydraulic pressure. The running radii of the belt determines the ratio. Because no (control) hydraulics will be added, the CVTs that make use of the metal belt and chain which are actuated hydraulically are eliminated. Two pulley based CVTs remain for propulsion of the URE-car. This are the snowmobile CVT and the Suzuki Electronically-controlled Continuously Variable Transmission (SE-CVT). Both systems are working with dry environments (the belt and pulley sheaves are not lubricated as with metal belt CVTs) and no control hydraulics are needed. Because there is no lubrication, there is a high friction cocient between the belt and pulleys, which results in lower clamping forces to be able to transmit the desirable torques.

2.4.1

Snowmobile CVT

The rst one is the snowmobile CVT. It is used in snowmobiles and quad-bikes. There are ve major snowmobile manufacturers, Arctic Cat, Polaris, Ski-Doo, Yamaha and SnowHawk, which have all kinds of CVT systems. Normally the snowmobile CVT is mounted directly on the crankshaft on the engine of a one or two cilinder it can withstand the desired maximum torques. The working principle is as following. Torque and speed is applied at the primary pulley. Both pulleys can move axially. The

16

CHAPTER 2. BASIC REQUIREMENTS FOR THE CVT

belt and pulley mechanism have a double functionality, both clutch and ratio change mechanism. As the speed increases the yweights control engine speed. The secondary side has a torque sensing capability allowing the belt to shift to the desired ratio. The spring at the secondary side makes sure that the belt is clamped at all times. This system is not active controlled. The weight of the ywheel rollers, the spring stiness and the torque cam determine the ratio control. A more detailed description can be found in appendix B. Gates Corp produces high performance belts for Snowmobiles. Top of the bill is the Xtreme Belt. It has the following specications [29]: Compounded with wear resistant sidewalls that have been tested, with a properly adjusted clutch, to handle loads up to 120 [kW] and 9,000 [rpm]. Belt resists fatigue, stretch and growth. Kevlar reinforcement provides up to 25 percent longer belt life due to its ability to withstand the exing and cycling. Excellent overall performance in operating ranges from -35 C to 110 C. Recommended for snowmobiles in the 440cc to 900cc, and up, range.

2.4.2

The Suzuki Electronically-controlled Continuously Variable Transmission

The SE-CVT is applied in the Burgman 650, the Daihatsu Mira and the Deawoo Matiz. The pulleys are made by Aichi Machine Industry Nagoya and the belt by Bando chemicals Ltd. . This is a lightweight CVT which is electric actuated and which is capable of transmitting the desired torques and speeds. In table 3.1 the working conditions are shown. Parameter Primary speed Secondary speed Primary torque Secondary torque Belt temperature Belt speed Range (min. - max.) 0 - 7000 [rpm] 0 - 14000 [rpm] 0 - 74 [Nm] 0 - 150 [Nm] up to 150 [ C] 0 - 40 [m/s] Accuracy 0.1 % 0.1 % 0.1 % 0.1 % 3 [ C] 0.1 [ C]

Table 2.3: Working range of the Bando Avance belt.

The SE-CVT is chosen in favor of the snowmobile CVT because it is electronically controllable. Both are capable of transmitting the desired torque and speeds. An another big advantage is that the eciency of the SE-CVT is a lot higher than the snowmobile CVT, see Figure 2.25 and 2.26. The eciency is shown for ratio = 1. The eciencies for LOW and HIGH are comparable for the SE-CVT. For torques higher than 20 [Nm] the eciency is more than 90 % for the whole working range of the SE-CVT. For both systems the eciencies are measured in the same way. Torque and speeds are measured at the in and output of the CVT. The output power is divided bij the input power and this give the overal eciency for the complete system. Thus including bearing losses etc. The higher eciency is due to the stier design of the hybrid belt. Compression and growth of the hybrid belt are eliminated by the aluminum blocks.

2.4. SELECTION OF A SUITABLE CVT

17

Figure 2.23: An open snow mobile CVT in LOW. On the right the primary pulley with clutch are depicted, on the left the secondary pulley.

Figure 2.24: A cutaway picture of the SE-CVT of the Burgman AN 650 in the LOW position. On the right the primary pulley can be seen with the electro motor for the actuation of the primary pulley width. On the left the secondary pulley is depicted.

Prim. rpm vs Prim. Torque vs efficiency, Ratio = 1:1

90 efficiency ratio 85 2 80 efficiency 2.4

1 Efficiency [] 0.8 0.6 0.4

75

1.6

70 1.2 65

ratio

0.2 3000 2500 2000 40 1500 Primary Speed [rpm] 1000 0 20 Primary Torque [Nm] 60

60

1000

2000

3000 speed [rpm]

4000

5000

0.8 6000

Figure 2.25: The eciency of the snow mobile CVT.[18].

Figure 2.26: The eciency of the SE-CVT in medium [17].

18

CHAPTER 2. BASIC REQUIREMENTS FOR THE CVT

Chapter 3

Analysis of the CVT

In the previous chapter the SE-CVT is selected for the FS-car. From of the simulations and the data of the events, the desired working range of the CVT can be determined. First the working principle of the SE-CVT will be explained. Afterwards the ratio selection is made. Then the calculations are made with what working conditions the CVT has to deal with.

3.1

Working principle of the SE-CVT

The basic layout of the SE-CVT consist of two pulley sheaves with a v-belt in between. The belt is of a special type, namely the dry hybrid type. Dry because the belt runs in a dry environment. According to the VDT-belt, the friction coecient is twice as high and the weight is a factor 3 lower [16]. Hybrid refers to the two main materials that are used for the belt construction. The core consists of two rippled rubber belts with aramide reinforcement cords. The blocks are made of aluminum with a heat resistant resin on top of it, this resin lowers wear of the belt. Because the segments have a xed position on the belt and cannot move according to the tension members, the belt is a pull-belt type. The segments are able to withstand higher thrust forces than a conventional rubber belt, due to the aluminum blocks and are therefore capable of transmitting higher torques. In Figure 3.1 and in table 3.1 the belt, the components and the properties are shown.

Dry Hybrid Belt

Block

2 1

Tension Member
3 4 5 4 3

Figure 3.1: The dry hybrid v-belt of bando chemicals

19

20 Part 1 Friction material Block 2 Reinforcing plate 3 Protector 4 Body 5 Tension cord

CHAPTER 3. ANALYSIS OF THE CVT Material Carbon, aramid short ber reinforced Heat resistant resin High strength aluminum alloy Reinforced nylon canvas Short ber reinforced hybride NBR composite Treated aramid cord

Tension member

Table 3.1: Parts and materials of the Bando Avance belt.

The sheaves are made of metal and have a bronze color. A special surface treatment is applied to make them wear resistive and to ensure long life, it is a non-electrolyte Ni-P plating. The primary pulley set has one sheave connected to the input shaft and the other sheave only can translate over the shaft due to a double key-way, Figure 3.2. The movable pulley is actuated by a DC-motor which drives a gear train that actuates a spindle mechanism. The total reduction is 1:93.8, which makes the system self-locking. Due to the self-locking behavior the motor does not have to deliver power when no shifting actuation is needed. Of the secondary pulley set, one pulley is connected to the shaft and the other can freely slide and rotate over the shaft. There is no direct (rotational) connection with the shaft. The normal force on the secondary pulley is applied by a pre-tensioned spring. When the torque demands increases, the torque cam mechanism provides the additional thrust force, to be able to transmit the desired torque. It needs rotational movement to be actuated by the torque-force cam. When the pulleys are rotating, shifting is initiated by applying a voltage to the DC-motor. The geartrain rotates the large gear and this gear pushes the movable sheave of the primary side to the xed one. The center of the spindle mechanism does not rotate with the pulleys but is xed to the housing. The v-belt runs from a small radius to a larger radius. This is possible because the pulleys rotate. The secondary side has to follow with an increase of the running radius, because the belt is not elongated. The spring forces makes sure that the pulley closes and follows the movement of the primary pulley. The CVT-housing has several functions. The most important one is to keep the CVT components on a xed position and to withstand the forces and moments initiated by the system. At the secondary pulley air is sucked in with a radial fan. The volute shape of the housing guides the air around the belt and sheaves to cool these parts. The air runs through the housing and is blown out above the secondary side.

3.2

Ratio selection

After simulating the events with a top speed of 150 km/hr, at Silverstone it became clear that the maximum driven speed at the track was 105 [km/h]. The maximum speeds at the Hockenheim-Ring and at the Ferrari Fiorano Racetrack are normally higher than in England. Therefore the maximum speed should be adjustable between 110 and 140 [km/h]. With the nal drive it is possible to make small changes in ratio, by changing the front and rear sprockets. During the autocross and endurance most of the time the vehicle speed is between 30 and 90 [km/hr] range, with an average of 40 km/hr to 48 km/hr for the autocross and between 48 [km/hr] to 57 [km/hr] for the endurance event. The total drive line in terms of reductions can be seen in Figure 3.3. rprim is the reduction between the crankshaft and input shaft of the gearbox, rGB is the gearbox reduction, rCV T the reduction of the CVT, rF D the nal drive reduction. The primary reduction cannot be changed, a maximum nal reduction can be created with a front sprocket of 11 teeth and a rear sprocket of 50 teeth. With a larger

3.3. VARIATOR CALCULATIONS

21

Figure 3.2: On the left the primary pulley with the actuation system. On the right the secondary pulley with the torque cam and the pretensioned spring.

rear sprocket the cars length would be increased to much.

Engine

rprim clutch

rCVT

rgb

rFD

Wheels

Figure 3.3: The simplied power/drivetrain for the race car.

To create the reduction that is needed to lower the maximum engine speed the third gear of the gear box is maintained. In a small area the torque is larger than 150 [Nm], Figure 3.4, but this is in the lower vehicle speed region where the ignition cut and fuel cut are applied to prevent the wheels from slipping. A lower gear would be more ideal because then the lowest speed, driven with CVT could be around 30 [km/hr], but torque is limiting. If the 6th gear is chosen the belt speed increases above 40 [m/s], and with the 5th gear an extra nal drive (rF D ) would be needed to lower the speed range within the desired area. This would only add weight. With the given criteria, the most ideal transmission is created. The 3th gear of the gearbox is maintained. The LOW of the CVT remains 1.8 and the highest ratio of the CVT is chosen 0.79, because otherwise the top speed of the car would be too high. With those data a variogram for the driveline is created, In Figure 3.5. The ratio of the CVT results in a small working range. The engine is tuned to deliver its maximum engine power at 12500 [rpm]. With the reductions in table 3.2 the maximum desired drive speed is achieved. The vehicle speed at which the CVT ratio is able to maintain a constant engine speed is between 48 km/h till 110 km/h.

3.3

Variator calculations

To connect the variator to the engine in a clever way, variator calculations have to be done. The belt speed should not exceed 40 [m/s]. Above this speed slip will increase signicantly and the belt will wear rapidly. The maximum torque that is applied at the input of the CVT should not exceed 150 [Nm]. The nominal allowable torque is 75 [Nm], but for short lifetime demands an overload of 200% is not a

22

CHAPTER 3. ANALYSIS OF THE CVT

350

1 300

st

2st 3th 4th 250 torque [Nm] 5th 6th

200

150

100

50 2000

4000

6000

8000 10000 engine speed [rpm]

12000

14000

Figure 3.4: The torque at the output shaft of the engine. The maximum input torque of the CVT is 150 [Nm] rcvt rprim rgb rF D 1 vmin,LOW vveh,M ED vmax,HIGH vmax @ 13500 rpm 1.8 - 0.79 79/41 32/20 (3th ) 50/11 48 87 110 120

Table 3.2: The ratios for the new drive line

problem [13]. Because the variator is operating at the limit of the capabilities of the belt it is important to look in which region the variator operates most of the time. The more the variator is operating in the critical area, the shorter the lifetime of the belt will be.

