Air Masses: A Base for Weather Analysis

Long before meteorologists began drawing fronts and cells of high and low pressure on national/international maps, those attuned to the skies understood that different masses of air had different, distinguishing properties. For example, around 400 BC, ippocrates wrote in !n "irs, #aters, and $laces that health could be tied to the source of the winds flowing into the cit%. #hile his linkages between weather and health do not all hold toda%, this work showed an understanding of the differences between the properties of air flowing from different regions.

&ntil the '(th Centur%, earl% weather obser)ers and folk forecasters used their senses to distinguish differences between air masses. umans likel% first recogni*ed differences between air masses in prehistoric times when the% sensed that changes in weather conditions had recogni*able, repeatable patterns and common sensual properties+ hot or cold, damp or dr%. ,ood weather forecasters can build a forecast on a solid knowledge of the properties of the )arious air masses around their forecast *one in much the same wa% a wine taster can -forecast- the popularit% of a good wine )intage. .ince the air masses of concern often are hundreds or thousands of kilometres awa%, the weather forecasters must rel% on a )ariet% of measurements /such as temperature and humidit%0 to tell them of the -tasteand -bou1uet- and -colour- of the )arious air masses. #hen 2 wrote a poem called -" Fine 3intage- se)eral %ears ago, 2 took the concept of air mass anal%sis and used the metaphor of wine tasting to describe different t%pes of airs. 2n it, 2 described how our senses of smell and sight, and at times taste, can distinguish the t%pe, origin and tra)els of the air surrounding me at an% gi)en moment.

Air Masses Defined

"n air mass b% definition is a large dome of air which has similar hori*ontal temperature and moisture characteristics. "s well, air masses often ha)e a rather homogeneous temperature lapse rate abo)e the influence of the surface la%er. "t an% gi)en time, an estimated fift% distinct air masses are scattered across the face of the planet. .ome are newl% born entities and strongl% reflect their birthing ground. !thers are old and tra)el4 scarred with onl% the smallest commonalit% with their place of origin remaining. 5istinctl% different air masses are separated b% narrow transition *ones that weather anal%sts distinguish b% drawing weather fronts 44 warm, cold, stationar% and occluded fronts 44 between them. .ometimes these fronts indicate such subtle transitions, 44perhaps onl% a shift in wind direction 44 that the% are hardl% noticed as the% pass. !thers are )igorous *ones where conflicts between warm and cold air masses produce )er% hea)% weather 44 se)ere thunderstorms or hea)% snow. !ften, the conflict between air masses is so intense that great c%clonic weather s%stems de)elop along the frontal boundar% to lash the surface beneath with high winds, rapidl% changing temperatures and precipitation of all )arieties. 6o wonder the 6orwegian meteorologists who first de)eloped the concept of air mass anal%sis and their frontal boundaries used terms from warfare to describe the situation. 7he differences among air masses was likel% first recogni*ed when humans reali*ed that ma8or changes in weather had recogni*able, repeatable patterns+ e.g., cold, dr% conditions come from the north9 hot and dr% or hot and humid weather from the south. But, until the '(th Centur%, the earl% meteorologists, like our wine tasters, had to use their senses to distinguish difference between them. 2n that centur%, the in)ention of instruments, such as the thermometer, barometer and h%grometer, allowed obser)ers to measure ob8ecti)e properties of the air. #ith the ad)ent of regular weather obser)ations across large regions of the continents and weather/climate records from locations around the globe, meteorologists began to see repeatable patterns that showed large bodies of air could be distinguished b% their temperature and humidit% le)els. 7he first formal theor% of the impact of air mass differences came out of the famed Bergen /6orwa%0 .chool of :eteorolog% during the earl% decades of the ';00s. Led b% 3ilhelm B8erknes, the research group, which included his son <acob, al)or .olberg and 7or Bergeron, laid the foundation for modern weather anal%sis and forecasting. 7he group de)eloped the concepts of frontal anal%sis, wa)e c%clone formation and air mass anal%sis to name but a few of their achie)ements. For our discussion, the significant finding was contained in Bergeron=s ';>? dissertation. 7here he confirmed that certain characteristics of air masses did not substantiall% change or -age- for long periods of time as the air mass flowed o)er oceans and continents. 7herefore, Bergeron concluded, knowledge of these characteristics was fundamentall% important to impro)ing weather forecasts. Bergeron saw air masses as being of four t%pes+ e1uatorial, tropical, polar and arctic /or antarctic0. From this, he de)eloped an elaborate classification scheme which included

distinguishing properties of temperature, humidit% and aerosol content /as measured b% )isibilit%0. #ith slight modifications, his classification s%stem remains a )iable concept toda% in weather anal%sis and forecasting.

