A teaching method comprises the principles and methods used for instruction.

Commonly used teaching methods may include class participation, demonstration, recitation, memorization, or combinations of these. The choice of teaching method or methods to be used depends largely on the information or skill that is being taught, and it may also be influenced by the aptitude and enthusiasm of the students. Teaching Methods Each pedagogic approach is described succinctly so you can quickly understand how the technique might be relevant to your teaching. Written by fellow educators, these descriptions include tips for effectively using each technique, related research on their impacts on learning, as well as a set of example activities. This list is by no means comprehensive. It reflects the interests and priorities of the partners and projects that have contributed to the library so far. If you'd like to contribute to the library and help this list grow we'd love to hear from you. Assessment provides educators with a better understanding of what students are learning and engages students more deeply in the process of learning content. Compiled by William Slattery at Departments of Geological Sciences and Teacher Education, Wright State University, Dayton, Ohio. Calibrated Peer Review (CPR) is a web-based management tool that enables discipline-based writing with peer review in classes of any size. Compiled by Arlene A. Russell, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, UCLA. Campus-Based Learning uses the campus environment itself as a teaching tool. Compiled by Suzanne Savanick at SERC, Carleton College. Classroom Experiments are activities where any number of students work in groups on carefully designed guided inquiry questions. Compiled by Sheryl Ball, Virginia Tech, with assistance from Tisha Emerson, Jennifer Lewis, and J. Todd Swarthout. Classroom Response Systems use technology that promotes and implements active and cooperative learning. Compiled by Joe Calhoun, Florida State University, then enhanced with the valuable assistance from S. Raj Chaudhury, Shelby Frost, Bill Goffe, KimMarie McGoldrick, Mark Maier, and Scott Simkins. Coached Problem Solving is a class format in which professors provide a structured, guided context for students working collaboratively to solve problems. Compiled by Debby Walser-Kuntz, Sarah Deel and Susan Singer, Carleton College. ConcepTests are conceptual multiple-choice questions that focus on one key concept of an instructor's learning goals for a lesson. When coupled with student interaction through peer instruction, ConcepTests represent a rapid method of formative assessment of student understanding. Compiled by David McConnell, North Carolina State University. Context-Rich Problems are short realistic scenarios giving the students a plausible motivation for solving the problem. Compiled by Joann Bangs, St. Catherine University and enhanced by Jennifer Docktor and Ken Heller, University of Minnesota, Brian Peterson, Central College, and Rochelle Ruffer, Nazareth College. Cooperative Learning involves students working in groups to accomplish learning goals. Compiled by Rebecca Teed and John McDaris, SERC at Carleton College, and Cary Roseth, University of Minnesota. Documented Problem Solving is an active learning assessment technique in which students become more aware about their learning and their problem-solving, resulting in a transition from the "steps used to solve a problem" to the application of analytical and critical thinking skills. Compiled by Linda Wilson, University