3.3.1

Variator geometry

In Figure 3.6 the variator geometry is dened. In the calculations pulley deection and bending is neglected. Therefore spiral running is not an issue and the primary and secondary pulley radii Rp and Rs of the belt can be assumed circular and constant over the complete angle of wrap. The speed at the pitch radius of the pulleys, vp and vs can be described with equation 3.2 and 3.3. vp vs = 2 rpm 60 (3.1) (3.2) (3.3)

= Rp p = Rs s

Variations of the speed along the belt are small enough to be neglected. With the angles of wrap p and s , the shaft distance a, equation (3.4), a relation for the running radii can be constructed equation (3.5). The relation of p and s are described with equation (3.6) and (3.7). The relation between the

3.3. VARIATOR CALCULATIONS

23

120

LOW (1.8) MED (1) OD (0.79)

100 vehicle speed [km/h]

80

60

40

20

0 2000

4000

6000

8000 10000 engine speed [rpm]

12000

14000

Figure 3.5: The variogram of the new driveline with adapted CVT-ratio. The CVT starts shifting at 12500 rpm. The 3th gear (32/20) is maintained, with a nal drive of 50/11.

pulley positions and the running radii is a function of the position of the pulleys and the wedge angle and are described with equation (3.9) and (3.10). The radius at ratio R0 is when p and s are equal and can be calculated with equation (3.11). is a function of the pulley positions, equation (3.8).

s p
Rp Rs

xs 2

Figure 3.6: The denitions for the variator geometry.

24

CHAPTER 3. ANALYSIS OF THE CVT

L = Rp Rs p s = = =

2a cos() + p Rp + s Rs a sin() ( + 2) ( 2) xp + xs arcsin 2a tan( ) xp + R0 2 tan( ) xs + R0 2 tan( ) L 2a 2 Rp s = Rs p

(3.4) (3.5) (3.6) (3.7) (3.8) (3.9) (3.10) (3.11) (3.12)

= Rp Rs R0 = = =

i =

In the m-le is constructed, which is used to calculate all the relations of the working range an extra relation is needed. If one of the variables Rp , Rs , i or is known the other relations can be calculated out of equation (3.13). This is possible because the length of the belt will not elongate and the minimum and maximum values of each variable are derived. Equation (3.13) describes the relation of to the ratio [14]. The ratio is known for all vehicle speeds. can be calculated and then Rp , Rs , xp and xs are known. (1 i) L 2a = (1 i) cos() + +i 2 2 sin() (3.13)

Belt ratio (low) Belt ratio (high) Ratio coverage Pitch diameter primary pulley Pitch diameter secondary pulley

1.8 0.79 2.28 69.0 - 133.5 124.4 - 61.4

[-] [-] [-] [mm] [mm]

Table 3.3: Parameters for the variator calculation.

As function of the vehicle speed the complete working range of the variator is depicted. The engine speed and the primary pulley speed are in the area of 48 [km/h] till 110 [km/h] constant, Figure 3.7. The secondary pulley speed increases linear with the vehicle speed. From of the engine speed and vehicle speed the needed ratio is calculated, Figure 3.8, here can be seen that is runs from 1.8 [-] to 0.79 [-]. From the engine torque with the primary reduction and the gearbox reduction, the torque at the input shaft of the variator is calculated. In Figure 3.9 the maximum possible torque calculated from the engine torque is shown. The critical torque of 150 [Nm] will not be reached . At low vehicle speeds the rear wheels run at 10 % wheel slip to transmit the most torque of the engine to the road, the ignition and fuel cut of the engine are activated to prevent the wheels from spinning too much. With the pitch radii, Figure 3.11, at the primary pulley and secondary pulley and the pulley speeds, the belt speed at the pitch radius is calculated, Figure 3.10. The belt speeds of the primary and secondary pulley are equal and will never reach the critical speed of 40 [m/s], the maximum speed is 27 [m/s] at the pulley surfaces. In Figure 3.12 the wrapped angle vs the vehicle speed is shown, later on in section they will be used to calculated the thrust force relation of the primary and secondary pulley.

3.3. VARIATOR CALCULATIONS

25

14000 rpmeng 12000 rpm

prim

1.8

rpmsec engine/pulley speed [rpm] 10000

1.6

1.4 ratio [] 0 20 40 60 80 vehicle speed [km/h] 100 120 8000

6000

1.2

4000

2000

0.8

0.6

20

40

60 80 vehicle speed [km/h]

100

120

Figure 3.7: The vehicle speed vs the engine speed. The engine speed is kept constant from 48.64 [km/h] until 110.5 [km/h]. During this period the engine speed is kept constant at 12.500 [rpm]. The maximum speed is limited by the maximum engine speed of 13.500 [rpm] to 125 [km/h].

Figure 3.8: Shifting starts at 48.64 [km/h] till 110.5 [km/h]. The medium ratio is chosen at high vehicle speed. There is more eciency is desirable.

350 Tprim 300 Tsec

30 vbelt,prim 25 vbelt,sec

250 belt speed [m/s] 0 20 40 60 80 vehicle speed [km/h] 100 120 torque [Nm]

20

200

15

150

10

100

50

20

40

60 80 vehicle speed [km/h]

100

120

Figure 3.9: The calculated maximum engine torque vs the vehicle speed. The maximum torque of 150 [Nm] will not be reached.

Figure 3.10: The belt speeds is equal at both pulleys and remains well below the limit of 40 [m/s].

26

CHAPTER 3. ANALYSIS OF THE CVT

0.065 Rprim 0.06 Rsec

205 200 195 wrapped angle [deg] 190 185 180 175 170 165 160 0 20 40 60 80 vehicle speed [km/h] 100 120 155 0 20 40 60 80 vehicle speed [km/h] 100 120 prim sec

0.055 pulley radius [m]

0.05

0.045

0.04

Figure 3.11: The pulley radius for the primary and secondary pulley vs vehicle speed

Figure 3.12: The wrapped angle vs the vehicle speed.

Chapter 4

CVT Control and Actuation System

4.1 CVT-control in race cars

The CVT-control of a race car is quite dierent from that of a passenger car. The race car is not used to drive as comfortable as possible, but as fast as possible, with high accelerations and decelerations. Fuel consumption is an issue, but with maximum performance. When the car is launched the clutch is engaged at high engine speed near maximum power, the engine speed increases to the desired engine speed for CVT driving. If the throttle valve opens the driver wants to accelerate, more gasoline is injected, the engine wants to accelerates along with the vehicle speed when the CVT is still in its highest possible ratio. When the engine reaches the speed where maximum power can be achieved, that is 12.500 [rpm], the CVT shifts until the end of the CVT-ratio is reached, Figure 3.7 and 3.8. Further acceleration is achieved by keeping the end-ratio of the CVT and hence further acceleration of the engine along with the vehicle ratio to its maximum speed of 13.500 rpm. When the driver wants to slow down, he releases the throttle and brakes. Releasing the throttle decreases the engine speed. When the engine reaches - or is already at 12.500 rpm, the CVT shifts to lower ratios to keep the engine at this speed and thereby brakes the vehicle with the engine. When the CVT cannot shift anymore the engine speed is decreased.

4.2

CVT control unit

Several options have been evaluated for selection of the hardware of the control unit for the SE-CVT in the FS-car. The selected control system for the SE-CVT is the MoTeC m400 system, which is a programmable engine management and data acquisition system, Figure 4.1. It is already present in URE 05 for the engine management and has proven to be a very reliable system. It is used in all kind of racing sports, for example world rally racing, drag racing, le mans, formula Ford and V8 Jetboats. [21], [31]

4.2.1

MoTeC

In MoTeC a feature is included for DC-motors control which makes use of PID-control. The maximum output for this feature current is limited to 5 [A] nominal with a peak value of 7 [A] and it can convert sign, thus rotation. The current of the shift motor can reach a peak of 20 [A] therefore a current amplier is designed to prevent overloading. In Figure 4.2 the layout of the amplier is shown with DC-motor is in the middle. At the left and right side the supply voltage of MoTeC is connected. At the top and bottom the supply voltage from the battery. The change of polarity of the MoTeC voltage changes the rotation direction of the 27

28

CHAPTER 4. CVT CONTROL AND ACTUATION SYSTEM

Figure 4.1: The MoTec m400

programmable engine management and data acquisition system

DC-motor. The two upper bipolar transistors are of the NPN-type, the lower two of the PNP-type. Due to the conversion of polarity the bipolar transistors are activated. A NPN-transistor opens when a positive voltage is applied at b. The port is opened and a larger current can pass through between e and c. A PNP-transistor works in the opposite direction. If a positive voltage is connected to the left side and negative to the right side, the current ows from the top line through the transistor, the motor and transistor 4. The DC-motor starts rotating clockwise. If the polarity is reversed, the current ows through transistor 2, the DC-motor and transistor 3 and the motor rotates anti-clockwise. The diodes make sure the current cannot pass the motor in opposite direction and prevent for short circuiting the system. When the motor stops rotating, the voltage is cut down, for a millisecond a voltage wants to run from the minus to the plus pole. To allow this diodes are applied, they heat up for a very short period and therefore prevents the transistors for short circuiting. The maximum current that is measured which can ow through the transistor is 20 [A], at an alternator voltage of 13.5 [V]. The maximum current that can ow through the transistors is nominal 30 [A], so the safety for overloading is large enough. All the components are mounted on a aluminum heat sink. The air can ow freely around the aluminum heat sink so cooling is sucient. The designed amplier appears to be very simple and robust and is very cost-eective, all the components together cost A C35,- [27].

+
2a c b e e b c 2b 6 4 1a/b Motec signal 2a/b Battery connections 3. NPN-transistor 4. PNP-transistor 5. DC-shift motor 6. Diode 5 3

+/-

1a

1b

-/+

Figure 4.2: The layout of the custom made current amplier.

4.3. SENSORS

29

4.3

Sensors

To control the ratio of the CVT several sensors are needed. In the next part these are discussed. In Figure 4.3 the positions of the sensors in the system are shown. These are: engine speed pulley position sensor secondary pulley speed
REV-sensor

Electro Motor

Pulley Position Sensor

REV-sensor

Figure 4.3: The layout of sensors in the vehicle. The target and actual CVT ratio are calculated. The outcome determines if the CVT has to shift up or down. With the pulley position sensor, slip of the belt can be detected [?].

The primary pulley speed can be calculated from the engine speed. The engine speed sensor measures the speed at the crank shaft with an inductive sensor. Eight notches are machined in the shaft. An additional sensor is added for the ignition timing at the cam shaft. This sensor rotates half the crank shaft speed. It has one notch and measures when the camshaft has rotated 360 (half the engine speed). This sensor is very accurate since it is capable of ignition timing. With the primary reduction and the reduction of the gearbox the speed from the primary pulley is calculated. At the secondary pulley side an inductive sensor measures the speed at the spring holder cap which has 18 notches. The input voltage should be more than 7 [V], the resistance is between the 400 and 600 and the eective range is between 0.38 and 3.62 [V]. To be able to detect the slip in the CVT, a pulley position sensor is used. The slip that is allowed for long term operation with low wear of the belt and pulleys is should be lower than 1% and last no longer than a few seconds. The pulley position sensor is a non-linear axial displacement sensor. It is used to measures the position of the pulley at the back of the large shift gear. A spring ensures contact with the gear surface. The rotation of the gear is relatively slow and the contact area has a special coating to keep the friction between the pulley position sensor low. The pulley position sensor is calibrated with a micrometer. The complete range of the pulley position sensor has been measured

30

CHAPTER 4. CVT CONTROL AND ACTUATION SYSTEM

from 0 till 20 [mm] with steps of 1 [mm]. Afterwards a fourth order polynomial line is tted through those points. In Figure 4.4 the outcome of the calibration is shown. The input voltage of the sensor is between 4.5 and 5.5 voltage and the resistance between 1.9 and 2.3 k when compressed and extended between 0.2 and 1.0 k . In Figure 4.5 the calibration of the ratio versus the voltage is shown.

