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William Shakespeare
Shakespeare, William (1564-1616), English poet and playwright, recognized in much of the world as the greatest of all dramatists. Life complete, authoritati!e account of "ha#espeare$s life is lac#ing% much supposition surrounds relati!ely few facts. &is day of 'irth is traditionally held to 'e pril ()% it is #nown he was 'aptized on pril (6, 1564, in "tratford-upon- !on, *arwic#shire. +he third of eight children, he was the eldest son of ,ohn "ha#espeare, a locally prominent merchant, and -ary rden, daughter of a .oman /atholic mem'er of the landed gentry. &e was pro'a'ly educated at the local grammar school. s the eldest son, "ha#espeare ordinarily would ha!e 'een apprenticed to his father$s shop so that he could learn and e!entually ta#e o!er the 'usiness, 'ut according to one apocryphal account he was apprenticed to a 'utcher 'ecause of re!erses in his father$s financial situation. 0n recent years, it has more con!incingly 'een argued that he was caught up in the secreti!e networ# of /atholic 'elie!ers and priests who stro!e to culti!ate their faith in the inhospita'le conditions of Eliza'ethan England. t the turn of the 1512s, it is claimed, he ser!ed as tutor in the household of le3ander &oughton, a prominent 4ancashire /atholic and friend of the "tratford schoolmaster ,ohn /ottom. *hile others in this networ# went on to suffer and die for their 'eliefs, "ha#espeare must somehow ha!e e3tricated himself, for there is little e!idence to suggest any su'se5uent in!ol!ement in their circles. 0n 151( he married nne &athaway, the daughter of a farmer. &e is supposed to ha!e left "tratford after he was caught poaching in the deer par# of "ir +homas 4ucy, a local 6ustice of the peace. "ha#espeare and nne &athaway produced a daughter, "usanna, in 151) and twins-a 'oy and a girl-in 1515. +he 'oy died 11 years later. "ha#espeare apparently arri!ed in 4ondon in a'out 1511, and 'y 157( had attained success as an actor and a playwright. "hortly thereafter, he secured the patronage of &enry *riothesley, )rd Earl of "outhampton. +he pu'lication of "ha#espeare$s two fashiona'ly erotic narrati!e poems Venus and Adonis (157)) and The Rape of Lucrece (1574) and of his Sonnets (pu'lished 1627, 'ut circulated pre!iously in manuscript) esta'lished his reputation as a gifted and popular .enaissance poet. +he Sonnets descri'e the de!otion of a character, often identified as the poet himself, to a young man whose 'eauty and !irtue he praises and to a mysterious and faithless dar# lady with whom the poet is infatuated. +he ensuing triangular situation, resulting from the attraction of the poet$s friend to the dar# lady, is treated with passionate intensity and psychological insight. +hey are prized for their e3ploration of lo!e in all its aspects, and a poem such as 8"onnet 119 is one of the most famous lo!e poems of all time: "hall 0 compare thee to a summer$s day; +hou art more lo!ely and more temperate. .ough winds do sha#e the darling 'uds of -ay, nd summer$s lease hath all too short a date. "ometime too hot the eye of hea!en shines, nd often is his gold comple3ion dimmed% nd e!ery fair from fair sometimes declines, <y chance, or nature$s changing course untrimmed. <ut thy eternal summer shall not fade, =or lose possession of that fair thou ow$st =or shall >eath 'rag thou wand$rest in his shade, *hen in eternal lines to time thou grow$st. "o long as men can 'reathe or eyes can see, "o long li!es this, and this gi!es life to thee.

