Routh - Dynamics of A Particle 1898

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RMA
BOSTON COLLEGE
SCIENCE LIBRARY
A TEEATISE ON
DYNAMICS OF A PARTICLE
A TEEATISE ON
DYNAMICS OF A PAKTICLE
WITH NUMEROUS EXAMPLES
BY
EDWARD JOHN ROUTH,
Sc.D.,
LL.D., M.A.,
F.R.S.,
&c.
HON. FELLOW OF PETEKHOUSE, CAMBBIDGE
FELLOW OF THE DKIVERSITY OF LONDON
G.
E.
STECHERT
NEW YORK
& CO.
0i6co
A cy
PREFACE.
OO
^^
for
many
questions which necessarily excite our interest and
curiosity are discussed in the
dynamics of a particle that
this subject has always
been a favourite one with students.
How,
example,
tell
is it
is it
that by observing the motion of a
pendulum we
can
the time of the rotation of the earth, or knowing this,

that
how
we can deduce the
latitude of the place
Why
does
our earth travel round the sun in an ellipse and what would be
the path
if
the law of gravitation were different
Would any
(if
other law give
closed
orbit
so
that
our planet might

?
undisturbed) repeat the same path continually

resisting
Is
there
medium which
sun
?
is
slowly but continually bringing our
orbit nearer to the
What would be
force
it
?
the path of a particle
in a system of
two centres of
When
a comet passes close

orbit
to a planet does it carry with

to prove its identity
?
in its
new
some tokens
Such problems
as these (which are merely examples) excite
our curiosity at the very beginning of the subject.
When we
study the replies we find new objects of interest.

the elementary resolutions of the forces
generalization to
another.
Beginning at
we
are led on from one

at
We
when a
presently arrive
Lagrange's
general method, by which

after his great
single function (worthily called

in
name) has been found we can write down,

all
any kind of coordinates,
the equations of motion cleared of

further on
unknown
reactions.
little
we
find Jacobi's
method
VI
PREFACE.
by which the whole solution of a dynamical problem can be made

to
depend on a
single integral.
The
last
word has not yet been said on these problems.
The
student finds as he j)roceeds

questions to ask.
much
left to
discover and
many new
When we
extend our studies so as to include the planetary

to take
perturbations and
account of the
finite
size
of
the
bodies the mathematical difficulties are
much
increased.
In the
dynamics of a particle we confine ourselves to simpler problems
and
easier mathematics.
As the
subject
of
dynamics
is
usually read
early in
the
mathematical course, the student cannot be expected to master

all its difficulties
at once.
In this treatise the parts intended for

is
first
reading are printed in large type and the student
advised
to pass over the other' parts until they are referred to later on.
The same problem may be attacked on many

therefore have severed different
whsut follows the
sides
and we
In
ways of finding a
solution.
most elementary method has in general been

For the sake of
first
put
first,
other solutions being given later on.
siraplicity
they have also generally been treated
in two
dimensions.
In theê ways
the
difficulties
of
it
dynamics
is
are
separated from those of pure georaetry and
hoped that
both
difficulties
may
thus be more easily overcome.
Some
?iints
of the examples have been fully
worked
out,
on others
have been giv(m.
Many
of these have been selected from
the Tripos and College papers in order that they
may
the better
indicate the recent directions of dynamical thought.

I cannot conclude without thanking
Mr
Dickson of Peterhouse.
He
has kindly assisted
me
in correcting
most of the proofs and
has given material aid by his verifications and suggestions.
EDV/ARD
Peterhouse,
July, 1898.
J..
ROUTH.
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER
I.
ELBMENTAR^r CONSIDERATIONS.
AETS.
PAGES
Velocity
31 38.
1
30.
and acceleration
Cartesian, polar
and
.
intrinsic
.
components
11
10 13 16 17
39 41
40.
Kelative motion
1415
15
45.
Angular velocity
Units of space and time
4648.
4962.
6367.
16
Laws
of
motion
.
1723
Units of mass and force

Vis viva and work
2326
6872.
73
2627
. .
.
79.
The two
solutions of the equations of motion
28
35
80
91.
94.
Impulsive forces
and impacts
34 41
46
9293.
Motion of the centre of giavity
4142
42
Examples on impacts
'
CHAITER
II.
rectilini;ar motion.
95
104
103. 117. 122.
Solution of the equation.
jVmbiguities
....
....
47
53 60 64
heavy particle in vacuo and in a resisting medium.
Bough chords
118
53 60
Linear equation and harmo.aic motion

CONTENTS.
PAGES
Centre of force.
Discontinuity of friction, of resistance
Vlll
ARTS.
123
136.
and of central forces
64
73
73
142. 143 147. 148 150. 151 153.

137
SmaU
oscillations.
Magnification
Chords of quickest descent.

Infinitesimal impulses
Smooth.
Bough
76 79 80 82
77 82
Theory of dimensions
83
CHAPTER
III.
MOTION OF PROJECTILES.
154161.
162
Parabolic motion
8492
Special cases
167. 168 180.
Resistance varies as the velocity
Other laws of resistance.
....
92 95
95
102
CHAPTER
IV.
CONSTRAINED MOTION IN TWO DIMENSIONS.

181190.
The two
resolutions.
Work
function
....
;
103110
110112 112115
115
191192.
193196.
197
Rough
curves
Zero pressure
198. 199 203. 204 212.

213220.
Moving curves of constraint
Time
of describing
an
arc.
Subject of integration infinite

;
117 117 120

120126 126133
Motion in a cycloid.
Smooth
rough
and a
resisting
medium
Motion in a
circle.
Coaxial circles &c
CHAPTER
V.
MOTION IN TWO DIMENSIONS.

221233.
234245.
246
Moving
axes.
Relative motion
134141
D'Alembert's principle &c

Vis viva and energy
141147
147
254.
154
CONTENTS.
ARTS.
IX
PAGES
256, 257 258. 259267.

255
Eotating
field of force,
Jacobi
154156 156157
157163
Relative vis viva.
Coriolis
.
Moments and
resolutions
268270.
Equation of the path

Superposition of motions
Initial tensions
.
164166
275. 276284. 285 286. 287 291. 292 295. 296 299.
271
166168
.
and curvature
168177
Small
oscillations.
One
degree of freedom
177180
180182
Several degrees of freedom

Principal oscillations
Stability tests.
....
.
183185
185188 188190
190191
Barrier curves
300301.
302
Examples,
Particle
on a surface
303.
Second approximations
Oscillations about steady motion
304.
305.
Finite differences
....
VI.
191193
193196
CHAPTER
CENTRAL FORCES.
197202
306316.
317322, 323324.
Elementary theorems
The
orbits for various laws of force
202209 209210
210216
216
Parallel forces
325331.
332340.
341
Law Law
Time
of the direct distance

of the inverse square
349.
of
describing
eccentricity is small
350355.
356366.
367
Euler's and Lambert's theorems
Law
of the inverse cube
370.
Nearly circular orbits.

Disturbed
Resisting
elliptic
371382.
383386.
medium.
387393. 394398.
399_405.
406
Kepler's laws.
Gravitation
The Hodograph
Two
attracting particles
...... ...... ..... ....... ,,,... ,,,,,,.,. ,..,,..

an
arc.
221 227
236 238
Various rules when the

221
227230
230 236
and higher powers
Second approximations
motion
238246
246249
Encke's comet
249252
252254
255259
259
413,
Three attracting
particles.
Stable
and unstable cases

. ,
414.
A swarm
of particles.
See Note page 406

Stability,
264
264 267
415418.
Tisserand's criterion.
419427.
428.
Apsidal distances and angle
......
&c
267269
270274
274275
Closed orbits.
Bertrand

X
ARTS.
CONTENTS.
PAGES
Orbits
classified,
(1)
429449.
F=fiu'',
(2)
F=f{u).
.
Stability of
.
asymptotic
circles.
Examples
Newton.
. .
275
283
450464.
Law
of force in a conic.
.
Hamilton.
. .
.
The two
.
laws
283291
465472.
478489.
Singular points in orbits

Kepler's
series
292-295
Bessel.
problem.
....'.
CHAPTER
Lagrange.
Convergency
of
295303
VII.
MOTION IN THREE DIMENSIONS.

490
502. 512. 513 519. 520 523.

503
524.
Elementary resolutions.
Lagrange's equations
Moving axes
Small oscillations and
initial
motion
Solution of Lagrange's equations.
Liouville, Jacobi.
one coordinate absent, pages 322, 409
.... .... ....

.
,.
304 311 318
311 317
321
323
Also
321
Change of the independent

Curvilinear coordinates
variable.
Pages 408, 410
323324
525.
526
534. 535 545. 554. 555 567. 568 575.

550
Motion on a curve,
fixed,
;
moving
or changing.
Free motion
Motion on a surface
special cases
325 332 332 338

324
325
546549.
Gauss' coordinates &c
338339
, ,
. .
Heavy
particle
on a surface
Conical pendulum.
Time, apsidal angle &c.

Cartesian coordinates
343
Motion on an
ellipsoid.
343 349 350 354

340
576584.
Elliptic coordinates
354360
CHAPTER
VIII.
SQM5 SPECIAL PROBLEMS,

585
589.
Motion under two centres

dimensions
. ,
of
force
in
two and three

361-
595
594, 599. 600 606. 607 612.

590
Brachistochrones, general equations
Three theorems, with dynamical interpretations

Brachistochrones with a vertical force, a central force
.
Brachistochrones on a surface.
Equal times.
Examples

CONTENTS.
AKTS.
XI
PAGES
613619. 620621. 622628.
Motion
relative to the earth.
Falling bodies
377380 380382
382
The two
cases of motion
624626.
627.
On On
projectiles
Foucault's
pendulum
382384
History
Inversion of the path.
384385
See also Art. 650, Ex. 2
628630.
632. 633 635.

631
Inversion of the pressures.
Examples
....
. .
.
.
385387
387388
388
Conjugate functions, path and pressures
390
636638.
639
Grouping of
Jacobi's
trajectories
390393
.
644.
645.
method
of solving dynamical problems

Liouville's
393 397
Examples on Jacobi's method and

Principle of least action
work function
397 399
646648.
649.
399400
400401
of previous theorems
.
.
Case of failure
650
652. 653 654.

Note
1.
Examples and other proofs
401
Discussion of the terms of the second order
402
402 405
407
On an On
ellipsoidal
swarm
of particles
"
406
Note
2.
Lagrange's equations.
A new form for the Lagrangian

6)
function.
Also any function (say
of the coordinates
field
the independent variable.
Eotating
....
made
408
410
Index
411417
CHAPTER
Velocity
I.
and
Acceleration..
1.
The
science of dynamics
is
divided into two parts.
In one
the geometrical circumstances of the motion are considered apart
from the physical causes of that motion.

in
In the other the mode

is
which the motion
is
produced by the action of forces
investiis
gated.
The
first is
usually called kinematics, the second
called
sometimes
2.
kinetics
and sometimes dynamics.
given curve.
Let us consider the geometrical motion of a point on a The motion is said to he uniform when equal spaces
are described in any two equal times.

unit of time measures the velocity.
The space described in any
The word "any"

need not be uniform.
space
is
in this definition is important.
If all the
spaces described in successive units of time were equal, the motion,
For example, the hands of a clock move

at the end of each second.
over equal spaces in successive seconds, but in some clocks each

described
by a jump
as the independent variable.
In discussing the geometry of the motion, the time is regarded It is merely some continually in-
creasing quantity.
So
far as
our present purpose
is
concerned,
we may suppose that the time is measured by the space described by some standard point moving in a straight line always in the same direction.
Let
s
be the distance at the time Let
of a point
moving
uniformly on a curve measured along the arc from some fixed

point on the curve.
So
be the arc-distance at the time

in'
ô*
Since V
is
the space described
a unit of time, the arc s s^
2
described in
t
VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION.
[CHAP.I.
units of time
is
given by
SQ = v{t to).
This
leads to the converse equation, in unifor'm motion the velocity is
equal to the space described in any time divided by that time.

3.
When
we
all
is
the arcs described in equal times are not equal,
the
velocity
variable.
By
the principles of the differential
calculus
consider the arcs described in infinitely short times.
The
point being in any position
P at the
time
St.
t,
let 8s
be the arc
arc
described in a following interval of time

described uniformly the velocity would be
.
If this
were
Bs/St.
.
The
limiting
value
when
Bt is indefinitely small is
v=-j-.
ds
This
may
be deis
fined to be the velocity in
the position P.
This equation
usually expressed in the following words.
a point when variable is measured by the space or arc which woidd be described in a unit of time if the point were to move uniformly with the velocity it had at the moinent under.
The- velocity of
consideration.
It is
Let, as before, 5s be the arc described in the next interval 5^

greatest
worth while to give a more formal proof of the important equation r=(Zs/(Jt. Let v^, v^ be the
and
v^dt
least velocities of the point in that interval.

v^
is
between
and v^St, and therefore 5s/5( must lie between Vj and v^ become equal to each other and therefore each therefore must be the value of r.
The space 5s must lie and v^ In the limit

.
equal to ds/dt.
This
Parallelogram of velocities. Velocities may be com4. pounded by the parallelogram law. Let a point P move with a uniform velocity u along a finite straight line OA and arrive at A
at the
end of a given time, then
OP = ut. Let the straight line OA move, always remaining

parallel to itself, with a uniform
velocity v
is
and come into the position
BO
in the
same time.
It
evident, from the properties of similar figures, that the point
has described the diagonal

sides of
OG
which are
OA
and
of the parallelogram, two adjacent The two velocities u, v are OB.
proportional to the lengths of the straight lines OA and OB, and are evidently represented by those lines in direction and magnitude.
When
velocities
moves with two simultaneous represented in direction and magnitude by the straight
therefore
particle
ART.
lines
7.]
THE PARALLELOGRAM LAW.

its
single
same as if it were moved with a and magnitude by the diagonal OG of the parallelogram constructed on OA, OB as sides.
OA, OB,
velocity
motion
is the
represented in
direction
5.
This rule
forces
pounding
of Statics,
is the same as that given in Statics for comwhich act at the same point. Hence all the rules which are derived from the parallelogram of forces, will
also apply to velocities.
We may therefore
infer the triangle of velocities,
and
all
the
various rules for resolving and
compounding
velocities,
both by
rectangular and oblique resolutions.
The moment of a velocity about a point may be defined in the same way as the moment of a force. Let a point P be moving with a velocity w in a direction repre6.
Moment of a
velocity.
sented by the straight line
drawn from any point

of the
velocity v about
AFB. Let ON =phe the perpendicular G on the straight line APB. The moment G is then defined to be equal to vp.
the
Using the same proof as that adopted in Statics, we infer that moment of the velocity of a point about any straight line is equal to the sum of the moments of its components.
7.
This theorem enables us to express the
moment
of the
velocity about the origin in several different forms, all of
which
12
;
are in
common
use.
Let a point
move along a
curve.
It is proved in Art.
that the polar components of the velocity are dr/dt and rddjdt
the moments of these about the origin are respectively zero and
r^dB/dt.
The moment
of the velocity is therefore r^ -rr
In the same way, the Cartesian components being dxjdt and

dyjdt, the
moment
of the resultant velocity is
x - y-j,
Lastly let A be the polar area bounded by the path, the moving radius vector r and any fixed radius vector. It is clear that pds is twice the area dA traced out by the radius vector.
The moment
8.
of the velocity about the origin
is,
pv=2
dA
-,
.
The
definition given above is strictly the
moment
of the velocity about a
straight line
drawn through
perpendicular to the plane containing
C and
the
12

straight line
[chap.
I.
APB.
When we
require the
moment of
is
the velocity of a point moving
along
AB
about any straight line
CD
which
inclined to the plane
CAB, we use
the same extended definition as in Statics.
Let
along
MN
be the shortest distance between
AB into
AB and two components, one along Nz parallel to
and the other along Ny perpendicular to CD. The former is v cos 9, the latter v sin d, where 6 is the angle contained by AB and CD. The moment of the former is
defined to be zero, the
D sin
.jJ
CD CD
resolve the velocity v
moment
of the latter is
where p=MN.
If a point move along

the
AB
ivith
a velocity
is
v,
moment of
that velocity about
CD
vp sin
0,
IV here
is
the shortest distance hetioeen
AB
and
CD
and
6 is the angle contained by those lines.
The symmetry
the same as that about
of this result
shows that the
moment about AB
of a velocity along
CD
is
CD
of an equal velocity along
AB.
9.
\,
fi,
Ex.
v;
X',
Given the two straight lines
x-f__y-g_z-h^ x-f = &c.,
where
&c. are the direction cosines of the two lines.
A
\
X'
particle is
along one of them; prove that the

velocity about the other is
vi,
moment
i
of the
/-/'.
9-9',
fl
moving h-h'
V
"'
where
is
the deter-
minant
in the margin.
m'
10.
Relative velocity.
lines
Two
points P,
Q
v.
are
moving
along-
two straight
AB, CD with
velocities w,
It is required to
find their relative velocity.
let
Let any number of bodies be situated within a space and that space be moved carrying the bodies with it (as in a
;
railway carriage)
it
is
evident that the relative positions of

If then
the bodies are unchanged.

points P,
we impress on both the

The
a velocity equal and opposite to that of one of them,
say P, the relative positions and motions are unaltered.

point
its
is
now
at rest
v,
own
velocity, viz.
and the velocity of Q is the resultant of and the reversed velocity, viz. u, of P.
of Q with regard to P, we compound according to with the reversed velocity of
To find
the relative velocity
the actual velocity
of
the parallelogram' law.
Ex. A circle is rotated in its own plane about a point in its circumference with an angular velocity w and a point P moves on the circle in the opposite direction with angular velocity 2w relative to the circle. Prove that P moves in a straight line and find its velocity. [Coll. Exam. 1896.]
ART. 13.]
11.
COORDINATE VELOCITIES.
Coordinate velocities.
Let P, P' be the positions of a

at
point moving on a curve

spectively.
APP'
the times
and
t-\-dt re-
Let
OM=x,
MP = y
P
;
be the coordinates of
OM',
cut
M'P' those of F. drawn parallel to P'M' in L, then
Let PL,
Ox,
PL =
By
ties
câ;,
XP' = dy.
the triangle of veloci-
the sides PL,
LP'
of the
triangle
PLP'
represent the oblique components of velocity on
the same scale that PP' represents the resultant velocity. The components of velocity are therefore PL/dt and P'Ljdt. If then a point move on a curve, and its coordinates are x, y, the Cartesian
components of its velocity are equal
to -rr
and -^
12.
Let PI{ be a perpendicular drawn from
on OP'.
The
sides of the triangle

scale the
PHP'
will ultimately represent
on the same
component velocities perpendicular and parallel to the These components are therefore PHjdt and HP'jdt. If OP = r and the angle POx = e we know by the = rdd elementary principles of the differential calculus that and HP' = dr ultimately. The components of velocity along and
radius vector OP.
PH
.
perpendicidar
to the
radius vector are therefore
-j-
and
r-j-
The Let Q be another point whose coordinates are x', y 13. components of its velocity are dx'jdt and dy jdt. To find the component velocities of Q relative to P we follow the rule of Art. 10. Reversing the component velocities of P and adding the results to those of Q, it is clear that the component relative dx' dy dx dy .^. ^ r\ velocities or Q are r. r- and r.
dt
dt
dt
dt
We may put
ing parallel
the argument in another form.
Let
^,
t],
be the coordinates of
referred to axes having their origin at the
and
dtjjdt.
moving point P, their directions remainto the original axes. The component relative velocities are then d^ldt But since ^=x' -x, v^^v' -y> we arrive by differentiation at the same
results as before.
6
14.
are 2at
[CHAP.
I.
Ex. 1. The component velocities of a point in the directions of two axes and 2bt + /3. Prove that the path is a parabola whose axis is parallel to
ay = bx.
We
first t^
have dxldt=2at, :. x=at^+A. Similarly y and then t, the path follows at onde.
may
be found.
Eliminating
Ex.
are ax
2. The component velocities parallel to the axes and by + p. Prove that the path is (6y + /3)"=4x^ 3.
of
x and y respectively
Ex.
Ex.
circle
The polar components

br.
of velocity parallel
and perpendicular to the
radius vector are 2a6 and

4.
Prove that the path
is br=zaff^
+ A.
If a particle be
represent the velocities
moving in a hypocycloid with velocity u, and v, V of the centre of curvature and the centre of the generating
y2
,
corresponding to the position of the particle, prove that

^2
4pr2
(c-b)^
c
+
(c
+ 6)2~(c-6)2'
circles,
being the distance between the centres of the generating
and
b the radius
of the moving circle,
[Math. Tripos.]
15.
Acceleration.
is
This word
is
used to express the rate at
which the velocity

variable.
increasing.
It
may
be either uniform or
If a point move in such a manner that the increments of velocity gained in any equal times are the same in direction and equal in magnitude, the acceleration is said to be uniform. The increment
of velocity in each unit of time measures the magnitude of the
acceleration.
16.
First, let the point
move in a straight
line.
Let
Vo
be the
velocity at
any time
to
after a unit of time has elapsed, let Vq
+f
be the velocity. After a second unit of time the velocity must be Vo + 2f, because equal increments are -gained in equal times. Hence after t to units of time the velocity has increased by f(t
to).
If V be the velocity at the time

V = Vo +f{t to).
t,
we have
The quantity /is the

17.
is
acceleration.
If the point
does not move in a straight line the explanation
Let Oy represent the direction in which the constant increments of velocity are given to the point, and Let Uq, v^ let Ox be the direction of motion at the time t = to.
only slightly altered.
be the components of the velocity in the directions of the axes Ox and Oy respectively at the time t^. After a unit of time has elapsed the component of velocity parallel to Oy is Vo+f, but
ART. 21.]
that parallel to
ACCELERATION.
Ox
is
added in that
is still Uq.
direction.
unchanged because no velocity has been After t U units of time, the component
is
Vr,
-of velocity parallel to
Oy
+f(t to), while that
parallel to
Ox
t,
If u, V are the
components of velocity at the time
"we
have
= Uo,
V=Vo+f{t-to).
is /,
The magnitude
18.
of the acceleration
and
its
direction
is
Oy.
When
the
increments of velocity in equal times are
unequal in magnitude, or not the same in direction, the acceleration

is
said to be variable.
to
To obtain a measure we
velocity.
follow the
method adopted
measure variable
Acceleration when uniform is measured by the velocity generated

in any unit of time.
is
When
variable, the acceleration at
any instant
measured by
the velocity
which woidd be generated in the next
unit of time if the acceleration had remained constant in magnitude during that interval and fixed in direction.
19.
To find
v
the equations
of motion of a point moving in a
straight line with a variable acceleration
f
t
Let v and
+ dv
be the velocities at the times

dt,
and
+ dt.
Assuming the
principles of the differential

it
calculus, dv
being
the increment in the time
by a simple proportion that dv/dt is the velocity which would be added in a unit of time, if the acceleration had remained constant. Hence, by Art. 16,
follows
/= dv/dt.
velocity generated in the time
more elementary form. Let dv be the / be the greatest and least accelerations of the particle during the interval dt. Then since the actual rate at which the velocity is increasing is always less than the one and greater than the other, the velocity added is less than J\St and greater than f^St. In the iimit /^ and f^ coincide and we have /= dvldt.
is
The argument
usually put into a

St.
Let
/j
20.
Let the geometrical position of the point at the time

its
be determined by
distance s from a fixed point in the path.
Let
be the velocity, / the acceleration, then
_ds
""
~di'
"
_ ^^ _ ^^* _ ^^ ~di~dt'~^ds'
All these expressions for the acceleration are of great importance.