20 18 16 14 position [mm] 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 voltage [V] 3.5 4 4.5 ratio [] measurments polynomial

2.2 2 1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 measurments polynomial

0.5

1.5

2 2.5 voltage [V]

3.5

Figure 4.4: Curve tting of the pulley position Figure 4.5: Curve tting of the pulley position sensor with a 4th order polynomial. sensor with a 1th order polynomial.

4.4

Pulley position mechanism

The dc-motor actuates a gear train that rotates the large gear, see Figure 4.6. The large gear is connected to the shaft with the spindle and converts the rotating movement in a translational movement of the pulley sheave, Figure 4.6. The system can be divided in two main parts namely an electromechanical part in connection with a mechanical system, equation (4.1) and (4.2). Vdc represent the alternator voltage and Idc the current owing through the motor, the motor is controlled with pulse width modulation (PWM). The motor constants are represented by the inductance Idc , the resistance 143 ) is total reduction from the dc-motor to the large gear, Rdc and the torque constant Kdc , rGT ( 12992 is the angle of large gear from 0 to 4 . Tf is the stick-slip friction present in the actuation system, JLG and Jdc are the inertia of the large gear and the DC-motor, xsp the pulley position, D the diameter of the spindle, sp the angle of the spindle thread and b a damping constant. The conversion from rotational movement to translational movement is described by equation (4.3). (t) + Rdc Idc (t) + Vdc (t) = Ldc I Tf + JLG + Jdc 2 rGT 2 2 x sp + b x sp D tan(sp ) D tan(sp ) = Kdc Idc rGT 2 D tan(sp ) (t) Kdc (4.1) rGT (4.2) (4.3)

= xsp

4.5

Thrust forces

The clamping force theory of CVTs is required to make a good assumption for the forces acting on the pulleys in the most extreme conditions. The pulleys bend and tilt under load. There is always

4.5. THRUST FORCES

31

EM

z = 13 z = 10 z = 11
SP

z = 58 z = 35 z = 64
TLG, LG

Figure 4.6: On the left the gear train reduction with the electric DC-motor is depicted. On the right the spindle mechanism which converts the rotational movement into a translation.

play on the shaft and pulleys and because of the nite thickness of the pulleys they do bend under thrust loading, Figure 4.7. To make the pulleys lighter and decrease the moments of inertia, material is removed from the pulleys. To the standard pulleys this load is applied and the pulley bending and tilting is the benchmark for the calculations for the optimized pulleys. The bending and tilting of the optimized pulleys may not be larger then 5 % of the bending and tilting with the benchmark pulleys. Due to bending and tilting of the pulleys under the belt load, the normal forces are far from constant over the angle of wrap of the pulleys [12].

ideal pitch line

ideal pitch line

ideal pitch line

radial sag

Figure 4.7: Pulley tilting and bending on the geometry results in radial sag. This results in skew running of the belt between the two pulleys.

The thrust force at the secondary pulley consist of two main forces, namely the spring force Fspring and the cam force Fcam , equation (4.4) and (4.5). The spring force is linear with compression of the spring. The spring force is used to transmit torque at low torque levels when the cam forces are too low. Because the spring force is higher then needed to transmit torques, over-clamping of the pulley is the result. Therefore, up to 20 N m of input torque, the eciency of the CVT is poor, Figure 2.26. The force of the torque cam is torque dependent. The higher the torque, the higher the thrust forces. The thrust force itself is a function of the spring force and cam force combined as they act on the same area, equation (4.6). In Figure 4.9 the thrust force is shown for the maximum torque of 150 [Nm]. Now the thrust forces of the secondary pulley are known. The relation between those two can be

DSP

TLG, LG

FSP,xSP

32

CHAPTER 4. CVT CONTROL AND ACTUATION SYSTEM

described by a relation of the angle of wrap and the corresponding running radii, Figure 3.12 and 3.11. While the CVT is not shifting, force equilibrium yields. With equation 4.8 the thrust force ratio is calculated. With equation (4.9) the primary thrust force is derived. In table 4.1 the required parameters are shown. Fsp Fcam FT H,sec cam TR FT H,prim = = = ksp (x0 xsp )
Tprim var 2rCV T

(4.4) (4.5) (4.6) (4.7) (4.8) (4.9)

Fsp sp Rsp

Rcam

Fcam + Fsp tan + = arctan(cam ) p Rp = p Rp + ((s p ) Rs ) = FT H,sec T R

variable ksp x0 xsp Tprim belt 1/rcvt s

value 34.4 [N/mm] 68.52 [mm] 0 / 15.7 [mm] 0 - 150 [Nm] 0.95 [-] 0.55 - 2.05 [-] 0.12 [-]

variable Rsp Rcam cam cam

value 40.75 [mm] 30.85 [mm] 32.5 0.18 [-] (tan(cam ))1 13

Table 4.1: The parameters that are used for the thrust force calculation.

xp Fp FTH,prim Tp,i Fp Tp,i Tp

Ts

Ts,i Fs

Ts,i Fs

FTH,sec xs

Figure 4.8: The torques and forces that are present in the variator.

4.5. THRUST FORCES

33

8000 F 7000 6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 LOW 0 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1/ratio [] 1.6 1.8 OD 2
thrust,sec

Fthrust,prim Fcam Fspring

Figure 4.9: The secondary thrust force consists of two forces, the spring force and the cam force. These forces are shown for the maximum torque of 150 [Nm]. The primary thrust force is calculated from the secondary thrust force.

thrustforce [N]

34

CHAPTER 4. CVT CONTROL AND ACTUATION SYSTEM

Chapter 5

System Identication and Control Design

In this chapter the identication and control of the CVT are discussed. First the maximum shifting speeds are measured. This makes clear what the capabilities of the system are as well as the limitations of the system. Then the friction in the system is measured. After that the frequency response of the pulley position system is analyzed and a transfer function for the system is derived. A controller is tuned using this transfer function. For the ratio control of the system the frequency respons measurement are performed as well, and two controllers having dierent closed loop bandwidths are designed.

5.1

Unloaded test bench for shifting speeds

To get more knowledge about the shifting behavior of the CVT, an unloaded test rig has been built at Drivetrain Innovations (DTI), Figure 5.1. An unloaded test-rig means that there is no load at the output shaft of the CVT, and less harm can be done to the system during testing. The test rig consist of a frequency controlled electric motor, a driveshaft and the CVT, Figure 5.1. The motor is connected to the input shaft of the CVT. The experiments are performed using a dSPACE system. dSPACE is a real-time environment for developing and testing control systems. MATLAB/Simulink is used to automatically generate a c-code for the experiment, which is downloaded to the dSPACE system. With dSpace Control Desk a cockpit is designed and all the parameters of interest can be logged. If the speed of the electric motor tends to drop or rise due to the shifting of the CVT, the engine controls the speed back to the desired value. The input speed is known, at the secondary pulley the number of revolutions is measured. At the primary pulley a position sensor measures the position of the primary pulley. With the primary pulley speed, the position sensor and secondary speed, the shifting behavior is described. The shifting motor is actuated by signal from dSpace. A relais opens or closes the power supply to the shifting motor, there is no restriction on current use, so the shift motor uses the maximum needed current. In MATLAB a voltage is read out, which is related to the position of the PPS-sensor. After the pulleys are machined to reduce the rotational inertia and weight, see chapter 7, the measurements are performed again to see what the benets are on the shifting speeds.

5.1.1

Shifting behaviour results

Figure 5.2 shows that the CVT can be shifted up (LOW to OD) in 2.5 [s]. Shifting down is done in 1.5 [s], Figure 5.3. At 2000 and 3000 [rpm] the shifting speed is measured as well and showed almost no dierence [10]. The pulleys of the CVT are machined and a lot of inertia is removed from the pulleys. Reducing the inertia has not aected the shifting speed. An explanation for that is that primary the pulley positioning actuation mechanism is working on the physical limits and is not 35

36

CHAPTER 5. SYSTEM IDENTIFICATION AND CONTROL DESIGN

Coupling

SE-CVT

Motor

Drive shaft

Figure 5.1: The unloaded testrig at Drivetrain Innovations in Eindhoven to measure the shifting speed of the SE-CVT.

capable of actuating faster. What can be concluded from this data, is that the system saturates at the actuation limits. The friction in the actuation system, the friction between the belt and pulleys and the thrust force of the spring are dominant over the pulley inertias.

2500 rpmprim rpmsec full pull 2000 rpm

sec mach pull

2500 rpmprim rpmsec full pull 2000 rpm

sec mach pull

pulley speed [rpm]

1500

pulley speed [rpm] 1 1.5 2 time [s] 2.5 3 3.5 4

1500

1000

1000

500

500

0 0.5

0.5

1.5 time [s]

2.5

3.5

Figure 5.2: Up shifting of the CVT with a continuous primary speed of 1000 [rpm]. Shifting through the complete working range takes place in 2.5 [s].

Figure 5.3: Down shifting of the CVT with a continuous primary speed of 1000 [rpm]. Shifting through the complete working range takes place in 1.47 [s].

5.2

Controller demands

The CVT is capable to deliver the shifting speeds that the URE-car demands in order of ratio and speed. Accelerating from zero to 140 km/h takes 10 seconds, Figure 2.7. The CVT has 4 [s] to shift from 48 to 110 [km/h] and back in 2.5 [s]. The shifting speeds are determined for the complete ratio of 1.8 to 0.465, the used ratio is from 1.8 to 0.79 so this is not a problem. In case of an emergency stop the CVT can shift back within the requested time.

5.3. UNLOADED TEST BENCH FOR CONTROL

37

5.3

Unloaded test bench for control

The unloaded test bench at the TU/e is used to identify transfer functions for the systems and to tune the controllers. A large electric motor is connected to the input shaft op the CVT. The inputs for the test bench are the electric motor speed and the current for the shift motor of the CVT. The speed of the electric motor (primary pulley speed), secondary pulley speed, pulley position and torque are read out. The signals are conditioned to lter out noise and connected with dSpace. dSpace is connected with the computer and can be actuated from the controldesk , an interface program for dSpace. The software for dSpace is made with Matlab/Simulink and the data created with control desk is processed with Matlab. The layout of the test bench is shown in Figure 5.5 and a picture of the testbench is shown in Figure 5.4.

Figure 5.4: Pictures of the unloaded testrig at the TU/e.

2 1 3

4 5 1. Electric motor 2. Torque flange 3. Input shaft 4. CVT 5. Primairy pulley 6. Secondary pulley 7. Output shaft 8. Frequency controller 9. Signal conditioning 10. dSpace 11. Computer/data logging 12. Signal wires 11

7 8

6 12

9 10

Figure 5.5: The schematically layout of the unloaded testrig at the TU/e.

