HIS TOR Y OF CDM A DEVE LOPM ENT

In the late 1800's, a Scottish physicist named James Clerk Maxwell formulated a
principle that would forever change our world. Maxwell was able to show that the
generalized forms of the laws of electricity and magnetism (the laws of Coulomb,
Gauss, Biot-Savart, Ampere, and Faraday) suggested the existence
electromagnetic (EM) waves. Electromagnetic waves have both an electric and
magnetic field component that propagate through space, similar to how a sound
wave propagates through air or water. Maxwell's theory has since proven true
and has been put to great use. His work catalyzed the development of EM wave
transmitters and receivers, eventually leading to the creation of mobile phones.
Today, there are two major systems which play an important role in both current
and future mobile technologies. Those systems are the Global System for Mobile
Communications (GSM), originated in Europe and the Code Division Multiple
Access (CDMA) Scheme, developed in the United States.
CDMA became commercially available only in the mid-1990s. However, the
origin of CDMA can be traced back to 1940. The roots of CDMA technology are in
the military field and navigation systems. Originally developed to counteract
intentional radio jamming, it was later proved to be suitable for cellular
communications.

CDMA has its roots in pre World War 2 America. In 1940, Hollywood actress
turned inventor Hedy Lamer and co-inventor George Antheil, with WW2 looming,
co-patented a way for torpedoes to be controlled by sending signals over
multiple radio frequencies.
In 1949, John Pierce wrote a technical memorandum that described a multiple
access system that used a common medium that carries a coded signal that
didn't need to be synchronized. Later that year, Claude Shannon and Robert
Pierce developed the basic operational ideas for the CDMA scheme.
Despite all efforts by inventors to advance this technology from experiment to
implementation, the US Navy discarded their work as architecturally unfeasible.
The idea which was known as frequency hopping and later as frequency hopping
spread spectrum technique remained dormant until 1957 when engineers at the
Sylvania Electronic Systems Division in Buffalo, NY took up the idea and the
Lamarr-Antheil patent expired, used it to secure communication for the US
during 1962 Cuban missile crisis.
After becoming an integral part of government security technology, the US
military, in the mids-80, declassified what's has now become CDMA technology,
a technique based on Spread Spectrum technology.
But CDMA's road was not a simple one. In fact, a panel of the world's leading
engineers reportedly met in Japan in the early 1990s to discuss the development
of wireless CDMA technology as a standard. They concluded, however, that it
was impossible.
To the founders of Qualcomm, however, "impossible" simply meant that several
thorny technical issues needed to be overcome. With unstoppable
entrepreneurial spirit, Qualcomm's team solved them all, establishing CDMA as a
legitimate wireless communications standard (and patenting it to ensure their
ownership).
Following these developments, other theoretical and technological discoveries
were made that led to Qualcomm's investigation into the use of CDMA
techniques, beginning with the introduction of narrow band CDMA IS-95
standards in July of 1993
Launched commercially in 1995, the first CDMA networks provided roughly ten
times more capacity than analog networks, and far more than TDMA or GSM.
Besides supporting more traffic, CDMA brought mobile carriers and consumers
better voice quality, broader coverage and stronger security, among other
benefits.

CDMA EV OLUTION
CDMAOne
This describes a complete wireless system based on the TIA/EIA IS-95 CDMA
standard, including IS-95A and IS-95B revisions. It represents the end-to-end
wireless system and all the necessary specifications that govern its operation.
CdmaOne provides a family of related services including cellular, PCS and fixed
wireless.
 IS-95A: TIA/EIA IS-95 (Telecommunications Industry Association / Electronic
Industries Association Interim Standard - 95) was first published in July 1993.
The IS-95A revision was published in May 1995 and is the basis for many of
the commercial 2G CDMA systems around the world. IS-95A describes the
structure of the wideband 1.25 MHz CDMA channels, power control, call
processing, hand-offs, and registration techniques for system operation. In
addition to voice services, many IS-95A operators provide circuit-switched
data connections at 14.4 kbps. IS-95A was first deployed in September 1995
by Hutchison
 IS-95B: The IS-95B revision, also termed TIA/EIA-95, combines IS-95A, ANSI-J-
STD-008 and TSB-74 into a single document. The ANSI-J-STD-008
 specification, published in 1995, defines a compatibility standard for 1.8 to
2.0 GHz CDMA PCS systems. TSB-74 describes interaction between IS-95A
and CDMA PCS systems that conform to ANSI-J-STD-008.
CDMA2000
CDMA2000 represents a family of ITU-approved, IMT-2000 (3G) standards and
includes CDMA2000 1x and CDMA20001xEV technologies. They deliver increased
network capacity to meet growing demand for wireless services and high-speed
data services.
CDMA2000 is considered a 2.5G (or 2.75G) technology when the 1xRTT access
network is used and a 3G technology when the EV-DO access network is used.
CDMA2000 was the world's first 3G technology commercially deployed October
2000.

