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Substation Design can be broken down into the following parts Planning Engineering Construction Operation

PlanningPlanning -General
General planning Philosophy Substation Voltage Range MVA Location How many square miles per substation Indoor or out door Insulation type Air, SF6 SCADA Controlled Reliability expected/ what types of customers will it serve Economics- How much is a customer willing to pay for his electric?

Substation Design is not independent from the rest of the T & D system Has to interface with the transmission system power levels and voltage Has to be compatible with the distribution equipment and design philosophy.

Substation Voltage
Usually determined already. From past history and now what voltages are available. Usually these voltages are transmission type voltages: 115,138,230,345,500,765kV etc. Or Subtransmission type voltages 23,25,34.5,46,69kV etc. Distribution voltages 4, 12.47,13.8,23,25,34.5kV

Planning
Perhaps the most critical as it will determine need, location, how it is connected to the distribution and transmission system, etc. Lets look at the planning steps

Substation Size
How big is your standard design going to be. I.E. how much load do you want to serve off of this substation. Will it be 10MVA, 20MVA, 30MVA, 40MVA etc. This will depend on the area to be served and the type of customers to be served, and reliability you want to achieve

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Indoor/ Outdoor,Air, SF6

Space requirements will generally determine this. If space is small and the location is in an urban area then you may want to consider an indoor design possibly using SF6. If space or location is not a concern then most probably an outdoor air substation is the most economical

SCADA
Is SCADA required? Many substation do not have SCADA and many do. It depends on what level reliability is expected of the substation.

Planning -High Side

High Side Configuration Breakers or Airswitch types of Design Loop or Radial Protection and Relaying Reliability Loading Fault Current Maintenance

Reliability and Economics

Probably the most concern in todays society that depends almost entirely of having electrical service. Everyone wants 100% continuous service, but are they willing to pay for it. You hear about 9 nines of reliability or they want electric service 99.9999999% of the time or want it off only about .000000001 or 1.9 cycles/year Typically we can give about 99.95% or about 5 hours that the electric is off per year. This would be composed of about 2 to 3 outages per year lasting longer than 1 minute. About 30 momentary interruptions lasting about 2 seconds each and about 150 to 200 voltage sags less than 90% voltage per year of which 60 are less than 80% voltage per year. This is per an EPRI study. And is an average. But the cost for this service is about $0.07/kWH. If we double the rate to $0.14/kWH we can increase reliability to about 99.97% generally so is the customer willing to pay for that increase? Pretty much our designs have evolved to the reliability we have based on what the customer is willing to pay.

High Side Planning

Since the substation will be serving a lot of distribution circuits an outage of the substation will affect a lot of customers. Therefore you will have to decide how to feed the substation to provide the most reliability at the most economical cost. Usually this means a looped line. Also can an air switch be used to provide protection of the substation instead of a circuit breaker?

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Example of a Radial Substation design

X 1

Fault

For a fault breaker 1 and breaker 2 clear. During the time the line is de energized switch X and Y open. Breakers 1 and 2 close. If the fault is still there Breaker 1 opens and stays open. Switch Y detects voltage so it closes. Substation B is restored. This is called a Sectionalizing Station

Example of a looped design

X 1

Fault

In this station design Switch X is closed and switch Y is open under normal conditions. For a fault between switch X and Breaker 1. Breaker 1 opens Breaker 1 may try to close to see if the fault is still there if so it will open and stay open then Switch X opens as the line is de energized and Switch Y closes restoring restoring substation B This is called a Transfer Station

We also try to be economical with looped lines

Breakers are expensive, but they are the only thing that can interrupt fault currents switch can not. Switches can only be opened when the line is de energized. But switches are cheaper than breakers, so we have devised a way in which we can use switches on our looped lines to save money

We use only sectionalizing stations on the transmission system We use both sectionalizing and transfer stations on the Sub transmission system as a transfer station is cheaper. Substation C is less reliable as it has only one feed in a transfer scheme. Transmission system looped lines are also more reliable as they have overhead shield wires above the phase wires which intercept lightning strokes.

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Standards need to include

Planning -Transformer
Transformer bank configuration 3 single Phase or 1 three phase High side connection (Delta or Wye) Low side Connection (Delta or Wye) Ratings (OA, FA, FA) Voltage regulation Fault Current Protection Maintenance

Conductor a. Calculating impedance b. Ampacity c. Underground type d. Fault current calculations e. Connected kVA f. Voltage Transformers a. 2 bushings b. 1 bushing c. 1 phase & 3 phase d. Polarity e. Delta vs Wye

PlanningPlanning - Low Side

Low Side Configuration Breakers or Recloser Loop or Radial Protection and Relaying Reliability Loading Fault Current Maintenance

f. Construction g. Tank Heating h. Ferro resonance I. Grounding banks J. Ungrounded Wye problems k. Different types of connections and the advantages/disadvantages of each l. Economic evaluations m. Standards

Need Standards
To have cost effective designs there needs to be a standard configuration that is done for every substation. For this to happen you need to have Standards. A. Engineering Standards B. Construction Standards C. Material Specification D. Operation and Maintenance Standards E. Control Standards

Voltage regulators and LTC. a. Vars and Power equations b. Vector diagrams c. Regulator construction d. Regulator connections e. Line drop compensation f. Loss evaluation g. Standards

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Capacitors a. Construction b. Where to put c. Current limiting fuses d. Capacitor switching e. Back to back capacitor switching f. Loss evaluation g. Series capacitors

Power quality and the distribution line a. PQ disturbance categories b. Harmonics c. Cause of sags d. Motor drives and customer equipment e. Grounding Distributed generation

Circuit protection a. Breakers versus reclosers b. Construction c. Fault current calculations d. Minimum fault currents e. Overloads f. Fuses g. Inrush h. Asymmetry and X/R I. Standards

So now you want to build a Substation

Need a plan Need a Single Line Need a Three Line Need Construction Prints

Over voltage protection a. Sizing arresters b. Insulation Coordination c. Separation distance d. Arrester connections e. Arresters for PQ f. Shielding of wires g. Mechanism of lightning

Deliver power to customers

Many customers At their locations On Demand Ready to use High Reliability Stable Voltage

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On Demand and ready to use

Must provide power at the instant of demandCant wait Cant average Power must be provided at Utilization voltage - Usually 120V nominal in the United States. Between 220 and 250 in most other countries.

