Komunikasi Analog

V.
Chandra Sekar
Oxford University Press 2013
Introduction
Communication Basics
Communication deals with the principle of transferring information from one place to another. It involves transmission and reception, and processing of information between these two locations. The source could be in continuous form as in the case of analog communication and as discrete signals as in the case of digital communication. Short distance transmission of information is called baseband transmission.
Communication Basics
For long distance transmission, information has to be impressed upon an high frequency component to be able to reach the reception end of communication. The high frequency component is termed as a carrier and the entire process is called modulation.
Need For Modulation

To translate the frequency of a low-pass signal to a higher band so that the spectrum of the transmitted bandpass signal matches the bandpass characteristics of the channel. For efficient transmission, it has been found that the antenna dimension has to be of the same order of magnitude as the wavelength of the signal being transmitted. Since C= f for a typical low-frequency signal of 2 kHz, the wavelength works out to be 150 km. Even assuming the height of the Antenna half the wavelength, the height works out to be 75 km, which is impracticable.
Need For Modulation
To enable transmission of a signal from several message sources simultaneously through a single channel employing frequency division multiplexing. To improve noise and interference immunity in transmission over a noise channel by expanding the bandwidth of the transmitted signal.
Frequency Translation
The modulation process shifts the modulating frequency to a higher frequency, which in turn depends on the carrier frequency, thus producing upper and lower sidebands. Hence, signals are upconverted from low frequencies to high frequencies and downconverted from high frequencies to low frequencies in the receiver. The process of converting a frequency or a band of frequencies to another location in the frequency spectrum is called frequency translation.
Types Of Modulation
Depending on whether the amplitude, frequency, or phase of the carrier is varied in accordance with the modulation signal, we classify the modulation as Amplitude modulation Frequency modulation Phase modulation. The method of converting information into pulse form and then transmitting it over a long distance is called pulse modulation.
Transmitter
The message as it arrives may not be suitable for direct transmission. It may be voice signal, music, picture, or data. The signals, which are not of electrical nature, have to be converted into electrical signals. This is the role of transmitter. Typical block diagram is illustrated below.
Receiver
A receiver is meant to receive the electromagnetic signal which carries the information. It is tuned to receive the required information at a predetermined frequency. The output of the receiver is usually fed into a transducer which converts the information into understandable signal.
Multiplexing
When it is required to transmit more signals on the same channel, baseband transmission fails, as in the case of audio signals being broadcast from different stations on the same channel. To encounter this problem either frequency division multiplexing or time division multiplexing is employed. This method of transmitting several channels simultaneously is known as frequency division multiplexing (FDM). In Time Division Multiplexing (TDM) several signals are transmitted over a time interval. Each signal is allotted a time slot and it gets repeated cyclically. The only difference compared to FDM is that the signals are to be sampled before sending.
V. Chandra Sekar
Signals An Introduction
Signals
Signals: Any function that carries information. Shows how a parameter varies with another parameter. Will be dealing with signals with time or frequency as an independent variable
Signals
Signals are classified as:
Continuous and discrete. Causal and Non causal. Even and Odd. Deterministic and Random Real and complex Energy and power type
Discrete Signals
Continuous Signals
Causal Signals
Even & Odd Signals
Special Signals
sin c(t ) = sin ( t )
Signum Signals
Sgn(t) = = 1, -1, t>0 t<0
Impulse or Delta signal
(t ) = 1

and v(t ) (t )dt = v(t )
Classification Of Systems
Discrete time and Continuous Time systems. Time Invariant and Time varying systems Causal and Non Causal system Instantaneous and Dynamic systems Stable and Unstable systems
Fourier Series & Transform

1. Fourier series: - Any periodic of function of time x(t) having a fundamental period T and frequency 1/T can be represented as an infinite series of sinusoidal waveforms of fundamental and its harmonic frequencies. 2. If a function is x(t), its Fourier series is given by:
x(t 0 = a0 + an cos(2 fnt ) + bn sin(2 fnt )