21.
We
for
notice that velocity and acceleration are dynamical

first
names
the
and second
differential coefficients of s
with

t.
[CHAP.
I.
regard to the independent variable

coefficient
If the third differential
were required, we should use some such name as

is
the hyper-acceleration, but this extension
not necessary to
dynamics.
22.
It
appears that acceleration bears the same general
relation to velocity that velocity bears to space.
When
a point
moves
in a straight line the velocity
is
the rate of increase of the
space, the acceleration is the rate of increase of the velocity.

23.
Just as velocity
is
positive or negative according as the

is
space measured in the positive direction

so acceleration
is
increasing or decreasing,
is
positive or negative according as the velocity
increasing or decreasing.
called a retardation.
negative acceleration
is
sometimes
24. To find the motion of a point with a uniform acceleration
moving in a straight
line
Let the position of the point at the time ^ = io ê given by 5 = So, and let Vq be the velocity. Since /= d^s/dt"^, we have
v
= dsfdt=ft + A.
Hence
and
Vo=fto
+ A, V f(t - to) +
Vo-,
Integrating again, since v
= ds/dt, s = hf{t - Uy + Vot + B.
Hence
Sq
= v^to + B, and therefore * = i/(* - ô)' + %{t- to) + So.

The three fundamental
^
25.
formulae
of elementary kine-
matics follow from this result.

s
If the point start from the position
at the time
= 0,
= U^^ + Vol, V=ft + Vo, v^ = 2fs Vo^.
-f
26.
Ex.
1.
A
t.
particle describes a space
in time
with a uniform accelerav.
tion, the velocities at the
beginning and end of this period being Vq and

t
Prove
that s=^{vo + v)
velocities.
Notice that the coefficient of
is
the
mean
of
the two
ART. ^.]
Ex.
2.
PAEALLELOGRAM OF ACCELERATIONS.
A
particle
9
Prove that the
moves from
rest
with a uniform acceleration.
or two-thirds of the final velocity, according as the time or the space is divided into an infinite number of equal portions and the average [St John's Coll., 1895.] taken with regard to these.
average velocity
is half
Ex.
3.
Two
points P,
Q move on
a straight line
AB.
/,
in the direction
AB
with velocity u and acceleration
The point P starts from and at the same time Q
starts
from
in the direction
at the
one another
BA with velocity u' and acceleration /'; if they pass middle point of ^jB and arrive at the other ends oi AB with
[Coll.
equal velocities, prove that {u + u') (/-/') = 8 (/w' -f'u).
Exam.
1896.]
Ex.
4.
heavy
particle,
projected
horizontally on
smooth
table with
velocity v, is reduced to rest
by the resistance of the air after describing a space s. Supposing the resistance of the air to be a uniform force, prove that, when the particle is projected vertically upwards with any velocity, the squares of the times
of ascent
and descent
to the point of projection are in the ratio 2gs
- v^ to 2gs + v'^.
Ex. 5. A particle is projected vertically upwards from a point A. If the resistance of the air were constant and equal to ng, where n is less than unity, prove that the times of ascent and descent are as ij{l-n) ^{\ + n).
:
Ex.
point
6.
particle
is
projected vertically upwards in vacuo from a given
point P.
is
7..
Prove that the product of the times of passing through another given independent of the velocity of projection from P.
Ex.
Two
particles P, P' starting simultaneously
from the points A, A' with

accelerations /, /'.
initial distance
initial velocities u, u',

V, v' are their
s,
move in the straight line AA' with velocities when the distance PP' exceeds the
{v'-v)^ = {u'-u)^ + 2{f'-f)s.
If
AA' by
then
See Arts. 10 and 39.
27.
direction
Ex.
point P, at any given
moment,
is
in the position
is
moving in the
it
Ox with
t
a velocity u.
uniform acceleration /
given to
in the
direction Oy.
It is required to exhibit geometrically the position
and
direction of
motion
after
seconds.
To
after
t
find the direction of
motion we measure lengths OA,

the diagonal
OB
along Ox,
Oy
to
represent on any scale the velocities u and/( respectively.
The
direction of
motion
seconds
is parallel to
OD
of the parallelogram
AOB.
To
find the position o6 the point

If
we measure
lengths equal to the spaces, viz.
OE = ut, OF^jV.
direction parallel to
OG
is
the diagonal of
EOF,
the point
is
at
G moving
in a
OD.
compound
the velocities, to find the position
To find
ice
the direction of motion toe
compound the
28.
spaces.
The parallelogram of
accelerations.
This theorem
follows at once from the parallelogram of velocities.
Let a point
represent
in
be moving in any direction at the time

Referring to the figure of Art.
direction
point.
4,
with any velocity.
let
OA,
OB
Then by
and magnitude two uniform accelerations given to the definition OA, OB represent the two velocities
.
given to the point per unit of time.
By
the parallelogram of
10
[CHAP.
I.
velocities the diagonal
00
oi the parallelogram constructed on
OA,
OB
represents the resultant increment of velocity per unit
of time.
The point
is
is
therefore uniformly accelerated, and the
acceleration
represented in direction and magnitude by 00.
The actual velocity at the time t + t' (if required) could be found by compounding the velocity at the time t, either with both the components OA, OB, each multiplied by t', or with
their resultant after multiplication
29.
time
t.
by
t'.
Kodograph. Let a point move in From the origin draw a straight

is
a curve and let

line
P be its position at P
Then and
OH
to represent in direction
any and
magnitude the velocity v at P.

parallel to the
is
OH
its
tangent at
is
length
equal to kv, where k
constant introduced to
an arbitrary show the scale on

from
which
OH represents the velocity.

travels
As the point
path, the point
along
its
describes
a second curve
ivhich is called the hodograph of the first.
Let P, P' be t\yo positions of the point at the times t, t + dt; H, H' the corresponding points on the hodograph. Since OH, OH' represent the velocities at
P, P' in direction and magnitude, the
thii-d side
HH'
of the triangle
HOH'
must
represent in direction and magnitude the velocity given to the particle in the time
dt.
It follows by a simple proportion that HH'jdt represents the velocity which would have been added to the velocity at P if the acceleration had remained
constant for a unit of time.
The tangent
at
H therefore represents the acceleration

HH'
to the
in direction
and
the ratio
of an elementary arc
time dt of describing
it
measures the magnitude of

the velocity.
the acceleration on the
same scale that the radius vector

to the
OH represents
r = KV
In this way the hodograph represents

acceleration.
If r is the radius vector
eye the motion of a point on a curve.
In general language, the radius vector represents the velocity, the arc gives the
and a the arc BH, then
and
d(rjdt=Kf,
where / is the acceleration.
30.
of
To find
the
If
are given.
xp
hodograph when both the curve described by P and the velocity be the angle the tangent at P makes with some fixed straight
line taken as the axis of x,
we
notice that kv
and
\//
are the polar coordinates of
H.
From
the conditions of the question
we
first
find v
and
\p
in terms of
some one
quantity.
Then eliminating
that quantity
we obtain
the polar equation of the
hodograph.
Several examples will be given in the chapter on central forces.
31.
To find
the equations
of motion of a point moving in a
curve with variable acceleration.
We may
deduce the components of acceleration parallel to

Referring to the figure of Art. 11,
let
the axes of coordinates from the acceleration of a point movingin a straight line.
OM = x,
ART. 35.]
COMPONENTS OF ACCELERATION.
11
The components of the velocity of P have been shown and as they move along the be the actual velocities of axes of X and y respectively. This being true for all positions of P, the acceleration of P is the resultant of the accelerations of Jf
ON = y.
to
and N. have
If then
X,
T are
the component accelerations of P,
we
Y-
dt''
Ex.
Y-^^y
df
velocity, its
32.
projection
1. "When a point Q describes a circle with a uniform on any diameter x'Ox oscillates on each side of the centre
through a
length equal to the radius.
Prove that the acceleration of
P tends
n
towards
and
varies as the distance from 0.
Let the arc described by

let
per unit of time subtend an angle

t
at the centre,.
a..
the angle
QOx
be a
If
a be the radius, the

sign
= 0. Then at the time t, the angle QOx=nt + length OP = a cos (nt + a), hence the acceleration d^xjdt^= - an^ cos (nt + a) = - n^x.
when
is
The minus
shows that the acceleration tends towards 0.

motion represented by a;=acos(nJ + a)
usually called a siviple
An
oscillatory
harmonic
oscillation.
x^,
Ex. 2. where
A
?
point
P moves
towards a fixed point
so that its velocity varies as

Is the acceleration
x=OP.
Prove that the acceleration varies as x^^~^.
to or
from
33.
required in dynamics.
The Cartesian components of acceleration are not the only ones which are The components in polar coordinates and those along the
Besides these there are the components
formulaB to three dimensions.
all these
tangent and normal are continually used.

for
moving axes and the extension of
In
order to avoid raising unnecessary difficulties at the beginning of the subject

shall confine our attention in the present chapter to the simpler cases.
will
we
The others
be taken up in the sections on resolved velocities and accelerations.
34.
The general
principle on which the

fixed direction has
or acceleration in
any
component of velocity been defined may be
summed up
in the following manner.
Since the component of acceleration is the rate at which the component of velocity in that direction is increasing, we have by
the definition of a differential coefficient

resolved \
acceleration]
-r
(res. vel.
at time
+ dt)
dt
is
(res. vel.
at time
t)
In the same way

resolved)
velocity]
35.
if
.
the fixed direction

(abscissa at time
t
called the axis of x,

(absc. at
_j.
+ dt)
dt
time
t)
To find
the resolved accelerations of
a point in polar
co-
ordinates.
Let
OP = r, POx =6
he the polar coordinates of P.
By
'
12
[chap.
I.
Art. 12 the components of velocity at

to
P
let
along and perpendicular

v
OP
are
t
u = drjdt and
= rdd/dt
At
the time
+ dt
the particle be at P',
the components of velocity along and per-
pendicular to the radius vector of P',

OP', are Ui
viz.
the
angle
velocity at
= u + du and Vi v + dv. Since P0P' = d9, the component of the time t + dt in the direction
d6
Vj
OP
is
Va COS
sin dO.
This direction being fixed in space

along the radius vector OP is (u + du) cos dd (v J
.
.
for the
time
dt,
the acceleration
+ dv) sin dd u _ du
dt
d0
dt
dt
Similarly the acceleration perpendicular to the radius vector

-r
.
OP
is
Limit
(u
+ du) sin dd +(v +

g^
u, v their values
dv) cos
dO v
= di + di-
dd
dv
Substituting for
given above, the accelerations
R
t
and 8
along and perpendicular to the radius vector at the time
are respectively
r /d0y R = d'r dp
^_dr dd
dt dt
36.
d
dt
d9\_ld_f,d&
^dt)~~r
dt V
'
dt
To find
the resolved accelerations along the tangent
and
normal.
Let the arc
AP =
s.
By
Art.
3,
the velocity w at
is
along
the tangent and v
= ds/dt.
At
the time
Vi
t+dt
Vi
the point
is
at P', its velocity
is
in the direction of the tangent at P'
and
the
= v + dv.
The components
of
Vi
in
and normal at P d-yjr and cos v^ sin d-yjr, where are therefore Vi (i-v/r is the angle the tangents at P and P'
directions of the tangent
make with each

is
other.
The
-.
acceleration along the tangent at
therefore
(v + dv) cos dyfr -v ^ 2 == Limit

-r
j^
-^.
the
dv
Similarly that along the normal in the direction in which

radius of curvature p
is
measured
positively, is
dyjr
sin N = Limit (v + dv) dt
dyfr
_ v^
p
dt
ART. 38.]
37.
COMPONENTS
.OF
ACCELERATION.
13
tions of a
have now obtained three different sets of components for the acceleramoving point. These are the components A', Y along the axes, the components jB, S along and transverse to the radius vector, and the components T, N along the tangent and normal. Any one set can be deduced from any other set
by a simple resolution.
We
The components R, S are evidently connected with X, Y by the

iJ=Acos^-|-rsin^,
Vfiiting
ec[uations
X=d-x I dt%
a simple but rather
S- -Xs'md + Ycose. r=d-!//df- and substituting x-rcosd, y = r sin 6 we arrive by long differentiation at the values of R and S given in Art. 35.
In the same way we have
T=Xcos^+Ysin\l/,
N=
- Xsmxf/ + Y cof\f/.
The process of deducing the polar and the tangential-normal components of acceleration from the Cartesian components may be shortened by the following
artifice.
If
x=r cos
X--
we have by
^d"r
(di-
differentiation
d'x
dt)
cosît
^drd9
2
dt dt
^ + r dm sm 0.
.
.-.,
dt")
Since the axis of x

r as ^
it
is
arbitrary in position, let

is
be so taken that the radius vector

t.
turns round the origin
passing through x at the time
We
then have
= 0,
and
X becomes R
hence
iJ
= -,vi - r
df
\dt
To
find the acceleration
per-
pendicular to the radius vector, we

to the direction in
take the positive side of the axis of x parallel
which S
is
to be
measured
that
is,
the axis of x
right angle in advance of the radius vector.
Putting therefore
6=
-\-w,
must be one we find
dt\ dt)
'
The three elementary sets of components may be summed up in the followThey are to be measured positively in the direction in which the length named in the fourth column is measured positively.
38.
ing table.
14
39.
[CHAP.
I.
Relative accelerations.
it is
Two
points P,
are
moving
along two curves,

to P.
required to find the acceleration of
Q relative
By the same reasoning as in Art. 10, it follows that if we impress on both points an acceleration equal and opposite to that of one of them, say P, their relative motions and accelerations
are unaltered.
celeration of
This leads at once to the following rule
the ac-
to P and components of acceleration, we say that the component of the acceleration of Q in any direction is equal to its component relative
to
Q in space is the resultant of its acceleration relative of the acceleration of P. As we generally require the
P plus
40.
the
1.
component of the acceleration of P.

The
position of a point
Ex.
is
given by
its
polar coordinates
r,
6,
referred to a fixed origin
and the axis

the axis of
of x.
The
r^,
position of
referred to
is
given by
its
polar coordinates
6^^,
P as origin with
x-^^
parallel to x.
It is required to find
the component accelerations of
in space.
The polar
accelerations of
P are
ART. 43.]
the acceleration of the bead
ANGULAR VELOCITY.
is
15
towards the centre of the simple harmonic motion
and that
its
path
is
an
ellipse of eccentricity (f ,^5
- ^)K
[Coll.
Exam.
1897.]
Ex. 5. A railway passenger seated in one corner of the carriage looks out of the windows at the further end and observes that a star near the horizon is traversing these windows in the direction of the train's motion and that it is obscured by the partition between the corner windows on his own side of the carriage and the middle window while the train is moving through the seventh part of a mile. Prove that the train is on a curve the concavity of which is directed towards the star and
which,
if it
be circular, has a radius of nearly three miles, the breadth of the carriage
being seven feet and the breadth of the partition four inches.
[Math. Tripos, I860.]
41. Angnilar velocity and acceleration. A rigid body is said to be turning round an axis OA when each point is describing a circle whose plane is perpendicular to OA and whose centre lies in OA. Let (p be the angle which the plane containing any point P of the body and the axis OA makes with some plane fixed in space and passing through OA. The rate at which the angle tp is increasing is
called the angular velocity of the body.
Following the same line of argument as in

is
the case of linear velocities, the angular velocity
measured by
dcp/dt
and the
angular acceleration by
<P<pldt^.
(^j
We notice
FÔA makes
If
that
if
P^ be any other point in the body and

is
the angle the plane
with the plane of reference, the angle <p-(p^
independent of the time,
so that d<f>ldt=d(pjdt.
be any point of the body, r
its
distance from the axis
OA and
tj)=d(f>jdt
be
the angular velocity, the point
is
moving perpendicularly
to the plane
QOA
with
a velocity equal
to ow.
If the rotation continue only for a time dt the axis
OA
(by rotation about which
the motion in that time can be constructed)

the instantaneous angular velocity.
is
called the instantaneous axis
and w
is
42.
length
is
An angular velocity w about an axis OA proportional to w measured along the
is
geometrically represented by a
axis.
The
direction of the rotation
determined by the convention used in Statics to indicate the direction of rotation of a couple. If OA be the direction in which the length is rtieasured the rotation
positive, should
feet at
when
appear to be in some standard direction to a spectator placed
with his
A and
head
at B.
This standard direction

of a clock.
is
often taken to be the
direction of rotation of the
hands
velocities of
Parallelogram of angidar velocities. If two instantaneous angular a body are represented in magnitude and direction by tivo lengtlis OA, OB, the diagonal OG of the parallelogram constructed on OA, OB as sides is the resultant instantaneous axis of rotation, and its length represents the magnitude of the
43.
resultant angular velocity.
Let
be any point which at the time
lies
in the plane
AOB
r^,
r^,
the
distances of
Q from OA, OB, p its distance from OC. Let u^ = OA, (i)^=OB, Q=OC. The velocity of Q due to the two rotations w^, Wg is Wjr^ + WjJ'gj while that due to the single rotation is Up. To prove that these are equal it is sufficient to
notice that
if
OA,
OB
represented forces and

of the
asserts that the
sum
moments
of OA,
OG the resultant, the equality merely OB about Q is equal to that of the
resultant OG.
16

Let V be the velocity of Q, then
V = ojjrj
If
[CHAP.
I.
+ w.j?'2 = Up.
of
lie
on OC,
p = 0,
and therefore every point

Also since
OC
is at rest.
Hence
OC
is
the resultant axis of rotation.

axis
is C2.
Q = vlp
the angular velocity about the
The theorem of the parallelogram of angular accelerations follows from that of angular velocities, just as the parallelogram of linear accelerations follows
44.
from that of linear
velocities.
45.
section
The
rule for
in Statics to
compound
is at
compounding angular velocities being the same as that used forces, we may interpret the limiting case when the interinfinity as we do the corresponding case in Statics. It is however
simpler to deduce the result independently.
Let the body have instantaneous angular velocities w, w', about tioo parallel axes OA, O'B distant a from each other. The resultant velocity of any point Q in the plane of OA,'0'B and distant ?/ and y + a from them respectively is uy + u' (y + a).
Firstly, let
w + w' not be
zero.
Equating the velocity
of
to zero,
,
we
see that
w+ O'B and at a distance y from the former. To find the resultant angular velocity (2 we notice that the velocity of a point Q situated on OA is represented both by Q{-y) and w'a. Hence substi= w + w'. tuting for y,
resultant axis of rotation
is
every point on a straight line
0"C determined by
is
at rest.
The
therefore parallel to OA,
Secondly,
equal to w'a.
of the rigid
w + oi' = 0. The resultant velocity of Q is independent of y and is Hence every point in the plane of the axes (and therefore every point body) is moving with the same velocity in the same direction. We
let
infer, that tioo equal
and opposite instantaneous angular
velocities about parallel axes
are together equivalent to a translation in a direction perpendicular to the plane
containing the axes.
46.
is
Units of space and time.
The ordinary
is
the second of
feet or
mean solar time. The metre is centimetres.

is
Space
unit of time measured either in
39'37 inches nearly, while the
centimetre
the hundredth part of the metre.
The unit
velocity is
acceleration
47.
then either one foot or one centimetre per second, and the unit of is a gain of one unit of velocity per second.
We
are not however restricted to use these units.
Let
the unit of space be a feet and the unit of time t seconds.

unit of velocity
is
The
then a feet per t seconds,
i.e. (xIt
of the feetis
seconds units of velocity.
The
unit of acceleration
a gain of
afr feet per second, to be added on every r seconds, i.e. ajr^ feet The unit of acceleration is per second added on every second.
therefore
a-JT^
feet-seconds units of acceleration.
Let
o",
be the measure of an acceleration when the units are
and
/ the
measure of the same acceleration when
feet
and
ART. 50.]
UNITS OF SPACE
AND
TIME.
17
seconds are used.
Then
since the
varies inversely as the length of the units
measure of the same thing employed, we have
If the acceleration of a falling body due to gravity is </ = 32'19 1. and a second are the units, show that the acceleration is 981*17 when a centimetre and a second are the units.
48.
Ex.
when a
foot
Ex. 2. A point moving with uniform acceleration describes 20 feet in the half second which elapses after the first second of its motion. Prove that the acceleration is to that of gravity as 32 to 32*18. Prove also that if a minute be the unit of time and a mile that of space the acceleration wiU be measured by 240/11.
Ex.
3.
If the area of a field of ten acres is represented
by 100 and the accelera[Coll.
tion of a heavy falling body by 58|, find the unit of time.
Ex.]
Since
an acre
is
4840 square yards,
100
new
square
units
is
equal to
4840 X 9 X 10 square
feet.
The new measure

.
of length is therefore 66 feet.