Shannon’s Capacity Equation

The core idea that makes CDMA possible was first explained by Claude Shannon.
Shannon's work relates amount of information carried, channel bandwidth,
signal-to-noise-ratio, and detection error probability; it shows the theoretical
upper limit attainable.
MODULATION USED IN CDMA SY STEMS
In CDMA each user (the MS) is assigned a unique code (in radio environment
terms, it is unique spreading waveform). This unique code distinguishes different
users in the radio environment. We can draw an analogy between code in CDMA
and frequency in FDMA and timeslot in TDMA. Multiple-access is possible by
spreading (simple multiplication) the information signal of the user with his
unique code. Each user in the environment transmits by spreading his
information with his unique code.
All users now transmit asynchronously in the same bandwidth achieving
simultaneous access on a shared communication channel. These codes are
special and agree with the orthogonal property of vectors. The receiver uses this
property to differentiate the signals; this forms the basis of the IS-95A standard.
This technique of spreading the user waveform (small bit rate) with code (fast bit
rate) is called Spread Spectrum, which otherwise would have just occupied very
little bandwidth.

Spread Spectrum
A complete definition to Spread Spectrum is the one given by Haykins given
below.
His definition is in two parts.
1. Spread Spectrum is a means of transmission in which the data sequences
occupy a bandwidth in excess of the minimum bandwidth necessary to send it.
2. Spread Spectrum is accomplished before transmission through the use of a
code that is independent of data sequences .The same code is used at the
receiver to de-spread the received signal so that the original data sequence may
be recovered.

Concept of Spread Spectrum

When the information bearing signal and a PN sequence is multiplied at a
multiplier we obtain the desired modulation. The question is how do we get the
increased spectrum? This is a simple Fourier Transform property. Multiplication
in time domain is convolution in frequency domain. Hence by multiplying a
narrow band information signal and a wideband code sequence, the multiplied
signal will have the spectrum similar to the wideband PN code sequence.

Spread Spectrum is typically of 2 types:

• Direct Sequence (DS) and
• Frequency Hopping (FH).
In Direct Sequence the information is spread over the transmit frequency, and in
Frequency Hopping the information hops across multiple carriers in the transmit
spectrum in a pseudo-random manner. IS-95A and the other standards use DS-
CDMA. A DS-Spread Spectrum is shown in figure 1.1 below.

Figure1.1: DS-Spread Spectrum

Some points to be noted from the above diagram:

• All users share the same BW.
• Users are separated by a code, not a timeslot or frequency.
• Each user is spread in the frequency domain
• At the receive end, users are de-spread using their own unique code.
• The user axis shows the strength of the cumulative addition of signals
transmitted by all users.
Major advantages of Spread Spectrum

1. Multipath rejection: ability to reject interference; be it intentional (some

jamming transmission) or unintentional (in this technique signal of one user
interferes with another user)
2. Multipath access: a number of users use a common channel for
communication.

Synchronization
The success to a CDMA system is proper synchronization. To de-spread a spread
spectrum signal we need to use the same code used for spreading the signal.
The operation takes place in two stages acquisition and tracking. First we have
an acquisition or coarse synchronization is done, where we try to align the code
in chips away from each other. In tracking or fine synchronization we measure
the correlation and bring the receiver code in synchronism with the transmitted
code.