= n 1= n 1
Where:
a0 1 = T 2 T
T 2
T 2
x (t ) dt
T 2
an = = b n
x (t ) cos
T 2
2 nt dt T
2 = T
x (t ) sin(2 nt ) dt
Fourier Transform
To represent aperiodic function Fourier transform is used Unlike Fourier series, this representation will be continuous in frequency domain It is given by: j 2 ft
X(f ) =
x(t )e
dt
Also x(t) can be obtained from X(f) as:
x(t) =
j 2ft X f e df ( )
Laplace Transform
1.
It converts time domain signal into frequency domain a plane called s plane having as the real part and as the imaginary part.
2. Laplace transform is given by the expression:
x( ) =
x(t )e st dt
i.e. X ( ) =
x(t )e ( + jw)t dt
3. The inverse Laplace transform is given by:
x(t ) =
2 j
st X ( s ) e ds
Z Transform
Z transform is a polar representation compared to rectangular representation in Laplace transform It is for discrete time function Z transform of a function x(t) is given by: X [ z ] = x[n]z n Inverse Z transform is given by:
1 x[n] = x[ z ] Z
In Z transforms a term ROC is defined as region of convergence where the Z transform of a function has finite value.
V. Chandra Sekar
Amplitude Modulation
Amplitude Modulation
Amplitude of the carrier is changed in proportion to the instantaneous amplitude of a message signal Carrier frequency must be relatively higher than the message frequency Modulation index m is the ratio of Em/Ec Percentage of modulation = m x 100%
AM Envelope
Frequency Spectrum Of AM Wave
Power Spectrum Of AM
Other AM Systems
Suppressed Carrier Systems Double side band (DSB) system Single side band system(SSB) SSB with pilot carrier Independent side band (ISB) system Vestigial side band (VSB) system
AM Waveforms For AM, DSB & SSB
Single Sideband
Advantages:
Lesser power consumption. Conservation of bandwidth. Noise reduction. Less fading.
Disadvantages:
Requires complex receiver. At the receiver, coherent carrier has to be generated. In case of pilot carrier, at the receiver end it has to be boosted properly.
AM Modulators
Square law Modulators Switching Modulators Transistor Modulators
Low level Medium level High level
Types Of Modulators
Balanced Modulators
1. Balanced ring Modulator 2. Balanced bridge Modulator 3. Transistor balanced Modulator 4. FET balanced Modulator
SSB Generation
1. The filter method 2. The phase shift method 3. The Third method
Demodulators, Distortions & Reception

AM Demodulators
1. Rectifier detector 2. Envelope detector
Detector Distortions
1. Diagonal peak clipping 2. Negative peak clipping SSB Reception 1. Coherent detection 2. Reception with pilot carrier
AM Transmitters
Low Level AM DSBFC Transmitter
High Level DSBFC Transmitter
SSB Transmitter
SSB suppressed carrier Transmitter: BPF is used to remove the other sideband
Phase Shift Method
SSB Transmitter With Pilot Carrier
AM Receiver
Super Heterodyne Receiver
SSB Pilot Receiver
Communication Receiver
Receiver Parameters
Selectivity Sensitivity Dynamic range Fidelity Bandwidth Noise temperature and equivalent noise temperature
Costas Loop
V. Chandra Sekar
Angle Modulation
Introduction
Angle modulation includes both frequency and phase modulations. In Frequency Modulation(FM), the frequency of the carrier is changed with respect to amplitude of the message signal In phase modulation(PM), the phase of the carrier is changed with respect to amplitude of the message signal Unlike AM, both FM and PM are nonlinear, hence much more difficult to implement and analyze.
Modulation Index & Deviation

1. Modulation index for FM wave is given by: Where f is the frequency deviation and fm is the modulating frequency 2. The expression for an FM wave is:
= f FM (t ) A cos[2 f c t + sin{2 f m (t )}]
f = fm
3. Modulation index for PM wave is given by: where, K p is the phase deviation given by: 4. The expression for an PM wave is:
kp =
m = k p Em
Em
= f PM (t ) A cos[2 f c t + cos{2 f m (t )}]
Frequency & Phase Modulator

Phase modulator can be used to generate FM wave and FM modulator can be used to generate PM wave as shown:
FM & PM Waves
Narrowband FM
FM with <<1 is called narrowband FM Expression for narrow band FM: f(t) = Vc {cos ct - cos (c m) t + cos (c + m) t} Phasor diagram of narrowband FM:
Wideband FM
FM with > 10 is called wideband FM Expression for wideband FM: f(t) = Jo() cos c t J1(){ cos(c m) t cos(c m) t}+ J2 () { cos (c - 2m) t + cos (c + 2m) t} J3 () { cos (c - 3m) t cos (c - 3m t) } + ------ The function Jn() is called the Bessel function. The spectrum is composed of a carrier with an amplitude Jo () and a set of side bands spaced symmetrically on either side of the carrier at frequency separation of m, 2m, 3m --- and so on. Unlike AM, FM has an infinite number of side bands along with carrier. These side bands are separated from the carrier by fm, 2fm, 3fm ---------.
Bessel Function As A Function Of
Bessel Function Values
Bandwidth Requirements For Angle Modulated Waves

Carsons formula for bandwidth of FM system Band width = 2(f + fm) HZ For low modulation index, in case of narrow band FM since 2f << fm, equation reduces to Band width = 2fm and for wide band FM where f >> fm, equation reduces to Band width = 2f. Average power in sinusoidal wideband FM: PT = Vc2 Jo2 () /R + 2Vc2 /R { J12 () + J22 () + J32 () + ---------- } = Vc2 /R [ J02 () + 2 { J12 () + J22 () + J32 () + -------------- }] = Pc [ Jo2 () + 2 { J12 () + J22 () + J32 () + ------------------- }] where Pc is the unmodulated power Vc2 /R.
Sinusoidal Phase Modulation