5.4

Pulley position control

Before a controller can be designed, the system has to identied. First the friction in the system is measured, from LOW to OD and back. At a voltage of 13.5 [V] (Alternator voltage) a ramp function at the desired pulley position is applied with the lowest possible slope of 0.05 [mm/s] to measure the

38

CHAPTER 5. SYSTEM IDENTIFICATION AND CONTROL DESIGN

complete range, Figure 5.6. The current slowly rises from 0 to 1.6 [A] at which the actuation system starts to shift, Figure 5.7. A step in position is observed and the system stops because the position dierence is smal. The current drops to a value of 0.2 [A] and slowly rises up to 1.6 [A]. This is the case for the positive and negative measurement range, the friction is completely symmetric over position and angle. For the negative region the results are shown in Figure E.2 and E.3.

18 16 14 12 position [mm] 10 8 6 4 2 0 current [A] 0 50 100 150 time [s] 200 250 300 actual position desired position postion error

1.8 1.6 1.4 1.2 1 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0.2 0 50 100 150 time [s] 200 250 300

Figure 5.6: The desired position, the actual position and the error on position during the friction measurement. The position error is similar to the actuation current.

Figure 5.7: The current during the friction measurement. From 0.2 it rises to 1.6 [A]. This is the value that is needed for the shift motor to overcome the friction.

To obtain the transfer function from output y (t) to input i(t), Figure 5.10, a frequency response measurement is performed. A sine function is used as input for the desired pulley position signal. It slowly increases the frequency from 0.01 to 10 [Hz] in 500 [s]. The measurement is performed closed loop with a low gain feedback, to assure that this system remains stable and does not damage anything. To improve the coherence of the measurement the friction is partly eliminated by adding the current needed to eliminated the friction and keep the system running. Stick-slip creates nonlineair dynamics, which is not desirable for a dynamic measurement. The coherence above 10 [Hz] is useless, Figure 5.8. Because the system consists of an electric actuation and an actuated mass a 2nd order system is expected at high frequencies, equation (4.2) and (5.1). The -40 [dB] per decade slope underlines this assumption. y (s) xsp = i(s) Idc

H ( s) =

(5.1)

Low frequent the line has a slope of zero with no phase only a constant factor remains between the input and output, because low frequent the static situation is reached. With Shapeit a transfer function is tted to the data, Figure 5.9 and equation (5.2). With this transfer function a controller is designed to control the primary pulley position.

Hpps (s)

3.602 s2 + 0.7673s + 0.4499

(5.2)

With the pulley position controller, the position of the pulleys is controlled. The actual position yP P S has to follow a desired position rP P S , equation (5.3). The controller is used to maintain a certain position when the complete CVT, including the drive belt, is identied. Because a xed position can be maintained the geometric ratio can be determined for the complete working ratio of the CVT. This

5.4. PULLEY POSITION CONTROL

Bode Diagram

39

1 0.9
Magnitude (dB) Phase (deg) 40 20 0 20 40 60

0.8 0.7 Coherence [] 0.6 0.5 0.4

80

0.3 0.2 0.1

90 180 270 360

10

10 Frequency [Hz]

10

10

10

10

10 Frequency (Hz)

10

Figure 5.8: The coherence of the measurements is after 10 [Hz] unreliable.

Figure 5.9: A transfer function is tted to the measurement data.

action should be repeated several times to get a high accuracy for the measurements.

eP P S

= rP P S yP P S

(5.3)

friction feed forward

rPPS(t) desired PPS

ePPS(t) PPS error

C(s)
controller

i(t) PWM

H(s)
system

yPPS(t) actual PPS

Figure 5.10: Layout of the feedback system for the pulley position control.

The measured data at 10 [Hz] has a gain of -50 [dB]. From this point the gain will remain -50 [dB] or decrease even further. The maximum gain to assure stability and robustness is therefore 100 [-]. This results in an maximum position error of 0.1 [mm], which is sucient. With this data a controller with a maximum bandwidth of 5 [Hz] can be designed. Integrator action will not be applied because of the friction low frequent and because a small error at the stationary situations is not a problem as the CVT is shifting all the time during the races and therefore the dynamic respons is much more important. The pole of the lead/lag lter lies at 1.667 [Hz], the zero at 15 [Hz] and a low pass 1st order lter is used to suppress noise and disturbance at higher frequencies with a pole at 50 [Hz]. In Figure 5.11 the bode plot of the controller for the pulley position is depicted, equation (5.4). Because of the model uncertainties the modulus, phase and gain margin are taken larger than usual. The modulus margin is 3.4 [dB], the phase margin 48.2 and the gain margin 20 [dB], Figure 5.13 and Figure 5.12. 9.549s + 100 3.377 105 s2 + 1.379 102 s + 1

CP P S (s)

(5.4)

40

CHAPTER 5. SYSTEM IDENTIFICATION AND CONTROL DESIGN

Bode Diagram 60 55 Magnitude (dB) Phase (deg) 50 45 40 35 30 90 45 0 45 90 10

2

10

10 Frequency (Hz)

10

10

Figure 5.11: The controller for the primary pulley position control.

50 Magnitude [dB] Magnitude [dB]

2 1 0 1 2 3

0 10 20 30 40 50

50

100 10 10 10 10 10 10

60 2 10

10

10

10

10

10

200 100 Phase [] 0 100 200 2 10 Phase []

1 0 1 2 3

200 100 0 100 200 2 10

10

10

10 Frequency [Hz]

10

10

10

10

10 Frequency [Hz]

10

10

Figure 5.12: Bode plot of the open loop respons

Figure 5.13: Bode plot of the sensitivity.

5.5

Ratio Control

The general overview of the control system for the total ratio controlled CVT (with belt installed) can be seen in Figure 5.14. The error of the controller can be described with equation (5.5). p is the primary pulley speed, s the secondary pulley speed and ref the desired primary pulley speed for the engine speed at maximum engine power of 12.500 [rpm]. e = p ref s (5.5)

First the transfer function for the CVT is derived, each ratio of the CVT has its own transfer function. To cover the complete working range of the CVT, the transfer functions are measured around the ratios of 1.7, 1.3 and 0.9. A sine with an amplitude of 0.1 is excitated from 0.01 up to 10 [Hz] around the predened ratios. Above 10 [Hz] the coherence is useless, Figure 5.15. Out of the respons data a transfer function for the ratio control is tted, Figure 5.16. The FRF responses of ratio of 0.9 and 1.3 are quite similar. The transfer function around the ratio of 1.8 has a higher magnitude.

5.5. RATIO CONTROL

friction feed forward

41

r(t) desired ratio

e(t) ratio error

C(s)
controller

i(t) PWM

H(s)
system

y(t) actual ratio

Figure 5.14: Layout of the feedback ratio control system.

1
0

Bode Diagram

0.9
20 Magnitude (dB) Phase (deg)

0.8 0.7 coherence [] 0.6 0.5

40 60 80 100

0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 0

0 1

0 90 180 270 360

10

10 frequency [Hz]

10

10 Frequency (Hz)

10

Figure 5.15: The coherence of the frequency response measurements. The input is from 0.001 up to 10 [Hz]. This can be seen in the reliability of the measurement, above those frequencies the coherence is poor.

Figure 5.16: The measured and tted transfer function of the CVT at a ratio of 1.3. The green line is the t of the FRF respons around ratio 1.7 [-]

An average transfer function, equation (5.6), for the CVT system is derived which lies in the middle of the three measurements. A magnitude shift 2.5 [dB] above and below should be taken into account when tuning the controller. HCV T (s) = 0.12 s2 + 2s + 1.395 (5.6) (5.7) The tuned controller needs to satises several requirements. The plant needs to be stabilized and in such a way that it is robust for disturbances and modeling errors. The other demand is that it satisfy the required performance in the closed loop domain. The required performance is that it can shift from LOW to OD in less than 4.3 [s] and shifts down in less than 3 [s], see Figure 2.7. To make sure that the requirements are achieved if the vehicle becomes faster on acceleration, the up shift should be performed in less than 3.5 [s] and shifting down in less than 2.5 [s]. The maximum ratio error is set to 0.05 [-]. Integrator action will not be applied, because low frequent there is a lot of friction in the system and the allowable nal error of 0.05 can also be reached without the integrator action. Added integrator action will not result in a benet on the performance. It would only cost phase margin and can result in stability problems. Because the model of the transfer function of the system is not accurate for higher frequencies a lter

42

CHAPTER 5. SYSTEM IDENTIFICATION AND CONTROL DESIGN

will be added to lter out high frequency responses and errors. It is also used to suppresses the noise and disturbance at frequencies higher than the chosen bandwidth. Gain is needed to meet the performance demands. Although the gain should not be too high. High gain also results in unstable behavior of the controller. The gain is increased until the desired ratio error is reached. With shapeit a controller is tuned on the derived transfer function. The modulus margin should be below 3 [dB], the phase margin higher than 50 and the gain margin above 12 [dB], because of the model uncertainties. Two controllers with a bandwidth of 1 and 5 [Hz] are tuned and tested on the CVT, equation (5.8) and (5.9). The control parameters and properties are summarized in table 5.1. C1 (s) C2 (s) = = 53.48s + 112 0.0002814s2 + 0.05836s + 1 263.6s + 2760 3.377e 005s2 + 0.01379s + 1 Controller 1 2 1 5 112 2760 0.333 3 1.667 15 30 50 1.9 3 69.4 51.5 30.1 21.1 (5.8) (5.9)

Bandwidth Gain [dB] Lead/Lag [Hz] Low pass 1st order lter [Hz] Modulus margin ( 3 [dB]) Phase margin (> 50 ) Gain margin ( 12 [dB])

Table 5.1: The parameters and properties of the controllers.

In chapter 6 controller 2 is selected in favor of controller 1 based on performance. Therefore the open loop and sensitivity bode plots for controller with a bandwidth of 1 [Hz] are not discussed. The modulus margin is 3 [dB], the phase margin 51.5 and the gain margin 21.2 [dB], Figure 5.18 Figure 5.17.

50 Magnitude [dB] Magnitude [dB]

2 1 0 1 2 3

0 10 20 30 40

50

100 10 10 10 10 10 10 50 2 10 10
1

10

10

10

10

200 100 Phase [] 0 100 200 2 10 Phase []

1 0 1 2 3

200 100 0 100 200 2 10

10

10

10 Frequency [Hz]

10

10

10

10

10 Frequency [Hz]

10

10

Figure 5.17: Bode plot of the open loop respons

Figure 5.18: Bode plot of the sensitivity.

HC In Figure 5.19 the transfer function HCV T and the closed loop respons 1+ HC are shown in one gure to show the improvement of the controlled system versus the uncontrolled system. A bandwidth of 5 [Hz] is created with the designed controller. The tracking behavior of the controlled plant is good up to 5 [Hz]. For the controlled system phase delay starts at 1 [Hz] and remains above 180 up to 12

5.5. RATIO CONTROL [Hz].

43

Bode Diagram 50 H 0 Magnitude (dB) 50 100 150 200 250 0 HC/1+HC

Phase (deg)

90

180

270 10
3

10

10

10 10 Frequency (Hz)

10

10

10

Figure 5.19: The transfer function HCV T and the closed loop respons

HC 1+HC .

44

CHAPTER 5. SYSTEM IDENTIFICATION AND CONTROL DESIGN

Chapter 6

Experimental Validation of the Controlled CVT

The controllers designed in chapter 5 are veried if they meet the requested performance. For the two controllers designed for the ratio control of the CVT, one is selected. With the selected CVT two extra performance test have been performed.

