16 Ultrasonics

16.1 Ultrasonic Waves:

We all know that sound is due to vibrations f one or the other kind of particles. The
human ear can hear the sound waves between 20 Hz to 20 kHz. This range is known as audible
range. The sound waves having frequencies above the audible range are known as ultrasonic
waves or supersonic waves. The wavelengths of ultrasonic waves are very small as compared to
audible sound. Most of the applications of the ultrasonic waves have been possible on account of
their small wavelengths. The wavelength of ultrasonic waves I air will be 1.8cms at 2.khz and
becomes much less at higher frequencies (0.035 m at 1M Hz). The ultrasonic waves are acoustic
waves of short wavelength and very high frequency. The sound waves which have frequencies
less than the audible range are called infrasonic waves.
16.2 Production of Ultrasonic waves.
This ultrasonic waves cannot be produced by our usual method of a diaphragm
loudspeaker fed with alternating current. This is due the fact that a very high frequencies, the
inductive effect of the loudspeaker coil is so large that practically no current passes through it.
Moreover, the diaphragm of a loudspeaker cannot vibrate at such high frequencies. Hence other
methods are used for the production of ultrasonic waves. There are two important methods
namely magnetostriction and piezo electric method which are mostly used now-a-days.
Magnetostriction method is used when frequencies up to 100 kHz are needed while piezo electric
generators are used mostly for frequencies above that. Here we shall discuss these two methods:
(1) Magnetostriction method. This method is based on the phenomenon of
Magnetostriction. According to this phenomenon when a rod of ferromagnetic material, such
as iron or nickel, is placed in a magnetic field parallel to its length, a small expansion or
contraction occurs. This change of length is independent of the sign of the field and depends
only upon the magnitude of the field and nature of the material. If the rod is placed inside a
coil carrying an alternating current, then it suffers the same change in length for each half
cycle of alternating current. This result in setting up vibrations in the rod whose frequency is
twice that of alternating current. Ordinarily the amplitude of the vibrations of rod is small. If,
however, the frequency of the alternating current is the same as the natural frequency of the
rod, then resonance occurs and the amplitude of vibrations is considerable increased. Sound
waves are now emitted from the ends of the rod. Moreover, if the applied frequency is of the
order of ultrasonic frequency, the rod sends out ultrasonic waves.
An experimental arrangement due to Pierce for producing ultrasonic waves is shown in
Fig. (1). There is a short nickel rod AB which is clamped at the centre. The rod is permanently
magnetized in the beginning by passing a direct current in the coil which is wrapped round the
rod. There are two other coils L
1
and L
2
which are wrapped round the rod as shown in the figure.
The coil L
2
is connected in the plate circuit of a valve V while L
1
is connected in the grid circuit.
The frequency of the oscillating plate circuit is adjusted with the help of a variable condenser C
connected across the coil L
2
. The direct current milli ammeter (mA) reads the plate current.
When the frequency of plate circuit is the same as the natural frequency of the rod, resonant
vibrations are produced in the surrounding medium. The vibrations are maintained due to the
coupling provided b coil L
1
. When the resonant oscillations start, the milli ammeter records the
maximum current. The maintenance of the oscillations of the rod is as follows :
When the plate current passing through the coil L
2
is changed, it causes a
corresponding change in the magnetization of the rod (the rod is already magnetized by the
steady polarizing magnetic field). Thus there is a change in the length of the rod. This vibration
in the length causes a vibration in the magnetic flux through the grid coil L
1
which in turn
changes the e.m.f developed across L
1
. This e.m.f acts on the grid and produces an amplified
current change in the plate circuit i.e., in the coil L
2
. In this way the plate current builds upto a
large amplitude with a frequency determined by the frequency of the longitudinal vibration of the
rod. Thus, the vibrations of the rod are maintained. When the frequency of the circuit becomes
equal to the frequency of the rod, resonance occurs and the sound waves of maximum amplitude
are generated. By adjusting the length of the rod and the capacity of the condenser, high
frequency oscillations of different frequencies are obtained.
(2) Piezo-electric method : This method is based on Piezo electric effect. According to this
effect when certain crystals like quartz, Rochelle salt, tourmaline etc. are stretched or compressed
along certain axis ( known as mechanical axis), an electric potential difference is produced along a
perpendicular axis (known as electric axis). The converse of this effect is also true i.e., when an
alternating potential difference is applied along the electric axis, the crystal is set into elastic vibration
along the corresponding with the natural frequency of the crystal, the vibrations will be of large
amplitude. This phenomenon is utilized for the production of ultrasonic waves. The alternating
potential difference is obtained by a valve oscillator.
Quartz crystal is six sided prism with pyramid shaped ends as shown in fig (2a). it has
following three major axes :
(i) Optic axis or z-axis. The line joining the apexes of the end pyramids is known
as z-axis.
(ii) The electrical axis or x-axis. The axis passes through any set of opposite corners
is known as x-axis.
(iii) The mechanical axis or y-axis. The axis passing through the opposite faces is
known as y-axis.
The X and Y cuts of the crystal are shown in fig. (2b). as shown in fig., the X-cut slab makes an
angle of 90
0
with the X-axis while Y-cut slab makes an angle of 90
0
with Y-axis.
X-cut slabs are used for the generation of ultrasonic because they produce longitudinal waves. Y-
cut produce shear waves, which can travel only in solids.
The experimental arrangement is shown in fig. (3). The high frequency alternating
voltage which is applied to crystal is obtained by Hartley oscillatory circuit. The Hartley circuit
consists of a tuned oscillatory circuit (inductance L
1
and a variable condenser C
1
in parallel). One
end of the tuned circuit is connected to the plate of a valve while the other is connected to the
grid. The coil L
1
is tapped near the centre and joined to the cathode. The X-cut quartz crystal Q is
connected in parallel of variable condenser C
1
.