32.
Let
T be the required unit of time, then 58| = gg
This gives
t=11
seconds.
Laws of
Motion.
If one portion of matter, say A, act on another, B, the 49. mutual action is in dynamics called force. If we are examining the motion of A only, disregarding B, this force is said to be external to A, but if we are taking both portions into consideration, the action is an internal force. An external force is usually called <m impressed force. The mutual actions and reactions between These forces the molecules or parts of a body are internal forces.
have different names according to the circumstances of the
case.
is
When
the bodies are apparently in contact, their mutual action
called pressure,
when at a
distance, the action is called attraction.

size of the body,
Nothing has been said of the

that
its
convenient to divide bodies into small portions.

position in space
when
free is
but it is body so small determined by the co-
ordinates of one point
may
be called a particle.
is
This division
into indefinitely small particles
not necessary for our present

that there shall be no rotation.
;
purpose.
All that
we
require
is
A particle
bodies
50.
is
may be
said to have no rotation
the rotation of finite
usually regarded as a part of Rigid Dynamics.
Our
body.
We
object in dynamics is to investigate the motion of a have then to consider (1) how a body A moves when
18
left
LAWS OF MOTION.
to itself; (2)
[CHAP.
I.
is affected by the action of due to the presence of another body B; (3) how the action of 5 on -4 is related to th^ reaction of J. on B. The answers to these questions are given in Newton's Laws of
how the motion
an external
force, say,
Motion.
The
all
strict definition of
is
the meaning of the word force as used
in dynamics
determined by these laws.
We
do not consider
the actions which one body can exert on another but those
only which tend to alter the instantaneous motion of the body.
The following definition or explanation is commonly given. The word force is used to express any cause which produces or tends to produce a change in the existing state of rest or motion of the
body.
The velocity of a body has both direction and magnitude, we must therefore suppose that the cause of this motion also has both direction and magnitude. To determine a force we require to know (1) its point of application, (2) its direction, and (3) its magnitude. The unit of magnitude will be considered presently.
51.
Newton's Laws of Motion are as follows *

1
.
Law Law
force,
Every body continues in

line, except in so
its state
it
motion in a straight
far as
of rest or of uniform Tnay be compelled to
change that state by impressed forces. 2. Change of motion is proportional to and takes place in the direction of the straight
3.
the impressed
line in
which
the force acts.
Law
and
reaction ; or,
To every action there is always an equal and contrary the mutual actions of any two bodies are always equal
oppositely directed.
52.
The
first
law of motion asserts that the internal forces of

the uniform motion.
a body do not
alter
This law
is
not a
repetition of the explanation of the
The law
*
-
asserts that the causes of

desires something
refer to
word force given in Art. 50. motion must be external.

slight sketch here given of
The reader who
more than the
the laws of motion
may
Newton's Pmicipia, to a treatise on Matter and
Motion by the
late J. Clerk
Thomson and
Nature, vol.
Tait.
Maxwell and to the Elements of Natural Philosophy by There are also Maxwell's two reviews of the latter book in
Several points of controversy are discussed in an
vii.
and
vol. xx.
essay by K. F. Muirhead to which a Smith's Prize was awarded in 1886, see the
Phil.
Mag. 1887.
ART. 54.]
MOMENTUM.
19
inertia.
The law is sometimes expressed by saying that the body has The body has no power of itself to change its state of rest or motion, but goes on moving in the same direction with the same velocity when not acted on by an impressed force.
53. To define a uniform state of motion we require the measurements of space and time. If we assume the truth of the first law for some particular body, we can measure time by the space passed over by that body. The first law then asserts that the spaces described by any other body (not acted on by any external force) are equal when the spaces simultaneously described by the clock-body are equal. There remains the practical difficulty of obtaining a body free from external forces, which could be used as a clock. For this purpose we have recourse to some
other dynamical result.
Applying the principles of dynamics, as developed from the laws of motion, to

a rotating body, it can be proved that the motion of rotation about a certain axis is uniform if the external forces have no moment about that axis. The rotation of
such a body
may
be used very conveniently as a clock.

is
The
rotating body actually chosen
the earth.
The
forces
which tend to
alter
the period of rotation are so small as to be only scientifically perceptible.

period, scientifically
This
amended where necessary,
is
used as a unit of time.
The
practical
methods of adapting our clocks in treatises on astronomy.
to the rotation of the earth are described
We have specially mentioned the rotation of the earth because that supplies the measure of time in common use. Other phenomena may also be used, for example, the velocities of the different kinds of light and their wave lengths in vacuo are constants. Their numerical values^ have been calculated, and from these we could deduce unalterable units of space and time. The numerical values connected with any perpetual phenomenon would enable future observers to discover our present units from their determinations of the same periods and lengths.
The words " change of motion change of momentum."
54.
" in
the second law
mean
This
"
The quantity
unit of mass.
of matter in a body
is
called its mass.
may be measured by
taking any given lump of matter as the
Confining our attention, for the moment, to any
the same kind of matter, the mass of any other
lump may be
deduced by taking the ratio of the volumes.

The momentum, of a body,
all the points
of which are moving
in parallel straight lines with equal velocities, is the product of the
mass by
the velocity.
We
gram
notice that the

It
magnitude.
law.
momentum of a body has direction and may be compounded and resolved by the parallelo-
Let
be the mass, v the
velocity,
and
let
9 be the
angle the direction of motion makes with some fixed straight
20
line
;
LAWS OF MOTION.
then v cos 6
is
[CHAP.
I.
the component of velocity, and
mv cos
the
component of momentum
55.
in the direction of that straight line.
spoken of in the second law is an external magnitude of the force and the time during which its action is considered. During this time the direction and magnitude of the force continue unchanged. We may also regard it as an impulse by which the
force
force.
The
It includes the ideas of the
whole
momentum
is
instantaneously communicated to the body.
Consider the case in which a uniform force

particle in the direction of its motion,
F acts on a moving and in the time t' t let

The second law
asserts
viz.
the velocity be increased from v to

that the change of
v'.
momentum produced
by the time
t'
in a unit of time,
is
m{v'
v),
divided
of F.
t,
proportional
to
the
magnitude
If the force
is
not uniform, the time t't must be replaced
by
dt
and the velocity v
by
dv, Art. 19.
The law then

is
asserts
that the product of the mass and the acceleration

to the instantaneous
proportional
magnitude of the
force F.
We
then have,
F varies as mf.
56.
The arguments
for
the truth of Newton's laws
may be
;
classed under three heads.

First,
is
we can make an appeal
to
common
experience
this
considered to suggest the laws in a general way.
We
then
try
some simple experiments
so arranged that they can
be con-
ducted with considerable accuracy.
These
test the laws only
within the limits of error of the experiments, but, by taking care,

these can be reduced to a small amount.
Secondly,
we can show
that having granted some portions of
the laws as being truly founded on an experimental basis other

portions follow
Lastly,
by pure reasoning.
we can assume the laws as a working hypothesis and deduce from them the proper motions of a variety of bodies.
If these are found to agree with the observed motions, the laws
are tested within the limits of error of the observations.

consider these latter tests a
57.
little
Let us
more
fully.
The
position of a planet, the times of the beginning and
end of an
eclipse
and some other phenomena can be observed
with great accuracy and are therefore severe tests of the truth
ART. 58.]
Newton's laws.
21
of the results of dynamics.
The
calculations
by which these
predictions are obtained are very complicated, depending on the
combination of
many
forces acting diversely.
There are therefore
say so that any small might be expected by accumulation to produce a Yet notwithstanding both these opportunities of sensible effect.
error,
many causes of error. The are made some years beforehand,
predictions in the Nautical
Almanac
in a velocity,
detecting errors, the predicted places agree with the observations.
In many of the astronomical calculations the truth of the law The comparison of the predictions of gravitation is assumed.
with observations
is
a test of the truth of that law, as well as
of the principles of dynamics.
The
solutions of the equations of motion have also in
some
which had never been discovered For example, no one had until they were suggested by theory.
cases led to unexpected results,
noticed the slow rotation of the plane of vibration of a
pendulum
it
due to the rotation of the earth until Foucault deduced

dynamical principles.
from
Our
belief in the truth of the laws of
motion
may be made
these laws
to rest on these latter considerations. as the axioms on
We may regard
All its which the science of dynamics is It is only when we arrive predictions have as yet been verified. at a result contradicted by experience, after due allowance has
founded.
been made
error.
Still
for
the necessary errors of observation, that
we can
be called on to amend so much of the laws as has led to the

such a course would be
leave something wanting.
felt to
know how the laws were discovered, or at least what considerations would make them probable. For this reason a very brief summary of the arguments has been given in the
require to following articles.
58.
First laic.
We
Let a body be
set in
motion by any cause, say
it is
projected
when the cause ceases to act, the body continues in motion. It has therefore some power of retaining the motion given There is only a question of degree does it retain the whole or only some to it. portion of the velocity given to it ? The body gradually comes to rest, but we also observe that there are forces tending to stop the body, such as friction and the resistance of the air. We observe that when these resistances are small the body
along a horizontal plane.
notice that
;
We
continues in motion for a long time.

velocity
may
be entirely due to the resistances, though
This suggests that the diminution of the it does not prove that fact.
sufi&ciently
We
improve the argument by having recourse to some experiments
22
LAWS OF MOTION.
Any
[CHAP.
I.
accarate to allow measurements to be made.

in treatises on elementary dynamics
of the ordinary problems given
may
be utilized for this purpose, but the one
most commonly used

59.
is
Atwood's machine.
let
Before proceeding to that experiment
us consider some points connected

direction
with the second law.

tude the action
is
How
is
the action of a force affected by the previously
existing motion of the body?
We must
show that both in
and in magni-
independent of the velocity.
Let us take gravity as the force to
be experimented on.
the floor that
We
find that a stone dropped
from a moving support, say,

at rest.
the ceiling of a railway carriage in rapid uniform motion, hits the same point of
it
would have hit had the carriage been

is
Since,
law, the stone retains the horizontal velocity of the carriage, gravity
by the first must have
acted vertically on the moving particle, that

particle loere at rest.
If a
in the same direction as if the
number
of balls are simultaneously projected horizontally from a platform
with different
is
velocities,
they reach the ground at the same time

all
only one knock
heard.
Gravity has therefore pulled

time.
the balls through equal vertical spaces

is
in the
same
altered by the existing
This experiment suggests that the magnitude of gravity motion of the particle attracted.
not
to
These experiments cannot be made with great accuracy. They are first attempts answer the question placed at the beginning of this article.
60. In Atwood's machine two heavy particles are attached together by a string which passes over a pulley. If lo, w' are the weights of the particles, the moving
force is
w-w'
while the weight of the mass
moved
is
lo+w'.
equal values of
w and
w' the motions produced by gravity can be
By choosing nearly made as slow as
we
The spaces described and the velocities generated can therefore be please. measured with some degree of accuracy, and the results compared with the laws of The machine being carefully constructed, some allowance may be falling bodies.
made
for the inertia of the pulley, the friction, &c.
Even the
resistance of the air,
owing to simplicity of the motion, could be allowed for; but it is almost imperceptible in such slow motions. By an arrangement of platforms small weights can be added or subtracted so that the moving force can be suddenly increased or decreased at pleasure. By making this force balance the resistances we can test the first law. By other changes we can determine whether the effect of a force is
modified by a previously existing velocity.
61.
The equation F=mf.
Let
be the force which will just support a body

reversing this force
when
we can imagine the body on in the same direction by two forces each equal to gravity. Each of these forces can act only by producing motion in the body and we have just seen that this action is not modified by any existing motion. Assuming this, each Thus twice the force will generate the same velocity in the body in the same time. velocity is produced by twice the force, and generally the velocity produced varies as
attracted by the earth.
to be acted
Then
the force
when
if
the
mass
is
constant.
Again,
we suppose
that two equal volumes of the sanle material are placed side
by side, and each acted on by equal forces, equal velocities are generated in the same time. If the initial velocities are equal, the bodies will continue to move side by side, without pressing on each other, and we may suppose them to be united into one mass. Thus twice the force will produce in twice the mass the same
ART. 63.]
velocity,
UNITS OF MASS.
23
force varies as the mass when the velocity produced is Varying both the velocity and the mass, we conclude that the magnitude This product of the force vai-ies as the mass multiplied by the velocity generated.
and generally the
constant.
is called
momentum.
Lastly
let
Art. 54.
62.
us consider
how
far the equality of action

If
and reaction
is
suggested by elementary considerations.

finger is pressed
we
press a stone with the finger, the
back by the stone.
If a horse pull a
body by a
rope, the tension
of the rope impedes the progress of the horse.
we shall examine separately and when they act at a distance.

equal,
To determine if these actions are the conditions when the bodies are in contact
have to prove that when two bodies in contact press on each other, the In our test experilost by one is equal to that acquired by the other. ment, we arrange the circumstances so that these changes of momenta can be readily observed. Let us suspend two spherical balls by strings and allow them to
We
momentum
impinge on each other.

just before
The
initial positions
being given
impact.
By
observing their subsequent motion
velocities just after the
impulse
is
concluded.
In this
we can find the velocities we can deduce the way Newton showed that
by one was equal to
the changes of velocity were such that the that gained by the other.
momentum
lost
Let us next compare the forces exerted by two mutually attracting bodies. It was a well-known fact that a magnet attracts iron, but Newton showed experimentally that the iron attracts the magnet with an equal force. This he effected by floating both in separate vessels in standing water. The vessels being placed in contact, neither was able to propel the other. The resultant force on each body was therefore zero. Admitting that the mutual action and reaction of the vessels in contact are equal and opposite, it follows that the attraction of each of the distant bodies on the other was equal to the pressure between the vessels and
therefore equal to each other.
Units of mass. The second law of motion enables us measurement of mass to bodies of different materials. We first select some quantity of a standard substance and define that to be the unit of mass. Such a quantity of the same or another substance is then said to be of the same mass when two forces, known to be equal, acting on the two masses generate
63.
to extend our
equal velocities in equal times. every force
The second law then
asserts
that, with this definition of mass, the

is
momentum
Art. 55.
generated by
proportional to that force.

is
The
British unit of mass
defined by Act of Parliament.
It is a quantity of platinum preserved in the office of the Exchequer and called the Imperial standard pound Avoirdupois. One seven-thousandth part of it is declared to be a grain, and 5760
grains to be a
pound Troy.
This
is
The French standard
of
mass
is
called
the gramme.
the one-thousandth part of a certain mass
of platinum preserved in the Archives and called a kilogramme.
The English pound
is
very nearly equal to 453*59 grammes, and a
24
kilogramme
centimetre,
LAWS OF MOTION.
[CHAP.
I.
The system of units derived from the to 2 '2 pounds. gramme and second is usually called the c.G.s. system. That founded on the foot, pound and second may be called the F.P.s. system. It should be noticed that the pound and the gramme A
very
full
are measures of mass, not weight.

account of the history of the English standards of weight and of
their comparison with the
French standards was given by the late Prof. W. H. Miller
in the Phil. Trans, for 1856.
64.
acting on the unit of

velocity.
Units of Force. The unit of force is that force which, mass for a unit of time, generates a unit of
This
is
usually called Gauss' absolute unit of force.

is
When
of force
the unit of mass
the Imperial pound and the units
of space and time are a foot

is
and a mean
solar second, the unit

is
called
a poundal.
is
When
a dyne.
the unit of mass
the
gramme, and the units of space and time are a centimetre and" a
second, the unit of force
called
Since the pound
is
453"59
grammes and a metre
is
39*37 inches,
it is clear that the poundal generates a velocity of 1 200/39*37 centimetres in 453"59 grammes. By the second law the magni-
tude of a force
is
proportional to the product of the mass by the

;
velocity generated
the poundal
is
therefore equal to
,
39:3^
When
1200 X 453-59
dynes.
This makes the poundal equal to 13825 dynes nearly.

a force F, constant in magnitude and fixed in direction,
generates in a mass
a velocity w in a unit of time,
we know
by the second law that F=\mv where \ is some constant depending on the units of m, v and F. Since F is a. unit when 7/i and V are units, \ = 1. Hence F=mv.
When
time,
the force
is
not constant in magnitude for any finite
we have recourse to the principles of the differential calculus. Let /be the acceleration, then /is equal to the velocity
which would be generated in a unit of time if the continued constant in magnitude for that time. Hence
see Art. 55.
65.
F F = mf,
force
The determination
of the magnitude of a force by exis
periments on the velocity generated

of proceeding.
an inconvenient method
that
Wê have recourse to the attraction of the earth

of gravitation
asserts
on them.
The law
the forces of
ART. 66.]
UNITS OF FORCE.
25
attraction of the earth on different bodies at the
same place are

true whatever
proportional to the masses of those bodies.
This
is
be the materials of which
the,
may be
earth.
regarded as particles
body is made, provided only they when compared with the size of the
an experimental fact which is independent of the laws of motion, and is referred to here as a practical method Forces therefore may be compared by of comparing forces. measuring the weights which they would support at .any the same
This
is
place on the surface of the earth.
be the force of attraction of the earth on a mass at any given place, let g be the acceleration, then the equation F = mf becomes = mg.
Let
The law
of gravitation asserts that
is
is
a constant at the same
place on the surface of the earth.
It
sometimes called the

Great Britain
foot
constant of gravitation.
32'18
The average value when the units
of
for the area of
is
about
of space
is
and time are a
and a second.
When
the unit of space
changed, to centimetres, the numerical
value of g becomes 981.
is
= 'mg shows that the weight The equation poundal, or unit of force, is therefore The g.
is
of a unit of
mass
the
1/gth. part of
oz.
weight of the unit piece of platinum, Art. 63.

the pound, the poundal
ounce.
Since 16
make
roughly equal to the weight of half an
The dyne is consequently equal to l/13800th part of half an ounce. Art. 64, roughly a 64th part of a grain.
66.
is
There are two elementary experiments by which
it
may
be shown that g
a constant at the same place and from which the numerical value
may
be
deduced.
pulley, Art. 60.
In Atwood's machine, let vi^^ m^ be the masses suspended by a string over the If the law of gravitation is true, the weights are m^g and m.^^'.
,
The mass moved being
nii
+ m.-, and
the moving force {m^ -
m^
g,
the equation
W=mf shows that

where /
is
the acceleration.
(Wj + mo) /=(?!- ma) ^ By measuring the initial and
terminal velocities
we
can find the value of / and therefore of g for any assumed masses m^, m.-.. Repeating the experiment with other masses, we find that the constancy of g is verified as
far as the imperfections of the
machine
allow.
67.
of oscillation of hollow
The method adopted by Newton is more accurate. He measured the times wooden balls which he filled with substances of different
26
kinds.
LAWS OF MOTION.
'
[CHAP.
I.
similar circumstances)
Whatever the matter placed inside might be, the time of oscillation (under was found to be the same. The forces of attraction, measured dynamically by the motion communicated, must therefore have been proportional to the masses moved.
The theory
of the oscillation ofâ particle suspended by a string
is
given in the
chapter on constrained motion.
Many experiments have been made

g.
since Newton's
time for the purpose of determining the numerical value of

oscillations of bodies of finite size
In these the
these experiments
is
have been observed. given in the author's Rigid Dynamics,
An
vol.
account of some of
i.
68.
Accelerating Force.
The quantity
in the equation
F= mf is
the acceleration measured, as already explained, by the
velocity generated per unit of time.
The quotient Fjin
is
called
the accelerating force.
It is equal to the acceleration and the word " force " appears to have been added merely to show from It is a which side of the equation the quantity is derived.
convenient phrase to use

fact that the
when we wish
to call attention to the
impressed forces under discussion are proportional to
the masses acted on.

the mass and the acceleration is called the Thus md'^x/df and md^yjdt^ are the Cartesian components of the effective force on the particle m. The utility of this name will be better understood when we come to the dis-
The product of
effective force.
cussion of the motion of several connected particles.

69.
is
The
The
vis viva of a particle whose mass
is
m and velocity v
mv^.
half of this quantity has also been called the vis viva,
it is
but in England
more usual
to call this latter quantity, viz.
\mv'^, the kinetic energy.
70.
The work
of a force.
The theory
of work
is
so
much
used in
statics that only a very brief account is necessary here.
B, where
Let the point of application A of a force F be moved to a point AB = ds. Let 6 be the angle made by the direction of
motion of
the
with the direction of the
force.
Then Fcosdds
is
work of
F for
the indefinitely small displacement ds.
It is
also called the virtual
moment
of F.
to be the product of the force
The work may also be defined by the resolved displacement of the

describe any curve, the
point of application in the direction of the force.

If the point continue to
integral
move and
jF cos dds
is
defined to be the work.

is
If a weight
descend a space dz, the work done
Wdz.
ART. 72.]
WORK OF A
is
FORCE.
the work
27
If the space
finite
and equal to
h,
is
Wdz.
The
work
is
therefore
Wh.
unit
of
71.
The
theoretical
work
is
the work done by a
dynamical unit of force acting through a unit of space. As explained in Art. 64, this unit of force might be the poundal and the
unit of space the foot.
>
The work required

is
to raise a given
taken as a practical unit of work. is that required to overcome a force equal to the gravity This unit is called & footof a pound through a space of a foot.
engineers
weight a given height The unit adopted by English
pound.
In the
djTie
c.G.s.
system the theoretical unit

one centimetre.
is
the work done by a
in acting through
This unit
is
called
the erg.
The work done when a kilogramme
(Art.
63)
is
raised one
metre is the practical unit and is written kilogramme-metre. kilogramme-metre is 7*23 foot-pounds very nearly.
72.
The
rate of doing
Thus,
if
work
is
measured by the work done
per unit of time.
the particle describe a space ds in the

is
time
dt,
the rate of doing work
F cos 6 dsjdt.
The
rate
is
therefore
Fv
cos
d.
The term horse-power

unit of time in practical
is
measure.
used to express the work done per The unit of horse-power is
usually taken to be 550 foot-pounds per second.
diflPerent units.
The term force de cheval corresponds to horse-power, but with The unit of force de cheval is 75 kilogramme-
metres per second. per second

;
A force de cheval is therefore

one horse-power.
541 foot-pounds
i.e.
"98 of
Ex. 1. If the unit of space is a feet, the unit of time t seconds, and the unit of mass fi pounds, prove that the unit of force is fJi.<rJT\ the unit of energy is ixaîr'^, the
unit of horse-power
li F,
ixa^jr^
;
see Art. 47.
E,
H represent
where
feet,
the force, energy and horse-power with these units, find
their measxires
seconds and pounds are the units.

is '138,
Ex.
metres.
2.
Prove that a foot-pound
and an inch-ton
is
25*8 kilogramme-
28
THE EQUATIONS OF MOTION.

The Equations of Motion.
IZ.
[CHAP,
I.
Equations of Motion.
When
is
the resolved part
F of
to
the impressed force in any direction and the mass
are given,
the corresponding equation of motion

the
resolved
acceleration
if
found by equating
Fjm
in
that direction.
Cartesian coordinates,
pressed force,
Xj, Y^,
For example in be the components of the im-
we
unite Xi/m, Fi/m for
X,
in Art. 31.
We
thus have
d^^X-,
dt'
d^_Y,
'
in
dt^
m
treated in the
The
polar and other resolutions
may be
same way.
74.
To make the meaning
of these equations clear, let us
consider the case of a particle moving in a straight line under
the action of several forces, î, F^, &c. The corresponding theorems when there are no restrictions on the motion of the
particle will
be considered later
on.
If
be the mass in motion, the equation of motion takes the

dv dv
ri -n
form
"S = <ft=-^' + -^'+

where
time
s is
/-IN
<^>'
the space described, and v the velocity at the time
t.
This equation
t
may
be integrated in two ways.
Taking the
as the independent variable,
we have
(2),
mv-mv^ = JF^dt + JFodt+

where
Vq is
and the limits of integration are ô to t The forces F-^^, Fo, &c. may not act during the whole time, thus F^ might act from t^ to + ol, F.^ might act from t to limits of each integral should the and so on. cases In such + /3 be from the time of beginning to the time of ending of the force. For the sake of conveniently using the equation we notice (what
the velocity at the time
to,
t-^
t.2
really follows at once

to the
from the second law) that each force

to
F adds
moving mass a momentum equal
jFdt, where the integration
extends over the time of action of the force.

time-integral of the force.
This
is
is called the
The equation
as
(2)
called the equation
of momentum,.
75.
Taking the space
the independent variable,
we
have
^mv-- ^mVo"-JF,ds+JFods+
(3).
ART. 76.]
THE TWO SOLUTIONS.
29
It follows that the increase of the kinetic energy of the
mass
moved is equal to the sum Each force F communicates

kinetic
of the works of the several forces.

to
the
mooing mass an amount of

This
is is
energy equal
to
JFds where
the integration extends over the
space described while
acts on the mass.
called the space-
integral of the force.
The equation
mass
is
(3)
called
sometimes
the
equation of vis viva and sometimes the equation of energy.

If the velocity of the
the same at any two times, the
momentum added on by some

removed by other
forces.
is
of the forces
must be equal
to that
If again the velocity
the same in any two positions, the

forces
work added on by some of the tracted by other forces.

If the forces
must be equal
to that sub-
In this way we obtain two equations to find the one quantity v.