6.1

Results of Pulley Position Control

With the tuned controller of equation 5.4 some test have been performed. An ratio trajectory is set as desired input Figure 6.1. The maximum error on this signal is 0.59 [mm] with a mean error of 0.06177 [mm]. Since the demand for the maximum error is set on 0.1 [mm] and the average error is near 0.1 [mm], the goal on the error is satised, Figure 6.2. The corresponding current has a peak value of 10.71 [A], with a mean value of 3.35 [A]. The power use of the position controller is low. If an average of 10 [A] would be reached, too much power would be consumed.

16 des. pos. contr. pos. 14

0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 position error [mm] 190 200 210 220 time [s] 230 240 250 260 0.2 0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3

12 position [mm]

10

4 180

0.4 180

190

200

210

220 time [s]

230

240

250

260

Figure 6.1: The desired and controlled path for the pulley width.

Figure 6.2: The error on the postition.

Next a step wise setpoint has been applied on the position signal. Figure 6.3 shows the respons. When the error is around zero the controller keeps on chattering upon stick-slip behavior at the desired setpoint, Figure 6.4. In Figure 6.5 it can be seen, that at these situations, the current has the highest 45

46

CHAPTER 6. EXPERIMENTAL VALIDATION OF THE CONTROLLED CVT

value. The friction in the shift mechanism is debet to this behavior. The current rises, the mechanism starts shifting and the result is an overshoot. In the nal control design when the control error is smaller than a certain value, for example 0.5% it should stop to make sure that the current use drop to zero, i.e. dead beat control. The mean current in this measurement is 4.68 [A], with a maximum value of 16.62 [A].

16 des. pos. contr. pos. 14

15

10

10

position error [mm] 0 5 10 time [s] 15 20

12 position [mm]

10

15

10 time [s]

15

20

Figure 6.3: A step signal of the desired path.

Figure 6.4: The error on the position.

20 15 10 5 current [A] 0 5 10 15 20

10 time [s]

15

20

Figure 6.5: The current during the step respons. When the error is almost zero chattering occurs.

6.2

Results of Ratio Control

To test the performance of both controllers a sine function of 0.5 [Hz] at ratio 1 with an amplitude with 0.15 [-] is performed. The tracking behavior of both controllers is good, Figure 6.6 and 6.8, but controller 1 has a small shift oset on the error, especially near ratio 0.85. The upshifting behavior of controller 2 is better. The ratio error for both controllers is smaller than the requested error of 0.05, Figure 6.7 and 6.8. The medium value of the error for controller 1 is not near 0 but slightly lower. The shape of the error of controller 2 is similar, but the error value is around 0, which is preferable, because than the positive and negative error are of the same magnitude. The mean current during the experiment of controller 1 is 5.01 [A] with a maximum value of 14.95 [A], for controller 2 the mean current is 6.5 [A], with a maximum of 15.5 [A]. Controller 2 is chosen in favor of controller 1, although

6.2. RESULTS OF RATIO CONTROL it consumes more power, the tracking error is smaller.

47

0.02 1.15 1.1 1.05 ratio [s] 1 0.95 0.9 0.85 0.8 desired ratio actual ratio 0.01

0 ratio error [] 3 4 5 6 7 time [s] 8 9 10 11

0.01

0.02

0.03

0.04

0.05

7 time [s]

10

11

Figure 6.6: The desired and actual ratio respons for a sinus input for controller C1 .

Figure 6.7: The tracking error of the sinus input for controller C1 .

0.03 1.15 1.1 0.01 ratio error [] 3 4 5 6 7 time [s] 8 9 10 11 1.05 ratio [] 1 0.95 0.9 0.02 0.85 0.8 0.03 desired ratio actual ratio 0.02

0.01

7 time [s]

10

11

Figure 6.8: The desired and actual ratio respons for a sinus input for controller C2 .

Figure 6.9: The tracking error of the sinus input for controller C2

A nal test to make sure that the controller is capable of controlling the CVT the most extreme shifting behavior is tested, shifting from 1.8 to 0.8 in 2.5 [s] and shifting back to 1.8 in 1.5 [s], during driving this shifting behavior will not occur. The controller is capable of shifting at the physical limits below the requested error, Figure 6.10 and 6.11. The average current is then 7.2 [A], with a peak of 15.6 [A]. The nal test is to simulate a full acceleration and deceleration. In the rst try to simulate this, it became clear that electric motor acceleration is limited for safety reasons. It is capable of accelerating from 100 [rpm] to 5000 [rpm] in 8 [s] and decelerating in 8 [s] as well. So it is not possible to simulate real driving simulations. The idea was to simulate all the events, but now only the acceleration can be simulated with some tricks. The vehicle speed is prescribed, instead of making the motor speed dependent on the vehicle speed. The motor speed is kept constant at the shifting speed of the CVT during this simulation, since it is not capable of accelerating and decelerating fast enough, Figure 6.12. The output speed of the CVT is rewritten to the vehicle speed. This speed is not corresponding with the speed which is calculated from the pulley position sensor and the primary pulley speed. This speed

48

CHAPTER 6. EXPERIMENTAL VALIDATION OF THE CONTROLLED CVT

2 desired ratio actual ratio 1.8

0.05 0.04 0.03

1.6 ratio error [] 0 2 4 6 time [s] 8 10 12

0.02 0.01 0 0.01 0.02 0.03

ratio []

1.4

1.2

0.8 0.04 0.6 0.05 0 2 4 6 time [s] 8 10 12

Figure 6.10: The most extreme possible shift behavior.

Figure 6.11: The error on the most extreme possible shift behavior.

is tracking the vehicle speed very well. The reason that the secondary pulley speed sensor is measuring deviating values, is because at the spring holder cap an irregular pattern of notches is present. The conversion from the pulse signal to input for the computer required very sensitive electronics to be able to measure speed. In Figure 6.13 this behavior is observed. The ratio error, Figure 6.14 and 6.15, shows that at the beginning of the shifting a larger than the requested value. The error on the vehicle speed, this deviation is less than 0.5 [km/h]. In practice this will not result in bad performance of the car, because than the engine speed will be increased a little bit. Because the electric motor is not able to accelerate and decelerate fast enough it is not possible to simulate the endurance. Nevertheless this is not really a problem, because it is proven that the CVT and the control of it fullls the demands of the URE car.

160 vveh,des 140 120 vehicle speed [km/h] 100 speed [rpm] vveh,rpm sec vveh,pps

7000 desired prim speed actual prim speed sec speed actual sec speed

6000

5000

4000

80 60 40 20 0

3000

2000

1000

10

12

14 time [s]

16

18

20

22

10

12

14 time [s]

16

18

20

22

Figure 6.12: Vehicle speed of a full acceleration and deceleration.

Figure 6.13: The rotational speeds of the primary and secondary pulleys. Note that electro motor is not capable of delivering the maximum drive speed, and has therefore a constant speed at which the CVT shifts.

6.2. RESULTS OF RATIO CONTROL

49

2 desired ratio pps ratio speed ratio

0.08 0.06 0.04

1.8

1.6 ratio error [] 8 10 12 14 time [s] 16 18 20 22

0.02 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08

ratio []

1.4

1.2

0.8 0.1 0.6 0.12 8 10 12 14 time [s] 16 18 20 22

Figure 6.14: The ratio during the full acceleration.

Figure 6.15: The ratio error during the full acceleration. For a small period the ratio error is larger than the desired value of 0.05 [-].

50

CHAPTER 6. EXPERIMENTAL VALIDATION OF THE CONTROLLED CVT

Chapter 7

CVT Modications and Power-train Design

Now the CVT is analyzed well, in this chapter the design of the CVT in the race car will be presented. The current rear space frame of the race car is taken as a basis to t in the CVT. First the pulleys are optimized in weight and inertia. Then connection of the engine and the CVT is examined. And nally the positioning of the complete CVT into the rear space frame. A new clutch actuation mechanism is designed because of the CVT the current clutch actuation cannot function anymore.

7.1

Pulleys

The largest weight of the CVT is in the pulley sheaves and the torque cam. They are casted and afterwards machined to meet the specs. Optimizing on weight and inertia is too expensive and not necessary for normal use. Reducing the weight and thus the inertia of the CVT is very important for the overal performance of the vehicle. Three dierent designs are made of the pulleys. One completely turned, one with holes and one with milled chambers. In Figure 7.1 the three designs can be seen. The turned product is not possible option, because on the secondary side a fan has to be attached to this surface and the spring and torque cam are acting on the outer pulley surface at the other pulley. The bending of the pulleys will also be larger because the sheaves are becoming really thin. Primary it would be possible, but to keep the geometry and the pulley bending and deecting behavior similar for both sets, the complete design is kept similar. Drilling holes is not an option as well, because with milling chambers more material can be removed while keeping the resulting stresses low and limiting the deection of the pulleys. The design with the milled chambers is the best solution because the specic stiness is the highest.

Figure 7.1: Three possible geometries for pulley optimization. The left geometry is manufactured by turning, the middle one by drilling holes and the right one by milling chambers.

The working conditions of the pulleys are made up for the thrust force calculations of section 4.5. 51

52

CHAPTER 7. CVT MODIFICATIONS AND POWER-TRAIN DESIGN

In table 7.1 the working conditions can be seen. The maximum torque with input torque of 150 [Nm] has a maximum spring force of 2894 [N] and maximum torque cam force of 3804 [N] for the secondary pulley, Figure 4.9. The contact of the belt and pulleys have a width of 10 [mm]. This data is used for the input of the FEM analysis. The type of material is unknown, the material is magnetic so it is steel. Worst case is taken in account, which result in a maximum yield stress of normal construction steel with a yield stress of 370 [MPa]. The rst design is made with a pulley ange thickness of 4 [mm]. The stresses max and displacements xmax were low. A new redesign is made with a pulley ange thickness of 2.5 [mm]. Further decrease of the thickness is dangerous. The pulleys have been measured and drawn in a CAD-program. The exact dimensions will deviate a little and no risk is taken since there is only one set of pulleys. This thickness is sucient. The start of the chambers has been positioned from 8 to 11 [mm] from the thickest part of the shaft, because the milling machine constraints this radius to be able to mill those chambers. All radii inside the chambers are chosen 5 [mm]. In table 7.1 the maximum deections and stresses of the pulleys are presented. These values are similar to the values described in [12]. In Figure 7.2 the result of the FEM analysis for the secondary pulley is shown. Primary pulleys Fthrust [N ] [ ] 74109750 156.7155 45866750 180 180 35605250 204 210 Secondary pulleys 64799750 207.8210 45866750 180 180 36115250 147.8150 Fixed pulley xmax [mm] max [MPa] 0.16 263 0.057 119 0.016 54 Fixed pulley 0.12 266 0.044 114 0.01 43 Sliding pulley xmax [mm] max [MPa] 0.12 342 0.040 82 0.014 50 Sliding pulley 0.13 362 0.036 139 0.002 18

rCV T [-] 1.8 1 0.465 1.8 1 0.465

R [m] 0.033 0.05 0.067 0.065 0.05 0.031

Table 7.1: The maximum stresses and displacements of the primary and secondary pulleys

7.2

Torque cam

The torque cam is also a heavy rotating part at the secondary pulley side. 15 holes are drilled in the torque cam to make the part lighter. To ensure its functionality FEM-analyses are performed. The maximum forces that occur at the lower surface where the spring seats is 3 [kN] and at the cam surface 4 [kN], with a safety factor of 1.5 it becomes 4.5 [kN] and 6 [kN] for the FEM-analysis. At ve dierent positions at the cam this load is applied. The total force is distributed over the three cam surfaces. The lowest plane of the cam was xed in all directions. The force is applied at ve dierent positions on the cam surface. The maximum stresses that occur after the optimization are in table 7.2. The maximum stress is 157 [MPa] at the inside of the hub where to holes are close to each other position 1, gure 7.3. When the parts were ready to machined it appeared that the torque cam is hardened. By normal drilling it is not possible to make holes in the torque cam. With spark erosion it would be possible, but that is an expensive and time consuming technique and the benets are small since diameter the mass is running at is small as well. The holes in the torque cam have not been made. In Figure 7.4 the machined pulleys and the main parts of the CVT are shown. The total weight reduction of the machined pulleys is 1.5 [kg] with and inertia reduction 33% 7.3. The inertia reduction is substantial larger than the pulley weight reduction. The removed mass is positioned on a point far from the center of rotation.