*hile the poem may 'e familiar, it is less well #nown that this is an e35uisite cele'ration of a young man$s 'eauty. +he fact that 1(6 of the 154 sonnets are apparently addressed 'y a male poet to another man has caused some critical discomfort o!er the years. &owe!er, "ha#espeare$s modern reputation is 'ased mainly on the )1 plays that he apparently wrote, modified, or colla'orated on. lthough generally popular in his day, these plays were fre5uently little esteemed 'y his educated contemporaries, who considered English plays of their own day to 'e only !ulgar entertainment. "ha#espeare$s professional life in 4ondon was mar#ed 'y a num'er of financially ad!antageous arrangements that permitted him to share in the profits of his acting company, the 4ord /ham'erlain$s /ompany, later called the ?ing$s -en, and its two theatres, the @lo'e +heatre and the <lac#friars. &is plays were gi!en special presentation at the courts of Eliza'eth 0 and ,ames 0 more fre5uently than those of any other contemporary dramatists. 0t is #nown that he ris#ed losing royal fa!our only once, in 1577, when his company performed 8the play of the deposing and #illing of ?ing .ichard 009 at the re5uest of a group of conspirators against Eliza'eth. +hey were led 'y Eliza'eth$s unsuccessful court fa!ourite, .o'ert >e!ereu3, (nd Earl of Esse3, and 'y the Earl of "outhampton. 0n the su'se5uent in5uiry, "ha#espeare$s company was a'sol!ed of complicity in the conspiracy. fter a'out 1621, "ha#espeare$s dramatic production lessened and it seems that he spent more time in "tratford. +here he had esta'lished his family in an imposing house called =ew Alace, and had 'ecome a leading local citizen. &e died on pril (), 1616, and was 'uried in the "tratford church. Works lthough the precise date of many of "ha#espeare$s plays is in dou't, his dramatic career is generally di!ided into four periods: the first period, in!ol!ing e3perimentation, although still clearly influenced 'y or imitating /lassical models% the second period, in which "ha#espeare appears to achie!e a truly indi!idual style and approach% a third, dar#er period, in which he wrote not only his ma6or tragedies 'ut also the more difficult comedies, #nown as the 8pro'lem plays9 'ecause their resolutions lea!e trou'ling and unanswered 5uestions% and his final period, when his style 'lossomed in the romantic tragicomedies-e3otic, sym'olic pieces which while happily resol!ed in!ol!e a greater comple3ity of !ision. +hese di!isions are necessarily ar'itrary ways of !iewing "ha#espeare$s creati!e de!elopment, since his plays are notoriously hard to date accurately, either in terms of when they were written or when they were first performed. /ommentators differ and the dates in this article should 'e seen as plausi'le appro3imations. 0n all periods, the plots of his plays were fre5uently drawn from chronicles, histories, or earlier fiction, as were the plays of other contemporary dramatists. First Period "ha#espeare$s first period was one of e3perimentation. &is early plays, unli#e his more mature wor#, are characterized to a degree 'y formal and rather o'!ious construction and often stylized !erse. Bour plays dramatizing the English ci!il strife of the 15th century are possi'ly "ha#espeare$s earliest dramatic wor#s. /hronicle history plays were a popular genre of the time. +hese plays, Henry VI, Aarts 0, 00, and 000 (c. 1572-157() and Richard III (c. 157)), deal with the e!il results of wea# leadership and of national disunity fostered for selfish ends. +he cycle closes with the death of .ichard 000 and the ascent to the throne of &enry C00, the founder of the +udor dynasty, to which Eliza'eth 'elonged. 0n style and structure, these plays are related partly to medie!al drama and partly to the wor#s of earlier Eliza'ethan dramatists, especially /hristopher -arlowe. Either indirectly through such dramatists or directly, the influence of the /lassical .oman dramatist "eneca is also reflected in the organization of these four plays, in the 'loodiness of many of their scenes, and in their highly coloured, 'om'astic language. "enecan influence, e3erted 'y way of the earlier English dramatist +homas ?yd, is particularly o'!ious in Titus Andronicus (c. 1572), a tragedy of righteous re!enge for heinous and 'loody acts, which are staged in sensational detail. *hile pre!ious generations ha!e found its !iolent e3cesses a'surd or disgusting, some directors and critics since the 1762s ha!e recognized in its horror the articulation of more