F-i^,
F^, &c. are constant both the space
and timet
integrals can be at once found.
We
therefore use either or both
or
the equations (2) and (3). If the forces are functions of either s, only one of the integrations can be immediately effected.
We
use the equations (2) or (3) according as the forces depend on the time or on the position of the particle.
76.
When
their
to
the
system
actions
contains more than one particle,
mutual
may have
be taken into
Suppose, for
particles
consideration.
example, that two
P, P', whose masses are m, m', are constrained to slide on the straight lines Ox, Ox, and are
acted on by the forces F, F' in these directions.
Let these be
connected by a string of given length which passes over a smooth

pulley G.
The two equations

-|m {v^ -Vo-)
of energy are
= JFds -fT cos 6ds, \m' iv'^ - V,'') = JF'ds -JT cos d'ds'
where 6, 6' are the angles the two portions of the string make with Ox, Ox. To use these equations we must eliminate the
unknown
tension T.
is
We
notice that the string

its
in equilibrium
;
of the tensions at
extremities P, P'
hence,
under the action by the principles of
30
[CHAP.
zero.
I.
statics, their total virtual
moment
or
work
0.
is
We
have
therefore
T cos dds + T cos eW =

^m
The
ene7-gy,
{v'-
Adding therefore the two equations of energy together
- Wo') + |wi' (v'2 - <2) ^jfcls +JF'ds'.

may
he omitted
tension therefore
informing
the equation of
when
both the particles are br-ought into the equation.
77.
Consider next the two equations of
momenta
m m
The
tension
(v
{v
-Vo)=JFdt- jT cose dt
- vo) = )F'dt - JT cos O'dt.
T measures the whole momentum transferred per from one particle to the other along the string. time unit of The components transferred are respectively Tcosd, Tcosd', and
these are not equal.
The
transverse components Tsm.6, TsinO'

If however
0'
are destroyed by the reactions of the rods Ox, Ox.
the pulley
is
situated at the intersection
of the rods, 6
and
are always zero, and the
component momentum added
to one
particle is equal to that taken from the other.
Since the particles must
now move with
equal velocities,
we
have
v' = v.
.
Eliminating
from the equations of momenta, we

Vo)
have
{m + m') {v -
= jFdt - jF'dt
by combining the two equations of momentum when the reaction makes equal angles
can thus eliminate the reaction
We
with the directions of resolution.

78. Examples*. Ex. 1, Two heavy rings P, F, of unequal mass, slide on two smooth rods Ox, Ox' at right angles and equally inclined to the horizon at an angle a = ^7r. The rings are connected by a straight string of given length I and start from Find the motion. rest at distances a, a' from 0.
Let
start
.?,
s'
be the distances of P, P' from
at the time
t.
Since the particles
from
rest the equation of vis viva
becomes
the limits of integration being
(1), J (mw2+mV2)=Jm(7 sin ads + \m'g sin ads'=g sin a {m (s a) + m' (s' a')} The length of the string s = a to s and s'a' to s'.
being given we have the geometrical equation

s2
Differentiating (2)
we have
sv
+ s'2 = i2â'-' + a'2 + s'v' =

(i
(2). (3).
* Most of these examples are taken from the examination papers and minor scholarships in the several colleges.
for the entrance
ART. 78.]
EXAMPLES.
31
to rest,
The equations (1) and (3) give v and v'. ^Vhen the particles again come v=0, v'=0. Substituting in (1) and using (2) we find, besides the initial g=a, s = a', 2mni'a' + {w? - m"^) a _ 2mm' a - {m? )'") a'
,
solution
m^ + m^
m^+ m-
Let
2/o
be the initial depth of the centre of gravity of the particles below the
t.
horizontal line through 0, y the depth at the time
The equation
(1)
then gives
(4).
\{mv^ + m'v'^)=g(m+vi'){y-yQ)
The
centre of gravity
cannot therefore
rise
above the horizontal line
AB
through the
initial position
H,
for if
is
it
could, the right-hand side of
(4)
drawn would be
negative while the left-hand side
essentially positive.
Since the distances of the
centre of gravity from Ox, Ox' are rtespectively
q^s'm'lM and ^=svilM, where

is
M=m+m', we
see
from
(2)
that the path of the centre of gravity
the ellipse
AB in two points H, K. If both these points lie between the rods the centre of gravity continually oscillates in the elliptic arc having H, for the extreme points. If either or Hes outside the rods, one particle
This conic cuts the straight line
will pass through the intersection 0.

If the string instead of
being straight were bent by passing through a small
pulley at the intersection of the rods,

of
we could eliminate T from the two equations
momentum.
We then have
v=jmg
sin adt
(m -t- m')
- jm'g sin adt=g sin a {m - vi')

before, but since
t.
The equation
it
of vis viva is the
same as
v'= -v and
s'
- a' =a - Sy
takes the simpler form
("i
-f
m')
v^=g sin a (m - vi') (s-a).

t.
These equations give

particle
and
v in terms of the time
We notice
that
if
m>m',
the
P descends along the rod Ox
and
finally
draws P' up to 0.
Ex. 2. Two small rings of masses m, m' are moving on a smooth circular wre which is fixed with its plane vertical. They are connected by a straight weightless
inextensible string.
Prove that, as long as the string remains

is
tight, its tension is
m+m'
-.
where 2a
the angle ^ which the string 6
when
tight subtends at the 6
centre and d is the inclination of the string to the horizon.
[Pemb.
Coll. 1897.]
Equate the tangential accelerations of the two
particles.

32
Ex.
3.

A bucket
of
[CHAP.
I.
is raised from the bottom of a shaft of depth which is wound on a wheel of mass m lbs. The wheel is driven by a constant force which is applied tangentially at its rim for a certain time and then ceases. Prove that if the bucket just comes to rest at the top of the shaft, t seconds after the beginning of the motion, the greatest rate of working
mass
M lbs.
h feet by
means
of a light cord
in foot-poundals per second is t
kt",
^-fv
The mass
of the wheel
[Coll.
may
be
considered to be condensed in
its
rim.
Ex. 1896.]
on the rim for a time t'. This force commimicates a niomentum Ft to the system, which (since the system comes to rest after a time t) is equal to that removed by gravity in the whole ascent, therefore Ft' = Mgt. If s' is the space ascended in the time t', the force F communicates a work Fs', which is equal to that removed by gravity in the whole ascent h, therefore Fs'=Mgh. Since the mass moved is + m and F - Mg is the acting force we have also the two equations (1/+ m) v' = {F- Mg) t', {M + m) s'=^{F- Mg) t'^ where v' is the velocity at the time t' (Art. 25). These four equations determine F, t', v', s'. The rate of adding work to the system is Fv (Art. 72), and this is greatest when v is greatest,
Let the force
act
i.e.
when
Ex.
4.
v = v'.
The
result follows without diflSculty.
train of
full
mass
distance
rails
I,
The
speed
is
is
m runs from rest at one station to stop at the next at a V and the average speed is v. The resistance at the
is
when
is
the brake
it is
not applied
uVjlg of the weight of the train and when the
The pull of the engine has one constant value when the train is starting and another when it runs at full speed. Prove that the average rate at which the engine works in starting the train is
brake
applied
u'Vjlg of the weight of the train.
ImV"^ iu + V)ll, where
i=?-
|.
[Coll.
Ex. 1895.1
There are three stages of the journey.

force F, the acceleration is
During the
first
the engine pulls with
Fjm - uVJl, and

is
the velocity increases from zero to V.
During the second stage the velocity

engine just balancing the rsistance.
the brake
uniform and equal to V, the pull F' of the During the third the engine stops working,
is applied and the acceleration is -u'Vjl. Using the formulae of Art. 25, and remembering that the sum of the spaces in the three stages is I, while the average velocity is I divided by the sum of the times, we deduce F. The average rate of working is the quotient "work by time," Art. 72; during the first stage
this
is Fsj/?i
= î?'F.
of a coal-pit is lowered for the first third of the shaft with a
Ex.
6.
The cage
constant acceleration, for the next third
it descends with uniform velocity, and then a constant retarding force just brings it to rest as it reaches the bottom of the shaft. If the time of descent is equal to that taken by a particle in falling four times the whole depth, prove that the pressure of the man inside on the bottom of the cage was at the beginning 23/48ths of his weight. [Coll. Ex. 1897.]
The
initial acceleration
is
found to be 25^/48.
is
If
be the pressure required
the equation of motion of the
man
nifmg - R.
This leads to the value of R.
velocity of 45 miles per
starting from rest generates in two minutes in a train a hour while it passes over a distance of 1 mile on the level. Another engine B of equal weight can pull the same train up an incline of sin~^ 1/80 at a fuU speed of 20 miles per hour. Assuming that the resistance due to friction, &c.
6.
Ex.
One engine A
is
constant and equal to the weight of 12
lbs.
per ton, prove that the time average of
ART. 78.]
the horse-power at which
EXAMPLES.
33
is 1'52...
works
for the
two minutes
times the horse-
power
of
B.
[Math. Tripos, 1893.]
Ex.
7.
A window
is
supported by two cords passing over pulleys in the frameit
work
of the
window (which
equal to half the weight of the window.
with acceleration/.
the framework
is -7
-
and is connected with counterpoises each One cord breaks, and the window descends Prove that the coefficient of friction between the window and
loosely
fits)
~V,
,
where a
is
the height and h the breadth of the window.

[Coll.
Ex. 1896.]
Let the pressures of the window against the framework on one side at the bottom, on the other at the top, be E, R'. Since the window does not move sideways or turn round, we have the statical conditions R = R', Tb 2Ra. Considering the
vertical
motion
for the weight alone
and i./= T - IMg,

is
for
both bodies respectively, we have
UIf= IMg- fi2R

:
These determine
Ex.
8.
/x.
two-wheeled vehicle
c)
being drawn along a level road with velocity v
the wheels (radius
are connected by an axle (radius r) fixed to

is
them and
the weight
of the vehicle exclusive of the wheels and axle

vertically above the
W, and
its
if
centre of gravity is
middle point of the
axle.
Prove that
the shafts are in a
horizontal plane with the tops of the wheels, the horse

-77; ^/(c2
is
working at the rate

its
s-^T-rr, where X - >-2 sm- X)
is
the angle of friction between the axle and
bearings.
[Coll.
Ex. 1895.]
The
pull
vehicle, being in uniform
motion,
is
in equilibrium under the action of the
and the
F of the horse, the reaction E of the axle The equations of friction R tan X.
is
acting at
some angle
6 to the vertical
Statics give F, R,
and
6,
and the
required rate of working
Fv.
Ex.
h.
9.
particle of
711
mass
is
suspended from a fixed point

vi'
length a, and from

If
is
suspended another particle of mass
by a string of by a string of length

in the ratio
[Coll. -
a horizontal velocity be suddenly communicated to m, show that the tensions
of the strings are immediately increased by

1-f^
amounts which are

-,
,'"^
:
m' (a
+ b)
1.
Ex. 1895.] *
describes a
Let T, T' be the tensions of the strings above and below

circle
i.
Since
whose centre
is
0, its vertical acceleration
is v~ja,
hence
= T-
T' - mg.
The
vertical acceleration of m' is equal to that of
plus that due to the relative

i',
motion.
Relatively to
it
begins to describe a circle of radius h with a velocity

is
the relative vertical acceleration
therefore
v'^jb,
see Art. 39.
Hence
Solving these equations the result follows at once.
Ex. 10. In the system of pulleys in which the string, passing round each pulley, has one end attached to a fixed beam and the other to the pulley next above, there is no "power" and no "weight." The n moveable pulleys are all of equal weight,
they are smooth, and can
all
be treated as particles in calculating their motions. Prove that the acceleration of the lowest puiley
[Coll.
is
The
string
is
without mass.
3<//(2"-^l).
Ex. 1896.]
34
The equation
of

momentum
for the rth pulley counting
[CHAP.
is
I.
downwards
where T^ and T^^^ being the power and weight, are zero. Also the velocity of each puUey is half that of the one just above. Multiplying these equations by 1, 2, 2^ ... 2"~i beginning at the lowest and adding the results the tensions disappear.
,
Ex.
11.
In the system of pulleys in which each string
is
attached to the weight,
there are two pulleys, the weight of the moveable puUey being w, the power
and
the weight "
W.
Prove that the acceleration of
is
3P + W g-^r^ ^^ 9P + W +
W W
[Coll.
Ex. 1897.1
Ex.
face
12.
dicular to
AB
prism with axis horizontal and whose section by a plane perpena regular polygon ABGD... of 4n sides is fixed with the uppermost horizontal, and n equal particles are placed at the middle points of AB,
it is
C, &c.
pulleys at the corners B, C, &c.
These are connected by a continuous string which passes over smooth Assuming that the faces are smooth, prove that
is
the initial acceleration
|-
(isot
t'~^)'
[^^^-
^^- 1897.]
Ex. 13. Two equal particles are connected by a string one point of which is fixed and the particles are describing circles of radii a and 6 about this point with the same angular velocity so that the string is always straight. The string is suddenly
released, prove that the tensions of the
(a
+ b)
2a and
(a
+ b)
26.
two portions are altered in the ratios [Coll. Ex. 1895.]
Before the release the tensions are mv-^fa and mv^jb, where
After the release the relative space velocity
either is a circle of radius
these, the tension is mv^l2r.
is
vja=vjb = u.
v=Di + z>2.
2r/m.
The
acceleration of each
particle being T/m, the relative acceleration is
Since the relative path of

is
r=a + b,
The
the relative acceleration
v^jr.
Equating
result follows.
friction is n,
slides down a rough inclined plane, whose coeflSicient of two sides of the base being horizontal. If the box contain suiBcient water just to cover the base of the vessel, prove that the volume of the water is [Coll. Ex. 1897.] J/u times the internal volume of the vessel.
Ex.
14.
A cubical box
The
relative acceleration of
a particle of water and the box must be perpendicular
to the surface.
momentum mv of any and magnitude (Art. 54) by a Since velocities obey the parallelogram law, we may proceed as straight line PP'. in Statics and replace the momentum PP' by three linear momenta at any assumed origin in the directions of the axes, and three couple momenta.
79.
Unear and Angular XUXomentum.
Let the
particle
of a system be represented in direction
The
Let the coordinates of the particle be x, y, z and the direction cosines be X, n, p. three linear momenta being the resolved parts of viv are mv\, mv/i, mvv
respectively.
are the
moments
These are often called linear momenta. The three couple momenta We know by the correof the momentum mv about the axes.
sponding theorem in Statics that these moments are
X
X
mv
X
X
y
/i
These are called the angular momenta about the axes. The linear momentum of a particle in any direction is the resolved part of the momentum in that direction. The angular momentum about a straight line is the
moment of
the
momentum about
that straight line.
ART. 81.]
IMPULSIVE FORCES.
35
Impulsive Forces.
80.
Impulsive forces.
In some cases the forces act only
for a very short time, yet, being of great magnitude, produce Let a force F act on a particle of mass wt perceptible effects. for
a time T.
let V,
and
V be the
We
dv
at
Let v be the velocity at any time t less than T, velocities at the beginning and end of the
have
interval T.
= F,
.-.
m(V'-V)=l^ Fdt
Jo JO
(1).
Let the force F increase without limit while the duration T The integral may have a finite limit, decreases without limit.
say P.
The equation then becomes
m(V'-V) = P
If
Vi, Va
(2).
and least velocities during the impact, between ViT and V2T, and both these are zero in the limit. The particle therefore has not had time to move, This sudden but its velocity has been changed from V to V. of an characteristic distinguishing velocity is the change of,
are the greatest
lies
the space described
impulse.
We may consider that

force
a proper measure has been found for a
when from
is
that measure
we can deduce
all
the effects of
the
force.
Since in the case of the limiting force the change of

the only element to be determined
velocity
we may measure
such a force by the quantity P.

of velocity
81.
is
When P
is
known, the change
given by
(2).
An impulse or blow is the limit of a force whose magnitude

great and time of action infinitely small.
is infinitely
finite
force
F is measured by the momentum, generated per unit of time. impulse P is measured by the whole momentum generated An
is,
during the whole time of action, that
P=JFdt.
remains fixed in space
When^ the
during
is also
direction of the force
its
time of action, the resolved part of

fixed in space,
in
any direction
the direction
the limit of the resolved part of F.
When
of
F is not
The
integrals of these,
we resolve F into its components X, Y. viz. X^ =JXdt, Yi = JYdt, are defined to be
the components of the limiting impulse.
36
IMPULSIVE FORCES.
Strictly speaking, there are
[CHAP.
I.
no impulsive forces in nature, but

is
there are some forces which are very great and which act only for
a short time.
The blow
of a
hammer
a force of this kind.
Such
forces should be treated as finite forces if the small displacements
during the time of action cannot be neglected, and as impulses
when
these are imperceptible.
82.
The general equations
of impulsive motion follow from
those of finite forces.

velocity
If (u^, v^) are the Cartesian
components of
we have, by
Art. 73,
vk^here
X,
are the components of a finite force F.
Let
{u, v),
{u, v) be the components of the velocity just before and just

after the action of
Let Xj=JXdt, Yi=fYdt be the components of the impulse, Art. 81. We then have by inte-
any impulse.
gration,
m {u' u) = Xi, m {v' v)= Fj.

These equations may be summed up in the following working
rule,
/
Ees.
Mom.
Res.
Mom.
/Resolved\
"
\after impulse/
Vbefore impulse/
impulse
Elastic smooth bodies. When two spheres of any 83. hard material impinge on each other they appear to separate almost immediately and a finite change of velocity is generated
in each
by the mutual action. Let the centres of gravity of the spheres be moving before impact in the same straight line with
velocities u,
v.
After impact they will continue to

line
;
move
of
in the
same straight
masses,
let u', v'
be their
velocities.
Let m, m' be the
the action between them.
The equations
m'
{v
motion are
(1).
{'u'
-u) = R,
v) = R
These equations are not sufficient to determine the three quantiTo obtain a third equation we must consider ties u', v' and jR.
what takes place during the impact.

Each
of the balls is slightly
compressed by the other, so that
they are no longer perfect spheres.
Each
also in general tends
to return to its original shape, so that there is a rebound.
The
ART. 83.]
period of impact
ELASTIC SMOOTH BODIES.
37
Firstly,
may
therefore be divided into two parts.
the period of compression, during which the distance between the

centres of gravity of the two bodies
is
diminishing and secondly,

is
the period of restitution in which the distance

first
increasing.
The
period terminates
when the two
centres of gravity have the
same instantaneous
velocity, the second
when the
bodies separate.
The
ratio of the
magnitude of the action between the bodies
during the period of restitution to that during compression is If the found to be different for bodies of different materials.
bodies regain their original
shapes ve?y slowly the separation
may
take place before this occurs and then the action during
restitution is less than that during compression.
In some cases the force of restitution may be neglected, and the bodies are then said to be inelastic. In this case we have just
after the
impact
-r.
u'
= v.
This gives
,
,
mm' ,{ii v), R= m +m

whole action between the
balls,
.'.
+ u= ??ra m-\-m
,
m'v
,-,.
(2).
If the force of restitution cannot be neglected, let
be the
Rq the action up to the moment The magnitude of R can be found by compression. of greatest This may be done by observing the values of u' experiment. and v' and thus determining R by means of the equations (1). Such experiments were made in the first instance by Newton and led to the result that RJRq is a constant ratio which depends on the materials of which the balls are made. Let this constant The quantity e is never greater than unity; ratio be called 1 + e.
in the limiting case
elastic.
when
=1
the bodies are said to be perfectly
The Newtonian law RJRq =

mation to the motion, and under all circumstances.
is
gives only a first approxi-
not to be regarded as strictly true
The value
impact
of e being supposed to be
may
if
be easily found.
1
known the velocities after The action Rq must be first calcu-
lated as
the bodies were inelastic, the value of
R may then be
deduced by multiplying by
+e.
This gives
^^ mm^ m+m
38
IMPULSIVE FORCES.
[CHAP.
I.
The three equations comprised

motion.
in (1)
and
(3) give the
whole
Substituting from (3) in
(1),
we have
,
-.
w
\
= mu +
-
mfv
,
me
m+m
m+m
(u
,
y)
.
me = mu + mfv j--\m + m, m + m-Au v)

.
.(3).
84.
We
notice as a useful corollary that

v'
u' = e{v u)
impact hears
(4).
The
relative velocity after
to the relative velocity before
impact the ratio of
to 1.
By
is
the third law of motion the

;
momentum
the whole
gained by one ball

being un-
equal to that lost by the other
momentum
altered by the impact.
Hence
mu' + m'v' = mu + m'v
(5).
This result follows also by eliminating
R between the equations (1).

to determine
u',
v',
The equations (4) and (5) may be used when the impulse i2 is not required.
85.
When two
perfectly elastic spheres of equal

velocities.
on each other the bodies exchange
mass impinge In this case, by (3),

v'
R = m{u v)
aiid the equations (1)
then show that
u'
= v,
= u.
Conversely
we may show
velocities their
same way that if the spheres exchange masses are equal and the elasticity is perfect.
in the
86.
When
a sphere impinges on a fixed plane,
plane as an infinitely large mass.
Putting
m
v'
infinite,
we regard the we find

and
its
R = mu (1 +
the velocity
e),
u'
= eu,
= 0,
of
the sphere is therefore reversed in direction

e.
magnitude
Ex.
is
multiplied by
If the plane
be in motion with a velocity V, prove that the velocity of the

is
sphere after the rebound
-eu + V
{1
+ e).
87. If one sphere of mass m impinge directly on another of mass m' which is at rest and if m = m!e, the equation (3) gives R = mu. The impinging sphere therefore loses its whole momentum and is reduced to rest.
In the same way,
and
let their
let n spheres be placed in a row at rest masses form a geometrical progression of ratio Ije.
ART. 89.]
ELASTIC SMOOTH BODIES.
39
If any velocity is given to the first, it will strike the next in order and be reduced to rest. The second will strike the third and remain at rest and so on. Finally the last sphere will proceed onwards with the whole momentum communicated to the first. If the spheres are perfectly elastic, e
=1
and the same things
happen when the masses are
equal.
If the spheres are placed close
together, they are
only in
and each impact will still be concluded before the next begins. Each ball transfers the momentum to the next in order and remains in apparent rest, the last ball moving onwards with the whole momentum communicated to the first.
apparent contact
;
This may partly explain why, in some cases when blows have been given by the wind or sea to masses of masonry, the stones to leeward have been more disturbed than those exposed to the
blows.
88.
line,
^
Ex.
series of perfectly elastic balls are
arranged in the same straight

;
one of them impinges directly on the next and so on
prove that
if
their
masses form a geometrical progression of which the common ratio is velocities after impact will form a geometrical progression of which the
ratio is 2/3.
2,
their
common
89.
Two smooth homogeneous

To find
spheres
and
B
f
impinge
obliquely on each other.
the subse-
quent motion.
Let the common tangent plane at the

point of contact
let
_/--^'^
be the plane of xy, and the common normal be the axis of z.

z.
y^
^,!^^^?f-^-
v^
f^'
\yK
J
The spheres being smooth the mutual impulse acts along the axis* of
\/
y
two
Let
Let
Fi, Vz
be the
velocities of the
spheres, before impact, F/, Fg' the velocities after.
be the components of the velocities Vj, Fg, and let the same letters, when accented, represent the components of F/, V^'. Let m, mf be the masses.
Since the impulse has no components parallel to the axes of
o)
and
y,
we have
u/ =
Ui,
Vi
= Vi
Uo
= U2,
V2
= V2.
40
IMPULSIVE FORCES.
[CHAP.
I.
Considering next the normal impulse, we find as before

ji
= mm'
(qju
N/1 _ Wo){l + e),

X
Wi
iVi =
R
,
w.,
Wo=-,.
-R
These equations determine the components of the velocities after

the impact.
When
the bodies are rough, the mutual impulse does not
necessarily act along the
common
normal.
The problem then
becomes more complicated. The reader in the author's Rigid Dynamics.