Principles of CDMA Radio Technology DSSS

CDMA is a form of Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum communications. In
general, Spread Spectrum communications is distinguished by three key
elements:
• The signal occupies a bandwidth much greater than that which is necessary
to send the information, which results in immunity to interference and
jamming and multi-user access;
• The bandwidth is spread by means of a code which is independent of the
data;
• The receiver synchronizes to the code to recover the data. The use of an
independent code and synchronous reception allows multiple users to access
the same frequency band at the same time. The same code is used at the
receiver to de-spread the received signal so that the original data sequence
maybe recovered. In order to protect the signal, the code used is pseudo-
random. It appears random, but is actually deterministic, so that the receiver
can reconstruct the code for synchronous detection. This pseudo-random
code is also called pseudo-noise (PN).
Concept of Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum in CDMA Technology
There are three ways to spread the bandwidth of the signal:
• Frequency hopping: The signal is rapidly switched between different
frequencies within the hopping bandwidth pseudo-randomly, and the receiver
knows beforehand where to find the signal at any given time.
• Time hopping: The signal is transmitted in short bursts pseudo-randomly,
and the receiver knows before hand when to expect the burst.
• Direct sequence: The digital data is directly coded at a much higher
frequency. The code is generated pseudo-randomly, the receiver knows how
to generate the same code, and correlates the received signal with that code
to extract the data.

Figure1.2: Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum System

Signal transmission consists of the following steps:
• A pseudo-random code is generated, different for each channel and each
successive connection.
• The Information data modulates the pseudo-random code (the Information
data is “spread”).
• The resulting signal modulates a carrier.
• The modulated carrier is amplified and broadcast.

Signal reception consists of the following steps:

• The carrier is received and amplified.
• The received signal is mixed with a local carrier to recover the spread digital
signal.
• A pseudo-random code is generated, matching the anticipated signal.
• The receiver acquires the received code and phase locks its own code to it.
• The received signal is correlated with the generated code, extracting the
Information data.

Implementing CDMA Technology

The following section describe how a system might implement the steps
illustrated in Figure 1.2.
Input data
CDMA works on Information data from different possible sources with different
data rates, such as digitized voice or ISDN channels.
The system works with 64 Kbits/sec data, but can accept input rates of 8, 16, 32,
or 64 Kbits/sec. Inputs of less than 64 Kbits/sec are padded with extra bits to
bring them up to 64 Kbits/sec. For inputs of 8, 16, 32, or 64 Kbits/sec, the system
applies Forward Error Correction (FEC) coding, which doubles the bit rate, up
to 128 Kbits/sec. The Complex Modulation scheme (which will be discussed in
more detail later), transmits two bits at a time, in two bit symbols. For inputs of
less than 64 Kbits/sec, each symbol is repeated to bring the transmission rate up
to 64 Ksymbols/sec. Each component of the complex signal carries one bit of the
two bit symbol, at 64 Kbits/sec, as shown in figure 1.3 below.

Figure1.3: Complex Modulation scheme

Generating Pseudo-Random Codes

For each channel the base station (BS) generates a unique code that changes for
every connection. The base station adds together all the coded transmissions for
every subscriber. The subscriber unit correctly generates its own matching code
and uses it to extract the appropriate signals.
In order for all this to occur, the pseudo-random code must have the following
properties:
• It must be deterministic; the subscriber station must be able to
independently generate the code that matches the base station code.
• It must appear random to a listener without prior knowledge of the code (i.e.
it has the statistical properties of sampled white noise).
• The cross-correlation between any two codes must be small.
• The code must have a long period (i.e. a long time before the code repeats
itself).
Code Correlation
In this context, correlation has a specific mathematical meaning. In general the
correlation function has these properties:
• It equals 1 if the two codes are identical
• It equals 0 if the two codes have nothing in common
Intermediate values indicate how much the codes have in common. The more
they have in common, the harder it is for the receiver to extract the appropriate
signal.
There are two correlation functions:
Cross-Correlation: The correlation of two different codes. This should be as small
as possible.
Auto-Correlation: The correlation of a code with a time-delayed version of itself.
In order to reject multi-path interference, this function should equal 0 for any
time delay other than zero.
Note: The receiver uses Cross-correlation to separate the appropriate signal
from signals meant for other receivers, and Auto-correlation to reject multi-path
interference.
Pseudo-Noise (PN) Spreading
The FEC coded Information data modulates the pseudo-random code, as shown

in Figure 1.4a.
Figure 1.4a Pseudo-Noise Spreading

Figure 1.4 b Frequency Spreading

Some terminology related to the pseudo-random code:

• Chipping Frequency (fc): the bit rate of the PN code.
• Information rate (fi): the bit rate of the digital data.
• Chip: One bit of the PN code.
• Epoch: The length of time before the code starts repeating itself (the
period of the code). The epoch must be longer than the round trip
propagation delay (The epoch is on the order of several seconds).
Figure 1.4b, shows the process of frequency spreading. In general, the
bandwidth of a digital signal is twice its bit rate. The bandwidths of the
information data (fi) and the PN code are shown together. The bandwidth of the
combination of the two, for fc>fi, can be approximated by the bandwidth of the
PN code.
Processing Gain
An important concept relating to the bandwidth is the processing gain (Gp). This
is a theoretical system gain that reflects the relative advantage that frequency
spreading provides. The processing gain is equal to the ratio of the chipping
frequency to the data frequency:

There are two major benefits from high processing gain:

• Interference rejection: the ability of the system to reject interference is
directly proportional to Gp.
• System capacity: the capacity of the system is directly proportional to Gp.
Therefore the higher the PN code bit rate (the wider the CDMA bandwidth), the
better the system performance.

Transmitting Data
The resultant coded signal next modulates an RF carrier for transmission using
Quadrature Phase Shift Keying (QPSK). QPSK uses four different states to encode
each symbol. The four states are phase shifts of the carrier spaced 90_ apart.

Figure 1.5a Complex Modulator

Figure 1.5b Complex Modulation
By convention, the phase shifts are 45, 135, 225, and 315 degrees. Since there are
four possible states used to encode binary information, each state represents two
bits. This two bit “word” is called a symbol. Figure 1.5a&b shows in general how
QPSK works.
Complex Modulation
Algebraically, a carrier wave with an applied phase shift, Y(t), can be expressed as
a sum of two components, a Cosine wave and a Sine wave, as:

I(t) is called the real, or In-phase, component of the data, and Q(t) is called the
imaginary, or Quadrature-phase, component of the data. This will result in two
Binary PSK waves superimposed. These are easier to modulate and later
demodulate.
This is not only an algebraic identity, but also forms the basis for the actual
modulation/demodulation scheme. The transmitter generates two carrier waves of
the same frequency, a sine and cosine. I(t) and Q(t) are binary, modulating each
component by phase shifting it either 0 or 180 degrees. Both components are then
summed together. Since I(t) and Q(t) are binary, they will be denoted as simply I
and Q.
The receiver generates the two reference waves, and demodulates each
component. It is easier to detect 180_ phase shifts than 90_ phase shifts. The
following table summarizes this modulation scheme. Note that I and Q are
normalized to 1.

Symb I Q Phase
ol shift
00 + + 45°
1 1
01 + -1 315°
1
10 -1 + 135°
1
11 -1 -1 225°
Table 1.1 Modulation scheme
For Digital Signal Processing, the two-bit symbols are considered to be complex
numbers, I +jQ.

Working with Complex Data

In order to make full use of the efficiency of Digital Signal Processing, the
conversion of the Information data into complex symbols occurs before the
modulation. The system generates complex PN codes made up of two independent
components, PNi +jPNq. To spread the Information data the system performs
complex multiplication between the complex PN codes and the complex data.
Summing many Channels Together: Many channels are added together and
transmitted simultaneously. This addition happens digitally at the chip rate.
Remember, there are millions of chips in each symbol. For clarity, let each chip be
represented by an 8 bit word.

At the Chip Rate

• Information data is converted to two bit symbols.
• The first bit of the symbol is placed in the I-data stream; the second bit is
placed in the Q-data stream.
• The complex PN code is generated. The complex PN code has two
independently generated components, an ‘I’ component and a ‘Q’
component.
• The complex Information data and complex PN code are multiplied together.
For each component (I or Q):
• Each chip is represented by an 8 bit word. However, since one chip is either a
one or a zero, the 8 bit word equals either 1 or -1.
• When many channels are added together, the 8-bit word, as the sum of all
the chips, can take on values from between +128 to -128.
 • The 8-bit word then goes through a Digital to Analog Converter, resulting in
an analog level proportional to the value of the 8-bit word.
• This value then modulates the amplitude of the carrier (the I component
modulates the Cosine, the Q component modulates the Sine)
• The modulated carriers are added together.