contemporary preoccupations with the meanings of !iolence. "ha#espeare$s comedies of the first period represent a wide range. The Comedy of Errors (c. 157(), an uproarious farce in imitation of /lassical .oman comedy, depends for its appeal on the mista#es in identity of two sets of twins in!ol!ed in romance and war. Barce is not so strongly emphasized in The Taming of the Shre (c. 157(), a comedy of character. The T o !ent"emen of Verona (c. 157(-157)) depends on the appeal of romantic lo!e. 0n contrast, Lo#e$s La%our$s Lost (c. 1575) satirizes the lo!es of its main male characters as well as the fashiona'le de!otion to studious pursuits 'y which these no'lemen had first sought to a!oid romantic and worldly ensnarement. +he dialogue in which many of the characters !oice their pretensions ridicules the artificially ornate, courtly

style typified 'y the wor#s of the English no!elist and dramatist ,ohn 4yly, the court con!entions of the time, and perhaps the scientific discussions of "ir *alter .aleigh and his cohorts. Second Period "ha#espeare$s second period includes his most important plays concerned with English history, his so-called 6oyous comedies, and two ma6or tragedies. 0n this period, his style and approach 'ecame highly indi!idualized. +he second-period historical plays include Richard II (c. 1575), Henry IV, Aarts 0 and 00 (c. 157D), and Henry V (c. 1577). +hey co!er the span immediately 'efore that of the Henry VI plays. Richard II is a study of a wea#, sensiti!e, self-dramatizing, 'ut sympathetic monarch who loses his #ingdom to his forceful successor, &enry 0C. 0n the two parts of Henry IV, &enry recognizes his own guilt. &is fears for his own son, later &enry C, pro!e unfounded, as the young prince displays an essentially responsi'le attitude towards the duties of #ingship. 0n an alternation of masterful comic and serious scenes, the fat #night Balstaff and the re'el &otspur re!eal contrasting e3cesses 'etween which the prince finds his proper position. +he mingling of the tragic and the comic to suggest a 'road range of humanity 'ecame one of "ha#espeare$s fa!ourite de!ices. Eutstanding among the comedies of the second period is A &idsummer 'ight$s (ream (c. 1575-1576). 0ts fantasy-filled insouciance is achie!ed 'y the interwea!ing of se!eral plots in!ol!ing two pairs of no'le lo!ers, a group of 'um'ling and unconsciously comic townspeople, and mem'ers of the fairy realm, nota'ly Auc#, ?ing E'eron, and Fueen +itania. +hese three worlds are 'rought together in a series of encounters that !eer from the magical to the a'surd and 'ac# again in the space of only a few lines. 0n ct 000, for e3ample, E'eron plays a tric# on +itania while she sleeps, employing Auc# to anoint her with a potion that will cause her to fall in lo!e with the first creature she sees on wa#ing. s luc# would ha!e it, she opens her eyes to the sight of <ottom the wea!er, himself adorned 'y Auc# with an ass$s head. Get the comic episode of the Fueen of the Bairies 8enamoured of an ass9 (4.i.D6) echoes the play$s more profound concerns with the nature of the real. "u'tle e!ocation of atmosphere, of the sort that characterizes this play, is found also in the tragicomedy The &erchant of Venice (c. 1574-1571). +he .enaissance motifs of masculine friendship and romantic lo!e in this play are portrayed in opposition to the 'itter inhumanity of a ,ewish usurer named "hyloc#, whose own misfortunes are presented so as to arouse understanding and sympathy. *hile this play undou'tedly deals in the currency of European anti-"emitism, its e3ploration of power and pre6udice also ena'les a humanist criti5ue of such 'igotry. s "hyloc# himself says, confronted 'y the dou'le standards of his Cenetian opponents: &e hath disgraced me, and hindered me half a million% laughed at my losses, moc#ed at my gains, scorned my nation, thwarted my 'argains, cooled my friends, heated mine enemies, and what$s his reason;-0 am a ,ew. &ath not a ,ew eyes; &ath not a ,ew hands, organs, dimensions, senses, affections, passions% fed with the same food, hurt with the same weapons, su'6ect to the same diseases, healed 'y the same means, warmed and cooled 'y the same winter and summer as a /hristian is; 0f you pric# us do we not 'leed; 0f you tic#le us do we not laugh; 0f you poison us do we not die; nd if you wrong us shall we not re!enge; 0f we are li#e you in the rest, we will resem'le you in that. ().i.52-6))