7.3. DRIVETRAIN TOPOLOGY

53

FBELT

FCAM

FSPRING

Figure 7.2: The stresses in the torque cam with a uniformly distributed load of Fspring = 4.5 [kN] at the contact surface of the spring, and a Fcam of 2 [kN] (6 [kN] total) at the contact surfaces. Where normally the cam is xed by the shaft a xed constraint The highest stresses occur at the center where the distance between two holes is the smallest. There is the maximum stress 159 [MPa]

max xmax 10 2 ymax 10 2 zmax 10 2

[MPa] [mm] [mm] [mm]

Position at the cam 1 158 -2.03 0.70 0.66

2 131 -2.06 0.65 0.65

3 137 -2.65 0.07 0.65

4 131 -2.07 0.62 0.65

5 157 -2.06 0.65 0.65

Table 7.2: The maximum stresses and displacements under a load of Fspring of 4.5 [kN] and Fcam of 6 [kN] (sf 1.5)

Primary pulleys Secondary pulleys

Mass reduction [kg ] [%] 0.585 17.39 1.09 23.65

Inertia reduction [kgm2 ] [%] 1.714 103 33 2.127 103 33

Table 7.3: Weight and inertia reduction of the pulleys.

7.3

Drivetrain topology

The engine and the CVT are connected with the output shaft of the gearbox. The output of the CVT is connected to the small sprocket of the nal drive. The large sprocket of the nal drive is connected to

54

CHAPTER 7. CVT MODIFICATIONS AND POWER-TRAIN DESIGN

FCAM FCAM

FCAM FSPRING FSPRING

Figure 7.3: The stresses in the torque cam with a uniformly distributed load of Fspring = 4.5 [kN] at the contact surface of the spring, and a Fcam of 2 [kN] (6 [kN] total) at the contact surfaces. The highest stresses occur at the center where the distance between two holes is the smallest. There is the maximum stress 159 [MPa].

Figure 7.4: The machined pulleys and all the main CVT components.

the dierential. A schematic layout is shown in Figure 7.5.

7.4. ENGINE AND CVT CONNECTION

1 2

55

1
6

st

3 1. Engine 2. Primary reduction 3. Clutch 4. Gearbox 5. CVT 6. Final drive (sprockets and chain) 7. Differential 8. Drive shaft 9. Rear wheel

6
4

th

10

Figure 7.5: The drive line topology with the CVT.

7.4

Engine and CVT connection

The output shaft of the gearbox is used as input for the CVT. First a mock-up is made to look what the best position is to put the CVT into the rear frame of the car, Figure 7.8. The CVT is put straight up in the vehicle. If the CVT is positioned at in the car the rear sprocket and front sprocket touch and the drive shafts go right through the housing.

Figure 7.6: The mock up of the engine with the CVT.

To connect the engine and the CVT a long bolt is put in the hollow output shaft of the gearbox. The bolt pulls the faces of the input shaft of primary pulley of the CVT very tight to the face of the output shaft of the gearbox, Figure 7.7. This can transfer the maximum measured torque. As an extra safety a spline bus is put over both splines of the output shaft of the gearbox and the input shaft of the CVT. In case that the bolt would fail the CVT is still connected to the gearbox with the spline bus. A center sleeve is attached to both hubs of the engine and the CVT-housing. In this way both shafts are aligned.

56

CHAPTER 7. CVT MODIFICATIONS AND POWER-TRAIN DESIGN

1 2

3
4

1. Spline connector 2. Pretension bolt 3. Rotary seal 4. Centersleeve

Figure 7.7: The engine and CVT-connection.

7.5

Clutch actuator

Due to the CVT-housing, limited space is left for the clutch actuation, the standard clutch actuation mechanism cannot be used. The maximum space between the CVT-housing and the engine block is 30 [mm]. Instead a hydraulic caliper is used to actuate the clutch.

Figure 7.8: The new designed hydraulic clutch actuator. On the left the space and actuation mechanism are depicted. On the right a 3-D CAD picture of the newly designed actuator.

7.6. FINAL DRIVE

57

7.6

Final drive

The standard nal drive is maintained. It consists of a small front sprocket connected to output shaft of the CVT. The rear sprocket connected to the dierential is a large sprocket. Normally the nal drive is on the left side of the vehicle where the output of the gearbox is. Now the CVT is connected to this shaft the nal drive is moved to the right side of the vehicle. The CVT housing is xed the same plates in which the dierential is mounted. The left dierential plate is designed oversized. This is not a problem, the rear frame is built for a proof of concept and the thickness of a dierential plate is not relevant, in case of proof of concept the thickness will be optimized. Because the housing is pretty large a CAD drawing of the housing is made and implemented in the assembly of the rear frame. In this way it becomes clear what the critical points in the design are. A top view of the nal design can be seen in Figure 7.10, it is not ready yet.

Housing Gearbox shafts CVT internals Gears Bearings Sealing Clips / bushes

Bolts / nut Spline connector Center sleeve Clutch Clutch actuation Clutch actuation piston

Figure 7.9: A 2-D cross section of the engine connected to the CVT.

58

CHAPTER 7. CVT MODIFICATIONS AND POWER-TRAIN DESIGN

Figure 7.10: A top view of the new designed drivetrain.

Chapter 8

Conclusions and Recommendations

8.1 Conclusions

Simulations show that the CVT can perform better than the current gearbox. Torque interruption is eliminated and maintaining the engine speed at maximum power and less revving up and down results in a benet in favor of the CVT according to a driveline with a gearbox. Two CVTs are selected which are suitable for the URE car. The SE-CVT is selected in favor over the snowmobile CVT for the URE 05 car. The SE-CVT has an high eciency according to the snowmobile CVT and actively controlled. It can just cope with the torque demand of the car, but long lifetime is of lesser extend important. The selected ratios in the driveline are optimized in terms of belt speed, torque an the possible nal drive for the URE 05. The speeds in which CVT starts to shift would ideal be around 30 [km/hr]. This cannot be achieved in the current driveline. The maximum measured shifting speeds show that the SE-CVT can speed faster than would be required during driving. The inertia reduction of the pulleys had no eect on the shifting speed. Unloaded a transfer function is derived for the CVT. With this transfer function a controller is designed, which is stable and robust, without using an excessive amount of current. A simulation on the test bench of a full acceleration shows that controller can actuate the CVT within the required demands. It is possible with minor adaptations to t the CVT into the current rear frame of the URE 05 car.

8.2

Recommendations

If the CVT is tested and it performs well in third gear, look at the possibilities of using the 2nd or even 1st gear. The speed at which the CVT could start with shifting is around the ideal speed of 30 [km/hr]. The working range of the CVT can shift more around neutral which results in higher eciencies. And the speed at which the vehicle can drive with CVT could be lowered. It also create the possibilities to change the gearbox reduction to optimize the ratio to the dierent disciplines. For instance, during skid-pad the 4th gear would be desirable because then the car responds less nervous on the throttle. During acceleration for instance the 2nd would be desirable because then the CVT can drive at maximum power from 30 [km/hr] During the measurements on the test bench the secondary speed sensor was not reliable. The secondary speed could be read out more stable if the notch distance at the spring holder would be equalized for all the notches. If that is not possible at an output shaft op the CVT a new camshaft 59

60 should be made.

CHAPTER 8. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Bibliography
[1] D.B. Siegler, Formula student event track data, Honda Research and Development Europe (UK) Ltd, 1999. [2] Franklin, F., Powell, D., Emami-Naeini, A., 1994. Feedback Control of Dynamic Systems. [3] Lamers, W.J., 2007. SimMechanics. Master thesis, Eindhoven, the Nederlands [4] Besselink, Dr. Ir. I.J.M., 2005/2006/2007. Vehicle dynamics 4L150. Lecture notes, Eindhoven, the Nederlands [5] Serrarens, Dr. Ir. A.F.A., Druten, Dr. Ir. R.M.,Vroemen, Dr. Ir. B.G., Veenhuizen, Dr. P.A. 2007. Vehicle Drive Trains 4N840. Lecture notes, Eindhoven, the Nederlands. [6] Serrarens, Dr. Ir. A.F.A., 2001. Coordinated Control of The Zero Inertia Powertrain. [7] Vroemen, Dr. Ir. B.G., 2001. Component Control for The Zero Inertia Powertrain. [8] Rooij, Dr. Ir. J., 2005. Clamping Force Theory. [9] Tillaart, M.H.L.M., 2004. Haalbaarheid van een CVT in een formula Studentauto. [10] Kuijpers, B.B.M.F., 2008. Implementation of a Suzuki Electronically controlled Continuously Variable Transmission in a Formula Student racecar. [11] Potter, M., 2004. Specications of a CVT in a Formula Student car. [12] Kazuma Hatada, Kazuya Okubo and Toru Fujii (Doshisha Univ.), Ryuichi Kido and Mitsuhiko Takahashi (Bando Chemical, Ltd.) 2002. An Impliciet FE Analysis of Power Transmitting Mechanisms of CVT Using a Dry Hybrid V-Belt. [13] Meeting with professor FUJII at the Technical University Eindhoven, 20 March 2009. [14] Rienks, Ir. M.D., 1995. Control and Identication of a Continuously Variable Transmission. [15] Essen, H.A., Rijpkema, J.J.M., 2003/2004. Systeemanalyse 4A320. Lecture notes, Eindhoven, the Nederlands [16] Tsutsumikoshi, S., Tomita, K., Ohashi, K., 2002. Development of Motorcycle Using Electronic Controlled Continuously Variable Transmission., SAE Tecnical Paper Series, no. 2002-32-1771. [17] Gommans, J., 2003 Study on the Eciency of an A-CVT.. Master thesis, Eindhoven, the Netherlands. [18] Chen, T.F., Lee, D.W., Sung, C.K., 1996 An Experimental Study On Transmission Eciency of a Rubber V-Belt CVT. [19] Suzuki AN 650 Service Manual, SUZUKI MOTOR CORPORATION, 2002. [20] MICRODAC B1 - One-channel Telemetry System, Installation and User Manual, Rev. 2.0, Volland Telemetry, April 1999. 61

62

BIBLIOGRAPHY

[21] MoTeC M400/M600/M800/M880 Users Manual, c Motec Pty Ltd, 7 November 2003. [22] Data sheet 080620PTG-Handout-Hybrid-Belt.pdf, c CONTITECH, 2008. [23] Aaen, O., 1999. Olav Aaens Clutch Tuning Handbook. [24] Data sheet HBM Stain Gauges, type 3/350 XY 21 [25] Last visited july 2008, c 2007 SAE International. All Rights Reserved. Printed in USA. http://students.sae.org/competitions/formulaseries/rules/rules.pdf. [26] Last visited July 2008, http://www.bikez.com/. [27] Last visited Oktober 2008, http://www.nl.farnell.com/. [28] Nouis, R., 2001., last visited July 2008. http://www.snowtechmagazine.com/articles/2001/clutch/cltchtun.php. [29] Last visited July 2008, http://www.gates.com [30] Last visited Oktober 2008, http://www.bwk.tue.nl/co/Laboratory/Sensors/Strain/Rekstrookjes.html. [31] Last visited Januari 2009, http://www.motec.com.au/