of Texas at Arlington, with help from Amber Casolari, Riverside City College, Katie Townsend-Merino, Palomar College and Todd Easton, University of Portland. Using an Earth History Approach helps students understand how human impact on the Earth's systems has increased exponentially over time. Compiled by Rebecca Teed at SERC, Carleton College. Experience-Based Environmental Projects get students involved in their own learning. Compiled by Karin Kirk at Montana State University. Field Labs introduce students to complex natural systems, breaks down barriers among academic fields, encourages multiple observations, and introduces students to the area near their campus. Compiled by Mary Savina, Carleton College. The First Day of Class is your opportunity to stimulate excitement about the course, establish a positive classroom climate, and engage students with course content - right from the start. Compiled by Carol Ormand at SERC, Carleton College. Gallery Walk activities get students out of their chairs to actively work together. Compiled by Mark Francek at Central Michigan University. Game-Based Learning was written to assist geoscience faculty who want to start using games to help them teach. Compiled by Rebecca Teed at SERC, Carleton College. Guided Discovery Problems offer intriguing puzzles to solve, structured hands-on activities, carefully worded leading questions, crucial hints, and just-in-time presentations of information in order to escort students step-by-step through the process of scientific discovery. Compiled by Ann Bykerk-Kauffman, California State University, Chico. Indoor Labs provide students with opportunities for structured investigations and experiments of materials, models, and other equipment. Compiled by Mary Savina, Carleton College. Interactive Lectures provide short activities that can break up a lecture. Compiled by Heather Macdonald, College of William and Mary and Rebecca Teed at SERC, Carleton College and updated by Gail Hoyt, University of Kentucky, Jennifer Imazeki, San Diego State University, Barbara Millis University of Texas, San Antonio, and Jose Vazquez-Cognet University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Interactive Lecture Demonstrations engage students in activities that confront their prior understanding of a core concept. The activity can be a classroom experiment, a survey, a simulation or an analysis of secondary data. Compiled by Dorothy Merritts and Robert Walter, Franklin & Marshall College, and Bob MacKay, Clark College. Enhanced by Mark Maier with assistance from Rochelle Ruffer, Sue Stockly, and Ronald Thornton. Interdisciplinary Approaches to Teaching entails the use and integration of methods and analytical frameworks from more than one academic discipline to examine a theme, issue, question or topic. Compiled by Art Goldsmith, Darrick Hamilton, Karen Hornsby, and Dave Wells. Inventing and Testing Models approach uses Model-Eliciting Activities, which are posed as open-ended problems that are designed to challenge students to build models in order to solve complex, real-world problems. Compiled by Joan Garfield, Robert delMas and Andrew Zieffler, of the University of Minnesota. Investigative Case-Based Learning involves students in addressing real world problems. Compiled by Ethel Stanley, BioQUEST, Beloit College and Margaret Waterman, Southeast Missouri State University. Jigsaws are an option when you have several related data sets you would like students to explore. In a jigsaw, each student develops some expertise with one data set, then teaches a few classmates about it

(and learns about related data sets from those classmates). Compiled by Barbara Tewksbury, Hamilton College. Just-in-Time Teaching gets students to read assigned material outside of class, respond to short questions online, and then participate in discussion and collaborative exercises in the following class period. Compiled by Laura Guertin, Pennsylvania State University Delaware County. Lecture Tutorials are short worksheets that students complete in class to make lecture more interactive. They are designed specifically to address misconceptions and other topics with which students have difficulties. Compiled by Karen Kortz, Community College of Rhode Island, and Jessica Smay, San Jose City College. Measurement and Uncertainty provides science educators with clearly written, effective material to teach introductory level students the fundamentals of effective measurement, and describes how to integrate these ideas into science teaching. This increases scientific literacy, helps students use data to understand science concepts during inquiry-based labs and activities, and prepares students for future science education. Compiled by Peter Bohacek and Greg Schmidt, Sibley Public High School. Models help students understand the relationships between data and Earth processes. Compiled by Bob MacKay at Clark College. o o Conceptual Models are qualitative models that help highlight important connections in real world systems and processes. Compiled by Bob MacKay, Clark College. Mathematical and Statistical Models involve solving relevant equation(s) of a system or characterizing a system based upon its statistical parameters. Compiled by Bob MacKay, Clark College. Peer Review uses interaction around writing to refine students understanding. Compiled by Laura Guertin, Pennsylvania State University Delaware County. Peer-Led Team Learning engages teams of six to eight students in learning sciences, mathematics and other undergraduate disciplines guided by a peer leader. Peer leaders are drawn from the pool of students who have done well in the course previously. Compiled by Pratibha Varma-Nelson, Indiana University Purdue University Indianapolis. PhET Interactive Simulations is a suite of research-based interactive computer simulations for teaching and learning physics, chemistry, math, and other sciences. Compiled by Sam McKagan, based on material from the PhET Team. Process of Science means going beyond the content to help students understand how we know what we know and giving them the tools they need to think scientifically. Compiled by Anne E. Egger, Stanford University. Process-Oriented Guided Inquiry Learning (POGIL) is a research-based learning environment where students are actively engaged in mastering course content and in developing essential skills by working in selfmanaged teams on guided inquiry activities. Compiled by Rick Moog, James Spencer, Frank Creegan, Troy Wolfskill, David Hanson, Andrei Stroumanis, Diane Bunce, and Jennifer Lewis. Professional Communication Projects ask students to effectively communicate scientific information in a genre that professional scientists are expected to master, such as with scientific posters, conference proposals or oral presentations. Compiled by Colleen H. Fava and Darrell Henry, Louisiana State University. Quantitative Writing engages students with numbers by asking them to analyze and use quantitative data in written reports and arguments. Compiled by John C. Bean, Seattle University.