Some laws of T&D

Power is most economically produced at central stations Power must be distributed to many small loads. Utilization voltage is worthless for moving power It is more economical to move power at high voltage High voltage equipment has a greater cost but much greater capacity. It is costly to change voltage levels

High Reliability, low voltage fluctuation

Incredible availability expectation Nine nines of availability required in some industries or about 1 cycle per year. We in the US average about 99.9% or about 9 hours per year. Stable voltage -Power Quality anomalies are unacceptable -Voltage flicker unacceptable

Power is most economically produced at large central stations:

Despite all the hype about dispersed generation a tremendous economy of scale still exists in favor of large generation. DG is popular because - there is a fringe always ready to welcome a new idea. - DG has some merit: close to the customer. It has to beat only the efficiency of generation/TD combination. - Small hi tech generators(45% efficient) can easily beat older central generation stations(35% efficient)

Therefore the mission of Transmission and Distribution is to

Get electrical energy to the customer Have capacity to meet the instantaneous demand Availability somewhere between 4 and 9 nines. Voltage regulation to between 3% And do it at the lowest possible cost!!

Large hi tech generators(52% efficient) can still beat everything else, even when T&D costs are added. But utilities are stuck with sunk costs of older units.

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Power must be distributed to many small load points.

At Allegheny Energy we have about 1.5 million electrical customers and an average peak load of about 8kW We have a generation capacity of about 12000MW

It is costly to change voltage levels

Transformation accomplishes nothing in moving power It can be afforded, but increases costs. Its purpose is to permit splitting power more economically.

Utilization Voltage is worthless for moving power any distance

120-250 volt single phase can move power only a few hundred meters before conductor and loss cost, and voltage drop becomes unacceptable. European systems with 416V(p-p) secondaries, are another matter. Here the secondary basically replaces the single phase laterals in American systems.

Lower voltage and split path.The fundamental rule of power system layout
Every time voltage is reduced the pathway is split. Idea is to keep splitting power into smaller and smaller units as it is moved nearer the customer, all the while keeping it at a voltage level that is most economical for that amount of power being moved.

It is more economical to move power at high voltage.

The higher the voltage the lower the cost per kilowatt-mile. However, higher voltage equipment has greater minimum costs and greater minimum capacity. Therefore you must arrange for that kilowatt to be part of a large amount of power being moved as one block.

The way it has happened over the years is that you started at utilization voltage then you started to have problems as the lines became longer so you looked at the cost of building another generator verses raising the voltage and the economics associated with that.

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This structure gives rise to T&D levels

Levels are: - High voltage grid(transmission) -Switching stations -Subtransmission -Substations -Primary Feeder -service transformers -Secondary circuits

Distinguishing between Transmission and Distribution

By voltage class- Transmission is above 34kV, distribution is below it(Niagara Mohawk) Transmission is above 69kV(Allegheny power) By function: Distribution is anything feeding service transformers(Central Maine Power) By configuration: transmission is a network distribution is radial(Houston Light and Power) By purpose: Transmission is everything built at least partly for stability and operating requirements, distribution is everything built solely to distribute power to customers(ABB)

Levels of T&D systems

Each covers the entire system Each is indispensable in service Each has more units than the level above it. On average, units of lower capacity than the level above it A total capacity greater than the level above it. Each level divides the system into service areas

Distribution system components

Transmission Subtransmission Distribution Substations Primary feeders Laterals and Branches Service transformers Secondary circuits Service drops

Transmission levels 1.1MV 115kV Reliability problems are usually on the distribution system
A network- many paths between any two points Provides voltage stability, and dispatch ability functions, as well as power delivery Power from any generator can be moved anywhere.

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Subtransmission 23kV to 230kV

Transmission level equipment that exists solely to route power to distribution substations. Occasionally radial, and hence relatively unreliable

Service transformers and secondary

Radial secondary system in most cases Transformer to customer ratio varies from about 1:2 to 1:12 depending on the utilitys system.

substations
Lower voltage to the primary distribution level, and split power routing amoung feeders Typically, power system configuration changes from transmission network to radial feeders here.

Sometimes all equipment including lateral service transformer secondary is identified as the service level
Although different voltages, common operating character: an outage must be repaired to restore service. Quite common designation in Europe

Primary feeder level

Three Phase network as far as construction(at least in urban areas) Usually operated radially by proper positioning of open/closed switches Single phase laterals

At some utilities, system is operated as three levels distinguished by different operating/outage characteristics.
Grid: relatively small number of circuits, complicated electrical behavior, outages do not necessarily cause interruptions, repairs are very involved. Distribution: High number of circuits, radial simple electrical behavior, outages cause interruptions, restoration is usually by switching or repair. Service: very high number of circuits, radial, simple electrical behavior, outages always cause interruptions, restoration requires repairs, repairs are generally quick and easy.

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A brief History lesson

Why do we use 50 hertz or 60 hertz? Why do we use three phase? Why do we have the voltage levels we have?