Appendix A

Nomenclature
A.1 Denitions
Description
Transmission ratios greater than one Transmission ratios lower than one

Symbol
Overdrive Underdrive

A.2

Acronyms
Description
Acrylonitrilbutadieenstyreen Central Of Gravity Continuously Variable Transmission Drivetrain Innovations Federation Internationale de l Automobile Formula Student Kinetic Energy Recovery System Polyetheentereftalaat Pulse Width Modulation Pulley Position Sensor University Racing Eindhoven Suzuki Electronically-controlled Continuously Variable Transmission

Symbol
ABS COG CVT DTI FIA FS KERS PETP PWM PPS URE SE-CVT

A.3 A.4

Symbols Subscripts

63

64

APPENDIX A. NOMENCLATURE

Greek

Description
wedge angle friction coecient constant (3.14159) density rotational position rotational speed rotational acceleration wrapped angle rotational speed

Unit
[ ] [] [ ] [kg/m3 ] [rad] [rad/s] [rad/s2 ] [ ] [rad/s2 ]

Roman
A B F I J K L R RC T a b c g l m n r v x z

Description
area ux density force current inertia multiply factor length radius ratio coverage torque length of rear wheel to COG or center distance length of front wheel to COG constant gravitational constant length (of wheel base) mass number of windings speed ratio speed position number of teeth

Unit
[m 2 ] [T ] [N ] [A] [kg m 2] [ ] [m ] [m ] [] [N m ] [m] [m] [ ] [m/s2 ] [m] [kg ] [] [] [m/s] [m] [ ]

A.4. SUBSCRIPTS

65

Symbol
0 EM N RL SP acc air corn cvt d drag dyn e eq grad i in max min o out p red, i roll s skid t v w yy

Description
neutral electro motor normal road load spindle acceleration air cornering continuously variable transmission drive drag dynamic engine equivalent gradient inner in maximum minimum outer out primair reduced, ith gear rolling secundair skid-pad target vehicle wheel around the rotation axis

66

APPENDIX A. NOMENCLATURE

Appendix B

The snowmobile CVT

How does the clutch system work? In order to optimize snowmobile clutch system eciency, it is important to have a general understanding of the systems various components and how they work. The following report from Gates Corporation examines the three basic components of the clutch system - the primary or primary engine pulley, the secondary pulley and the belt. Unlike an automotive transmission system, the belt and pulley mechanism on a snowmobile serves as both the clutch and the gear system. In making the transition from a starting gear ratio to the nal "top gear," the snowmobile uses two belt pulleys which have the ability to open and close axially (sideways) so that a specially designed belt can ride in various positions in each pulley.

Clutch Mechanism
Clutch Weigth (slow speed position) Clutch Weigth (fast speed position)

PRIMARY CLUTCH

Pressure Spring

Drive Belt

SECONDARY CLUTCH

Torque Cam

Torque Spring

LOW GEAR

HIGH GEAR

Figure B.1: Three possible geometries for pulley optimization. The left geometry is manufactured by turning, the middle one by drilling holes and the right one by milling chamers.

The systems primary pulley is located on the engine crankshaft and serves as the clutch and engine rpm controlling device (via centrifugal weights). The secondary pulley has a torque-sensing capability allowing the belt drive to shift automatically to an appropriate ratio. As the connection by which the 67

68

APPENDIX B. THE SNOWMOBILE CVT

two pulleys "communicate" with each other, the belt must clutch (slip compliantly) and transmit full engine power with virtually no slippage from the primary pulley to the secondary pulley.

The primary pulley The spring pressure holds the pulley halves apart when the engine rpm is low to facilitate de-clutching. As rpm increases, the centrifugal forces created by the clutch weights overcome the spring pressure and close the pulley suciently to engage the belt and start transmitting power. The squeezing force created by the clutch weights continues to increase as the engine rpm increases. Assuming the sled is properly geared and has sucient horsepower, the transition from low range to high range will continue until top speed is obtained. Various springs with dierent rates and lengths determine the pretension and can be used to change the engagement rpm and "rene" the shifting characteristics. The higher the spring pretension, the higher the engagement speed. The clutch weights are the speed-sensing component of the primary pulley. As the engine rpm increases, the clutch weights swing out against the rollers in the spider tower, generating a force that quickly overcomes the spring pretension. As the engine speed increases, the clutch weights and their geometric relationship with the spider tower provide sucient squeezing force to allow even the extreme horsepower of the "hyper sleds" to be transmitted with very minimal slip. It is estimated that the squeezing forces on the belt for the hyper sleds are in excess of 2000 lbs. The design of the clutch weight shape and its geometric relationship with the spider is extremely complex. The shape or prole of the yweight roller contact surface can modify the belt engagement speed and determines the unique shift curve required for each combination of engine, sled, and riding condition. The greater the weight of the yweights, the higher the squeezing force and the higher the horsepower capability.

The secondary pulley The secondary pulley also contains a spring, but unlike the primary pulley spring, it does not directly contribute to squeezing force. It functions in torsion (or twist) which assists the operation of the torque-sensitive cams. The twist creates some pre-load on the belt through the cam system and is quite important in controlling the back-shifting of the system when the throttle is released. Various springs are available for tuning purposes. The spring torque can be adjusted by placing the spring end in dierent adjustment holes in the pulley. In the secondary pulley, the torque sensitive cams are the heart of the feedback system. All of the transmitted power is fed through these cams. The cams are nothing more than sophisticated wedges. As the transmitted power increases, the wedges slide and rotate against each other, creating the squeezing force on the belt. With this system, the belt squeeze is proportional to the power requirement of the sled and the riding conditions. This is ideal for minimizing the loads on the system during non-peak power conditions and greatly prolongs the life of the belt and clutch components.

The system in action During acceleration to top speed, the primary pulley begins the belt control by applying a sideways force (via the clutch weights and engine speed) sucient to engage the belt and start the sled moving. At the same time, the secondary pulley reacts to the high power required to get the sled moving and

69 squeezes the belt (via the torque sensitive cams) to supply the tension required. The system must stay in "low gear" until the engine is producing maximum horsepower and the sled is well underway. Once the engine rpm is at peak horsepower, the primary pulley squeezing force begins to close the primary pulley and move the belt into a higher ratio. At the same time, the secondary pulley responds to the decreased power requirement (the power needed to accelerate the sled is less than the power required to get the unit into motion). The secondary pulley reduces the belt squeeze which allows it to open up and let the belt ride further down in the pulley. In eect, the sled is transitioning from the low range to the high range. Assuming the sled is properly geared and has sucient horsepower, the transition from low range to high range will continue until high range is achieved and top speed is obtained. If there is not sucient horsepower to reach top speed with the existing gearing, the secondary pulley response will overcome the primary pulley force and will not allow the system to shift to full high range.

Deep powder riding Another example is riding in deep powder snow in a hilly area. This places heavy demands on horsepower. During the initial acceleration, the system operates as it did in the previous discussion. Similarly, the system will begin to shift toward high range, but the secondary pulley will quickly respond to the very high power requirement of the deep powder and/or a hill and override the primary pulleys control. The engine will remain at its maximum horsepower rpm, but the drive only transitions part way from low range to high range. The analogy is that the sled doesnt have enough power to pull "fourth gear" so it stays in "second" or "third gear." If the drive is properly calibrated, it will seek the best ratio for maximum speed under the existing conditions. If the sled encounters a downhill condition, for example, the secondary pulley detects a reduced horsepower requirement and allows itself to open up and let the system shift to a higher ratio so that the sled can go faster (the primary pulley is the controlling pulley for this condition). This transition toward a high ratio will continue until the drive is fully upshifted or the next uphill condition is encountered and the power requirement goes up. When this happens, the secondary pulley will again feed back, [29], [28].

70

APPENDIX B. THE SNOWMOBILE CVT

Appendix C

Drive Shaft Torque Measurement

Torque measurements have been applied to know with how much torque the CVT has to deal with. In the next section is explained how those measurements have been performed and more results are presented. Bosch VDT provided a telemetry measurement system to read out the strain gauges. It is a Volland Telemetry System . In Figure C.1 the functional block diagram is depicted of the telemetry system to acquire the data. From the strain gauges to the Motec the data ows. The power from the control unit to the sensor.

Sensor
Strain gauge

Rotor Electronics
Br2

Transmission Coil
Mu-Metal, Copper Band

Inductive Head
BS2.1 Receiver Head BSE

Control Unit
Bw2

MoTeC M400
Engine Management System

MICRODAC B1
Signal/Data Power

Figure C.1: The functional block diagram of the torque measurement system.

The send unit of the torque measurement system is attached to the driveshaft with an aluminum mounting block. The shaft diameter is 20.5 [mm]. The hole in the mounting block is made 0.01 [mm] smaller. This ensures clamping of the block to the shaft. After the mounting block was machined the weight distribution had a deviation of 4 grams. The massive part weights 58 grams, the part where the electronics are to mounted 54 grams. An aluminum sheet is mounted for the protection of the electronics. This results in an almost equal distribution of the weight around the shaft. This is important to not introduce a vibration source at the drive shaft.

C.1

Resistor Tuning

In order to be albe to know how much The shaft material which is used to calculate the gain resistance can be found in table C.2. The maximum torque during calibration will be 800 [Nm], above this value plastic deformation will start. The HBM strain gauges are capable of 200% overloading before failing [24]. The shaft is solid and has an outer diameter of the shaft is 20.5 [mm]. A strain gauge is a wire which changes of length under load and therefore the electrical resistance changes (shorter a lower resistance, longer higher resistance).

71

72 Type: Lot NO. Gauge length Strain Gauge Resistance RSG Quantity

APPENDIX C. DRIVE SHAFT TORQUE MEASUREMENT 3/350 XY 21 A401/06 2 [mm] 350 0.35 5 Temp. compensation for steel with Batch NO. Gauge factor Temperature coecient Transverse sensitivity 10.8 106 / C 812039010 1 = 2.02; 2 = 2.02 1% 93 106 0.3%

Table C.1: The strain gauge parameters.

Rcal

RSG 4

1 S 1 103

x 100

1k

(C.1) (C.2) (C.3)

Gain = Rgain =

Vout Vin 2000k Gain 40

Material Grade Material Type Youngs Modulus

1.2379 X 155CrV M o12 1 207000 [M P a]

Poisson ratio Outer Diameter Initial Max. Torque

0.285 [-] 20.5 [mm] 1250 [N m]

Table C.2: Shaft properties for determination of the calibration and gain resistance.

With equations C.1, C.2 and C.3 a rst good guess is made for the applied resistors. After a trial and error procedure to get to complete measuring range above 0 [V], the calibration resistor Rcal is set up to 2.5 [k ] and the gain resistor Rgain is set up on 61.2 [k ]. The calibrated shaft has.

800 600 400 200 torque [Nm] 0 200 400 600 800

4 voltage [V]

Figure C.2: Calibration of the strain gauges.

C.2. TORQUE DURING DIFFERENT DISCIPLINES

73

C.2

Torque during dierent disciplines

In gures ?? and C.4 the maximum possible torque in the drive shafts can be seen. This torque occurs when the engine is revving at maximum power (12.500 [rpm]), the second gear is selected, the brakes are blocked and the clutch is released instantly. This is the highest possible torque because the tires are not capable of providing more grip. The torque peak during this is action is 640 [Nm].