Role Playing immerses students in debate around Earth science issues. Compiled by Rebecca Teed at SERC, Carleton College. SCALE-UP is a Student-Centered Active Learning Environment for Undergraduate Programs. Carefully designed studio classrooms facilitate student teamwork and instructor movement between groups. Developed by Bob Beichner, North Carolina State University, and Sharon Isern, Florida Gulf Coast University. Service Learning offers the opportunity to link academic learning with community service. Compiled by Suzanne Savanick at SERC, Carleton College and enhanced first by Ed Laine, Bowdoin College, and then by Andrea Ziegert, Denison University, with assistance from Nancy Brooks, Emily Janke, and Mary Lopez. Socratic Questioning turns a lecture into a guided discussion. Compiled by Dorothy Merritts and Robert Walter at Franklin & Marshall College. Structured Academic Controversy is a type of cooperative learning strategy in which small teams of students learn about a controversial issue from multiple perspectives. Compiled by Claudia Khourey-Bowers, Kent State University. Strong Writing Assignments are a flexible means of demonstrating learning as well as a method of exploring one's thinking to stimulate learning, which is why the literature on writing instruction emphasizes both learning to write and writing to learn. Compiled by Carol Rutz, Carleton College. Studio Teaching can provide a quintessential active and cooperative learning environment. Compiled by Dexter Perkins, University of North Dakota. Teaching Quantitative Reasoning with the News describes how one can use media articles as the main content for a course focused on honing students' ability to critically think about and analyze quantitative information. Compiled by Stuart Boersma, Central Washington University. Teaching Urban Students assists educators of urban students to bring a rich set of experiences to the classroom that may be significantly different than those of students in small-town settings. Effective teaching of urban students requires instructors to tap into these rich experiences, cultural customs, and practical skills sets. Compiled by Wayne Powell, Brooklyn College, City University of New York. Teaching with Data helps faculty find and integrate real data sets into their classes. Compiled by Robert MacKay, Clark College. Teaching with Data Simulations allows students to visualize probability distributions, which in turn can make the processes associated with probability more concrete. Compiled by Danielle Dupuis, University of Minnesota - Twin Cities. Teaching with GIS in the Geosciences shows how this powerful new tool can be used to help teach geoscience. Compiled by Brian Welch at Dept. of Environmental Studies, St. Olaf College, Northfield, MN. Teaching with Google Earth provides detailed instructions for bringing rich imagery and interactive information into the classroom. Compiled by Glenn A. Richard, Mineral Physics Institute, Stony Brook University. Teaching with Learning Assistants incorporates talented undergraduate students, primarily in mathematics and the sciences, chosen for their broad interest in teaching and prepared to provide support for student learning in interactive classroom environments. Compiled by Stephanie Chasteen and Valerie Otero, University of Colorado at Boulder.