90.
will find this case discussed
When two
imperfectly elastic spheres impinge on

lost.
each
other, vis viva is
always
First,
let
the spheres impinge directly on each other.
We
have, as in Art. 83,

,{iL v){\ + u = mmm' +m
-r,
,
X /-f
e),
u=u R m
/
v=v-\
R m
[
)
,.
2(v-u) +
R mm r- R
= mu^ {mv^
The
m + m,
7 (u
vf(\ e^).
vis viva is decreased
last term being essentially negative, the by the impact.
Next, let the spheres impinge

vis viva before,
obliquely.
Let IT be the
2T' that after the impulse.
Then, as in Art. 69
2T = m (Wi^ + v^^ + Wi^) + m' {ui + vi + wi),

while 2T'
is
expressed by the same formula after the letters u,
v,
have been accented.
Hence
e^).
^"^ (w, - w,y (1 2r-2T=- m +m

It follows that vis viva is always lost.
If
,
.
V is
the relative normal velocity before impact, the vis viva

,
lost IS
j^ m + m KMi
,
mm'
,.
e-).
The vis viva after impact when e = l, that is, when the
evident that
lu^
is
equal to the vis viva before only

It
is
bodies are perfectly elastic.

e
cannot be equal to m, or
= 1.
ART. 92.]
91.
MOTION OF A FREE SYSTEM.

1.
41
Ex.
Particles are projected
obliquely impinge on a fixed plane of elasticity

directions of
from a given point A in all directions and Prove that after reflexion the e.
right angles in
motion diverge from a point B, where some point 31, and BN=e AM.
.
AB
intersects the fixed plane at

,
Let AP be the path of a particle before impact, PQ that after. Let QP produced in some point B. The comproduced intersect the perpendicular
AM
viz. V,
ponent of velocity, u, along MP is unchanged by the impact, while that perpendicular, becomes ev and is reversed in direction,
..
tan
QPx = evju e tan AP3I.

.
It
immediately follows that
MB = e
same
A3I, so that every reflected path intersects the
perpendicular from
in the
point.
By
using this theorem
we can
trace the course of a particle after successive
reflexions
from any number of
fixed planes.
To
take a simple case, let
it
be
a particle should be horizontally projected from a given point A on the floor, that after reflexion at two vertical walls Ox, Oij, it may pass through another given point A'. We draw a perpendicular AB to the first wall
required to find
how
and take
MB = eAM. A
CN= e through B
perpendicular
.
is
drawn from
to the second wall,
and
is
taken so that
BN. Then,
and C
to A.
since all the paths after the first
reflexions pass
respectively, the required
path
AQPA'
and second is found by
joining A' to C,
Qto B and P
Ex. 2. A particle of elasticity e is projected along a horizontal plane from the middle point of one of the sides of an isosceles right-angled triangle so as after reflexion at the hypothenuse and remaining side to return to the same point
prove that the cotangents of the angles~of reflexion are
e
+ 1 and e + 2
respectively.
92.
A free system
of mutually attracting particles
is
in motion.
Prove (1) that the centre of gravity moves in a straight line with uniform velocity, and (2) that the motion of the centre of gravity
is not affected
by any impacts between the particles.

attraction
The mutual
;
between any two
particles is
measured
by the momentum transferred from one to the other per unit of time the mutual impulse is measured by the whole momentum transferred. In either case it follows by the third law of motion that the whole momentum of the two particles and the components in any directions, are unaltered by their mutual
action.
42
IMPULSIVE FORCES.
Let
(aî, 2/1), (ooo, y.2),
[CHAP.
I.
&c. be the Cartesian coordinates and

t.
(Wj, Vi),
(ti2, v^),
&c. the components of velocity at any time
Since
we have by It has just been shown that the components Xmu, Xmv are unaltered by the mutual attraction or impact of any two particles. Hence the components of the velocity of the centre of gravity, viz. u, v, are constant throughout the motion. The path of the centre of gravity is therefore the straight line x = ut + A, y = vt + B, and
the velocity
is
= Smic, yltm = "Zmy, differentiation wSm = 'Xmu, vXm = Xmv.

iSm
the resultant of
u, v.
If all the particles were suddenly collected together at the
centre of gravity, each particle having

in
its
momentum
unaltered
and magnitude, the momentum of the collected mass would be the resultant of the transferred momenta. The
direction
equations
wSm = 2??im, vXm = 2mw

does.
assert
that
the
centre of
gravity of the particles before collection moves exactly as the

collected
93.
mass
The
effect of the
mutual action of two

is to
is
particles (whether
attracting or impinging on each other)
transfer a
momentum
from one to the other whose direction

the particles.
the straight line joining
Hence the moment of the momentum about any straight line is unaltered by the transference. The moment of the momentum of the whole system (that is, its angular momentum, Art. 79), about any straight line is unaltered by the
mutual actions of the
particles.
In a system of mutually attracting or impinging particles, the components of its linear momentum along, and the angular momenta about, any fixed straight lines are constant, except so far as they may
be altered by the action of external forces.
This
is
only the third
law of motion more

94.
rigid
fully explained.
Examples*.
Ex.
rest.
1.
If a
system of mutually attracting particles were
suddenly to become rigidly connected together, determine the conditions that the
body should be at
rigid
same momenta as the system but differently momenta of all the particles are in equilibrium, the rigid body has no component of momentum in any direction and no moment of momentum
body
will possess the
The
distributed.
If the
Many
of
these examples are taken from the examination papers for the
entrance and minor scholarships in the several colleges.
ART. 94.]
about any straight
line.
EXAMPLES.
It is therefore
43
By
the rules of Statics the
at rest.
necessary and sufficient conditions for the equilibrium are (1) the whole linear momentum along each axis of coordinates is zero, (2) the angular momentum
about each axis
is
zero.
mass travel round the sides of a closed skew polygon one starting from each corner and the velocity of each is proportional to the side along which it moves. Prove that their centre of gravity is at rest and that it coincides with the centre of gravity of the sides of the polygon supposing the masses of the sides to be equal. Prove also that if one particle be removed, the centre of gravity of the remaining particles describes a polygon whose
Ex.
2.
Particles of equal
direction,
in the
same
sides are parallel
and proportional
to those of the original polygon.
Since the sides exert no pressures on the particles the centre of gravity moves in a straight line with uniform velocity whatever the momenta of the particles may be. When, as in the problem, the momenta are parallel and proportional to
the sides of a closed figure, the components Switi and Sniv of Art. 92 are zero, and the centre of gravity is therefore at rest. The other parts of the question then
follow at once.
Ex.
3.
An
explosion occurs in a rigid body at rest, and the particles fly

If in
off
in
any subsequent positions they were suddenly connected together, prove that the rigid body thus formed would be at rest.
different directions.
Ex. 4. A number of particles originally in a straight line fall from rest, and rebound from a partially elastic horizontal plane. Prove that, at any time, the [Coll. Ex. 1897.] particles which have rebounded once lie in a parabola.
Ex.
rest.
5.
Two
small spheres of equal mass can

I.
horizontal tube of length
move inside a rough endless One sphere impinges with velocity v on the other at
produce a retardation
If the friction of the tube
in either sphere
[Coll.
and
if
after
impact the spheres just meet again, prove that 2fl=vh.
Ex. 1896.]
Ex. 6. Four equal baUs of the same material are projected simultaneously with equal velocities from the corners of a square towards its centre, and meet in the neighbourhood of the centre. Show that they return to the corners with
velocities
reduced in the ratio of the coefficient of restitution to unity.

[Coll.
Ex. 1892.]
smooth horizontal table, a third equal sphere of mass m' impinges symmetrically on them. Prove that this sphere is reduced to rest by the impact if 2m'=3me, and find the
Ex.
7.
Two
equal spheres each of mass
are in contact on a
loss of kinetic energy
by the impact.
[Coll.
Ex. 1897.]
Ex. 8. Two equal balls lie in contact on a table. A third equal ball impinges on them, its centre moving along a line nearly coinciding with a horizontal common tangent. Assuming that the periods of the two impacts do not overlap, prove that the ratio of the velocities which either ball will receive according as it is struck 3 - e, where e is the coefficient of restitution. first or second is 4
:
Ex.
with a
lost
A heavy particle tied to a string of length is projected horizontally Show that the energy velocity V from the point to which it is attached.
9.
I
by the impulse
is
minimum when
V^=lgly/B: see Arts. 27, 90.

[Coll.
Ex. 1896.]
44
IMPULSIVE FORCES.
[CHAP.
I.
Ex. 10. A particle of mass m lies at the middle point C of a straight tube AB mass and length 2a, both of whose ends are closed. It is shot along the tube with velocity V. Prove that it will pass the middle point of the tube in the same
of
direction after a time ^f

particle
+am
being the coefficient of restitution between the

;
and
either
end of the tube

[
(
and that
|
in this time the tube will have
moved forward a
The
and
distance
rr^
+-
1\^
.
TCoU. Ex. 1895.1

in a time
particle traverses the length
QA = a
a\V and
after
impact has a
relative velocity eV. after
It therefore traverses the length
AB 2a
is
in a time 2a/eF,
impact at
length
times.
BG=a
The
in the time
has a relative velocity e^F. ajeW. The whole time

at the
It traverses the
remaining
the
sum
of these three
particle is
now
same point G
of the tube as before, the distance
traversed by the tube

of the system.
is
therefore equal to that traversed by the centre of gravity
Since the initial velocities of the particle and tube are

is
V ^nd
zeroj
is
the velocity of the centre of gravity

therefore vT.
v mVj{M+m).
The
distance traversed
Ex. 11.
particle is projected inside a straight tube of length 2a, closed at

lies
each end, which

of the particle.
on a smooth horizontal table and whose mass

if
is
equal to that
the tube has
Prove that, at the
moment just before the fourth impact

is \,
described a distance 15a,

of kinetic energy
the coefficient of restitution
and
find the proportion

[Coll.
which has disappeared.

particle of
Ex. 1895.]
mass m is at rest in a rectangular box of mass free to move down a smooth plane inclined at an angle a to the horizon, the lowest edge of the box being horizontal, and the particle at its middle
Ex. 12. which is
smooth
point.
if
Suddenly the box
is
started
down
the plane with velocity V.
Prove that
the coefficient of restitution be unity, the particle will strike the top and
bottom of the box after equal successive intervals of time; and that the spaces travelled by the box in the first and second of these intervals are as
V^ + ql sin a
where
21 is the length of the box.
13.
vt
it/
+m
F''
+ 3flt sm a,
[Coll.
Ex. 1896.]
v-,^,
Ex.
perfectly elastic ball is projected vertically
with velocity
show,
from a
ball is
point in a rigid horizontal plane, and

projected vertically from the
when
its
velocity is v^
v-^
;
an equal
(1)
same point
also with velocity
that the
that the
time that elapses between successive impacts of the two balls

heights at which they take place are alternately
(Syj
is v-^jg, (2)
- v^
{v^
+ v^jQg. and
[Zv-^
+ v^}
{v^
- v^)l8g,
(3) that the velocities of the balls at the impacts are equal and opposite and [Math. Tripos, 1896.] alternately \ (vj - ^2) and \ (^1 + ^2)-
Since the balls exchange velocities at each impact, we may suppose that they pass through each other, one ball following the other at an interval T = (v^-v^jg.
Ex. 14.
rest
weight of mass
m and
a bucket of mass m' are connected by a light
inelastic string
These bodies are released from whose mass is p and coefficient of elasticity e falls with Prove that a second collision will occur between vertical velocity V upon the bucket. the particle and bucket after a time e (m + in') Vjmg and find the condition that the
which passes over a smooth pulley.
when a
particle
bodies should then be in their initial positions.
[Coll.
Ex. 1895.]
ART. 94.]
Ex.
15.
EXAMPLES.
45
A particle
is
projected from a point on the inner circumference of a
circular hoop, free to
move on a
horizontal plane.
Prove that
if
the particle
return to the position of projection after two impacts,
its original direction
must
make with
Ex.
the radius through the point an angle tan~i {e^l{l
+ e + e^)Y.
[Coll.
Ex. 1897.]
balls of masses M, m (centres A and B), are tied together by a on a smooth table with the string straight. A ball of mass m' (centre G) moving on the table with velocity V parallel to the string strikes the Prove that starts ball of mass m, so that the angle ABC is acute and equal to o.
16.
Two
string,
and
lie
with a velocity
""
, sin^' a + m(M + m + m) Mm'

.
.
.
-;
r^
7;
e b';ing
the coefficient of restitution

[Coll.
v-^'
between
m and m'.
M,
Ex. 1895.]
Let U' be the velocity of m' after impact in the direction CB,
velocity of
the
common
in the direction
AB,
v^'
the velocity of
perpendicular to
AB
then m'(U' - VcoBa)= -R.
Since
cos a has to
move both
and m, while
R sin a
affects
only,
{M + m)v^' = Re,osa,
At the moment
mv.2=Rsi.Ta.a.
of greatest compression, the velocities of m',
along
CB
are equal
U' = v-l cos a + v^ sin
o.
e
Those equations give R.

gives v{.
Multiplying the result by 1 +
the second equation then
Ex.
17.
straight strings, are placed at rest

IT
-a.
,
...
li
Three particles A, B, C whose masses are m, m', m", connected by on a smooth table, and the obtuse angle ABC is receive a blow F parallel to CB prove that C will begin to move with a
.
m'^cosâ veloccty ^ mSm + mm sinâ

.,
Let T,
T be
the impulsive tensions of
AB, BC.
Since A,
a)lm'.
must have equal
velocities along
BA
(F cos a - T)/m = (T - T' cos
equal velocities along
Since B,
G have
BC
result required is T'lm".
{T cos a -T')lm'-T'lm".
These tiquations determine
Ex. a
circle
T and
T',
and the
18.
Two smooth
v,
spheres whose
coefficient of restitution is e are attached
by inextensible
rest.
strings to fixed points.
One
of them,
whose mass
is
is
m, describing
is at
with velocity
impinges upon the other whose mass
m' and which
If the line of centres
makes an angle
"*'y
6 with the string attached to
and
the strings at that instant cross each other at right angles, then m' begins to
describe a curcle with velocity
,
.,
-XT-
-J.
sin d cos 0(l
+ e)
5-7 j-^-rTrm cos** 6 + m sm''
rn n i? 1 ana 1 [Coll. Ex. 189b.]
Let A,
he the centres of m, m', and
DA
with
intersect
EB
v',
in C.
The
force
AD.
Let
w' be the velocities
Let let the strings be attached to D, E. on m acts along BA and makes an angle Then of m, m' along EG and CD.
'
0=-T + iJcos^)
m(v'-v}=-Rsm0\
At the moment
.-.
m'iv' = Rcoae) O=-T' + Rsin0]
'
of greatest compression, the velocities of m, m' along
AB
are equal,
is
i7'sin^
= w'cos0.
Ojvi'.
This determines the value of R, and the required velocity
jR (1
+ e)
cos
46
Ex.
19.
IMPULSIVE FOKCES.
[CHAP.
I.
smooth
inelastic sphere of radius r
and mass
is
suspended by a
r' and mass m' is moving on the table; prove that the cotangent of the angle throui^h which the direction of motion of the second sphere is deflected by a collision, is
string above a horizontal table,
and another smooth
inelastic sphere of radius
mb
{(r
>
where a and
b are the vertical
and horizontal distances of
+ r'f-a^-b^}^
first
the centre of the
sphere from the path of the second before impact.

[Coll.
Ex. 1892.]
We
notice that the vertical motion of one sphere is stopped by the reaction, of
is
the table, while that of the other
not stopped by the tension of the string.
Ex. 20. Four equal particles are connected by three equal strings AB, BC, CD and lie on a horizontal plane with the strings taut in the form of half a regukir
hexagon.
tension of
An
impulse
is
applied at
in the direction
DA.
Prove that the

[Coll.
iuitiid
BC is
one-fourteenth of the impulse.

,
Ex. 1897.]
v^
Ex. 21. If three inelastic particles, Wj jjij, m.^, moving with velocities v^, v^, making angles a, /3, y, with each other, impinge and coalesce, prove that the loss
energy
is
of
'
^'
1-^J.J
[Coll.
Ex. 1896.]
Ex.
22.
shot whose
that, if
mass
is
penetrates a thickness s of a fixed platf3 of

is s /
(
mass M, prove
is free to
move, the thickness penetrated
+ -
[Coll.
Ex. 1896.]
uritil
The mass vi strikes have the same and
M with
velocity
a velocity
v^,
and continues
If
to
move inwards
Vi^mvJ^M+m).
0"),
be the resistance regarded as
constant, x
and x + a the spaces described by
M and m,
3Ivi^= 2Fx.
m {v^^ - Vq^) =-2F{x +
is infinite, 2Fs-=vî. Eliminating x, we find 2F(t =:^Vi^Mml(M +m). When The ratio fffs follows. This problem may also be easily solved by considering
the relative motion.

is sliding with velocity V Ex. 23. A smooth uniform hemisphere of mass on an inelastic horizontal plane with which its base is in contact; a sjjhere of smaller mass m is dropped vertically so as to strike the first on the side towards which it is moving, at an inclination of 45; prove that if the hemisjjhere be
stopped dead, the sphere must have fallen through a height

is
where
the coefficient of restitution between them.
CHAPTER
II.
RECTILINEAR MOTION.
Solution of the Equation of Motion.

95.
Let us
suppoije that a particle of
mass
is
m
F.
is
constrained
cc,
to
move
in a straight Line, which
we may
call
the axis of
under
the action of forces whose component along x
Let
F= mX.
We
IS
have seen in the previous chapter that the equation of motion

d^c
-T-
dr
F ^ = - = A. m
when
a;
Properly this equation gives
is
a.
known
function of
t,
and therefore answers the question, given

force? Usually
the motion,
what
is the
we
require the solution of the converse problem,
given the accelerating force
X (Art.
68), find the motion.
To
deter-
mine
this,
we must
regai-d the equation of

its;
motion as a differential
equation and seek for

96.
solution.
In the general case
X may be a
We
is
also of the velocity v of the particle.
function of x and t and But the equation can only
be solved in limited cases.

turn.
shall
examine these solutions in
Let us suppose
thai:
a function of
only, say
X =f{t).
By
integration
we have
cv=f{t)
+ At + B,
where
suffixes
t.
have beien used to represent integrations with
regard to
48
SOLUTION OF THE EQUATION OF MOTION.
[CHAP.
II.
the constants
In this way x has been expressed as a function of t, leaving A and B undetermined. As this value of x satisfies
the differential equation, whatever values

there
is
and
B may
have,
nothing in that equation to help us in finding these two constants. We must have recourse to some other data. These
are the initial conditions of the motion.
the particle was projected at a time
= a, from
Let us suppose that a point determined

v
hy x = h with a velocity
= c.
Then remembering that
= dx/dt,
we have
c=f,{a)
Solving these,
+ A, h=f{a) + Aa + B.
and B. The motion
(a)}
t
we
find
is
therefore given
by
^ =ff, (t)
97.
[o-f,
+ {b-ac +
af, (a)
-f
(a)j.
Let
X be a function ofx only, say X=f{x).

ll=/w
m-
Multiply by
|,
|'J=/W|.
(~J
t.
Integrate
= 2f,(cc) + A
(2),
= ^ = 12/;(^) + ^)4
of
(3).
To determine the value

the initial conditions.
v
and the sign of the

t
radical
we use
and
Let us suppose that when

c^-2f,{b)
c
= a, x = b,
= c.
We
then have
=A
(4),
(5).
c, i.e.
= 12/,(6) + ^}*
have the same sign as
ls
If c is not zero, the radical miist
the
radical is positive or negative according

initial velocity
the direction of the

If
makes x increase
or decrease.
however
= 0,
we
in
notice that the particle will begin to
move
in the direction
which the force acts; the radical therefore follows the sign
Since
if
of the initial value of X.
obvious that
motion.
the initial value of
X X
is
a function of x only,
will
it is
is
also zero, the particle is
at rest in a position of equilibrium
and that there
be no
We
now have
"^JL^ =t + B
{2f,{x)
+ A]^
(6).
ART. 99.]
FORCE, A FUNCTION OF THE SPACE.
49
Representing the left-hand side of this equation, after the integration has been effected, by
c}>{a;)
^ (x), we have
=t+B
(7).
viz.
To
a;
find
we
recur again to the given initial conditions,
that
= h when t = a,
98.
hence
B=^(b) a.
(7)
The equation
determines
when x
If
is
known,
i.e. it
gives the time at which the particle passes over any given point
of the straight line along which
it
moves.
position of the particle at"*âny given time,
we require the we must solve the

(8).
equation and express

a^==ylr{t)
The solution of this algebraical equation

values of x, thus
may
lead to different
we may have x = 'î (t), x = -î {t),

is satisfied
&c.
We
have
yet to determine which of these represents the actual motion.
We
notice that since the equation (7)
by x h,
= a,
All
one at least of these values of x must satisfy this condition.
the others must then be excluded as not agreeing with the given'
initial conditions.
If
satisfy this condition, the equation obtained

(7), viz.
<f){x)
more than one of these solutions could by putting t = a in
= a + B,
^' (x)
must have equal

2/i(&)
roots.
Hence
=
it
when x = b.
Since
<f>{x)
represents the left-hand side of (6)
+^
is
infinite.
immediately follows that But by (5) this cannot happen if the
initial velocity c is finite.
99.
when
at
Subject of integration infinite. Other points requiring attention arise the integrals which occur are such that the subject of integration is infinite
some point
of the path.
Since the forces in nature are necessarily finite this

(2),
cannot happen in the integral

f{x) for any
finite
for if /j (x)
were infinite
its differential coefficient,

(6)
value of x, would also be infinite.
In the integral
the subject
of integration is infinite
when the
velocity is zero.
We can use the integral (6) to find the

P
as near as
time of transit from any point ^ to a point

side of J5 as A.
If the result is infinite
we
please to*B
on the same
If
the particle never reaches B.

the subsequent motion.
the time of arrival at
is finite
we have
to find
As the
particle approaches
B the velocity
is
numerically decreasing and there-
fore the accelerating force
has the opposite sign to the velocity. Supposing X not also to vanish at B, the particle after arriving at B must begin to retrace its steps. Considering J? as a new initial position, the subsequent motion may be deduced from (3) by putting c=0. If X=0 also at B, the particle, as explained
above, will remain there in equihbrium.
50
lOO.
Ex.
SOLUTION OF THE EQUATION OF MOTION.