Now as you interconnect generators together you have to match frequencies so you now have systems in the US that are operating at 60 hertz and systems in Europe that are operating at 50 Hertz. If you were building a power system today you may consider again DC as you now have power electronics to do voltage conversions or you may consider AC systems operating in the 100s of hertz as transformer size would be reduced. Airplanes use 400 Hz systems

50 hertz/ 60 hetz
The original power systems started out as DC. As you varied the voltage or speed of the generator you increased or decreased the power. However you were limited to the distance traveled before voltage drop became a problem. Therefore, you had to increase the size of the wire or put additional generators along the way. You could not change voltage levels as transformers do not work with DC. Voltage levels at the point of utilization in customers house were about 100 volts in the US. But do to voltage drop voltages were supplied 10 % higher at about 110volts.

Why 3 phase
Why do we use 3 phase instead of 2 phase 4 phase, etc. Well three phase originated from the fact that generators were originally single phase. But for an induction motor to operate you needed more than one phase to give you a rotating field. If you put a winding on the generator at 90 degrees to the original winding you can get 2 phase. The same size generator can be used and you get 1.414 the amount of power out. You need three wires to take the power out of the machine. If you put three windings on the generator you can get 1.5 the amount of power out of the machine without increasing the size(of course the prime mover has to be sized accordingly) and you can take the power out with 3 wires.

Because you could not distribute power very far with DC at 110 volts, AC became an attractive alternative. There were many articles about the effect of using AC as it was felt at the time it was very deadly. The reason AC was so attractive was because you can transform it from one voltage level to another using transformers. AC requires the use of synchronous generators and these generators must work at a constant speed. Transformers could be built to operate at about 25 Hz. And motor speeds could be matched to give motion to the prime mover at about 1500 RPMs. But with 25Hz you had objectionable light flicker. In the US they were building engines that operate at about 1800RPMs and in Europe they were building engines that operated at 1500RPMs. So if you build a 4 pole generator you get 50 and 60 hertz respectively.

If you go to 4 phase you get 1.53 times the power out and you need 4 wires. If you go to infinitely many phase you get 1.57 times the power out and you need infinitely many wires. So it appears that the best choice is either two or 3 phase as you have 3 wires, but with 3 phase your get 1.5 the amount of power out of a generator so 3 phase became the number of phases we use.

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Why the voltage levels we have.

In the US you had 110 volts, this then became 115 because of voltage drop and finally became 120 volts and that became the standard. If you multiple 115 times two you get 230v and take that times 10 you get 2300V. This became an industrial voltage for a delta system. Take this times 10 and you get 23kV a subtransmission voltage(if you take 2300 time 15 you get 34.5kV). Take this times 3 and you get 69kV and times 2 you get 138kV. If you take 120 times 2 and times 10 you get 2400V. Then times 3 you get 7200V times the 1.732 you get 12.47 times 2 you get 25kV.

What can you do when you plan a Substation

If you are starting out with an entirely new system and you are going to manufacture the equipment yourself, you can choose frequency, voltage, Number of phases, and whether it is delta or wye connected if you chose 3 phase. If it is an existing system all you can do is pretty much locate the new circuit route and where the substation goes. But there is a lot of work involved in that.

The 230kV is 2 time 115kV, 345 is 3 time 115kV

Radial Distribution System

Majority of distribution is radial primary/secondary One source: Voltage and power flow downhill Often built as a network, but radialized by open Switches Contingency backup achieved by transfer Zones switching segments to other feeders during an outage. Advantages -Traditional: equipment available, understandable -Economy: It is the cheapest in many ways -Easy to engineer so it works well.

Delta verses Wye

Delta requires only three wires Delta- one wire can be connected to ground and and the system can keep on functioning. Detecting line to ground faults can be a problem. Arcing faults can be a problem Wye systems can be grounded or ungrounded Wye systems have good fault sensing for line to ground faults Insulation levels only have to be 57.7 % of that needed for Delta systems for solidly grounded wye systems. Therefore most of the systems used these days are multigrounded wye.

Loop Distribution Systems

Operates either as open or closed loop.open loop requires more expensive protection Either way, has an open, or at least Zero flow point at all times Real concept is: contingency back up comes from other side of the loop. Used through out Europe, Africa, and much of Asia

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A Wise Rule for problems on the Electrical System

Loop support. The simplest possible contingency backup shown here is a loop feeder layout. This involves building feeders in pairs and operating them with an open tie between their ends. Additional switches located along the way permit isolation of outage segments

Feeder 1 Substation

Feeder 2

A wise old engineer once told me that 1. 80% of the problems experienced are cause by moisture. 2. 15% of the problems experienced are caused by a bad ground 3. The remaining problems are cause by exotic stuff such as ferroresonance, tank heating etc.

Network Distribution
Many types, all expensive compared to radial Capacity cost is actually less than for radial Protection and control cost is much greater than for radial Usually installed for reliability issues Most popular type is secondary network.

Service Areas
Usually are designed to correspond to each distribution circuit as it leaves the substation

Interlaced Secondary Network

Radial feeders, network secondary Can be engineered to be incredibly robust Multiple radial feeders, feeding alternate service transformers

Service areas are dynamic from a planning standpoint

Service area transfers are an important element of expansion planning. You can transfer load to another substation.