Air Mass Classification

"s 2 write this essa%, approximatel% fift% distinct air masses can be identified globall% in the lower atmosphere. :ost co)er thousands of s1uare kilometres of surface and extend se)eral kilometres )erticall%. @ach one bears the mark of the region in which it was formed. .ome of the fift% are %oung and fresh. !thers are old and greatl% transformed. .ome are mo)ing across the planet at speeds co)ering se)eral hundred kilometres each da%, others are nearl% stationar%. "ir masses ac1uire their characteristic temperature and moisture /or absolute humidit%0 signature from the source regions o)er which the% are born. 7he ideal source region is one with light winds, particularl% in the upper atmosphere so that the air mass remains in place long enough to ac1uire the temperature and moisture properties of the underl%ing surface throughout the air mass. 7herefore, middle latitude regions where the weather s%stems mo)e 1uickl% across their surface, dri)en b% fast4mo)ing upper le)el air currents such as the jet stream are not good air mass breeding grounds. "t )aried inter)als, portions of these semi4permanent high pressure cells break awa% to form )agabond air masses that hitch a ride on strong upper air currents and tra)el the globe. "reas dominated b% extensi)e areas of high pressure and light winds are the ideal breeding grounds for air masses. 7here are se)eral such regions of extensi)e, semi4 permanent high pressure around the globe, in particular, two latitude belts in each hemisphere+ one in the polar regions, the other in the subtropics.

igh polar latitudes and the subtropics around A0 degrees latitude are both good source regions, whose relati)e strength waxes and wanes with the solar seasons. !pen ocean expanses, large deserts and extensi)e continental plains at high or low latitudes are the ideal birthing grounds within these belts. :ountainous areas are too )ariable in their properties, and mid4latitude continental plains are not conduci)e to air masses sta%ing in place for long because of the strength of the pre)ailing westerl% global winds at these latitudes. :id4latitude oceans can be source regions under certain conditions because their surfaces ha)e )er% uniform characteristics. From the characteristic properties picked up in their breeding ground, air masses are designated as hot or cold, wet or dry. 7he terms are to some degree relati)e. " cold air mass in summer ma% be as warm as a warm air mass in winter. @ach air mass has a characteristic temperature and moisture content and thus we can distinguish four combinations+ hot and dr%9 hot and wet9 cold and wet9 and cold and dr%. Bergeron actuall% ga)e us two additional temperature categories b% defining -)er% hot- and -frigidair masses for those forming o)er the e1uator and polar regions, respecti)el%. Wet air masses are consider to be air masses forming o)er the oceans, and dry air masses, those forming o)er the continents. @1uatorial air masses are all considered to be wet because much of the land area under the e1uatorial *one is co)ered in tropical rainforests that can add as much moisture to the air as the e1uatorial oceans. "ll arctic /or antarctic in the .outhern emisphere0 are considered dry because there is little e)aporation into them from the frigid polar oceans and their temperatures are so low that e)en at saturation, the absolute humidit% is )er% low.

7he first dimension of the Bergeron classification s%stem is the latitude *one of air source region which go)erns the air mass=s temperature characteristics. 7here are four such *ones in the s%stem+ Equatorial (E) Tropical (T) Arctic or Antarctic (A or AA) Polar (P)

7he letter in parentheses is that used to label air masses on weather maps. 6ext, are the two underl%ing surface characteristics of the source region that affect the resulting air masses+

:aritime or !ceanic .urfaces /m0 which create relati)el% humid air masses

Continental or Land .urfaces /c0 which create relati)el% dr% air masses

7he combination of the abo)e gi)es us eight air mass t%pes, but because "rctic /"ntarctic0 and @1uatorial air masses onl% ha)e one moisture character, we are left with the six basic air mass t%pes gi)en below+ Air Mass Type Arctic or Antarctic (A or AA) Polar Continental (cP) Polar Maritime (mP) Temperature Characteristic Extremely cold, formed o)er poles. Moisture Characteristic Very dry due to extreme cold.