1.
[CHAE.
II.
particle
moves in a
straight line under a central force tending
to the origin
and equal
to
n^/ar*.
Investigate the motion.
Webave
The minus sign
is
-='%
and the
(^^-
introduced because the left-hand side represents the

force acts towards the origin.
acceleration in the positive direction of x
We
then find
l-f-}*
distance from the origin
;
'^'-
Let us suppose that the particle starts from rest at a very great or infinite then when x is infinite, dxldt=0. Hence ^=0, and the
equation becomes
^=^ at X
Since the particle begins to
initially negative.
(3). ^
move towards the
centre of force the velocity
is
We therefore
take the negative sign.
Multiplying by x and integrating, we find
x^=B-2nt
Initially
infinite
(4).
when t = 0, the particle is infinitely distant from the origin, i.e. x is and therefore is infinite. It follows that the particle does not get within
we may obtain a
finite result.
finite
distance of the origin until after the lapse of an infinite time.
If the initial conditions are slightly altered
Let
us suppose the particle to be initially projected at a distance x=b (b being positive) with a velocity njb towards the centre of force. Proceeding as before we find A=0,
and as
has
still
it is
given that the initial velocity of the particle is negative, the radical
the negative sign.

find
We thus
and
again arrive at ihe equation

J=(b'-2nt)^
(4).
Since x = b
when t=0, we
Since x
5=6^
x=
is initially positive
(5).
we must give the
radical the positive sign.
As
increases
we
see that
x continually diminishes and when t=b^l2n the

Its velocity at that
particle arrives at the origin.
moment
is
found by putting
a;=0 in
(3)
and
is easily
seen to be infinite.
If
we construct a
Cases in which either the velocity or the force is infinite do not occur in nature. central force by placing some attracting matter at the origin
there would be an impact before the particle reached the origin and the whole
motion would be changed. But as a matter of curiosity we may enquire what would be the subsequent motion if our equations held true for infinite velocities and forces.
In this case the particle arrives at the origin with a negative velocity, we must when the quantity
therefore suppose that the radical in (2) does not change sign
must take the

gives
find
t
passes through infinity at the origin. Hence since x now becomes negative, we positive sign in (3) instead of the negative one hitherto used. This
x-B + 2nt,
where
need not necessarily have the same value as before.
B we
notice that at the initial stage of this part of the motion,

easily find that
x0
To and
= b^l2n; we
is
B=
a;=:
-b^.
The motion
- b"^)-.
after the particle
has passed
the origin
therefore given
by
(2nt
ART. 101.]
FORCE,
A FUNCTION OF THE VELOCITY.

n-2
51
Ex.
2.
If x=at'^
we have ^=At'"'^=:A
-) "
>
where A=:an{n-1).
Let us
suppose that n > 2.
A particle is
motion
is
3.
placed at rest at the origin.

is
Show
if
that
if
acted on by X=At'^~^
w-2
the subsequent motion
given by xât^, but
acted on by
X=A(xla)^
the
given by a;=0.
Ex.
A particle
is
projected from the origin
with a velocity
fip*
under the
action of an accelerating force
X= -îj?(p-x)^.
by x=p.
Prove that the particle comes to
rest in the position of equilibrium defined
101.
Let the acting force
be
a function of
the velocity only,
say
X =f(v).
The equation
of motion
now
takes the form
s=/w
Integrating
this,
.--w-
we have
'""
-t + A
(2);
/.
writing
(f>
(v) for
the integral on the left-hand side, this becomes

<l>(v)
=t+A
is initially
a.
(3).
Supposing as before that the particle

time
t
projected at a
= a,
with a velocity
c,
we have A=<j>(c)
The
Two
rules are given in the theory of differential equations for

(3).
first
the solution of the equation

solve the equation for v
rule requires us to
and find and as already explained that solution is to be chosen which makes v = c when t=a. Remembering that v = dx/dt we then obtain x by integration.
v = 'slr(t),
If the equation (3) cannot be solved for

rule.
v,
we use
the second
This requires us to recur to the form
(1),
eliminating dt by
using the equation v
= dxjdt, we
vdv
have
/ ;2vT
Thus
after integration both
= + -S
t
v.
(4).
x and
in terms of a subsidiary quantity
are expressed by (2) and (4) notice also that this
We
subsidiary quantity has a dynamical meaning,

of the partic?e.
viz.
the velocity
52
102.
Ex.
SOLUTION OF THE EQUATION OF MOTION,

1.
[CHAP.
II.
particle is projected with a velocity
in a mediuvi whose
of motion
is
resistance is kv^, where n is
a positive quantity.
The equation
then
l=-
.-.
")
= -Kdt;
dv
, '
v^~^
:.
-^
1-n
=-KtÂ
,
,_.
(2). '
^
Measuring
from the moment of projection we have when t=0, v=V, hence

therefore find
A=
y\-n
;;
1-n
We
vi--V^-''=-(l-n)Kt
If
(3).
after
n < 1 the velocity decreases continually from yi~n The particle a finite time, viz. t=-
its initial
value V, and vanishes

rest, since
will
then remain at
X=0.
If ra>l, writing (3) in the
form
J=i-vî=i^--^)'<t
we
(4),
see that the velocity decreases continually and vanishes after an infinite time.
If
tion (2)
n = 1, these equations take an indeterminate form. we have
Eeturning to the equa-
logv=-Kt + A;
time.
.:
v^Ve'"*
and vanishes
after
(5).
It follows that the velocity decreases continually
an
infinite
In
all these cases
that v = dxjdt,
/
we can find we have from (3),
the space described in
any time
t.
Eemembering
x= {Fi-- (1 I
n) Kt)'~''
dt=
yA
-1
nj K
{7i-- (1 -i) Kt\'~^+B.

t-0 we find
(6).
Determining
from the condition that
x=0 when
278
-{2-w)/cx = {Fi--(l-n)/ct}i'^-F2-
We may also We begin with

-
find the velocity after the particle has described
any space
x.
V
.:
^^=
dx
.:
-Kv":
v^-''dv=-Kdx;
v^-"'=V^-''-(2-n) kx
(7).
Let us findrthe space described by the particle when v = 0.

If
n<I, we have
x=-;r(2
- n) K
and t=7-
r as shown above; thus the particle (l-n) K
comes
If
to rest after describing a finite space in a finite time.
w>l and
Y2~n ^," while <2, we have x=-7^

(2-ra)ff
is infinite;
the particle therefore

If
comes
to rest after describing a finite space in
an
infinite time.
that v vanishes
infinite
when x
it
is infinite
and the
particle deg"ribes
an
infinite space in
n > 2, we find an
time before
2.
comes
to rest.
Ex.
If the resistance is kv,
show that the
particle
comes
to
rest
after
describing the finite space Vjk in an infinite time.
ART. 104.]
Ex.
3.
MOTION OF A HEAVY PARTICLE.

an
53
infinite
If the resistance is kv^, prove that the particle describes
space in an infinite time before coming to rest.
103. Ex. 1. If X=(p(v) .fix) or X=^{v)f(t), prove that the equation of motion can be solved by separating the variables.
In the former case we use vdvjdx=X, in the
latter
dvldtX.
Ex. 2. If X=f {x)v'^ + F(x)v'^ show that the equation of motion becomes linear by writing v^~^=y.
Ex.
3.
If X=:f(v^lx)
show that the equation
of motion becomes homogeneous,
and that the
variables can be separated by writing v'^=onj.
Motion of a heavy
104.
particle.
A
to
straight line
heavy particle starting from rest slides down a rough which is inclined to the veHical at. an angle 6. It is
required
find the motion.

initial position of
t.
Let
be the
the particle,
OV
the vertical,
the particle at any time
The
accelerating force due to
gravity
is
g cos
6.
The pressure on the
straight
is
line
being
mg sin
fi
d,
the retarding force due to friction
fig sin 0,
where
is
is
the coefficient of friction.
The whole
.
accelerating force
therefore
/= g (cos 6 /Jism6) = g sece

where
fi
cos {6
e),
= tan
e.
Writing
d^s
OQ = s,
the equation of motion
is
/, ^
X ^'
dv
//IN
'^^^
dt'^^^ds^^^^^^'^^^^
Integrating,
we
find
V-
2gs sec
cos (^
+ e) + A.
and
s
Since the particle starts from

therefore have J.
rest, v
vanish together.
We
(2).
= 0,
and
V'
2gs sec
cos (^
+ e)
To
interpret this formula

line
we make the angle

perpendicular to
draw any straight
NVQ
VON = e ON cutting
and
the
54
vertical

in
[chap.
II.
and the straight
line along
e).
which the particle

is
travels in Q.
Then
ON = s cos (d +
It follows that the velocity/

is
acquired in describing any chord

equal
to that
OQ
independent of 6 and
acquired in describing OV.
If the chord
as
OQ
is
taken on the same side of the vertical
OV
N, the angle
as above measured becomes negative.
Since
the friction varies as the pressure taken positively, it must now be represented by /xg sin 6. The theorem therefore only applies to the chords on the side of the vertical opposite to ON.
If
line
I^TT
we make the figure turn round the

will describe a right cone
6
vertical
OV, the
straight
OV
having
OV
for its axis
and
is
for
the semi- vertical angle.
The
to the
velocity
acquired in
descending any chord
from
rest at
surface of this cone
equal
to that
acquired in descending OV.

integrating (1)
s s
105.
By
twice with regard to
t,
and
re-
membering that both
and dsfdt vanish
when t = 0, we
find
(3).
1^ sec
6 cos (^ -H e)t^
We may
interpret
this formula
by a similar geometrical con-
struction.
Making
as before the angle
VON=, we
is
see that,
when
t is
constant, (3) represents the polar equation of a circle

is s
whose radius vector
and whose centre G
situated on
ON.
We
have therefore the following theorem. Describe any circle passing through and having its centre on ON, and let it cut the vertical through in some point V. The time of descent from rest at
chord
down any chord OQ of this circle is OQ must be on the side of

In the same way
is
the
same as
that
down OV. The
F remote
is
from the centre.
if
the circle
that the time of descent from rest
drawn above 0, we can show at any point Q of the circle to
equal to the time
down VO.
ART. 108.]
106.
CHORDS DESCRIBED IN EQUAL

the straight line
TIMES.
55
When
coincides with the vertical.
down which the particle slides is smooth ON The cone in Art. 104 becomes a horizontal plane, and
a diameter.
the circle in Art. 105 has
OV for
all
We
thus
fall
back on the well-known
theorems
(1)
that the velocity acquired in descending from rest to a given horiis
zontal plane
the same for
chords,
(2)
that the time of descending from rest at

the same for
all
the highest point of a circle to the circle
is
chords.
107.
If the
allowance for
the velocity,
motion take place in the air we must make Supposing the resistance to vary as the equation of motion is
its resistance.
1^=/
where /= ^r.sec e cos {6 by integration
>
that v
+ e).
Remembering
ds/dt we
find
1=/*
the constant being omitted because
s
<2>-
and v vanish together.

have
Transposing
ks,
the equation can be integrated again by following
the ordinary rule for linear equations.
We
Noticing that s should vanish
when t=
0,
we have
= 1/ac.
Hence, restoring the value of/,
s=^^secCos{e
+ ){Kt-l +
e-''*}
(3).
When
on ON.
particle
velocity.
is is
see that (3)
constant and (^ + e) is regarded as variable we again the equation of a circle having its centre
slides
The theorem of Art. 105 is therefore also true when the on a rough chord in a medium resisting as the The times of descent from rest at down all chords of
the circle are equal.
108.
(1) of Art.
There
is
rential equation is evaded.
another method of proof by which the solution of the diffeWe notice that if we write s = (r cos (^ + e), the equation
107 becomes
- = gsece-K-,
from which the angle d has disappeared. The initial conditions now become <r=0 and dffldt=0 when t = 0; these also are independent of 6. Hence the time of describing any given length tr is independent of 0. But if any value is given to a-,
the equation s = a- cos (6 + e)
is
the equation of a circle, s being the radius vector.
56
109.

When
a heavy body
[CHAP.
II.
is immersed in a fluid it is partly supported by the be the volume of the body, D its density, p that of the fluid. If the body were removed, a mass Vp of fluid would just fill the vacant place and be supported by the pressures of the surrounding fluid. The apparent
surrounding
fluid.
Let
weight of the body
is
therefore
{VD - Vp) g, and the
accelerating force of gravity is
.=.(1-^)
in.
This value of g' should properly replace g when the moving body is immersed a resisting medium. It is sometimes called the relative acceleration.
no.
This
Ex.
1.
Prove that when k=0,

s
thfe
formula for
in Art. 107 reduces to
= Ut^
k.
may
2.
be shown by expanding the expression in powers of
The plane of a circle is inclined to the vertical, prove that the times descent down all smooth chords from rest at the highest point are equal.
Ex.
Ex.
3.
of
Two
tangents AB,
highest and lowest points A, B.
CD are drawn to touch a A variable tangent PQR
vertical circle at
its
cuts
AB,
CD
in P,
and touches the
Prove that the velocity acquired in descending from rest at P to iJ under gravity is the same for all positions of the tangent. Prove also that the time of descent from P to i? is proportional to the length PR and the
circle at Q.
time from
circle.
to
is
proportional to the distance of
from the centre of the
Ex. 4. If the resistance per unit of mass is kv~ and the particle slide on a smooth straight wire inclined at an angle d to the vertical, prove that the space s
described in time
t
from
rest is given
by
e"*=: J
(e
+e~
where h^=Kg cos 6.

is
111.
vertically
nth.
Iiimiting Velocity.
When
a particle
projected
downwards
in a
medium whose
dv
resistance varies as the

is
power of the
velocity, the
equation of motion
where g
that
is
the relative acceleration of gravity.
If the particle is projected
downwards with a
is
velocity
such
is
KL^ = g
it
is
clear that dvjdt
initially zero.
There
nothing to change the velocity

to be balanced
and the
force of gravity continues
by the
resistance.
The
particle therefore descends
with a uniform velocity equal to L. If the particle is projected downwards with a velocity less than L, gravity exceeds the resistance
velocity of projection
If the and the velocity of the particle is increased. is greater than L, the resistance exceeds
is
gravity and the velocity
decreased.
If the particle
is
projected
upwards, the resistance

to rest, after
and gravity combine
to bring the particle
which
it
descends in the manner just described.
ART. 113.]
LIMITING VELOCITY.
cases the velocity tends to
57
In
all
become more and more

velocity
nearly equal to the velocity
given by the equation KL^ = g.
This velocity
is
called
sometimes the limiting
and some-
times the terminal

,to
velocity.
The
latter
name is commonly ascribed
Huygens. Other names are given under other cii'cumstances. the body considered is a ship, the constant g may represent the force of the engine and ?;" the resistances. The ship is said
When
to be at full speed
when
these balance each other.

is
112.
When
is fall
the body
in the beginning of its fall from' rest,

is
the term kv^
nearly zero and
much
smaller than
g.
The body
first
begins to
nearly as in a vacuum, and the velocity at

If the resistance is so great that
increases rapidly.
is
small,
the velocity will soon be so nearly equal to the limiting velocity

that the motion will be sensibly uniform.
This result has

rain,
many
applications in nature.
is
In a shower of
little
is
the velocity of a drop

it
not proportional to the time elapsed
began to fall. The drops, being observed some motion has begun, move with a velocity which uniform and independent of the height of the cloud.
since
after the
time
sensibly
113.
The magnitude
size
of the coefficient k of the resistance

falling
and form of the the nature of the resisting medium.

depends on the
suppose that,
body as well as on
an
To
illustrate this let us
for similar bodies falling in similar positions in
indefinitely extended fluid, the resistance varies (1) as the surface
of the body, (2) as the nth.
power of
its velocity,
and
(3) as the
density p of the
fluid.
If
be the length of any side the surface

as Pa-
varies as P, while the
mass moved varies
density of the body.

therefore
The
accelerating force
where cr is the on the body is
where 7
of the
is
falling
some constant depending on the form and position body. Equating / to zero, it follows that the
1
limiting velocity varies
as {la-jpY.
We
see therefore that the
smaller the size of the body the less is the limiting velocity. For example, large drops of rain fall with greater velocity than small
ones.
The
particles of a mist are so small
and their
limiting-
velocities so slight that the falling drops
seem
to have no motion.
58
[CHAP.
II,
We
have supposed that the falling body

it is
is
so far symmetrical
about a vertical axis that

sistance.
not
made
'
to rotate
by the
re-
114.
in
/3
Ex.
1.
particle falling freely
from
rest in
vacuo acquires a velocity
X,
seconds.
Show
that the same particle, falling in a
medium
in
which the
resistance varies as the velocity
and the terminal velocity is L, will acquire half its terminal velocity in about /^ /3 seconds and two-thirds of that velocity in \\ 8 seconds.
To prove
this
we use the formulae proved
in Art. 107 for v.
L = gJK when
the resistance varies as the velocity
Eemembering we have k=1I^.
that
Ex. 2. Show that the effect of the resistance of a medium on the motion of a heavy body is less the greater the size and density of the body.
115.
velocity
Be8i8tance=KV^.
particle
is
projected vertically upwards with a

It is required to
F in
medium
resisting as the square of the velocity.
find the motion.
During the ascending motion the resistance acts downwards and the equation
of motion is
dv
dv
v^
where
is
the limiting
''ds=dt=-^-^L^' velocity. When the particle
descends the resistance acts

equation of motion must be
upwards, but since v" does not change sign with
v, the
changed
to
dv dv v^ ''Ts'-Tt = -3^î7^'
where in both equations s and v are measured positively upwards. This discontinuity occurs whenever the power of v in the law of resistance is even.
Following the second rule given in Art. 101 we express both
V.
and
in terms of
We have
for the ascending
motion
gt
-_ -_ [ ~ J L^Tv^~
f
Ldv ^^^
X
'
-1^
,^,^
2gs
1,2
f2vdv
L2 + t;2
the constants being determined by the condition that
v=V when
t=0 and =0.
The time T
of ascent
and the space h ascended are deduced by putting v=0.

. = _log(l +
We thus
find
T=-tan--,
The time
gravity
^,)
(3).
of ascent and the space ascended are less than in a vacuum, and the resistance join in bringing the particle to rest.
for both
For the descending motion we have in the same way
%fc-')=:ji^,=,,^
the constants being determined from the condition that
p).
when v 0,t=T,s = h.
'
ART. 116.]
The
velocities at
RESISTING MEDIUM.
which the
particle passes
59
given point of space are connected by a simple relation. as the point of projection upwards,
let
upwards and downwards through any Taking the given point the two velocities be V and V. Putting
/,
s=0
in
(5)
we
find
2gh
F'2\
Eliminating h between this equation and
(3)
we
arrive
iat
If
ff
be the space descended and r the time,
we
find
by eliminating v
^''I^'=l(^'l^ + e-^''^)
See Art. 110, Ex.
4.
116.
velocity
Besi8tanee=Kt'".
particle
is
projected vertically upwards, with a
in a
medium
resisting as the nth
power of the
velocity.
It is required
to find the motion.
We write the equation
for the
ascending motion in the form
dv
''Ts
It will be convenient to
dv
= di=-'-'[L)
Proceeding
ias
fv\^
'
put
v=xL.
/"
in the case
when =2, we
find
for the
whole time
T and
space h of ascent
gT _
where the
initial
dx
gh
Zr~jol+^'
upward
velocity is
_ /" xdx L^~jol+x'''

velocity is decreased
VaL.
from aL to hL we
To
find tbe time
and space in which the

a.
take the limits from b to
velocity
can find superior limits to the values of t and h by making the initial V infinitely great. In this case a = ao and both the integrals are given in the Integral Calculus. We then have
,
We
gT _
the former requiring .>1
limits are finite,
please.
IT
'
gh
X-^
L ~ n sin tt/ti
_
n
IT
sin
27r/ji
and the latter n>2. It is remarkable that both thege though the upward velocity of projection may be as great as we
it is
For the descending motion

the highest point.
often convenient to measure s
downwards from
We
thus avoid using a negative velocity.

is
Adopting this plan,
dv
dv
/^'\"
'ds=rr'-^[L)
Putting
v=xL
as before,
we
find for the time
and space necessary

f<^
to acquire a
velocity aL,
gT r'_
L
dx
gh'
xdx
when n
result
is
These integrals can be found without

Art. 190.
difficulty
an integer by using
its
the method of partial fractions, see Greenhill's Differential and Integral Calculus,
Roberts' Integral Calculus, Art. 35.
is
The
when n has
general
integral value
too complieatedjto be reproduced here.
60
117. Ex.
1.
THE LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION.

A
resisting as the wth
[CHAP.
II.
medium
is
heavy particle is projected upwards with a velocity L in a power of the velocity. Prove that the whole space
(up and down) described

the limiting velocity the
when
the velocity downwards
is
is
equal to
LT when L
and
is
the time in which the particle falling from rest in
medium
Ex.
2.
will acquire a velocity V^jL.
A particle
is
projected upwards with velocity
in a
medium
resisting
as the cube of the velocity.

are connected by the equation
Show
s
that the whole time
and space of the ascent
+ LT=--.Aô
The linear
118.
differential equation.
The Linear
equation.
The most important equation

is
of motion which occurs in this part of dynamics
the linear
equation with constant coefficients. equation

is
The
simplest form of this
d^+^^=^-where
h
<!>'
and
6
c are
two constants. and the

(2).
When
solution
is
the equation represents the motion of a particle

c,
acted on by a constant accelerating force equal to

obviously
x^\ct' + At-\-B
When
h is not zero,
we can
simplify the equation
by putting
(3),
x = c/b + ^
we then have
+*?=
explained in Art. 97.
wsolution can be obtained
This can be solved without difficulty by the method already
But a simpler
by following the rules

efficients
for solving equations
with constant co-
given in books on differential equations.

^
We
assume
(5).
as a possible solution
= Ae^f
The equation
which give a
is
is
Substituting
satisfied if
we
find
A (X" + b) e^^ = 0.
If b
\, either of
therefore
X = + V(~ b).
clearly satisfied
negative and equal to
b', we
The
have two real values of

equation
is
solution.
by
(6),
a;=l+Ae*^^-\-Be-'^^'
ART. 119.]
HARMONIC OSCILLATION.
6l
contains the two
and
this is the complete integral because it
arbitrary constants
If h is positive,
A
\
and B.
is
imaginary;
but remembering that an
imaginary exponential
the assumption (5) by
is
a trigonometrical expression, we replace

(7).
|=^sin(X + 5)
Substituting
is
we
find
A (
by
A,
therefore satisfied
+ = + \/6.
\^
b) sin {\t
+ B) = 0.
The equation
These two values of X give
the same solution, the
efifect
of changing the sign of
\ being
merely that of changing the signs of the arbitrary constants
and B.
The complete
a;
integral
is
therefore
(8).
= c/b + A sin (t^/b + B)
It
may
also
be written in either of the forms
+ A'smt^/b + B'cost's/b X = c/b + A" cos (t^/b + B")

119.
x = c/b
(9),
(10).
Harmonic
is positive.
Oscillation.
is
The dynamical meaning

Consider
first
of
the linear equation
important.
n^,
the case in
which b
Putting b =
we have
(i>-
5*^
a;
+ "''^ =
sin (nt
= c/tv' + A
t
+ B)
(2).
sc
First,
we
notice that as
continually increases the value of
alternates between the limits
cjnÂ.
We
therefore infer that
the differential equation (1) represents an oscillatory motion and

that the arc of oscillation
is .4.
is constant.
The semi-arc
of oscillation
and
its
magnitude depends on the
initial conditions.
The
semi-arc
is
called the amplitude of the oscillation.
Secondly.
The middle point

this point is
is
of the
a;"c
is
determined by
= cjn^,
and
X,
independent of the
initial conditions.
If the particle
placed at rest in the position defined by this
value of
d^x/dt^) is
the equation (1) shows that the accelerating force (viz. zero. The middle point of the ai'c of oscillation is
therefore a position of equilibrium.
Thirdly.
in the
When
order,
is
increased
by
27r(n,
the values of x recur

7r/n
same
but when increased by
they recur with
opposite signs.
The period of a complete
oscillation is therefore
62
27r/w.
THE LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION.