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T&D System Costs

Land Preparation Equipment Installation & Setup Losses Maintenance

Distribution: the most important part of the power system

Connected to the customer 52% on the investment 66% of the losses 90% of the reliability and power quality issues

Cost to upgrade usually exceeds cost to build:

One mile of new 600KCM 3 phase overhead feeder cost about $186K to build, 14MVA capacity or $13,300/MVA/mile One mile of new 336KCM 3 phase overhead feeder cost about $140K to build, 9.3MVA capacity or $15,000/MVA/mile On mile of 336 can be upgraded to 600KCM for 226K or $48,000/MVA/mile

The Systems Approach

Concept: the various levels of the system are connected to one another -transmission -substation -feeder -secondary As a result the layout and design at one level influences requirements of the other levels

Reliability is assured through Quick Service restoration

A majority of the equipment in the system is in radial configuration any failure causes some customer interruptions. The equipment is usually simple, and relatively inexpensive and easy to repair. Restoration time is predominately a function of identifying the problem and travel to the outage site.

MultiMulti -System Levels

Each level has costs constraints and interactions within it, that are unique to it. But it also depends on the levels connected to it, for example the feeders all must start at the substation

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Thus the planners goal is not to optimize any one level, but to optimize the combination of levels levels The whole system
The way one level is designed impacts the electrical and economic performance of the other levels connected to it. In many cases, interactions with the other levels are the most important aspect of the design!! Planners goal is to design the best combination of levels: the best system!!

If the substation has a larger area each will have a larger load to serve
Need larger more expensive substations But fewer will be needed

Example: The following four design questions

How far apart should substation be? What size should substations be? What is the best transmission voltage? What is the best primary voltage? All are versions of the same question!

Is it better to have fewer, but larger and more expensive substations?

Certainly part of the answer depends on the cost of the substations and how it varies depending on size etc. Generally the answer considering only the substation is yes. For example, it is usually cheaper to build 5 50 MVA substations than 11 25MVA substations. However substation cost is not the only issue

How far apart should substations be?

If the substations are moved farther apart then each will have a larger service area If the stations are 4 km apart then each covers about 16 square km If the stations are 6 km apart then each covers about 36 square km

Substation size influences Transmission design

The system design with larger substations need more power on average delivered to each Hence, the transmission system must be capable of delivering larger amounts on power to each substation But there will be fewer lines needed, because with larger substations, there are fewer lines. Are fewer but larger transmission lines less expensive? Even when you answer this, this is not the complete answer.

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Impact of Distribution
Fewer, larger substations means that feeders must move power farther. Requires higher voltage May require more feeders May require reinforced feeders This is often then a major expense

This concept is the key to the design of low cost, workable T&D systems
In order to determine what is the best transmission system voltage to use you need to do a couple of cases: Price 138kV using 4/0 wire and 954kCM wire and determine the load it can carry: Price 230kV using 4/0 wire and 954kCM wire and determine the load it can carry. Price the cost of a 230 to 12.5kV substation 12/16/20MVA and 18/24/30MVA substation. Price the cost of 138kV to 12.5kV Substation using the same loading. Do all four cases again for 34.5kV distribution. Price the cost of 12.5 kV distribution using 336kCM wire and then with 795kCM wire Price the cost of 34.5kV distribution using 336kCM wire and then with 795kCM wire. Determine how much MVA each will carry.

Fewer but larger substations require feeders to move power farther

Any way you look at it, the larger, fewer, farther apart substations are will require a stronger distribution system- one that moves power farther This means a more expensive feeder system but this greater expense might be justified by the savings in substation and transmissions systems costs due to their greater economy of scale

Dont forget reliability

As feeder get longer reliability goes down. Reliability problems are the sum of failures anywhere in the chain from generation to customer. If one needs to improve reliability where is the lowest cost fix that can be made.

The point:
The economics and electrical behavior of the substation, of the feeder, and of the transmission levels need to be added together to determine cost and performance as a whole. This is what planners must concentrate on.

System Approach
Important points are: - interactions of levels means costs and performance depend on all levels, not any one. -Operating interaction is often more important in optimal design than actual economic performance at that level -the goal is to design the best overall system taking into account all levels

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Need to determine the appropriate information for the distribution planning engineer to use
Standards Group 1. Determine the equipment that is going to be used. 2. Make a construction standard to install the equipment. 3. Determine the cost for construction. 4. Determine the special engineering requirements for the most economical system.

What is Reliability?
Reliability analysis involves quantitative measures of system performance regarding interruption of services, through historical data analysis and theoretical predictions

Need to have a Financial Planning Group to develop a consistent way to evaluate projects
A computer program is the usual method to do the evaluation and the group provides the financial parameters to put into the program

Why Bother?
The purpose of reliability engineering is to maintain service quality standards with limited capital investments How much is reliability worth? -repair and emergency crew expense -loss of revenue -public image -loss of customers

Distribution System Reliability

Reliability Service Quality Ways to improve both

Outages and Interruptions

An outage is what happens to equipment when not in service. An interruption is what happens when insufficient equipment exists to serve the customer Outages cause interruptions

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Two Aspects of Service Reliability

Frequency of interruptions- How often is the power interrupted. Duration of interruptions- How long do interruptions last.

Types of interruptions
Instantaneous: An interruption restored immediately by completely automatic equipment. It is caused by a momentary fault that produces no reaction from protective equipment. According to IEEE 1250-1995 it is .5 to 30 cycles in duration

Frequency and Duration are somewhat independent aspects of reliability

Frequency of interruptions is mostly a function of engineering factors, equipment selection, layout, design of protection, etc. Duration of interruption is mostly a function of operating factors: number and location of repair crews, speed in handling trouble calls, and dispatching, etc.