Teaching with Simulations uses a model of behavior to gain a better understanding of that behavior. Compiled by Betty Blecha, San Francisco State University and refined and enhanced by Mark McBride, Teresa Riley, Katherine Rowell, KimMarie McGoldrick, Mark Maier, and Scott Simkins. Teaching with Spreadsheets allows students to "get their hands dirty" by working with real-world data. Spreadsheets make abstract or complex models accessible by providing concrete examples and allowing "what if" analyses. Compiled by Miles Cahill, Depaw University, with help from Humberto Barreto, Depaw University, Semra Kilic-Bahi, Colby-Sawyer College, and David Schodt, St. Olaf College. Teaching with Spreadsheets Across The Curriculum helps students build spreadsheets and apply elementary mathematics to solve problems in context. Compiled by Len Vacher at University of South Florida, Tampa. Teaching with the Case Method combines two elements: the case itself and the discussion of that case. Teaching cases provide information, but neither analysis nor conclusions. The analytical work of explaining the relationships among events in the case, identifying options, evaluating choices and predicting the effects of actions is the work done by students during the classroom discussion. Compiled by Ann Velenchik, Wellesley College. Teaching with Visualizations helps students see how systems work. Compiled by Bob MacKay, Clark College. Testing Conjectures is an effective way of engaging students in learning and helping them to develop their reasoning abilities. Compiled by Shirley J. Alt, The University of Minnesota - Twin Cities. Undergraduate Research provides opportunities for students to collaborate with faculty on actual research projects, learning about both a particular topic in a field and the research process in general. Compiled by Elizabeth Perry-Sizemore, Randolph College with assistance from George Alter, Mary Borg, Steve DeLoach, Steve Greenlaw, KimMarie McGoldrick, Sheila Kennison, Mark Maier, and Scott Simkins. Using an Earth System Approach introduces concepts and resources centered on space, air, water, land, life, and human dimensions. Using Media to Enhance Teaching and Learning can engage students and produce more meaningful and deep learning experiences by using films, television shows, popular music, news stories, literature, documentaries, and videos from sources such as youTube. Compiled by G. Dirk Mateer, Penn State University, with help from Linda S. Ghent, Eastern Illinois University, Tod Porter, Youngstown State University, and Ray Purdom, University of North Carolina at Greensboro. Using Socioscientific Issues to Teach Science combines the use of controversial socially-relevant real world issues with course content to engage students in their learning. Compiled by Sandra Latourelle, Alex Poplawsky, Brian Shmaefsky, and Susan Musante.

TEACHING STRATEGIES Institutions of higher learning across the nation are responding to political, economic, social and technological pressures to be more responsive to students' needs and more concerned about how well students are prepared to assume future societal roles. Faculty are already feeling the pressure to lecture less, to make learning environments more interactive, to integrate technology into the learning experience, and to use collaborative learning strategies when appropriate. Some of the more prominent strategies are outlined below. For more information about the use of these and other pedagogical approaches, contact the Program in Support of Teaching and Learning.

Lecture. For many years, the lecture method was the most widely used instructional strategy in college classrooms. Nearly 80% of all U.S. college classrooms in the late 1970s reported using some form of the lecture method to teach students (Cashin, 1990). Although the usefulness of other teaching strategies is being widely examined today, the lecture still remains an important way to communicate information. Used in conjunction with active learning teaching strategies, the traditional lecture can be an effective way to achieve instructional goals. The advantages of the lecture approach are that it provides a way to communicate a large amount of information to many listeners, maximizes instructor control and is non-threatening to students. The disadvantages are that lecturing minimizes feedback from students, assumes an unrealistic level of student understanding and comprehension, and often disengages students from the learning process causing information to be quickly forgotten. The following recommendations can help make the lecture approach more effective (Cashin, 1990): 1. Fit the lecture to the audience 2. Focus your topic - remember you cannot cover everything in one lecture 3. Prepare an outline that includes 5-9 major points you want to cover in one lecture 4. Organize your points for clarity 5. Select appropriate examples or illustrations 6. Present more than one side of an issue and be sensitive to other perspectives 7. Repeat points when necessary 8. Be aware of your audience - notice their feedback 9. Be enthusiastic - you dont have to be an entertainer but you should be excited by your topic. (from Cashin, 1990, pp. 60-61) Case Method. Providing an opportunity for students to apply what they learn in the classroom to real-life experiences has proven to be an effective way of both disseminating and integrating knowledge. The case method is an instructional strategy that engages students in active discussion about issues and problems inherent in practical application. It can highlight fundamental dilemmas or critical issues and provide a format for role playing ambiguous or controversial scenarios. Course content cases can come from a variety of sources. Many faculty have transformed current events or problems reported through print or broadcast media into critical learning experiences that illuminate the complexity of finding solutions to critical social problems. The case study approach works well in cooperative learning or role playing environments to stimulate critical thinking and awareness of multiple perspectives. Discussion. There are a variety of ways to stimulate discussion. For example, some faculty begin a lesson with a whole group discussion to refresh students memories about the assigned reading(s). Other faculty find it helpful to have students list critical points or emerging issues, or generate a set of questions stemming from the assigned reading(s). These strategies can also be used to help focus large and small group discussions. Obviously, a successful class discussion involves planning on the part of the instructor and preparation on the part of the students. Instructors should communicate this commitment to the students on the first day of class by clearly articulating course expectations. Just as the instructor carefully plans the learning experience, the students must comprehend the assigned reading and show up for class on time, ready to learn. Active Learning. Meyers and Jones (1993) define active learning as learning environments that allow students to talk and listen, read, write, and reflect as they approach course content through problem-