The proper grid bias is obtained by means of grid leak resistor R
g
and grid condenser C
g
.
The d.c. voltage is applied to the plate through radio frequency choke. The radio frequency
choke prevents the radio frequency current to pass through high tension battery. C
b
is a blocking
capacitor which prevents the direct current to pass through the tank circuit while bypasses the
radio frequency currents. The capacity of the variable condenser C
1
is adjusted so that the
frequency of the oscillating circuit is tuned to the natural frequency of the crystal. Now the
quartz crystal is set into mechanical vibrations and ultrasonic waves are produced. The ultrasonic
waves upto a frequency of 500 kHz with a moderate size crystal can be produced by this method.
However, frequency upto 15 x 10
7
Hz can be produced by tourmaline crystal.
The velocity of quartz along X-direction is given by
Y
v

=
For quartz, Y=7.9 x 10
10
N/m
2
and =2650kg/m
3

10
7.9 10
5450 /
2650
v m s
| |
= =
|
\ .

If t be the thickness of quartz slab in metres, then
(2 ) V t v v = =
5450 2725

2 2
V
Hz
t t t
v = = =
If t is expressed in mm, then
2725 2725000
/ 1000 t t
v = =
2725
kHz
t
v =
So, for a thickness of 1 mm of quartz crystal
v =2725 KHz = 2.725 M Hz
When, by adjusting the variable capacitor C
1
of tank circuit, the crystal is made to vibrate at its
natural frequency, then the frequency of oscillatory circuit gives the frequency of vibrations of
quartz crystal, thus,
( )
1 1
1
2 LC
v
t
=

16.3 DETECTION OF ULTRASONICS
We cannot directly detect the ultrasonics although some animals specially the bat can do
so. However, the ultrasonics can be detected by the following methods :
(1) Piezo electric detector. The quartz crystal can also be used for the detectin of
ultrasonics. One pair of faces of quartz crystal is subjected to ultrasonics. On the other
faces which are perpendicular to the previous one, varying electric charges are produced.
Of course, the charges are very small. These charges are, therefore, amplified and then
detected by some suitable means.
(2) Kundts tube method: A Kundts tube can be used to detect ultrasonic waves of
relatively large wavelength as done for audible sound waves. When ultrasonic waves are
passed through the tube, the lycopodium powder sprinkled in the tube collects in the form
of heaps at the nodal points and is blown off at the antinodal points.
(3) Sensitive flame method: When a narrow sensitive flame is moved in a medium
where ultrasonic waves are present, the flame remains stationary at antinodes and flickers
at nodes.
(4) Thermal detector method: in this method a fine platinum wire is moved in the medium
of ultrasonic waves, the temperature of the medium changes due to alternate compressions
and rarefractions. There is a change of temperature at nodes while at antinodes, the
temperature remains constant. Hence, there resistance of the platinum wire changes at
nodes and remains constant at antinodes. The change in the resistance of platinum wire
with respect to time can be detected by using sensitive bridge arrangement. The bridge will
be in the balanced position when the platinum wire is at antinodes.

16.4 PROPERTIES OF ULTRASONICS
(i) They are highly energetic
(ii) Their speed of propagation depends upon their frequency, i.e., increase in frequency.
(iii) They show negligible diffraction due to their small wavelength. Hence they can be
transmitted over long distances without any appreciable loss of energy.
(iv) Intense ultrasonic radiation has a disruptive effect on liquids by causing bubbies to be
formed.
(v) When ultrasonic waves are propagated in a liquid bath, stationary wave pattern is
formed due to the reflection of wave from the other end. The density of the liquid thus varies
from layer to layer along the direction of propagation. In this way a plane diffraction grating is
formed which can diffract light.