Momentary: An interruption restored by automatic operation of protection equipment. From 30 cycles to 2 seconds

Customers react differently to frequency and duration of interruptions. To some customers, a short (2 second) interruption is nearly as serious as a longer one: computers, robotic control, synchronous motors. To others short interruptions create few problems

Temporary: An interruption restored with supervisory control usually between 2 seconds and 2 minutes Sustained: Any interruption that is not instantaneous, momentary, or temporary. Normally more than 2 minutes. Usually involves manual switching and/or repair work

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Interruptions are also distinguished by whether they were planned:

Scheduled: The utility scheduled the interruption for maintenance purposes, and the customer was given advanced warning Forced: The interruption was not expected and not scheduled. You may have to open a line to make a repair.

CAIFI
CAIFI: Customer Average Interruption Frequency Index-The average number of interruptions per customer during a period(month,year) This is the total number of customer interruptions divided by the total number of customers who had at least one interruption during the period.

Reliability Indices

MAIFI
Combine frequency, duration, and other factors into a single value, a measure of reliability on the system. There are lots of them SAIDI: System Average Interruption Duration Index The average total duration of interruptions per customer during a period (month, year) This is the total number of interruption minutes divided by the number of customers. SAIFI: System Average Interruption Frequency Index The average number of interruptions per customer during a period(month, year) This is the total number of customer interruptions divided by the number of customers.

MAIFI: Momentary Average Interruption Frequency Index-The average number momentary interruptions per customer during a period(month, year) This is the total number of customer interruptions divided by the total number of customers. This is a necessary index because momentary interruptions are not counted among interruptions by many utilities.

CAIDI
CAIDI: Customer Average Interruption Duration Index- The average total duration of interruptions per customer that had an interruption during a period (month, year) This is the total number of interruption minutes divided by the number or customers who had at least one interruption during the period.

Reliability Reporting can be misleading

Tremendous difference in reliability levels reported by utilities just because of differences in definition. Cannot compare reliability statistics reported by different utilities(at least across US State Lines because of different commissions)

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Variations in definitions
Interruption length. Most utilities dont report interruptions below some minimum duration. This is because they have no way of knowing what happened and to which customers. Customer- Some utilities report master metered customers as one customer, others estimate the impact on a household Start time- Some utilities estimate interruption duration as starting when the outage occurred, others when the interruption was reported to dispatching

Building reliability into a Substation Design

Remember that engineering, design and layout influence mainly the number of interruptions. Good design can reduce the number. But good design has little influence on the duration of the interruption.

Determining reliability levels

Comparison of years method Gather interruption data for the past years, the more the better. Ten years would be good. Plot SAIDI verses SAIFI You should see a pattern and any years that fall outside of that pattern my be considered bad years.

Engineerings influence on Reliability

Design and layout can reduce frequency of outage: -Using equipment that fails less often(correctly sized, etc.) conductors slapping -Coordination of equipment(insulation coordination, etc.) so equipment is coordinated with design and layout. Electronic reclosers with sequence coordination. -using layout that reduces the extent of equipment outages: Cutouts, etc.

ValueValue -based planning is not that simple

Data is difficult to find Customer costs are nearly impossible to determine except for large industries Takes lots of work Functions are often discontinuous.

Engineering can influence duration only in one respect

Remember we are talking about sustained outages Feeder layout and switching locations can be coordinated so that interruptions can be restored quickly by switching. This provides the potential for shorter duration interruptions but requires competency and preparation on the part of the Operations Department to use this capability.

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Building reliability into a distribution system

Use good equipment Maintain it well
By schedules as recommended RCM- Reliability Centered Maintenance, O&M

Secondary networks with interlaced feeder system

Using secondary networks, parallel feeders, serve every other service transformer from each If properly designed, the resulting system can tolerate a lose of a feeder without an interruption

controlled by analysis of importance, diagnostic data

Operate it well

Layout makes a big difference

Can apply concepts manually in day to day planning You now have to remember you are adding another layer of criteria/constraints on top of voltage standards, operation guidelines, etc. It would be nice to have a computer program to help, but we havent found one yet.

European 11kV loop system

All feeders operate as closed loops Essentially two radial feeders with closed tie, no laterals Outage interrupts flow only to customers on segment Expensive: requires close to two times conductor capacity, and protection is expensive.
Normally closed

Normally Closed

Reliability versus cost is really the only issue

The type of system makes a big difference Non-Linear: a little reliability costs little. More costs a lot more. Reliability is easy to build into a power system The problem is doing it economical

Open Loop
Most typical European design Outage in this example drops to of the customers Still requires 2 times capacity, but protection is simple Switching restores some service.
Normally closed Normally closed Normally open

cost

reliability

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Loop Feeder Systems are good design but expensive

Every feeder must be built to support twice the load and twice the distance Planners can reduce number of customers affected by outages by adding sectionalizers
Feeder must support all the load with either segment out at the substation

ValueValue -based Planning

This is probably the best way, but it is complicated. Utilities cost increases as reliability increases Customers loss dollars decrease as as reliability increases. Add the two together and the low point in dollars is the optimal point. But who pays? The utility or the customer? Using smaller feeders. Improving sectionalizing and protection
Fuses and sectionalizers protect the rest of the feeder

Normally closed

Normally closed

from outages behind them

Segmenting feeder into many protection sections avoids

outages spreading interruptions to many customers

Loop Zonal Transfer Scheme

Normally closed Normally closed Normally closed Normally closed Normally closed Normally closed Normally closed Normally closed Requires less capacity but lower reliability because more involved switching needed to balance loads during outages Normally closed Normally closed

Adding more switching zones generally does not improve reliability greatly
Dividing each feeder up into five switchable zones, instead of three will not improve reliability greatly. May make it more difficult to switch It will reduce cost as neighboring sections need less contingency margin to pick up load. They are picking up 1/5 of the feeder instead of 1/3