Since I and Q are no longer limited to 1 or -1, the phase shift of the composite
carrier is not limited to the four states; the phase and amplitude vary as
A2 = I 2 + Q2
Tan(Y) = Q/I

At the Symbol Rate

Since the PN-code has the statistical properties of random noise, it averages to zero
over long periods of time. Therefore, fluctuations in I and Q, and hence the phase
modulation of the carrier, that occur at the chip frequency, average to zero. Over
the symbol period the modulation averages to one of the four states of QPSK, which
determine what the symbol is.
The symbol only sees the QPSK, and obeys all the statistical properties of QPSK
transmission, including Bit Error Rate.
Receiving Data
The receiver performs the following steps to extract the Information:
• Demodulation
• Code acquisition and lock
• Correlation of code with signal
• Decoding of Information data
Demodulation: The receiver generates two reference waves, a Cosine wave and a
Sine wave. Separately mixing each with the received carrier, the receiver extracts
I(t) and Q(t). Analog to Digital converters restore the 8-bit words representing the I
and Q chips.
Code Acquisition and Lock: The receiver, as described earlier, generates its own
complex PN code that matches the code generated by the transmitter. However, the
local code must be phase-locked to the encoded data. The Radio Carrier Station
(RCS) or Base Station (BS) and a Fixed Subscriber Unit (FSU) or Mobile Station (MS)
each have different ways of acquiring and locking onto the other’s transmitted
code.
Correlation and Data Dispreading: Once the PN code is phase-locked to the
pilot, the received signal is sent to a correlator that multiplies it with the complex
PN code, extracting the I and Q data meant for that receiver. The receiver
reconstructs the Information data from the I and Q data.

BAN D OF OPERA TION

There are 2 CDMA common air interface standards: Cellular (824-894 MHz) - IS-
95A and
PCS (1850-1990 MHz) - Joint-STD-008

1. Cellular Band
 45 MHz spacing for forward & reverse channel
 Frequency assignments are on 30 kHz increments

Figure1.6: Cellular/PCS Spectrum

2. PCS Band
 80 MHz spacing for forward & reverse channel
 Frequency assignments are on 50 kHz increments

Cell Configuration in CDMA

In Wireless communication we divide a whole geographical area into smaller chunks
called cells. A single BS services each of these cells. These cells are grouped into
groups of 3 –7 cells to form a cluster. Groups of clusters are put under a single BSC.
All the BSCs in PLMN are controlled by a MSC. By repeating the 7-cell cluster over a
city we can service the entire area by planning just one cluster.

Figure 1.7: seven Cells forming a cluster

Planning cells for a city is a lot more complicated and elaborate task but on paper in
ideal conditions, this is a simple concept.

This hierarchy of cells helps increasing capacity and easy of routing calls apart from
other operational advantages. But the final number of cells in an area is comprised
of factors like the density of calls ,number of BSs , size of each cell ,capacity, the
budget in hand etc.

Comparison of Frequency Planning between FDMA/TDMA and CDMA

In the case of FDMA/TDMA a given spectrum would be divided into smaller chunks,
each of these chunks uniquely assigned to a cell in a cluster. By repeating this
pattern (frequency re-use technique) a big city is serviced by the limited spectrum
as illustrated in figure 1.7. Smaller bandwidth for transmission compromises on
quality of signal. This planning of frequencies is called Frequency Planning. This
distribution of frequencies in a cluster is important to combat co-channel
interference and adjacent channel interference between repeating clusters.
 Figure 1.7: Frequency re-use pattern; FDMA/TDMA VS CDMA

In CDMA, frequency planning is minimal; the entire spectrum can be assigned to all
the cells in the cluster as shown in Figure 1.7. This is possible because of the
orthogonal property of the unique codes used for transmission. As a consequence,
usage of the entire spectrum enhances the quality of voice. Adjacent channel
interference is combated by power control (we will discuss this later) and planning
of Walsh codes in use at the BSC level.

ENVIR ONMENT AR OUND T HE MOBILE S TATION

Information flows from the BS to the MS via the forward channel or the forward link
and from the MS to the BS via the reverse channel or reverse link.
Walsh, Short PN and Long PN Codes
Walsh Codes: We first came across the unique codes for spreading. These special
codes are called Walsh Codes. In each cell, a user has a dedicated Walsh Code.
These codes follow the orthogonal property of vector i.e. auto-correlation of a code
is 1 and correlation with any other code is 0. In IS-95A and IS-95B we use 64
orthogonal codes and in CDMA-2000 we use 128 orthogonal codes. These codes are
also used for spreading on a forward link. Hence the understanding now is that the
forward link is divided into as many Walsh Codes and called a Code Channel. On the
reverse link the Walsh Codes are not used to differentiate users but for 64-ary
modulation.