This period
is
[CHAP.
II.
is
independent of the initial conditions.
The
quantity n
called the frequency of the oscillation.
The time
of a complete oscillation
particle in describing twice the
is the time occupied by the whole arc of oscillation starting
from any point and returning finally to the same point again. When the period is independent of the length of the arc, the
motion
is
sometimes called tautochronous.
depends on the instant from which we write t + a for t, nothing is the time t is measured, thus changed except that B is increased by na.
Fourthly.
The constant
if
V at the time
a; and Writing the equation (2) in the form (9) of Art. 118 and equating the values of x and dw/dt to a;^ and v^ when t = t(vfe find the values of A' and B'. The solution there-
Fifthly.
Let
scôcq, dx/dt
= Vo
be the given values of
to.
fore
becomes
a;
=+
r?
ajo
r?)
~]cosn(t-to) + '
sin n(t
to).
Comparing
this with the solution (2)
we
see that
A^\v\.B = Xo c/n^,
cosB = Vo/n.
by
The semi-arc
of oscillation
is
therefore given
A'
120.
h = n^,
= {Wo-c/nJ + (volny.
is
Consider next the case in which b

the differential equation and
its
negative.
Writing
solution
become
^-n^^ =
x = --^
First,
c,
w + Ae''^ + Be-''*.
is
we
notice that the motion If
not oscillatory.
Secondly.
is
not zero the particle travels in an infinite
time to an infinite distance from the origin. If J. = the particle after an infinite time arrives at the point determined by a? = c/n^.
Thirdly.
The
position of equilibrium
particle can
is
given by
a?
= cjn^
Fourthly.
once.
The
change
its direction
of motion only
This change occurs when
dt
ART. 121.]
THE GENERAL CASE.

This
is
63
if
t
This gives 2nt = \og(B/A).

the same sign.
real value of
t is
imaginary
opposite signs, and gives only one real value ot
if
A and B have A and B have

only
if this
The
particle can
change
its direction
subsequent to the beginning of the motion.

cc
Fifthly,
If the values of
and v are respectively

t is
Xg
and
at
the time
= to,
n n?
the value of x at any time
v?
nj
is
l\
n-
n)
121.
When
^+2a- + 6^=c
we take
as the trial solution
(1).
^=|+ê**
It is easily
(2).
seen that this satisfies the differential equation

X2
if
,
+ 2a\ + 6=0
(3).
If
d'-h
is
positive, the roots of the equation are real.
Representing these by
Xj, Xo, the solution is
.r=^ + ^/'' + ^/'^
(4),
where Jj, ^2 are two arbitrary constants.

If
d'~h
is
negative, say
(4)
= -n^
the two roots are -a3i^/(-l).
By an
easy
reduction the solution
becomes
a;=| + e"'^'BiSin(n4-2)
where B^
If a,
(5),
B.^
are two arbitrary constants.
-6=0,
the general solution
is
a:=| + (A + B)e""'
Considering the solution
(5)
(6).
as the
more important
is
of the three,
we
tt,
notice that
the trigonometrical term vanishes whenever nt + JBj

therefore passes through the position defined by
tt/k.
a multiple of
the particle
xc\h
.
at intervals each equal to
Since
it
necessarily passes through
this
point
alternately in
opposite
directions, the interval

27r/.
This
is
is
between two consecutive passages in the same direction is called the time of a complete oscillation. The point defined by
x=c\h
evidently the position of equilibrium.
To
find the times at
which the system comes momentarily
to rest
we put
t
dxldt=0.
This gives t&n {nt+B2)
= nla. The
may
extent of the oscillations on each
side of the position of equilibrium
be found by substituting the values of
given by this equation in the expression for x - cfb.

interval equal to ir]n
Since these occur at a constant

the oscillation continually
we
see that the amplitude of
decreases
and the successive arcs on each
side of the position of equilibrium ratio is e " *"/".
form
a geometrical progression Avhose
common
64
122.
(1)
MOTION UNDER A CENTRE OF FORCE.

The following
differential equations occur in
[CHAP.
II.
dynamics.
Solve
j^ + irx = <t>{t).
dx
=- sin nt
Multiplying by sin nt, both sides become perfect differentials, hence

f - nx cos nt j <j>(t)
sin ntdt
+ A.
Multiplying by cos
nt,
both sides are again perfect differentials,
dx
-ji
cos nt
+ nx
sin nt
f
j </>(t)
cos nt dt + B.
These two simultaneous equations give both x and dxjdt.
To
(2)
solve
^ - n-x = (p{t) we
<p {t)
use e" and e~^ as the two successive multipliers.
When
is
trigonometrical another
method can be used.
Let the
equation be
~+n^x = Esm{\t + F).

Assuming
x=M sin
{^\t
+ F)
as a trial solution,
we
see at once that the equation
is satisfied if ilf
(- X^ + ?.-) = E.
Adding the solution found in Art. 118 we see that
the complete integralis
x= A sin.
This method
assumption.
fails
{nt
+ B)-\
In
^F
Et
-^sin (\t
+ F).
as a trial
when \=n.
this case
we take x = Mt cos {\t + F)

is
We
find
-2Mn = E. The
complete integral
therefore
x= A sin {nt { B) - cos [nt+F).
Motion under a centre of force.

123.
Central force varying as the distance. A particle constrained to move on a smooth straight line A is acted on by a central force tending to a outside the straight line, whose fixed point magnitude x'aries as the distance of the particle
from
'
0.
Let
OG = h
be the perpendicular on the
straight line
P being
n^
AC. Let P be the particle, OP, the component along PC

is
CP =
is n'^x.
a;.
The
force
on
Supposing the
straight line to be smooth and the motion to take plap e in vacuo,
This
is
the standard form discussed in Art. 119.
The
particle
ART. 125.]
therefore oscillates about
ROUGH PATH.
65
G as
the middle point of the arc, and the

is 27r/n.
time of a complete oscillation
To
find the time of oscillation numerically the
the force must be
known
at
magnitude of some given distance from the centre 0.
Suppose that the force is equal to gravity at a distance a, then nâ = g, and the time of a complete oscillation is 27r ^/{a/g). If
g=
32*18, the distance
a must be measured in
feet
and the formula
gives the time in seconds.
The extent
conditions.
of the arc of oscillation depends on the initial
If the particle start from a point distant x^ from
with an
initial velocity Vq
is
subsequent motion
124.
tunnel.
measured positively from G, the whole expressed by the fifth result of Art. 119.
Ex.
Any two
particle
places on the surface of the earth are joined by a straight dropped from one falls towards the other under the sole
attraction of the earth.
Assuming that the resultant
attraction tends to the
centre
and
varies as the distance therefrom, prove that the particle will arrive at the
second place after about 42 minutes, the radius of the earth being taken as 4000
miles.
125.
rough,
Ex.
Effect of friction.
If the
straight line in Art. 123
is
sensibly
it is
required to take account of the friction.

is
Since the normal pressure on the straight line

constant, the limiting friction
is
equal to n^h and
is
therefore
/.
also constant.
Let us represent this by
The
equation of motion
is
therefore
-^ + n-x=^f
We notice that the
frictional accelerating force acts opposite to the direction of

is
motion, so that the sign must be negative or positive according as the particle
A'
moving in the
to be
D'
D
is
A
The equation
whenever friction has
direction in
which x
measured or the opposite.
therefore presents the discontinuity lohich so frequently occurs
taken account
of.
Let the particle start from rest at

attraction is nâ
where CA=a.
Initially the resolved
and unless nâ
is
greater than the friction /, the particle will not
move.
Supposing this inequality to hold we write the equation in the form

d^x
.(
f\
The motion
therefore from
displaced a distance
also equal to fjn^
A towards C is the same as if the centre of force were CD fjn^ towards A The particle comes to rest at a point
.
A' on the other side of
where
DA'=AD.
and the
particle
the centre of force is alternately
On the return journey we take CD' moves as if D' were the centre of force. Thus moved at each oscillation a constant distance,
06
MOTION UNDER A CENTEE OF .ORCE.
[CHAP.
II.
always opposite to the direction of motion. The friction reduces the extent of each successive semi-arc of oscillation by 2fln^. The particle comes finally to rest
when the
126.
extent of the semi-arc
is less
than fjn-.
the air
its
Resistance of the air. resistance must be allowed
If the
for.
motion take place in

sufficient illustra-
As a
tion of the general effects of this force, let us suppose that the
resistance varies .u the velocity.
Excluding
friction the equation
of motion
is
then
'=-""'
Assuming
-'4
w-
n> k
the solution
is
(Art. 121)
(2),
w = Ae-"^ sin (pt + B).....

where p^='nr k\
The constancy of the period of oscillation is the resistance of the medium, Art. 121. The hy therefore unaffected however longer than in a vacuum. time of oscillation is
The
after
successive arcs on each side of the position of equilibrium
decrease continually in geometrical progression and vanish only
an
infinite time.
In many cases the resistance of the medium is very slight The compared with the other forces acting on the particle. quantity k is then small, and we see that the period of any one oscillation differs from that in a vacuum" by the squares of small In using the equation (2) we must however remember quantities.
that
when
the position of the particle after a great
many
;
oscilla-
tions is
required we cannot regard pt as the same as nt
for
though
is
and n differ by a very small quantity, that difference

t.
here
multiplied by the time

127.
By making observations on the lengths of the arcs oscillation we may test the correctness of the assumed law
resistance.
of
of
convenient method of trying the experiment

It
is to
use the particle as a pendulum.
may be shown
2k dx/dt.
that
when
the
oscillations are small the resolved action of gravity represents the
force n^x while the resistance is
The measurements
show that the successive arcs do decrease in geometrical progression when the arcs are small, but the decrease follows another
law when not small. This, as Poisson remarks, is a justification of the statement that for small velocities the resistance varies nearly
as the velocity.
ART. 129.]
DISCONTINUITY OF RESISTANCE.
ratio of the geometrical progression is e"*'/^.
67
The common
By
measuring successive arcs the numerical value of k can be found.

128.
Discontinuity of resistance.
When
the resistance
varies as the velocity the analytical expression 2/cw changes sign
with
V.
It therefore represents the retardation
due to the
re-
sisting
medium both
in sign
and magnitude.
If the resistance
velocity, the
varies as the square (or
any even power) of the
analytical expression
only.
will
'2.kv^
represents the retardation in magnitude
Whenever the particle changes its direction of motion it then be necessary to change the sign of k. Thus a dis-
continuity is introduced into the equations similar to that which
occurs
129.
when
Ex.
friction acts
1.
on the
particle, Arts.
125 and 115.
particle oscillates in a straight line under the action of a
central force tending to a fixed point
C on
the straight line and varying as
the distance therefrom.
Supposing
the motion to take place in a

find the relation between
medium
any two
resisting as the square of the velocity,
snccessive arcs on each side of C.
1
is
Supposing that the particle
moving
in the negative direction (Art. 128) the equation of
motion
is
vdvjdx = - n^x
+ kv^.
e
J
By
Art. 103 this gives vê
=C-\
a;
+ + 9-
li Xg, x^
he two successive
arcs, Xj being negative,
we have
(^1
'"''=(^0 + 9^ )^~
^''
We
To
notice that this relation is independent of the strength of the attractive force.
interpret this relation
we
trace the curve y =

it
lx + ^~\e
1 \
2kj?
.
If the particle
start
from
rest at
any place A
will
come
to rest again at A'
where the ordinates

is at
of
A and
A' are equal.
Taking CB=CA', the third point of rest
a distance
CB' from C on the side of C opposite to A', the ordinates of B, B' being equal, and so on. Thus if the particle start from rest at an infinite distance from C it will ^rst come to rest at K, where CK=1I2k numerically.
at
first,
The general character of the motion is that the successive arcs decrease rapidly but afterwards become more and more nearly equal, the motion never
ceasing.
If
CI
is
the abscissa of the point of inflexion,
CI= CM= CK.

chords of a circle starting from
Ex.
2.
Prove that the times of describing
all
rest at the
same point A under the action of a centre of force situated on the diameter through A and varying as the distance are equal. The chords are to be regarded as smooth and the motion to be in a vacuum.
68
Ex.
3.
[CHAP.
II.
heavy particle whose mass is m is suspended from a fixed point O by whose unstretched length is a. If the particle oscillate up and down in a vacuum, prove that the complete period of an oscillation is 2ir,J(inajE), where E is Young's modulus.
an
elastic string
Ex.
4.
particle oscillates in a straight line in a

is k
medium whose
is
resistance
per unit of mass
times the square of the velocity.
There
a centre of force
whose attraction is /a times the square of the distance from the centre of force. If a and b are the distances from the centre of force of two successive positions of instantaneous rest, and fi is not zero, prove that
situated in the straight line
{K%'^-Kh + \)e^''^ +
{K'â?
+ Ka + l)e~'^''"'=l.
[Art. 135.]
130.
The
inverse square of the distance.
particle,
constrained to
move
in a straight line,
is
acted on by a central
force tending to a fixed point
external to the line and varying

It is required
inversely as the square of the distance therefrom.

to find the motion.
Let
OC
P be the particle, OF = x,OF= r.

angle POO=(f), then sin (f) = a)/r. being /ju/r^, the component along
sin
(f>
be a perpendicular on the straight line, 00 =h. Let See fig. of Art. 123. Let the
The
accelerating force on
PO
is
found by multiplying by
of motion is
and
is
therefore
fjusj?-^.
The equation
dx
r^
Since
r^
= h^ + x^, we
have rdr
= xdx.
Hence
If the particle start with a velocity
u at some point
distant a
from 0, we have
v^-v?=2f.(^--^^
If
(2).
the
particle
is
projected
from
along
OA
with
velocity
u greater than
f^{2fi/a), it is clear
that the velocity v
cannot vanish or change sign.

continually
131.
The
particle therefore will
move
away from the centre
of force.
When
the centre of force lies on the straight line of motion, the time
initial position
occupied by the particle in travelling from the
to
any point
can be found without
difficulty.
We
.:
put
sin
x=b cos- 9,
The
eqiiation of
dxldt= - 26
cos 9 d9ldt.
motion
is
,dx\2
/I
1\
^^d9
/2fjL
ART. 133.]
THE INVERSE SQUARE.

;
69
We
notice that
i.e.
until dxjdt=0,
x begins at x = a with dxjdt initially positive x then increases until x = h. At this point the particle begins to return and
dxfdt becomes negative. To represent these changes we make d begin at 6= -p where cos j3= +i^(a/&) because this makes dxjdt positive when x = a. We then make 6 increase through zero and finally become ^ w when the particle arrives at the centre of force. Thus the two times at which the particle passes through anj point P are distinguished by the sign of 6. Since, according to this arrangement,
6 continually increases with the time
we
give the positive sign to the radical in the
expression for ddjdt.

to
is
We
then find after integration that the time from
6= -^
VS
The time from
independently.
(^
+ ^sin2^ + |8 + 4sin2)3).
from the preceding or
2fji
rest at a distance
x=a follows
may
be found
We have
the limits being
xa
to
a;
to x.
is
Putting x = acos^0 we easily find that the time
of
moving from x = a
The time
of arriving at the centre of force starting from rest at a distance a is
found by putting $=\ir.
The
result
is
- y/o~
132.
Ex.
is
1.
particle falls
is
from
rest at a point
A whose
altitude above the
surface of the earth
equal to the radius.
Show
that the velocity on arriving at
the surface
equal to that acquired by a particle falling from rest through half
that space under a constant force equal to g, where g represents gravity at the
surface of the earth.
Notice that
if ju/r^ is
the attraction of the earth, a the radius, nla^=g.
Ex.
2.
If a particle fall
is
from an
infinite distance
towards the earth, prove that
the velocity at the surface
equal to that acquired in falling from rest through a
space equal to the radius under a constant force equal to g.
Ex.
3.
If
velocity with
fall
any heavenly body were isolated in space, prove that the least which a particle must be projected from its surface that it may not
is
back on the body
77
-^
feet
per second, where
M and E are the

resistance of the
masses, r and a the radii of the body and the earth.
The
atmosphere
is
to be neglected.
Show
taking
earth,
that for the
moon
this velocity is about
its
mass and radius
to be
^th and
one and a half miles per second, ^th of the mass and radius of the
and the radius of the earth

Ex.
1.
to be 4000 miles.
to move along a rough straight line whose on by a force tending to O and varying as the inverse square. Prove that if the particle start from rest at any point A, it will is next come to rest at a point B such that OM bisects the angle AOB, where the point on the straight line at which the resolved attraction is balanced by the
133.
A particle, constrained
coefficient of friction is /, is acted
limiting friction.
70
MOTION UNDER A CENTRE OF FORCE,
[CHAP.
II.
Following the same notation as in Art. 130, the equation of motion takes the
form
V
dv uh = - + f dx
fix
r3
''
rs
Multiply by dx and put

grating as before,
a;
ft
tan 0, where
<f>
represents the angle
POC.
Inte-
we
find
= -r- (COS <p - cos 00 + / sm

4fl
.
(p-f sin
'
0^)
-r sec n
sin
0-00 "
^ 2
sin
(H*"-)
/=tane.
It is evident that v
/0 0. ^ + ^'
where 0o,
are the angles
CO A, COM,
O
so that
when^(0-|-0(,) = e.
Ex.
2.
If the force to
vary as the inverse fourth power of the distance and
the particle starting from rest at
A come
to rest again at B, prove that the angles
COA, Thus
COB are complements of each other when sin 2 (C0^) = (4/- 2)/(/+l). if /=4 a particle starting from rest at an infinite distance will just reach G. Ex. 3. A particle is constrained to move in a straight rough tube CA, and is
is
acted on by a central repulsive force X/r, where r

force
the distance from the centre of
and
OCA
;
is
a right angle.
if it
with a velocity v
friction.
prove that
The come
particle is projected
from
is
A away from G
to rest at a point P, the angle

fi
COP
is
value of d satisfying the equation fji.d-logaec0v^l2X, where
the coefficient of
[Coll.
Ex. 1893.]
134.
Ex.
1.
V with which a
particle
The earth and moon being held at rest, find the least velocity must be projected from the moon to reach the earth.
apart from centre to centre.
Let a be the radius of the earth, b = ^â that of the moon, 60a their distance Let E and -^^^ ^^ the masses of the earth and moon.
If X is the distance of the particle from the centre of the moon, the equation of motion is
d^x
dt^
E
{GOa-xf
IE
81 x2
(1).
This equation can be integrated by the rule of Art. 97.

gration can be found in terms of
by remembering that dxjdt^
The constant of inteV when ar=6.
There
is
evidently a certain point between the earth and
moon where
the
attractions of these bodies balance each other.

(1) to zero, this
point
is
equating the right-hand side of easily seen to be at a distance 6a from the centre of the
it
By
moon.
If
is
such that dxjdt vanishes when x = 6a,
follows that a velocity of
projection ever so slightly greater than
will carry the particle to the earth.
Remembering that Eja^^g and taking a

approximately 1^ miles per second.
to be
4000 miles, we find that
is
would fall towards Supposing the initial distance to be equal to their present distance from each other show that they would meet after about four and a half days.
2.
Ex.
If the earth
and moon were placed
at rest, they
each other under the influence of their mutual attractions.
Consider their relative motion.
If E,
M be the masses of
mass
is
the earth and moon,
the attraction on the earth per unit of

to rest, while the
Mfr^.
By
Art. 39
we apply
this,
reversed in direction, as an acceleration to both bodies.
The earth
is
thus reduced
moon
is
acted on by the two accelerating forces MJr^ and Efr^.
ART. 135.]
The whole
DISCONTINUITY OF A CENTRAL FORCE.
71
accelerating attraction
therefore (E + 3I)lr^.
We
must
also apply to each
on the moon cansing the relative motion is an initial velocity equal and
opposite to that of the earth (Art. 10), hut this, in our problem, is zero.
The
time
is
then found as in Art. 131.

3.
Ex.
Two mutually
attracting spheres, each one foot in diameter,
and the
density of each the same as the
mean
density of the earth, are placed at rest in a
vacuum, the distance between their surfaces being one quarter of an inch. Prove This problem is due to Newton, its that they will meet in less than 250 seconds. history is given in Todhunter's History of the Theory of Attractions, &c. Art. 72.5.
,
Ex. 4. Two particles A, B, mutually attracting eaoh other according to the Newtonian law, are placed at rest at a given distance a apart. The particle B is now constrained to move away from A along the straight line joining them with a is the mass uniform velocity m, show that A will catch B up if u^ < 2;tt/a where of B. Show also that the time will be ^ (tt -F 2/3 + sin 2/3) >/6^/2/i where 008^/3=: a/6 and 2^/& = 2/t/a - it^. [Reduce B to rest, see Art. 131.]
/j.
Ex.
5.
body of mass
is
followed at a distance r by a smaller body of
moving in a straight line with velocity U, and is mass vi, moving in the same line with
attract each other with a force varying as
a smaller velocity u.
The two bodies
the inverse square of the distance and equal to k for two unit masses at unit
distance.
Prove that the smaller body will overtake the other after a time
(k
{M + m))
(1
+ w)
'^
'
'
where
[M+m) {I
-<j})
= [U -uf r.
Discontinuity of a centre of force. A particle move on a smooth straight line is acted on by a force tending to a point C situated on the line and varying as the wth power of the distance therefrom. It is required to find
135.
constrained to
the motion.
Let the particle

equation of motion
P start
is
from rest at A,
dv
CA = a, OP = x.
The
.^-
(Px
dT = ^rf^=-^^
.-.
^^>'
^2
= _JL
=1
((x+i
_ a;+i)
(2),
the constant of in|egration being determined by the conditioTi

that w
form.
If
=
n
is
when
x^ a.
If
the integral takes a logarithnnc
an odd integer
this equation
shows that the velocity
is
again zero at a point A' determined by
x= a.
The
particle
therefore oscillates on each side of C, the amplitudes on each side
being equal.
"
72
[CHAP.
II.
If n is an even integer, the expression for v vanishes for no

real value of
oscillate
x except x
on each side of
= a. Since the particle must obviously G through equal arcs, it follows that the
equation (2) cannot represent the dynamical facts of the problem.
The reason
acts tovjards G.
is
that the force
(as given in the question)
varies as the nth.
taken with
its
power of the distance taken positively and always Now x is the distance of the particle from G proper sign. We must therefore write
X = -fix^
according as the particle
origin G.
or
+fj,(-xy
(3),
is on the positive or negative side of the These are identical if n is odd and in that case the equation (2) holds throughout the motion. If n is even, different equations of motion hold on each side of the origin.
The
a;
particle arrives at
with a velocity
if
Vq
obtained by putting
is
in (2).
This
is
a finite velocity
positive.
After
passing G, the equation of motion (1) must be changed to
vdv/dx
since
= fii xY = fix^
(4),
is
even.
We
then find
?;2
(a"+i
+ '^+i)
(5),
and
the constant of integration being found by the condition that (2) The equation (5) shows that v is (5) must agree when a; = 0.
again zero
when
x= a,
so that the particle in its oscillations
describes equal arcs on each side of G.
After the particle has passed through
on
its
return journey
integration
is
the equation of motion resumes the form

the same as before, but the constant
that given by
(1).
The
must now be determined

v^ is is the same as however the same
from the condition that the value of v at the origin

(5).
The
resulting value of
as that given by (2), so that the motion on the positive side of the
origin
is
always that represented by

(5).
(2),
and the motion on the
negative side that represented by

136.
The time
of travelling from / 2)n
^
/
to
is
given by
V n+
To
integrate this in terms of
_ ~
da;
j v/(a"+i - a;"+i)
functions
gamma
we
write .T"+^=a"+i| or =a"+^/f
ART. 137.]
according as n + 1
is
SMALL OSCILLATIONS.
positive or negative.
73
We then have
Vl + "
Ex.
1.
2/
+ n)
which
A particle
is d^jsjfi.
starts
from
rest at a distance a
from a centre
of force
attracts as the inverse cube of the distance.
Show
that the time of arriving at
the centre
Ex.
2.
A particle
starts
from
rest at a distance
attracts inversely as the distance.
a from a centre of force which Prove that the time of arriving at the centre is
a(7r/2M)^.
Small Oscillations and Magnification.