American Radial System

Basic concept is transfer of radial, not loop, zones. The feeder is built from sections or zones, each switchable to at least two other zones Support is given by switching as needed after an outage Least expensive

Automation and Reliability

Automated distribution offers two capabilities that improve reliability
1. Monitoring- you can see trouble coming and

know what equipment can take during contingencies. 2. Automated switching(verses manual) is faster, more flexible and can do more involved switching

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Automation and where it improves reliability

Monitoring of conditions by

RTUs On-line trouble analysis

Remote Switching
Fast, cuts outage duration, but not frequency of the outage May include resetting protection for a new configuration

Capacitors, Reactive Power and Feeder Planning

Computerized operations management

On line analysis of restoration Crew tracking, optimization

Three Levels of Automation regarding Distribution Systems

Static systems- Fuses, manual switching. Automatic system- automatic sectionalizers, and reclosers Automated system-remote control of sectionizers, and switches

Power Flow on the Feeder System is Complex

The two components of complex power flow
Real Power MW, useable, sellable, does work. Requires capacity to move it, creates both losses and voltage drop as it moves Reactive Power MVAR, unusable, unsellable, does no work. Requires capacity to move it, creates lines losses, X & R component of line creates voltage drop. 4.8MW 3 .6MVAR 6 MVA Here, a flow of 4.8MW is desired and 3.6MVAR is undesired creates a total of 6MVA of flow

Measures to improve Reliability and Service Quality

Need new tools and methods: cannot achieve a goal unless you can measure and direct progress toward it. Understand customers need for and valuation of reliability and service quality Shift from standard-driven to performance based design Optimize reliability within budget: reliability centered planning and reliability centered maintenance.

Power Factor Refers to the Ratio of Real to Total Flow

Total flow is the magnitude of complex power flow: 2 2 Total = Real + Reactive
Power Factor = Real/Total

The Power Factor=4.8/6.0 =80%

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Reactive Flow is commomly called VARs (Volt Amperes Reactive) and it is unwanted VARS take up capacity on the line as shown the line has to be able to carry current equivalent to 6MW(6MVA), but is only delivering 4.8MW because of the VAR Flow VARs create voltage drop- so they use up economic reach

Shunt Capacitors are used to produce VARs or anti VARs

A shunt capacitor installed anywhere on a feeder will produce VARs, satisfying the load downstream of it. In the example we have been using a 1MVAR capacitor produces .985kVAR reducing the VAR load to 2.65MVAR. As a result real power flow can be increased to 5.4MW( at 12.5% improvement) while keeping the total flow under its 6MVA capacity loading

Reactive Power Flows(VARs) are caused by Loads

Many loads=particularly wound devices like motors and solenoids create a lag between voltage and current, in effect, is the source of VARs. Only purely resistive loads like incandescent lights, etc. are free of reactive loads. VARs that flow at the load from the current lagging the voltage by 90 degrees are considered +

Shunt Capacitors are voltage sensitive devices

They produce their rated VAR output at their rated nominal voltage The 1 MVAR capacitor only produced .985kVAR because the voltage was less than 1.0 P.U. The VARs produced flow downstream to serve the VAR demand farther out. If there are less VAR demand than the capacitors output the VARs move upstream toward the feeder source.

+ V I

VAR Flow Diagrams

A useful tool for

-P -Q

+P -Q V Reference Voltage

the study of VARs and VAR correction is the VAR flow diagram, which is a profile of the VAR flow on the feeder
Here a

5 4

MVAR

3 2 1 0

-P +Q

+P +Q

3 mile long feeder trunk has a uniform VAR load of 2MVAR per mile. The diagram shows VAR flow at all points along the feeder Voltage Drop
Also shown is the voltage

1 2 Miles

5 4 3 2 1 0

drop along the feeder(not uniform because real load and conductor size are not all uniform.

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The Effect of a Shunt Capacitor is easy to plot and see 3000kVAR

5 4

The Capacitor can be moved until the amount of MVARMVAR-miles gained and lost from any farther movement is the same
This occurs for the 3000KVAR bank when it reaches a location at 2.25 miles from the source. At this point the MVAR-miles on the feeder are at a minimum. Voltage drop will be even better.
5 4 3 2

CAP bank

Here a 3000 kVAR shunt capacitor bank has been installed at a point 1.5 miles out of the feeder It satisfies all the VAR demand needs after it. Impact on VAR flow is as shown. The substation is cut in half and there is a point of zero VAR flow just before the capacitor location.

3 2 1 0

0
5 4 3 2 1 0

3000MVAR CAP bank

1 0

Flow diagrams can be used to study how to improve capacitor utilization

Here we see what happens when you move the capacitor farther out the feeder.
5 4 3 2 1 0

Similarly, the impact of changing capacitor size can be studied

By increasing the size

3000MVAR CAP bank

-the VAR-miles of flow in the unshaded area are removed and the VAR-miles of flow shaded yellow are added. -the capacitor feeds some of its VARs back toward the substation -In total, VAR-miles of flow are reduced.

0
5 4 3 2 1 0

of the capacitor to 4500kVAR, the VAR-miles shown in the unshaded area are removed and those in the shaded yellow area are added
The result again

5 4 3 2 1 0

4000kVAR CAP bank

3000MVAR CAP bank

is an improvement more were removed than added.

5 4 3

4500kVAR CAP bank

2 1 0

This is an improvement, because the total VARVAR -miles of flow have been reduced substantially
6 5

The reduction is equivalent to the unshaded area -This represents VAR-miles of flow that no longer exist. -Voltage drop is improved.