700

14000 13000 engine speed throttle pos.

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 153 153.5 time [s] 154 154.5 0 155 throttle position [%] throttle position [%]

600

12000 11000

500 engine speed [rpm] 153 153.5 time [s] 154 154.5 155 torque [Nm]

10000 9000 8000 7000 6000 5000 4000 3000

400

300

200

100

2000 1000

0 152.5

0 152.5

Figure C.3: The maximum torque peak in the drive shaft is 640 [Nm].

Figure C.4: Engine speed during the maximum torque peak in the drive shaft.

Vehicle launch with slipping wheels, Figure C.5 and C.6.

14000 250 torque raw data torque average data 40 vehicle speed 35 200 vehicle speed [km/h] engine speed [rpm] 30 torque [Nm] 150 25 20 100 15 10 50 5 0 13 0 19 13000 12000 11000 10000 9000 8000 7000 6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 14 15 16 time [s] 17 18 0 152.5 153 153.5 time [s] 154 154.5 engine speed throttle pos.

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 155

Figure C.5: Torque during launch with slipping wheels. .

Figure C.6: The engine speed and throttle position during launch.

C.2.1

Torque on the skidpad

In gure C.11 and C.12. Clearly can be seen that the measurement has been done at dierent shafts. The torque is the highest for the runs clock-wise driven circles. The vehicle speed for the anti-clockwise circles.

74

APPENDIX C. DRIVE SHAFT TORQUE MEASUREMENT

500 400 300 200 torque [Nm] 100 0 100 200 300 400 500 125 130 135 time [s] 140

50 45 40 35 vehicle speed [km/h] engine speed [rpm] 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 150

10000 engine speed 9000 8000 7000 6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0 125 130 135 time [s] 140 145 throttle pos.

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 150 throttle position [%] throttle position [%]

torque vehicle speed 145

Figure C.7: Torque and velocity during a skidpad.

Figure C.8: The engine speed and throttle position during skid-pad.

C.2.2

Dierent shift speeds

Another test that has been performed is the measurement of two dierent shifting speeds. The one we normally use during the races of 60 [ms] and a slow 120 [ms]. Big dierences can be seen in time that torque oscilations the engine speed drops and the d
110 500 torque vehicle speed 100 400 vehicle speed [km/h] engine speed [rpm] 90 300 14000 13000 12000 11000 10000 9000 8000 7000 6000 5000 4000 100 70 3000 2000 1000 0 207 207.5 208 208.5 time [s] 209 209.5 60 210 0 207 engine speed throttle pos. 207.5 208 208.5 time [s] 209 209.5 10 0 210 30 20 60 50 40 80 70 100 90

torque [Nm]

80 200

Figure C.9: Torque and velocity during .

Figure C.10: The engine speed and throttle position during a long acceleration.

C.2. TORQUE DURING DIFFERENT DISCIPLINES

75

500 torque vehicle speed 400

110

14000 13000 12000

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 engine speed throttle pos. 152 152.5 153 time [s] 153.5 154 10 0 154.5 throttle position [%]

100

11000 10000 vehicle speed [km/h] engine speed [rpm] 9000 8000 7000 6000 5000 4000

torque [Nm]

300

90

200

80

100

70

3000 2000 1000

0 151.5

152

152.5

153 time [s]

153.5

154

60 154.5

0 151.5

Figure C.11: Torque and velocity during a long acceleration.

Figure C.12: The engine speed and throttle position during a long acceleration.

76

APPENDIX C. DRIVE SHAFT TORQUE MEASUREMENT

Appendix D

Simulink model
D.1 Model Verication

To look verify the model, a real acceleration data is plotted versus a simulated acceleration. The simulation model has been changed slightly. The nal reduction is changed to 11 over 42 (number of front sprocket teeth than The acceleration is driven at the Event at the Fiorano track. In Figure D.3 the vehicle speed is plotted in time. Over 4 seconds the accelerator pedal is released. The model accelerates further. In the Figure D.4 the travelled distance is shown. The shapes of both lines are similar In Figure D.5 the engine speed is depicted. Obvious traction control was not working. The engine speed decreases while the clutch is released. This maybe the reason that the model is faster than the real car. After all, all the conditions in a model are perfect. Figure D.6 shows that the longitudinal acceleration. Because the speed, traveled distance, engine speed and gear are quite similar to the simulated data. The accelerometer accuracy is high, well calibrated and its positioning is close to the central gravity point. The problem with the accelerometer is that cannot react fast enough. D.7. The basic equations that for the vehicle acceleration can be described as follows. With formula D.1, the acceleration can be described. In case of the gearbox the term r cvt = 0, for the CVT yields D.2. The vehicle speed can be converted to the shaft speed of the wheels with equation D.3. The lumped inertias are calculated with the equations D.6 and D.7 The corresponding ratios are dened as in formula ??. To complete the simulation the roadload has to be taken into account. With equation D.8, the roadload can be calculated. v v r cvt vv rs rg Jeq1 Jeq2 TRL = = = = = = = =
rd Rw J1 vv 2 r cvt r T r r T + cvt e d rv cvt 2 2 r Jv r r R cvt w rd cvt d s s ) K (rt rcvt ) = K ( p,t p v Rw out zin = in zout Rp Rs 2 Je + Jp rp

(D.1) (D.2) (D.3) (D.4) (D.5) (D.6) (D.7) (D.8)

Jv + 2Jw + 2Js + Jdif f + Rw (Fdrag + Froll )

2 Js /rF D

77

78

APPENDIX D. SIMULINK MODEL

With these equations the Simulink model is build, gure D.2. The simulation parameters have been adjusted to create get more accurate results. The conguration parameters have been set to xed step with a sample time of 0.001. Otherwise the steptime is too large, which results in a overshoot in the engine revolutions and too slow shifting behavior. To be able to simulate the shifting behaviour of both models well both models have dierent shifting behaviour code. For the geared transmission a powercut is applied. When the car shifts up torque is not transmitted for 100 miliseconds. In case of the CVT formula D.2 is applied, this is the resistance towards the change of speed thus inertia of the CVT [5],[6].
v

e
Te Je
rprim

prim
rgb

sec
rFD

diff
rdiff

shaft
2k

wheel

Tv Jshaft Jwheel

Jprim

Jsec

Jdiff

Jv

p
Te/rprim
Je
*

v
rgb rFD rdiff

Tv

JV

Figure D.1: The Free Body Diagram of the current driveline. The primary and secondary inertias represent the input and output shafts with the gears. In case of the CVT they represent the pimary and secondary pulley. Then the dierential has an extra ratio to synchronise the topspeed, to be able to make a good comparison.

x*rdot

CVT acceleration

r_wheel -K acc

wdot _v
Signal 1 throttle T_e T_e T_e/J*r

1 s -> w_v

w_v
w_v

Throttle

Engine

w_v -Kr_wheel

Gearbox

1 s

dis

T_rl/J* r

v _veh

3.6 ms->kmh v_veh

Road load

Figure D.2: The Simulink model of the URE vehicle. For the gearbox with gears the output of xrdot is zero.

To get started with making a Simulink model a Free Body Diagram is drawn. All the inertias are lumped to the vehicle side. Therefore the rotational speed of the wheels can be converted to vehicle speed. The model is divided in three parts, the engine, the gearbox and the vehicle, gure D.1. For the car with CVT the same yields. In this case the primary and secondary shaft with gears inertias are replaced by the pulley inertias and an extra reduction is needed to maintain the top speed of 150 [km/h]. This is done to make a fair comparison between the conventional driveline and the driveline

D.1. MODEL VERIFICATION

79

containing a CVT. For the car with gears a subsystem is added which cuts of the torque when the vehicle shifts. In the CVT-model the subsystem contains the CVT-pulleys acceleration. For the vehicle with the gears, the engine starts revving up from nor to 12500 rpm. At 12500 rpm the gearbox shifts up one gear and the engine speed drops, for 100 milliseconds the torque at the output shaft of the engine is zero. In real life, no fuel is injected during shifting, so no torque can be delivered. Ignition is on and the engine revs up to 12500 rpm and drops again. When the highest gear has been reached the engine revs up to its maximum engine speed. Top speed has been reached. The driveline with CVT revs up to 10500 rpm (maximum power) and keeps the engine revs xed. When the highest gear has been reached, the engine again revs up to the maximum speed.

80 100 90 80 70 speed [km/h] 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 1 2 time [s] 3 4 5 10 0 distance [m] 50 40 30 20 data1 sim. 70 60 data sim.

2 time [s]

Figure D.3: The time vs the vehicle speed.

Figure D.4: The time vs the travelled distance.

14000 data sim. throttle

10 9 8 data sim. diff. from speed

12000

10000 engine speed [rpm] acceleration [m/s2] 0 1 2 time [s] 3 4 5

7 6 5 4 3 2

8000

6000

4000

2000 1 0 0 0 1 2 time [s] 3 4 5

Figure D.5: The time vs the engine speed.

Figure D.6: The time vs the longitudinal acceleration. The green line indicates the acceleration dierentiated from the speed.

80

APPENDIX D. SIMULINK MODEL

5 data sim. 4

3 gear [#] 2 1 0 0

2 time [s]

Figure D.7: The time vs ratio.

Appendix E

Test benches
E.1 Unloaded test at DTI bench for determining shifting speeds

The Simulink model which has been used for the test bench:

10 Bad Link

position voltage

position mm

Look-Up Table

Scope2

DS1102ADC

Bad Link Hardware Interrupt

interrupt

Trigger() In1 Out1 #_notches notch count

1/18

1/0.001

60

1 0.01s+1

rev

PulseCount

Transport Delay
Shift motor

Transfer Fcn

Scope1

0 Engine_Start

1/10

Bad Link

DS1102DAC

Figure E.1: The Simulink model for D-space.

E.1.1

Primary pulley position control

The dierent specications of the hardware can be found in table E.1. The rst step was to try to measure the transfer function with Band-Limited White Noise. The CVT-motor responde very well to the input of white noise. A fast actuation respons on the input (the CVT-motor) was observed. Because of the large reduction of the gear train, the output measured almost nothing of the noisy input. The measured coherence was below 0.6 with an average of around 0.1. By measuring the friction of the system and to compensate for friction this problem should be solved.

81

82

APPENDIX E. TEST BENCHES

pulley position sensor large metal gear angle electric shift motor

value OD 20 4.84 0

value LOW 0.67 0.21 4 0 - 25

Unit [mm] [V] [rad] [A]

Table E.1: Working range of the sensors and actuator for the unloaded test bench.

18 16 14 12 position [mm] current [A] 0 50 100 150 time [s] 200 250 300 10 8 6 4 2 0 2 actual position desired position postion error

0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 0 50 100 150 time [s] 200 250 300

Figure E.2: The desired position, the actual position and the error on position during the friction measurement for the negative area. The position error is the measure for the actuation current.

Figure E.3: The current during the friction measurement for the negative area. The 10th peak in the measurement is caused by the corresponding peak in the position.

Appendix F

Part Failure
F.1 Shift Gear

During testing the large shift gear which is used for the shift mechanism of the primary pulleys broke. With a too high speed the ratio shift mechanism ran into a mechanical stop. Due to this action the gear broke, Figure F.1. On divers internet fora pictures of this broken part can be seen. Probably this part is make the weakest link to assure that the rest of the shifting mechanism do not break. The part likely is made out of high performance construction polymers. It can be PETP or ABS.

Figure F.1: The broken shift gear.

83