+he type of 5uic#-witted, warm, and responsi!e young woman e3emplified in this play 'y Aortia reappears in the 6oyous comedies of the second period. +he witty comedy &uch Ado A%out 'othing (c. 1571-1577) is marred, in the opinion of some critics, 'y an insensiti!e treatment of its female characters. &owe!er, "ha#espeare$s most mature comedies, As )ou Li*e It (c. 1577) and T e"fth 'ight (c. 1621), are characterized 'y lyricism, am'iguity, and the attraction of 'eautiful, charming, and strong-minded heroines such as .osalind. 0n As )ou Li*e It, the contrast 'etween the manners of the Eliza'ethan court and those current in the English countryside is drawn in a rich, sweet, and !aried !ein. "ha#espeare constructed a comple3 pattern 'etween different characters and 'etween appearance and reality. &e used this pattern to comment on a !ariety of human foi'les. 0n that respect, As )ou Li*e It is similar to T e"fth 'ight, in which the comical side of lo!e is illustrated 'y the misad!entures of two pairs of romantic lo!ers and of a num'er of realistically concei!ed and clowning characters in the su'-plot. Get there is a dar#er side e!en to these plays. 0n T e"fth 'ight, the con!entional resolution is disrupted 'y the e3clusion of

-al!olio, a figure who has ser!ed as the 'utt of the comic su'-plot. .ather than participate in the concluding scene of forgi!eness and reconciliation, he storms off stage with the words 80$ll 'e re!eng$d on the whole pac# of youH9 (5.i.)DD). nother comedy of the second period is The &erry +i#es of +indsor (c. 157D)% this play is a farce a'out middle-class life in which Balstaff reappears as the comic !ictim. +wo ma6or tragedies, differing considera'ly in nature, mar# the 'eginning and the end of the second period. Romeo and ,u"iet (c. 1575), famous for its poetic treatment of the ecstasy of youthful lo!e, dramatizes the fate of two lo!ers !ictimized 'y the feuds and misunderstandings of their elders and 'y their own hasty temperaments. En the other hand, ,u"ius Caesar (c. 1577) is a serious tragedy of political ri!alries, less intense in style than the tragic dramas that followed. Third Period "ha#espeare$s third period includes his greatest tragedies and his so-called dar# or 'itter comedies. +he tragedies of this period are the most profound of his wor#s and those in which his poetic idiom 'ecame an e3tremely supple dramatic instrument capa'le of recording the passage of human thought and the many dimensions of gi!en dramatic situations. Ham"et (c. 1621), his most famous play, goes far 'eyond other tragedies of re!enge in picturing the mingled sordidness and glory of the human condition. &amlet feels that he is li!ing in a world of deceit and corruption. 0t is the precipitous marriage of his mother to /laudius, his uncle, that is the source of his unease: the wedding has ta#en place 'arely two months after the sudden death of &amlet$s father, the #ing. &is suspicions are spectacularly confirmed 'y the appearance of the dead #ing$s ghost. /onfirming that he was murdered 'y /laudius, the ghost urges &amlet to re!enge. Get this in6unction is the trigger for a dramatic e3ploration of &amlet$s self-dou't, an introspecti!e torment that leads him to the 'rin# of suicide in perhaps the most famous "ha#espearean line of all, 8+o 'e, or not to 'e, that is the 5uestion9 ().i.51). s &amlet recognizes, his hesitancy is a#in to the sleep of o'li!ion: nd thus the nati!e hue of resolution 0s sic#lied o$er with the pale cast of thought, nd enterprises of great pith and moment *ith this regard their currents turn awry, nd lose the name of action. ().i.16-72)

Get in regaining 8the name of action9, &amlet 'rings a'out the self-destruction that his indecision had only mimic#ed. +hrough such density of character and language the play commands the affection and attention that is still accorded it today. -the""o (c. 162(-1624) portrays the growth of un6ustified 6ealousy in the protagonist, Ethello, a -oor ser!ing as a general in the Cenetian army. +he innocent o'6ect of his 6ealousy is his wife, >esdemona. 0n this tragedy, Ethello$s e!il lieutenant, 0ago, draws him into mista#en 6ealousy in order to ruin him. .ing Lear (c. 1624-1626), concei!ed on a more epic scale, deals with the conse5uences of the irresponsi'ility and mis6udgement of 4ear, a ruler of early <ritain, and of his councillor, the >u#e of @loucester. +he tragic outcome is a result of gi!ing power to his e!il offspring, rather than to his good offspring. 