4 3 2 1 0

VAR-miles of flow reduced

The TwoTwo-Thirds Rule for Capacitor Application

If this method is applied to determine both the optimum size and location of a single capacitor, what capacitor size and location results in the minimum VARmiles- The result will be a 4000kVAR capacitor located at 2 miles from the source. This is a graphically derived two thirds rule for capacitors. Among all single capacitor applications this minimizes the resulting VAR-miles.

0
5 4 3 2 1 0

1 No cap

With cap
5

4 3 2

4000kVAR CAP bank

Voltage Drop

1 0

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TwoTwo -thirds rule, cont.

A traditional rule-of-thumb for capacitor application to a
feeder is to place a capacitor equal to 2/3s the VAR load of the feeder at a point 2/3s of the distance from the substation. The graphical method of capacitor impact analysis or an algebraic equivalent, can be used to confirm that this minimizes the total MVAR-miles, provided the VAR loading is uniform. This rule is one of the most widely used guidelines in all power distribution. Most power engineers are aware of it and apply it. Most do not know however, that it can be applied by way of a simple graphic method shown here and that it can be generalized to more than one capacitor

Generalized twotwo-thirds rule cont.

As a result the MVAR-miles on a feeder are reduced from Q*l/2(the amount without any capacitors ) to Total MVAR-miles=(Q*l/2)/(2N+1) Therefore the best two capacitor solution is two equally sized banks of 2/5 of the VAR load of the feeder, located 2/5s and 4/5s of the way from the substation, which reduces MVAR-miles to 1/5 of their previous level. The best three capacitor bank solution are banks of 2/7s the VAR load, at locations of 2/7s, 4/7s, and 6/7s out from the source and they will reduce the VAR-miles to 1/7 of their uncorrected level,etc. The ultimate end of this series would be for N to be very large, which would distribute a very large number of very small capacitors, equal to the total VAR load of the feeder, spaced uniformly along its length. This would reduce VAR-miles to zero.

Generalized Two Thirds Rule

The impact of two capacitor banks can be similarly represented graphically.
A bit of experimentation will show that the best two capacitor solution is two capacitors equal to 2/5s of the VAR load located at 2/5s and 4/5s of the distance out from the substation 2/5*6000kVAR=2400kVAR
5 4 3 2 1 0

A Lot of feeder loads arent exactly uniformly distributed

A lot of feeders may have non uniform VAR load. For one thing, loading both real and reactive is discrete, not continuous

2400MVAR CAP bank

However, modeling loading as a continuous distribution adds little error, but the wrong distribution along the trunk adds considerable error. At the left is a more representative loading distribution which represents a large trunk feeder serving a triangular area of uniform area VAR load.
5 4 3 2 1 0

Generalized twotwo-thirds rule cont.

Inspection of such graphs, or algebraic manipulation that accomplishes the same can establish that for a feeder uniformly loaded with a VAR load of Q, the optimal size for each of N equally sized capacitors is: Size of each of N banks=2Q/(2N+1) at evenly spaced locations L=n*2l/(2N+1) where n=1,2,.,N l = length of feeder

When distribution is not longer uniform, the best capacitor location is not longer given by the 2/3s rule. Here, a capacitor equal to 87% of the feeder VAR load located 2.25 miles out is about optimum for the triangular area loading.
5 4 3 2 1 0

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Many feeders have express portionsportions- they have no load on their initial length
Shown here is the distribution of VAR-miles for a feeder with a 1.66 mile express portion then with 6MVAR loading evenly spread along the remaining 1.33 miles. Optimum reduction in VAR miles is from a capacitor equal to 100% of the VAR loading located 77% of the way out the feeder
5 4 3 2 1 0

5 4 3 2 1 0

In cases where an express feeder trunk is used, the best single capacitor bank application is usually the bank size equal to the VAR load of the feeder, located at the halfway point of the VAR load in the loaded section. The best two capacitor solution is banks equal to the VAR load located at and on the loaded portion length.(this is assumed to be uniform loaded) Any large VAR load should be corrected at its location. In most cases a large or special load will create a very large VAR load at one point on the circuit. Analysis using graphical methods will show the best strategy for minimizing the impact is to install a capacitor equal to its VAR load at its location(ie cancel the VARS at their source)

Generalized 2/3s rule

The concepts outlined here-including the graphical method of deriving a recommended size and location for capacitors on a feeder, based on its VAR load distribution will be called the generalized 2/3s rule When loading is not uniform, the capacitors in a multi capacitor application are not necessary the same size, nor are they evenly spaced.

The twotwo-thirds rule works as well for feeders with branches

It may be more difficult to apply, but it works as well.

General Capacitor Utilization Guidelines Based on the Generalized 2/3s Rule

The MVAR-miles minimization method used above is basically a more flexible application of the 2/3s rule, which can accommodate uneven VAR loadings. Therefore the following guidelines can be thought of as corollaries to the 2/3s rule, applicable to situations distribution planners are more likely to face: On some typical feeders, the best single capacitor solution is a bank sized 7/8 of the feeder VAR load, located of the way out the feeder. The best 2 capacitor application is 45% of the VAR load at .3 the length and 50% load at .90 the length of the feeder

Incremental sizes and maximum sizes

Capacitors are usually available only in standard unit sizes(100kVAR /phase units at 12.47kV) and there is a limit to the size of bank that can be installed at any one location. Typically no more than 5 to six units per phase. In addition the fault duty of capacitors must be considered. Large banks may have to high of outrush current. Therefore a planner may be limited to no more than 1800kVAR.