The expression for sinusoidal FM is: Kp em(t) = Kp Em sin m t = sin m t where = Kp Em, is defined as Peak phase deviation and is directly proportional to the peak modulating signal.
Phasor Representation
FM & PM Generation
FM generation Varactor diode modulators Reactance modulators Modulators using linear integrated circuits Indirect methods for narrow band and wideband PM generation: Varactor diode in direct PM modulators Direct method with transistor
FM Detectors
Slope detector Balance slope detector Foster Seeley discriminator Ratio detector Demodulator using PLL Quadrature detector Zero crossing detector
FM Transmitter
Crosby Direct FM Transmitter:
Indirect FM Transmitter
FM Receivers
Super heterodyne Receiver
Double Superheterodyne Receiver
Phased Lock Loop

It is a feedback system that generates a signal that has a fixed relation to the phase of a reference signal . A phase locked loop circuit responds to both the frequency and phase of the input signals, by changing the frequency of the voltage controlled oscillator until it matches to the reference input in both frequency and phase. Hence it is a negative feedback system except that the feedback error signal is a phase rather than a current or voltage signal as usually the case in conventional feedback system.
PLL Block Diagram (Analog)
PLL Block Diagram (Digital)
PLL Applications
Data and Tape Synchronization Modems FSK Modulation FM Demodulation Frequency Synthesizer Tone Decoding Frequency Multiplication and Division
Direct Digital Synthesis

Is a powerful technique to generate RF signals. A direct digital synthesizer operates by storing the points of a waveform in digital format, and then recalling them to generate the waveform. The rate at which the synthesizer completes one waveform then determines the frequency.
Direct Digital Synthesis

Block Diagram :
V. Chandra Sekar
Pulse Modulation
Pulse Modulation
In analog pulse modulation, the carrier is a periodic pulse train The amplitude, position and width of the carrier pulse train are varied in a continuous manner in accordance with the corresponding sample value of message signal. Thus in Pulse modulation, information is transmitted basically in analog form, but the transmission takes place at discrete times.
In the case of digital pulse modulation the message signal is represented in a form that is discrete in both time and amplitude The data is transmitted as a sequence of coded pulse. This type of modulation is also called pulse code modulation (PCM). PCM is the most widely used form in the field of Telecommunication. Digital Data transmission provides a higher level of noise immunity, more flexibility in the band width Power tradeoff possibility of providing more security to data and ease of implementation using large scale integrated circuits.
Predominant Methods Of Pulse Modulation

Pulse width modulation (PWM) Pulse position modulation (PPM) Pulse amplitude modulation (PAM) Pulse code modulation (PCM)
Pulse Width Modulation
Pulse Amplitude Modulation
Pulse Amplitude Modulation
Pulse Modulation Technique
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

PCM offers a method of over coming some of the disadvantages of other type of pulse modulation. In PCM the instantaneous amplitude of the sample is represented by a binary code resulting in a series of ones and zeros or mark and space. All pulses have the same height and same shape Since only ones and zeros are sent. The receiver has only to detect the presence or absence of a pulse. A distorted pulse does not degrade the signal as long as the pulse can still be recognized. Hence PCM is less sensitive to noise than wither PAM or PWM
PCM Transmitter & Receiver
Multiplexing
When more than one application or connection share the capacity of one link it is called multiplexing. This results in better utilization of resources. A typical example is, many conversations over telephone line, trunk line, wireless channel, etc. A few examples of multiplexing are: TDM- Time division multiplexing FDM- Frequency division multiplexing WDM- Wavelength division multiplexing CDMA- Code division multiple access
FDM Transmitter
FDM Receiver
Synchronous TDM Transmitter
Synchronous TDM Receiver
Analog Carrier System Using FDM
Digital Carrier System Using TDM

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Need For Modulation

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Need For Modulation

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Even & Odd Signals

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Impulse or Delta signal

and v(t ) (t )dt = v(t )

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Fourier Series & Transform

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Also x(t) can be obtained from X(f) as:

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2. Laplace transform is given by the expression:

3. The inverse Laplace transform is given by:

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Frequency Spectrum Of AM Wave

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AM Waveforms For AM, DSB & SSB

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Demodulators, Distortions & Reception

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High Level DSBFC Transmitter

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Phase Shift Method

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SSB Transmitter With Pilot Carrier

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SSB Pilot Receiver

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Modulation Index & Deviation

= f PM (t ) A cos[2 f c t + cos{2 f m (t )}]

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Frequency & Phase Modulator

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