4ear$s daughter /ordelia displays a redeeming lo!e that ma#es the tragic conclusion a !indication of goodness, though a 'lea# resolution 'ecause /ordelia dies. +his conclusion is reinforced 'y the portrayal of e!il as self-defeating, e3emplified 'y the fates of /ordelia$s sisters and of @loucester$s opportunistic son. Antony and C"eopatra (c. 1626-162D) is concerned with a different type of lo!e, namely the middle-aged passion of the .oman general -ar# ntony for the Egyptian 5ueen /leopatra. +heir lo!e is glorified 'y some of the most sensuous poetry written 'y "ha#espeare, as in this description of the Egyptian 5ueen 'y ntony$s friend, Eno'ar'us: +he 'arge she sat in, li#e a 'urnished throne <urned on the water. +he poop was 'eaten gold% Aurple the sails, and so perfumed that +he winds were lo!e-sic# with them. +he oars were sil!er, *hich to the tune of flutes #ept stro#e, and made +he water which they 'eat to follow faster,

s amorous of their stro#es. Bor her own person, 0t 'eggared all description. "he did lie 0n her pa!ilion-cloth of gold, of tissueE$er picturing that Cenus where we see +he fancy outwor# nature. ((.ii.171-(21)

0n &ac%eth (c. 1626), "ha#espeare depicts the tragedy of a great and 'asically good man who, led on 'y others and 'ecause of a defect in his own nature, succum's to murderous am'ition. 0n getting and retaining the "cottish throne, -ac'eth dulls his humanity to the point where he 'ecomes capa'le of any amoral act. s with &amlet, this retreat from a full humanity is parado3ically accompanied 'y a heightened self-awareness% yet for -ac'eth there is no redemption, only a descent into a 'lea# nihilism. &uman e3istence, as he sees it, amounts to nothing: +omorrow, and tomorrow, and tomorrow /reeps in this petty pace from day to day +o the last sylla'le of recorded time, nd all our yesterdays ha!e lighted fools +he way to dusty death. Eut, out, 'rief candle. 4ife$s 'ut a wal#ing shadow, a poor player +hat struts and frets his hour upon the stage, nd then is heard no more. 0t is a tale +old 'y an idiot, full of sound and fury, "ignifying nothing. (5.i!.11-(D)

+hree other plays of this period suggest a 'itterness that these tragedies more successfully contain, 'ecause the protagonists do not seem to possess greatness or tragic stature. 0n Troi"us and Cressida (c. 162(), the most intellectually contri!ed of "ha#espeare$s plays, the gulf 'etween the ideal and the real, 'oth indi!idually and politically, is s#ilfully e!o#ed. 0n Corio"anus (c. 1621), another tragedy ta#ing place in anti5uity, the legendary .oman hero /aius -arcius /oriolanus is portrayed as una'le to 'ring himself either to woo the .oman masses or to crush them 'y force. Timon of Athens (c. 162D) is a similarly 'itter play a'out a character reduced to misanthropy 'y the ingratitude of his sycophants. <ecause of the une!en 5uality of the writing, this tragedy is considered to 'e a colla'oration, 5uite possi'ly with +homas -iddleton. +he two comedies of this period also are dar# in mood. 0n the (2th century these plays gained the name of 8pro'lem plays9 'ecause they do not fit into clear categories or present easy resolution. A""$s +e"" That Ends +e"" (c. 1571-1624) and &easure for &easure (c. 1624) are 'oth plays that 5uestion accepted patterns of morality without offering the comfort of solutions. Fourth Period +he fourth period of "ha#espeare$s wor# comprises his principal romantic tragicomedies. +owards the end of his career, "ha#espeare created se!eral plays that, through the inter!ention of magic, art, compassion, or grace, often suggest redempti!e hope for the human condition. +hese plays are written with a gra!e 5uality differing considera'ly from his earlier comedies, 'ut they end happily with a reunion or final reconciliation. +he tragicomedies depend for part of their appeal upon the lure of a distant time or place, and all seem more o'!iously sym'olic than most of his earlier wor#s. +o many critics, the tragicomedies signify a final ripeness in "ha#espeare$s own outloo#, 'ut other authorities 'elie!e that the change reflects only a change in fashion in the drama. +he romantic tragicomedy Peric"es, Prince of Tyre (c. 1626-1621) concerns the title character$s painful loss of his wife and the persecution of his daughter. fter many e3otic ad!entures, Aericles is reunited with his lo!ed ones. 0n Cym%e"ine (c. 1627-1612) and The +inter$s Ta"e (c. 1612-1611), characters suffer great loss and pain, 'ut are reunited. Aerhaps the most successful product of this particular !ein of creati!ity, howe!er, is what may 'e "ha#espeare$s last complete play, The Tempest (c. 1611), in which the resolution suggests the 'eneficial effects of the union of wisdom and power. 0n