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Using more capacitors generally improves the results(and increases the cost of the capacitors)
Expected reduction in MVAR-mile flow from the application of the generalized 2/3s rule as a function of the number of capacitors in % # of Caps. % Reduction in MVAR-miles flow on a trunk A uniformly loaded trunk
1 2 3 4 5 6 66 80 86 89 91 93

Power Factor Profiles

Another useful tool is the power factor profile. Among other things, it will amply demonstrate that even when capacitors are used power factor is not uniformly corrected. This demonstrates why about the best that can be done is an average 90% power factor. It can be corrected to better than that in some places, but over the entire feeder an average of about 90% is the best that can be done.

A typical Feeder
77 87 93 95 96 97

In addition, power factor as seen at the substation is improved

Corrected Power Factor at the substation After the application of the generalized 2/3s rule as a function of the uncorrected power factor Uncorrected PF 90
80 70 60 50 40

Shortcomings of the 2/3s rule

The graphical MVAR-mile minimization method used in the examples above is a very useful mechanism for illustrating the basics of VAR capacitor interaction, and for deriving approximation guidelines, such as the 2/3s rule, for capacitor application. A number of important factors are not considered however: Complex power flow. Actual power flow is complex. The MVAR-mile analysis deals only with VARs without recognizing that the impact and importance is somewhat a function of real power flow too. Economics. The value of VAR reduction depends on the cost of losses and the need for additional capacity and reach released by the improvement in power factor. Capacitor application ought to be based on economic benefit versus cost analysis.

P.F. at the substation after the application of the caps With one Capacitor
99 97 95 91 87 80

With two Capacitors

100 99 98 97 94 91

Shortcomings of the 2/3s rule cont.

Power Factor Profiles

1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0 1 2 3
A. Evenly loaded at 2MW and 2MVAR/mile 70%PF B. Corrected with the 2/3s rule 1 cap. 4000kVAR at 2 miles

1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0 1 2 3

C. Corrected with 2/3s rule 2 caps 2400kVAR at 1.2 and 2.4 mile

D. Typical feeder cap 5400kVAR at 2.25 miles

1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0 1 2 3

1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 0 1 2 3

Line impedance. Both the response of a feeder to changes in VAR flow and the importance of reducing VAR flow vary depending on the impedance of various line segments, whereas the approximate method essentially treats all portions of the feeder as equivalently important. Discontinuous Load. Actual kW and kVAR load on a feeder is discontinuous, whereas we represented it as continuous. Detailed analysis of capacitor interaction for each specific feeder, taking in all the above, is necessary to optimize capacitor application. Usually, application involves so many variables and is so complex and complicated that computer analysis is necessary to produce any improvement over intelligent application of the generalized rule described.

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Switched Capacitors
Many times, all or some of the capacitor banks on a feeder will be switchedconnected some of the time and disconnected some of the time. The reason is that the VAR load changes over time and thus the need for the capacitors to change.

During periods of Low VAR Demand, leaving Capacitors connected to the feeder increases VARVAR -mile flow
Peak Conditions Here three capacitors minimize VAR-miles at peak(top), but during minimum load time, creates a tremendous VAR flow back towards the substation(bottom)
5 4 3 2 1 0

3-1800kVAR CAP bank

1 2 3 Minimum Conditions

5 4 3 2 1 0

Seasonal and daily variation in load Summer peak day

Shown here are the daily MW and MVAR loads for a feeder in the southwest of the US Both MW and MVAR vary by season and time of day. Note that the MVAR load varies more than the MW. In summer, power factor off peak is about .83 and on peak it is .71 Therefore VAR requirements change over time. 6 4 2 0 Mid Noon Autumn Day 6 4 2 0 Mid Noon Mid
MW MW MVAR

Power Factor Correction and 80% X/R Ratio 90%

PW Cost $ million

If VAR-miles were reduced to zero on a feeder then there would be no voltage drop from the reactive component of the impedance

1.0 .8 .6 .4 .2 0

70% 100%

Mid

In that case, voltage drop like losses depends only on R and big conductor would have a longer reach Power Factor correction impacts larger conductors more than small ones because its impedance is mostly X not R

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Peak Load -MW

MVAR

Overboosting Voltage
In some cases when the VAR load is quite low, shunt capacitors can boost voltage above permitted levels, in such cases, they must be switched off when the load is low. The voltage boost at the end of the feeder, due to a capacitor, can be estimated as
Voltage rise(120volt scale)=.12(CkVA*X)/KV**2 Where X is the line reactance to the capacitor location and CkVA is the capacitors capacity. For example, 4000 kVAR at three miles on a 12.47kV feeder with X=.63, would boost voltage about 6.31volts

Summary
VAR flow on feeders uses capacity and shortens the economic reach VARs can be reduced by the installation of shunt capacitors The generalized two thirds rule permits analysis and understanding of VAR flow and corrective issues Power Factor can be corrected at best to about 90% on average, which improves voltage drop(economic reach) of conductors.

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Multi Feeder System Planning

We will look at Feeders as part of a feeder system Upgrading configuration not line capacity A formula that estimates feeder system cost Guidelines to reduce cost

The systems Approach: Feeders are only part of the System

A power delivery system consists of many levels of equipment, including sub-transmission, substations, feeders and service The recommended perspective for planning is to always view each level as part of a larger whole and plan it using a systems approach. This means that when laying out a particular feeder, the goal is not to minimize its cost, but to plan it so it contributes to achieving the lowest overall total system cost.

Avoid feederfeeder-at at-a-time myopia

This has been mentioned before, but this is the most common mistake made in distribution planning methodology. It is common for distribution planners to focus on the study of one feeder at a time. Usually a feeder that has a new load, a voltage problem, etc. and a solution needs to be found. This feeder at a time focus is necessary in certain phases of planning, but it can lead to a kind of design myopia which is responsible for missed opportunities for savings and service quality improvement.

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