Very cold, ha)ing de)eloped o)er Very dry, due to the cold and sub4polar regions. ha)ing de)eloped o)er land. Very cool because of the high latitude but not cold, due to moderating influence of the sea and the warm ocean currents at these latitudes. Moderately moist because of the cool temperature, but not as dr% as polar continental air because of e)aporation from the water surface.

Tropical Continental (cT) Tropical Maritime (mT) Equatorial (E)

Very warm because of the lower Dry because it formed o)er sub4tropical latitude of formation. land Very warm because of the sub4 tropical latitudes at which it forms. Hot. Very humid because of the warm tropical waters below. Extremely humid. Continental is not differentiated from maritime because much of e1uatorial land is co)ered with humid tropical rainforests.

!n some weather maps, the lowercase letter -k- or -w- ma% be attached to the two4letter abbre)iation describing an air mass. 7he -k- indicates that the air mo)ing across a region is colder than the land surface temperature. while -w- indicates that the air is warmer than the land surface temperature. 7hus, cold continental polar air flowing o)er warmer land surfaces would be designated as cP .

Air Masses Affectin! Canada and the "nited #tates

Fi)e of the six basic air masses t%pes affect weather in Canada and the contiguous &nited .tates. 7he% can bring an%thing from scorching heat to bone4chilling cold depending on the t%pe of air mass and time of %ear. 7he most )iolent weather usuall% occurs during .pring when cold, dr% continental polar air clashes with hot, humid maritime tropical air. Arctic (A): @xtremel% cold temperatures and )er% little moisture t%pif% "rctic air masses. 7he% usuall% originate north of the "rctic Circle, where winter da%s of >44hour darkness allow the air to chill to extremel% low temperatures. .uch air masses break southward across Canada and the &." during winter, but )er% are rarel% seen at lower latitudes during the summer because the >44hour sun warms the "rctic region considerabl% and the polar front and accompan%ing 8et stream generall% remains at higher latitudes. Continental polar (cP): Cold and dr%, Continental polar masses are not as cold as "rctic air masses. 7hese usuall% form further south in the subpolar Canadian 6orth and "laska and often dominate the weather picture across the continent during winter. Continental polar masses do form during the summer, but mostl% influence onl% Canada and the northern &.". 7hese air masses are usuall% responsible for bringing clear and pleasant weather during the summer. Maritime polar (mP): Cool and moist conditions characteri*e :aritime polar air masses. 7he% usuall% bring cloud%, damp weather. :aritime polar air masses form o)er the northern $acific and the northern "tlantic !ceans. 7hese generall% influence the $acific 6orthwest and the 6ortheast, respecti)el%. :aritime polar air masses can form an% time of the %ear and are usuall% not as cold as continental polar air masses in winter because of the moderating influence of the sea surface beneath them.

Maritime tropical (mT): #arm temperatures with copious moisture t%pif% :aritime tropical air masses. 7he% are most common across the eastern &. and southeastern Canada originating o)er the warm waters of the southern "tlantic !cean, Caribbean .ea and the ,ulf of :exico. 7hese air masses can form %ear round, but the% are most pre)alent during summer. :aritime tropical air masses are responsible for the hot, humid da%s of summer across much of the eastern half of the continent. .uch air masses are often called the Bermuda igh because of their birthplace within the subtropical *one around and east of Bermuda. Continental Tropical (cT): ot and )er% dr%, Continental tropical air masses usuall% form o)er the 5esert .outhwest and northern :exico during summer, often keeping the region scorching abo)e A?o Celsius /'00o Fahrenheit0 during summer. 7he% can bring record heat to the &. $lains and the :ississippi 3alle% during summer, but the% usuall% do not make it to the eastern and southeast &. or into Canada as c7 air masses. "s the% mo)e eastward, moisture e)aporates into the air, transforming the air mass to become more like a maritime tropical air mass. Continental tropical air masses )er% rarel% form during winter. Equatorial (E) air masses, the remaining categor%, rarel% )isit the contiguous &nited .tates and almost ne)er reach Canada, but these air masses are an important weather factors for the southern nations of 6orth "merica+ southern :exico, Central "merica and man% of the "tlantic island nations.