this play Arospero, depri!ed of his du#edom and 'anished to an island, confounds his usurping 'rother 'y employing magical powers and furthering a lo!e match 'etween his own daughter and the son of one of his enemies. "ha#espeare$s poetic power reached great heights in this 'eautiful, lyrical play, and in Arospero$s surrender of his magical powers at its conclusion, some critics-perhaps fancifully-ha!e seen "ha#espeare$s own relin5uishment of the theatre$s 8rough magic9. +wo final plays, sometimes ascri'ed to "ha#espeare, presuma'ly are the products of colla'oration. historical drama, Henry VIII (c. 161)) was pro'a'ly written with the English dramatist ,ohn Bletcher, as was The T o 'o%"e .insmen (c. 161)% pu'lished posthumously, 16)4), a story of the lo!e of two no'le friends for one woman. Literary Reputation "ha#espeare$s reputation as perhaps the greatest of all dramatists was not achie!ed during his lifetime. +hough his contemporary <en ,onson declared him 8not of an age, 'ut for all time9, early 1Dthcentury taste found the plays of ,onson himself, or +homas -iddleton, or Brancis <eaumont and ,ohn Bletcher, e5ually worthy of praise. Enly in the .estoration period-some 52 or more years after "ha#espeare$s death-did his reputation 'egin to eclipse that of his contemporaries. +his is not to say that the late 1Dth- and early 11th-century theatre treated his plays with anything li#e re!erence. *hen they were performed, it was most often in !ersions rewritten for the fashions of the age, purged-as their adaptors maintained-of their coarseness and a'surdities. +hese alterations could 'e !ery significant: in one !ersion of .ing Lear popular throughout the 11th century 4ear and /ordelia are reprie!ed at the play$s conclusion, transforming a tragedy into a tragicomedyH Aerhaps parado3ically, it was e3actly this fondness for adapting "ha#espeare that #ept his plays in the repertoire while those of ,onson, -iddleton, and others went down to o'scurity. lso, during the first half of the 11th century "ha#espeare 'egan to 'e afforded the role of English national poet, a process that reached its culmination in the installation of a memorial statue in *estminster ''ey in 1D41 and a huge ,u'ilee festi!al, staged in 1D64 to cele'rate the 'icentenary of his 'irth. +he .omantic mo!ement, particularly the writings of "amuel +aylor /oleridge and ,ohann *olfgang @oethe, did much to shape 'oth "ha#espeare$s international reputation and the account of his achie!ement that has persisted e!er since. .omantic authors claimed "ha#espeare as a great precursor of their own literary !alues: his wor# was cele'rated as an em'odiment of uni!ersal human truths, an une5ualled articulation of the human condition in all its no'ility and !ariety. 0n later Cictorian <ritain this !iew was married to the moralistic 8ci!ilizing9 mission of educationalists and empire 'uilders, while merican writers loo#ed to "ha#espeare as a foundation stone of their own distinct cultural identity. +he years since *orld *ar 0 ha!e if anything cemented these positions: the esta'lishment of institutions such as the .oyal "ha#espeare +heatre in <ritain, and the Bolger "ha#espeare 4i'rary in the Inited "tates, has ensured that his wor# has remained a central icon of *estern culture. +he claim that his plays ha!e the power to transcend their historical moment and spea# to all humanity now underlies an insistence on "ha#espeare$s continuing rele!ance to our own situation: as the title of a seminal 'oo# 'y ,an ?ott put it, "ha#espeare is 8our contemporary9. =e!ertheless, there ha!e always 'een dissenters. *riters of the stature of 4eo +olstoy and @eorge <ernard "haw were prepared to offer de!astatingly negati!e 6udgements on the plays and their author, while others ha!e ad!anced eccentric theories designed to pro!e that such great plays could not ha!e 'een written 'y someone of "ha#espeare$s o'scure origins and limited education. 0n their own way, recent "ha#espearean scholars ha!e also contri'uted to a demythologizing of the 'ard that some thin# threatens the security of his reputation. Get e!en as the focus of such acti!ities "ha#espeare remains central to the wor# of literary critics, to theatre throughout the world, to *estern accounts of national and cultural identity, and to the <ritish tourist industry. +hese are not positions he will 'e allowed to surrender easily.

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