solving exercises, informal small groups, simulations, case studies, role playing, and other activities -- all of which require students to apply what they are learning (p. xi) . Many studies show that learning is enhanced when students become actively involved in the learning process. Instructional strategies that engage students in the learning process stimulate critical thinking and a greater awareness of other perspectives. Although there are times when lecturing is the most appropriate method for disseminating information, current thinking in college teaching and learning suggests that the use of a variety of instructional strategies can positively enhance student learning. Obviously, teaching strategies should be carefully matched to the teaching objectives of a particular lesson. For more information about teaching strategies, see the list of college teaching references in Appendix N. Assessing or grading students' contributions in active learning environments is somewhat problematic. It is extremely important that the course syllabus explicitly outlines the evaluation criteria for each assignment whether individual or group. Students need and want to know what is expected of them. For more information about grading, see the Evaluating Student Work section contained in this Guide. Cooperative Learning. Cooperative Learning is a systematic pedagogical strategy that encourages small groups of students to work together for the achievement of a common goal. The term 'Collaborative Learning' is often used as a synonym for cooperative learning when, in fact, it is a separate strategy that encompasses a broader range of group interactions such as developing learning communities, stimulating student/faculty discussions, and encouraging electronic exchanges (Bruffee, 1993). Both approaches stress the importance of faculty and student involvement in the learning process. When integrating cooperative or collaborative learning strategies into a course, careful planning and preparation are essential. Understanding how to form groups, ensure positive interdependence, maintain individual accountability, resolve group conflict, develop appropriate assignments and grading criteria, and manage active learning environments are critical to the achievement of a successful cooperative learning experience. Before you begin, you may want to consult several helpful resources which are contained in Appendix N. In addition, the Program in Support of Teaching and Learning can provide faculty with supplementary information and helpful techniques for using cooperative learning or collaborative learning in college classrooms. Integrating Technology. Today, educators realize that computer literacy is an important part of a student's education. Integrating technology into a course curriculum when appropriate is proving to be valuable for enhancing and extending the learning experience for faculty and students. Many faculty have found electronic mail to be a useful way to promote student/student or faculty/student communication between class meetings. Others use listserves or on-line notes to extend topic discussions and explore critical issues with students and colleagues, or discipline- specific software to increase student understanding of difficult concepts. Currently, our students come to us with varying degrees of computer literacy. Faculty who use technology regularly often find it necessary to provide some basic skill level instruction during the first week of class. In the future, we expect that need to decline. For help in integrating technology into a course curriculum contact the Program in Support of Teaching and Learning or the Instructional Development Office (IDO) at 703-993-3141. In addition, watch for information throughout the year about workshops and faculty conversations on the integration of technology, teaching and learning. Distance Learning. Distance learning is not a new concept. We have all experienced learning outside of a structured classroom setting through television, correspondence courses, etc. Distance learning or distance education as a teaching pedagogy, however, is an important topic of discussion on college campuses today. Distance learning is defined as 'any form of teaching and learning in which the teacher and learner are not in the same place at the same time' (Gilbert, 1995).

Obviously, information technology has broadened our concept of the learning environment. It has made it possible for learning experiences to be extended beyond the confines of the traditional classroom. Distance learning technologies take many forms such as computer simulations, interactive collaboration/discussion, and the creation of virtual learning environments connecting regions or nations. Components of distance learning such as email, listserves, and interactive software have also been useful additions to the educational setting. For more information about distance learning contact the Instructional Development Office at 703-9933141 (Fairfax Campus) and watch for workshops and faculty discussions on the topic throughout the year.