16.5 WAVELENGTH OF ULTRASONIC WAVES
The phenomenon of diffraction of light by ultrasonic waves passing through a liquid was
first observed by Debye and Sears in America in 1932. When ultrasonic waves are propagated in
a liquid, the density varies from layer to layer due to periodic variations of pressure. If under this
condition, monochromatic light is passed through the liquid at right angles to the waves, the
liquid behaves as a diffraction grating. Such a grating is known as acoustical grating. This
grating behaves in the same way as a ruled grating. Hence the method can be used for finding the
wavelength and velocity of ultrasonic waves in liquid.
The experimental arrangement is shown in fig.(4). The light from a monochromatic
source of light S, is focused on the narrow slit O by lens L
1
. The light from the slit now passes
through lens L
2
which turns it in a parallel beam. This parallel beam then passes through the
ultrasonic cell. This cell consists of a rectangular glass tank containing the liquid. The crystal is
dipped into the liquid and is connected to the oscillating circuit. The crystal produces ultrasonic
waves which travel through the liquid. The waves are reflected from the wall of the cell and form
a stationary wave pattern which acts as acoustical grating. The crystal is placed in the cell in such
a way that the acoustical grating is formed in a perpendicular direction of the propagation of
light. Now light emerging from the cell is focused by lens L
3
and can be seen through a
telescope.
When the crystal is at rest, a single image of the slit is observed. But when ultrasonic
waves are produced in the liquid by excitation of crystal, the intensity of the central image
decreases and a number of diffracted mages appears on either side of centre. The angular
separation between the direct image of the slit and the diffracted image of any order, say n
measured. Applying the theory of diffraction grating the wavelength of ultrasonic waves can be
calculated. Here the grating element is the same as the wavelength of ultrasonic waves. Let it be

L
. if is the wavelength of the monochromic light used, then


In this way, can be calculated.
If N be the frequency of ultrasonic oscillations, then the velocity ultrasonic waves in liquid can
be calculated by the formula.
16.6 APPLICATIONS OF ULTRASONICS WAVES
(1) Detection of flaws in metals. Ultrasonic waves can be used to detect flaws in
metal. We know that flaw in the metal produces a change in the medium due to which reflection
of ultrasonic waves takes place. Hence when ultrasonic waves pass through a metal having some
hole or crack inside it, an appreciable reflection occurs. The reflection also takes place at the
back surface of the metal. The reflected pulses are picked up by receiver an are suitable
amplified. These pulses are now applied to one set of plate of cathode ray oscillograph. The
transmitted signal and reflected
signal from the flaw and back surface of metal produce a peak each. The position of the second
peak on the time base of oscillograph will give distance of flaw.
(2) Detection of submarines, Iceberg and other objects in ocean. A sharp ultrasonic
beam is directed in various directions into the sea. The reflection of waves from any direction
shows into the sea. The reflection of waves from any direction shows the presence of some
reflecting body in the sea.
(3) Depth of sea. We know that ultrasonic waves are highly energetic and show a little
diffraction effect. Thus they can be used for finding the depth of the sea. The time interval
between sending the wave and the reflected wave from the sea is recorded. As the velocity of the
wave is known, hence the depth of the sea can be estimated.
(4) Cleaning and Clearing. The waves can be used for cleaning utensils, washing clothes,
removing dust and soot from the chimney.
(5) Direction signaling. The ultrasonic waves can be concentrated into a sharp beam due to
smaller wavelength and hence can be used for signallling in a particular direction.
(6) Soldering and metal cutting. Ultrasonic waves can be used for drilling and cutting
processes in metals. These waves can also be used for soldering, for example, aluminium cannot
be soldered by normal methods. To solder aluminium ultrasonic wave along with electrical
soldering iron are used. Ultrasonic welding can be done at room temperatures.
(7) formation of alloys. The constituents of alloys, having widely different densities, can
be kept mixed uniformly by a beam of ultrasonic. Thus it is easy to get alloy of uniform
composition.
(8) Ultrasonic mixing. A colloid solution or emulsion of two non-miscible liquids like oil
and water can be formed by simultaneously subjecting to ultrasonic radiations. Now-a-days most
of the emulsion like polishes, paints, food products and pharmaceutical preparations are prepared
by using ultrasonic mixing.
(9) Coagulation and crystallization. The particle of a suspended liquid, by ultrasonics,
can be brought quite close to each other so that coagulation may be take place. The
crystallization rate is also affected by ultrasonics. The size of crystals, when molten metal is put
to crystallization, can be made smaller and more uniform by the use of ultrasonics.
(10) Ultrasonics in metallurgy. To irradiate molten metals which are in the process of
cooling so as to refine the gain size and to prevent the formation of cores and to release trapped
gases, the ultrasonic waves are use.
(11) Destruction of lower life. The animals like rats, frogs, fishes, etc. can be killed or
injured by high intensity ultrasonics.
(12) Treatment of neuralgic pain. The body parts effected due to neuralgic or rheumatic pains
on being exposed to ultrasonics get great relied from pain.
(13) Detection of abnormal growth. Abnormal growth in the brain, certain tumours
which cannot be detected by X-rays can be detected by ultrasonic waves.