Short PN Code: This is a 16 bit short PN Code used to identify the BS and hence
the cell. Distinguishing of the different BS is done by assigning an offset of this code
to a common time reference to each BS in the network. On the reverse link the
mobile uses the code for extra signal robustness, but without any offset. Services of
the GPS (Global Positing System) are used in synchronizing the various offsets of BS
in the network.

Long PN Code: This code on the reverse link is used for spreading, meaning
identifying the mobile station. It is 42-bit code. On the forward link it is used for data
scrambling

CDMA Logi cal Ch an nels

FORWARD LINK
The Forward CDMA link consists of up to 64 logical channels (code channels). A code
channel is one of a set of 64 so-called Walsh functions. The Walsh makes the
channels completely separable in the receiver. Each forward code channel is spread
by the Short Code (short PN code) , which has I- and Q-components. The two coded,
covered, and spread streams are vector-modulated on the RF carrier. The spreading
modulation is thus QPSK, superimposed on a BPSK code symbol stream.
The Forward Link is divided into 64 code channels. The logical structure is
described below.
 Pilot Channel: This channel is all zeros – carrying no data information. This
channel is the beacon channel that defines the radius of the cell and hence is
transmitted with the largest power. It is used as a timing source in system
acquisition and as a measurement device during handoffs (MAHO). pilot
channel is assigned W0.The period of the pilot short code, 215= 26.67 ms at the
1.2288 MHz chip rate. The pilot phases are assigned to BS in multiples of 64
chips, giving a total of 215/ 64= 512 possible assignments. Hence this 9-bit
number (512 assignments) identifies the pilot phase assignment is called the
Pilot Offset.

 Synchronization Channel: Used by the mobile during system acquisition to

receive the system time, system identification and parameter information and
state of the Long Code. Sync Channel is W32. This operates at 1200 bps.
 Paging Channel: This channel carries overhead messages, pages, call setup
messages and orders. The bps (4800 or 9600bps) of this channel is got from the
Synchronization Channel. The paging channel is assigned Walsh codes W1-W7.
W1 is called the primary paging channel and overhead messages are always
transmitted on the primary PCH. It operates in slotted-mode (mobiles ‘sleep’
and ‘wakeup’ when it’s time to listen).
 Traffic Channel: The traffic channels are assigned to individual users to carry
call traffic. All the remaining Walsh codes are available, subject to overall
capacity limited by noise.

REVERSE LINK
42-1
Reverse CDMA Channel consists of 2 logical channels. One of the logical
channels is permanently and uniquely associated with each MS. The channel does
not change upon handoff.
The reverse CDMA Channel does not follow the strict orthogonal rule strictly uses a
very long period spreading code, in distinct phases. The correlations between
mobile stations are not zero, but they are acceptably small.
  Access Channel: Access channels are used by mobiles not yet in a call; to
transmit registration requests, call setup requests, page responses, order
responses, and other signaling information. An access channel is really just a
public long code offset unique to the BTS sector. Access channels are paired
to Paging Channels. Each paging channel can have up to 32 access channels.
These channels operate at 4800 bps.
 Reverse Traffic Channel: The reverse traffic channels are used by
individual users during their actual calls to transmit traffic to the BTS. A
reverse traffic channel is really just a user-specific public or private Long
Code mask

PO WER CONTR OL IN CDM A SY STEMS

The success of the system lies in controlling the total power in the CDMA system.
In a CDMA environment every MS (i.e. a handset) is a source of noise to the other.
At the receiver at the MS sees the radio environment around it as a cumulative
addition of information for itself and Interference. The interference is information for
other MSs plus noise from others sources. Hence if the interference is more, the
information signal cannot be retrieved.
A mobile has a special receiver called a RAKE receiver that can make estimates of
multipath fading and retrieve the information for a particular mobile. The simple
mathematical steps outline how the receiver works.
SI(t) =Information signal for Ith mobile
WI(t) =Walsh Code for Ith mobile
R (t)= Received signal at RAKE receiver
Hence at any RAKE receiver the received signal will be (assuming no multipath
fading)
R (t) = Σ SI(t)⊕ WI(t)
Example; retrieving the signal for user1
W1(t) Å R(t) = W1(t) ⊕ Σ SI(t)⊕ WI(t)
= S1(t) + 0
The orthogonal property of Walsh Codes makes zero the noise and retrieves the
signal.
Hence if noise or interference is more it will blind the receiver.

Generally the BS gets bombarded by signals from many different MS. Some of these
MS are close and their signals are much stronger than MS farther away. This results
in the Near/Far problem inherent in CDMA communications. System Capacity is also
dependent on the signal power. For these reasons, both the BS and MS measure the
received power and send signals to control the others transmit power.

Ch ar act eristic s o f P ower Contr ol

• Power control on both the forward and reverse link.

• It Increases CDMA system capacity
• Power Control prevents Near/Far problem

Auto ma ti c po wer co ntr ol on b oth the Forw ar d/R ever se Lin k

Forward/Reverse Link: The BS uses Closed Loop Power Control on the forward
link. The mobile station periodically informs the BS to increase or decrease its
power.

Reverse Link Power Control: two types exist;

 Open Loop Power Control: The Open Loop Power Control is used during
access attempts. It increases the power during each attempt. The
Communication process is not affected by increasing power at the BS
receiver, since BS has already informed the power increment step on each
attempt to the MS on a broadcast mobile.
 Closed Loop Power Control: In Closed Loop Power Control there is a feedback
procedure. This type of power control is used when the MS is using the traffic
channel resources i.e. when active. The BS is continuously monitoring the
reverse link. If it finds the quality of the reverse link poor, then it will instruct
the mobile to increase its power by inserting power control bits in traffic data.
This insertion of power bits for power control is called Bit Puncturing. The BS
does this every 800 b/s.
System Capacity
The capacity of a system is approximated by:

The capacity is directly proportional to the processing gain and also inversely
proportional to the signal to noise ratio of the received signal. Therefore the smaller
the transmitted signal, the larger the system capacity (as long as the receiver can
detect the signal in the noise). Both the BS and MS control the power transmitted by
the other so that the received signal is as small as possible while maintaining a
minimum signal to noise ratio. This maximizes system capacity
Ne ar / F ar Pr obl em
A user close to a cell would saturate the receiver and eliminate all users further
away, unless the power is controlled. This is referred to as Near /Far problem.
Because the cross-correlation between two PN codes is not exactly equal to zero,
the system must overcome the Near/Far problem.

The output of the correlator consists of two components:

• The autocorrelation of the PN code with the desired coded signal
• The sum of the cross-correlation of the PN code with all the other coded
signals.

Mathematically, if we are trying to decode the kth signal, we have:

Where:
Aj is the amplitude of the jth signal,
rjk is the cross-correlation between the kth and jth signal, and
S is the sum over all the j signals (excluding k).
Since the cross-correlation is small (ideally, it is zero), the sum of cross-correlation
terms should be much less than the amplitude of the desired signal. However, if the
desired signal is broadcast from far away, and undesired signals are broadcast from
much closer, the desired signal may be so small as to be drowned out by the cross-
correlation terms.
Note: This problem only exists in the reverse direction. The BS is receiving signals
from many MS at different distances, but the MS is receiving all signals from one BS.
The BS controls the power of each MS so that the signals received from all MS are
the same strength.

Interf er ence R ejection

CDMA technology is inherently resistant to interference and jamming. A common
problem with urban communications is multi-path interference.
Multi-path interference is caused by the broadcast signal traveling over different
paths to reach the receiver. The receiver then has to recover the signal combined
with echoes of varying amplitude and phase. This results in two types of
interference:
• Inter-chip interference: The reflected signals are delayed long enough that
successive bits (or chips, in this case) in the demodulated signals overlap,
creating uncertainty in the data.
• Selective fading: The reflected signals are delayed long enough that they are
randomly out of phase, and add destructively to the desired signal, causing it to
fade.
Combating Interference
Two methods are commonly used to combat multi-path interference:
• Rake filter: Correlators are set up at appropriate time intervals to extract all
the echoes. The relative amplitude and phase of each echo is measured, and
each echo signal is phase corrected and added to the signal.
• Adaptive Matched Filter: This filter is “matched” to the transfer function (i.e.
the propagation characteristics) of the signal path. It phase shifts the echo
signals and adds them to maximize the received signal.