137.
Small Oscillations.
A particle,
constrained to describe
a straight line, is under the action of a force tending to a point

external to the straight line and varying as
of the distance from 0.
some given function

motion
It is required to discuss the
when the
Let
arc of oscillation decreases without limit.
OG be a perpendicular on the straight line, P the particle, 00 = h, CP = X, OP = r. Let the accelerating force be rf{r).
The equation
of motion
is
therefore
l^-'-zw-F
Since
r'^
win
= }i--rx\ we
can expand
ixf{r)
powers of
w.
The
equation then takes the form

d^x/dt''
= AiX + A^^ +
(2),
where A^, A, &c. are known constants. Supposing the series to be convergent when x decreases without limit, we may ultimately omit all the terms after the first which does not vanish. Assuming X to be initially small we proceed to discuss the subsequent
motion.
When
J-i is
not zero, the equation reduces to
d~xldt''=A^x
(3).
The motion represented by

Art. 119.
this equation has
been discussed in
the time of a
If A-^ is negative
is
27r/?z.
and equal
to
n\
complete oscillation
arc of oscillation
is
It appears therefore that
when
the
continually diminished, the displacement and
velocity of the particle are ultimately zero, but the limiting time
74
is finite.
SMALL OSCILLATIONS AND MAGNIFICATION.

This finite time
is called the
is
[CHAP.
II.
time of a small oscillation,
and the equilibrium position

If J-i
is positive,
said to be stable. Art. 120 that the value of

is
cc
we know by
contains a real exponential and that the motion
not oscillatory.
As the displacement x does not remain

first.
small
we cannot continue
compared with the
(3).
to reject the higher terms of the series (2) as
The subsequent motion

position
is
is
not represented by equation
The equilibrium
If
then unstable.
nth..
^1 =
0, let
is
the
first
power which does not vanish be the
The equation
then ultimately
d^cc/dt^
^ AnX""
If
(4).
This equation has been discussed in Art. 135.

the time of oscillation has been found in
factor a"****"^*,
An
is
negative
gamma
is
functions, with a
where a
is
is
the semi-arc of oscillation.
The
limiting
time of oscillation
and greater than unity. If A^ is positive, the value of x becomes great and the higher powers of x cannot be neglected.
therefore infinite if n
positive 138.
Ex,
1.
If
Saturn's ring were rigid and held at rest

If the force
show that the
position of Saturn placed at its centre would be one of unstable equilibrium for
displacements in the plane of the ring.
between the ring and the

is
planet were repulsion instead of attraction that position of Saturn would be stable
and the time of a small

the ring and WI its mass.
oscillation
would be 2ir^{2a?lM), where a
the radius of
Show
is
also that the time
measured in seconds
is 27r ^(2a^lnb'^g)
where n
is
the
ratio of the
mass
this,
of the ring to that of the earth, b the radius of the earth,
and g
gravity at the surface of the earth, a
and
being measured in
,S'
feet.
To prove
the ring.
Let
the direction
CS
x be the distance of Saturn from the fixed centre C of be a point on the ring, PCS = 6, SP=p. The attraction on S in add a cos d
we
let
is
then
seen
to
be
F=~ 2air
^
p^
Substituting
p=a-x cos 0,
expanding in powers of xja and integrating, we find F=Mxl2a^. This force being positive, the ec^ûilibrium is unstable. Eeversing its sign the time of a complete oscillatibn follows by Art. 123. The time in seconds is found by
using the equation Elb'^=g, see Art. 134.
Ex.
2.
If the ring attract Saturn,
show that the central position
of the planet
is stable for
displacements perpendicular to the ring, and that the time of a small
oscillation is 2-irsJ(a?lM).
Ex.
3.
particle is in equilibrium
repuision each varying as the inverse nth power of the distance.
under the influence of two centres A, B oi Prove that the
position of equilibrium is stable for displacements in the straight line
AB
and that
the time of a small oscillation

of the particle from
is
2ir^(abjn{a +
b)
F), where a, b are the distances

repulsion of either force on
A and
B, and
F is the accelerating
the particle in the position of equilibrium.
ART. 139,]
139.
line
MAGNIFICATION.
75
Magnification. A particle, oscillating in a straight under the action of a centre of force whose acceleration is
acted on by the two accelerating forces
It is required to find the motion.
r^x, is also
X = E cos \t,
T = F cos
fjbt.
The equation
of motion
is
d^xldt"^
= -n^x-\- E cos \t + F cos fit

Art. 122,
is
The
solution of this,
by
x
where
= Acos (nt + B) + E' cos \t +

E' =
r?
F' cos fxt,
-^,
X^
F' =
^.
n^
fj?
If the particle start from rest at a distance a from the origin
when
= 0, we
have
A=a E' F' and B =

particle is therefore
0.
The motion of the

oscillations,
compounded of three
force,
one has the period 27r/w due to the central

viz. 2'jr/X
while
the other two have the same periods,

forces
and
27r/y[i,
as the
X and
Y.
is
This example
effects
important because
it
shows that
the
dynamical
of oscillatory forces are not necessarily in proportion to their magnitudes, hut depend also on their periods. Thus the ratio of
E' to F'
is
function of
\ and
/a
as well as of
is
E and F.
is
If the period of the force

oscillation caused
nearly equal to that of the
by the
central force, n^
for the force
X'
F, n^
small, while, if
is
no such near equality hold

It follows that if
fx^
not small.
than
F'.
If also
E a,nd F are nearly equal, E' is much greater E and F were so small that the effect of Y on
the motion of the particle were insensible, that of
X might
X,
to
still
be very great.
The general
to
result
is,
that of two forces
Y, that
one produces (caeteris paribus) the greatest oscillation whose period

is
most nearly equal
the period
of the oscillation due
the
central force.
On
reason
the other hand
we
notice that a near equality between the
periods of the forces

is
X and Y has no dynamical significance.

its
The
that these forces being explicit functions of the time do
not modify each other, each producing
own
effect.
But the
central force, viz. n^x, depends on the abscissa of the particle
and
F.
this is
more
or less altered
by the action of the

is
forces
X and
when
The
solution shows that the alteration
considerable
76
SMALL OSCILLATIONS AND MAGNIFICATION.
[CHAP.
II.
the period of either

central force alone.
X X
or P"
is
nearly equal to that due to the
If the period of
is
exactly equal to that of the oscillation

reference to Art. 122
sin nt
due
to the central force the solution of the differential equation
takes a different form.

00
By
we
see that
= a cos nt + ^r-
zn
at, + F' cos '^
so that the amplitude of the oscillation

increases.
becomes very great as
We may
also notice that if
is
very great the terms which

It follows that
contain E' as a factor are very small.
an
oscillatory
force whose period is very short produces very little effect
on the
motion of the
140.
If
particle.
effects consider
little
As an example of these
is
how
when
great an oscillation can be

if
generated in a heavy swing by a series of
pushes and pulls

it is
properly timed.
we push when the swing

is
receding and pull
approaching us, the
motion
continually increased and the amplitude of the oscillations becomes
greater at each succeeding swing.

is practically
an
oscillatory force, such as X,
of the swing.
If
push and pull whose period is exactly equal to that however the alternations of push and pull follow each other at Such a
series of alternations of
an interval only nearly equal to that of the period of the swing, a time will come when the effects are reversed. The push will be given when the swing is approachThus, though a great oscillation ing us and the pull when the swing is receding. of the swing is at first produced, that osBillation will be presently des1;royed only to be again reproduced and so on continually.
141.
Second approximations.
it is
In determining the small oscillations of a particle

x^,
in Art. 137,
explained that the terms containing
&c. are usually neglected.
These terms are indeed very small in the

Art. 139 that their effects
differential equation, but
we know from
may
in certain conditions be so magnified that they

It is therefore
become perceptible
in
the value of x.
sometimes necessary to
proceed to a second or a third approximation before we can find a value of x which

represents the actual motion.
Some examples
of this will be given later on, but
the reader will find the theory given at length in the Author's Rigid Dynamics,
vol.
11.
chap.
VII.
Ex. A heavy particle P is suspended at rest from a point A by an whose initial and unstretched length is a. The point A, at the time t d begins to oscillate up and down, so that its displacement (measured downwards)
142.
elastic string
at the time tis c sin \t.
Prove that the length of the string at the time

,^
t is
+^
n2
(1
- cos nt) '
cn\
n^~\^
T-^ sm nt +
(1)
cn^ -^ -5 n^- \^
is
sm \t.
(2)
^^
Discuss the interpretation of this result
when X
nearly equal to n, and
when X
is
very great.
if
Notice that
d^xjdt- is to be the acceleration of P,
x must be measured from a
point fixed in space, say the initial position of A.
ART. 143.]
CHORDS OF QUICKEST DESCENT.

Chords of quickest
descent.
77
from
is
of quickest and slowest descent a given curve. The straight line supposed to be smooth and the motion to be in vacuo.
143.
To find
the straight lines

to
rest at
a given point
The
solution of this problem depends on the theorem that
the curve which possesses the property, that the times of descent
o_
(P
P^
Fig.
Fig. 1.
2.
down
all radii
vectores from rest at
are equal,
is
circle
having
for the highest or lowest point.
See Art. 106.
and touching There are two cases, according as the circle touches the given curve on one side or the other. These are represented in figures (1) and (2).
Describe a circle having
its
highest point at
the given curve in some point P.
If
is
OQ
equal to the time
down OQ
be any chord cutting the circle in R, the time down OP down OR and is therefore less than the time Thus in fig. (1) and greater than that time in fig. (2).
OP
is
the chord of quickest or slowest descent according to the

in which the circle of construction touches the given curve.
(7 is
mode
If
equal.
the centre of the
circle,
the angles
GPO
and
GOP
are
Since
rest at
CO
from
of quickest or slowest descent meets the given curve at a point P such that OP
is
vertical the chord
bisects the
angle between the vertical
and normal
at P.
is
If the position of a point
on a given curve
required
is
such that the time of descent from
P
is
to a given point
maximum
that
is
or
minimum, we
follow the
same construction except

that the particle
to be the lowest point of the circle of construction
instead of the highest.

start
The
result
from a point
such that
PO
bisects the angle
must between
the vertical and normal at P.
78
144.
CHORDS OF QUICKEST DESCENT.

To find
the chords
[CHAP.
II.
of quickest and slowest descent from
rest at one given curve to another given curve.
Let
PQ
be the required chord.
Then
since the time
down
PQ
is
less
than the time down any
neighbouring chord drawn from

the other curve,
to
PQ
must
bisect
the
angle between the normal and vertical

at Q.
Similarly by fixing
see that
Q and
varying
we
PQ must
Q
bisect the angle
between normal and
vertical at P.
The
(1)
points P,
are therefore such
that they satisfy these two conditions,
the normals at P,
are parallel,
(2) the chord

vertical.
makes equal angles with each normal and the
145.
of descent
To
find the chord of quickest descent
from
rest in
a medium whose
Art.
resistance varies as the velocity
we use the same
construction, because the times
down
all
chords of a circle from rest at the highest point are equal.
107.
If the resistance vary as the square of the velocity the curve
which possesses
the property of equal times for the chords geometrical construction

is
is
not a circle
see Art. 110, Ex. 4.
The
therefore inapplicable.
146.
the rule.
If the chords of quickest or slowest descent are rough we slightly modify To find the rough chord of quickest descent from to a given curve we
describe a circle to touch the given curve in
some point P, but such that the
diameter through
Art. 105.
O makes an
angle with the vertical equal to the angle of friction,
The result is that the required chord meets the curve at a point P such that OP makes equal angles with the normal at P and a straight line inclined to the vertical
at the angle of friction.
plane.
and a straight line BG are given in the same vertical draw (when possible) a straight line from A to BC, so that the time of descent from rest under gravity may be equal to a given time t. When there are two such lines, intersecting PC in P and Q, prove that the radius
147.
Ex.
1.
A point A
to
Show how
of the circle described about
APQ is
^gt-.
Ex.
2.
Two
parabolas are placed in the same vertical plane with their foci coin-
cident, axes vertical
and
vertices
downwards.
Prove that the chord of quickest
descent from the outer to the inner parabola passes through the focus and makes
an angle equal
to îr with the axis. parallel
The normals at the extremities of the chords are similar. The chord therefore passes through the
focus S.
If
and the parabolas are

i.e.
centre of similitude,
the
tri-
PG
be a normal, the second condition of Art. 144 shows that the
angle
SPG
is equilateral, i.e.
each angle
is
equal to
îr.
ART. 147.]
Ex.
'6.
EXAMPLES.
79
rest at
Find the smooth chord along which a particle must travel starting from some point on one given curve and ending at another given curve, so that The force acting on the paijiicle tends the velocity acquired may be a max-min. and varies as some function of the distance from 0. The result to a fixed centre
is
that
if
is
P be either extremity
this, let
of the required chord, either the force is zero at
or
OP
a normal to the given curve at P.
To prove
where
vary
r^, r^
the central force be/'(r).
We
Q.
then find v" = 2f(ri)-2f(r^)
are the distances of the extremities P,

dv'^jds
Q from
0.
Fixing
(j-j)
let
us
i.e.
along the arc (as in Art. 144), then
Hence /'
di\jdH
= Q,
the component of the central force along the tangent to the curve
is zero,
Ex.
4.
given circle to another given circle

of the first circle
Prove that the smooth chord of quickest descent from rest at one when produced passes through the highest point
and the lowest point
of the other.
Prove also that the smooth chord of longest descent between the same two circles is either a horizontal straight line or (when produced if necessary) passes
through the lowest point of the
first circle
and the highest
of the other.
Ex.
5.
three given points in space are the
Prove that the locus of the points from which the times of descent to same is a rectangular hyperbola. Prove also
that the locus of the points from which the times of shortest descent to three equal
spheres, given in position in space, are the
same
is
a rectangular hyperbola.
Ex. 6. Prove that the rough chord of quickest descent from rest at some point on a given straight line to some point on a given circle (not intersecting), (1) when produced passes through a point B on the circle such that a particle placed at B is in equilibrium with limiting friction, (2) bisects the angle between the diameter
through
B
7.
and the perpendicular from
on the given straight

of a circle
line.
is vertical
Ex.
starting
Heavy
particles slide
down chords
whose plane
from
rest at the highest point
in a
medium
resisting as the square of
the velocity.
Prove that the chords of slowest and quickest descent are the vertical
diameter and a chord making an infinitely small angle with the horizon.
These results
may
following line of argument
be deduced from the formulae given in Art. 115, but the Let AB = 2a be the vertical diameter, is worth noticing. with AB, then
is
AQa. chord making an angle

time of
AQ 2a cos d. We have
to find the
{dxjdt)^.
describing 2a cos d from rest with an acceleration
g cos d- k
Writing x=^cos6, this time

acceleration
equal to that of describing 2a from rest with an
g- k cosd (d^jdt)'^. In vacuo, where k=0, this is independent of d and therefore all chords are described in the same time. Also this time is increased by the presence of the resisting medium because the acceleration is thereby diminished. This increase of time is zero when cos^ = 0, i.e. 6=îr, becomes
greater as cos
is
greater
and
is
greatest
when
cos
0=1,
i.e.
= 0. The
time of
descent therefore increases as
passes from ^ ir to 0.
80
INFINITESIMAL IMPULSES.
[CHAP.
II.
Infinitesimal Impulses.
148.
required,
When
the effect of an impulse acting on a body

disregard
all
is
which act simultaneously with it. The duration T of the impulse being infinitesimal, Art. 80, a finite force F can generate only a momentum FT which vanishes in the limit when compared with
finite
we commonly
forces
the finite
momentum communicated by
is
the impulse.
If,
however,
in
the impulse
itself
very small these
may be comparable
magnitude and it will then be necessary forces in the same equation of motion*.
to take account of both
This generally happens when the mass of the body changes
during the motion.

149.
to
a;
is
w be acted on
whose resolved velocity parallel Let a body of mass by a finite force X. Let this body lose a
small portion
is
m = dM of its mass in each element of time dt.

at the time
t
It
required to find the motion.
The momentum
is
Mv, and the gain in the
In this time the force increases the linear time dt is d{Mv). momentum by Xdt, while the momentum lost by diminution of
mass
is
mv.
Hence
d{Mv) = Xdt + vdM,

Here there are no impacts
their
;
.'.
M^=^
action.
'
(!)
the particles merely separate with
common
velocity without
mutual
If
X = mg, the
parallel to
let
moves
equation becomes dv/dt = g, and each portion x with an acceleration g.
Next,
it is
us suppose that the body gains a mass
m = dM
is
in
the time dt and let the resolved velocity of this increment before
attached to
M be
v'.
The
total gain of
momentum
now,
Xdt due to the force and mv due to the impact produced by the and w with different velocities. sudden junction of the masses
Problems on infinitesimal impulses were solved in the lecture room of the as long ago as 1850. A problem of this kind was set in the Smith's Prize examination in 1853 by Prof. Challis, and a solution given in Tait and Steele's Dynamics. Another was proposed in 1869 by Prof. Cayley who published the solution in the Mathematical Messenger in 1871. Two problems were
*
late
Mr Hopkins
also solved in the Quarterly Journal in 1870
by Dr Besant.
ART. 150.]
EXAMPLES.
of motion
is
81
The equation
therefore
(2).
d(Mv) = Xdt + v'dM

lfv' = v
this reduces to the former result.
150. Ex. 1. A uniform chain of mass Mi and length I, is coiled up on a small horizontal ledge at the top of a plane, inclined at an angle a to the horizon,
and has masses M^

after is v",
il/g
fastened to
its
two ends.
it
If 31^ is gently
pushed
is v',
off
the
just
ledge, prove that the velocity of J/g just before
leaves the ledge
and
where
(
2gl sin g {i3Ii^ + M,M, + 2J,^}
M, + 3I, + iM,ooBa
,,..,
Ex. 1897.]
[Coll.
Let x be the distance of the lowest point of the chain from the edge, m the mass of a unit of length of the chain. The momentum at the time ( is (M^ + mx) v. In the time dt a mass mdx without velocity is taken from the ledge and added to
the moving length.
Also gravity adds a

.-.
momentum {M + mx) g'dt, where
g'^^g sin
(1).
o.
d{{31^ + mx)v\-{M.i + vix)g'dt
To make
radius
h.
the formation of this equation
more
clear, let the coil
be at a short
distance a from the edge,
and
let
the edge be rounded off in a circular arc of
We here
only require the limiting case
when both a and
b are zero.
As
each element passes over the edge, the velocity

of
direction is effected
is at first
horizontal and the change
by the normal pressures at the rounded edge.

is
The
momentum
To
generated by the weight of the chain on the rounded edge
ultimately
zero since the radius h can be

integrate
(1)
made
as small as
we
please.
v,
we
multiply both sides by (Mn + mx)

(;
then remembering that
= dxjdt,
(2).
{}L,+
mxyH-'^{{M.,-\-mxf+C}^
Since x and v vanish together

ledge
C=
- 31^.
When
all
the chain has
left
the
x = l, and
{31^
+ mlfv^^ \~+ml3I^ + 3lA
2g'l
(3).
At
v'
this instant there is

31.^
be the velocity of
an impact, the tension acts on 3/3 horizontally, hence and the chain just before il/g reaches the edge
{3l2
if
+ ml + Ms) v' = {31^ + ml)v
(4).
The mass
the chain
is
immediately reaches the edge with a horizontal velocity v', while moving along the plane with an equal velocity. There is therefore
J/j
another impact, the component of

chain.
after 31^
If
momentum
^3 and
+ '0
il/gw'
sin a perpendicular to the

is
chain remains unchanged, while the component
3I.^v'
cos a
joined to that of the
u be
left
the
common
3I2
velocity of
the chain parallel to the plane just
has
the ledge,
(ilfj
+ ml) % =
u"2
J/g
*-''
+ ^^^''cos a'
}
(5).
= u2 + (v'sina)2
The equations
(4)
and
(5)
give the required results.
82
Ex.
2.
THEORY OF DIMENSIONS.
A
is
[CHAP.
II.
chain of length
is
coiled at the edge of a table.

is
fastened to a particle whose
mass
the same as that of the whole chain.
One end is The

Ex. 1896.]
other end
particle is
put over the edge.
Prove that immediately after leaving the table the

[Coll.
moving with
velocity ^s/(^gl)is
Ex.
length
3.
A mass
m.
attached to one end of a chain whose mass per unit of

is
is
The whole
placed with the chain coiled up on a smooth table and
is
projected horizontally with a velocity V.
Prove that when a length x of the
chain has become straight, the velocity of
is
MVI(M+mx).
[Cayley, Math. Messenger, 1871.]
Ex. 4. A uniform chain of length I and mass ml is coiled on the floor, and a mass mc is attached to one end and projected vertically upwards with velocity
ij2gh.
floor,
Prove that, according as the chain does or does not completely leave the
the velocity of the mass on finally reaching the floor again
fall
is
the velocity
{c
due to a
through a height J {2l-c + a^l{l + c)^} or
a-c; where a^=c^

[Coll.
r/,
+ 3h).
Ex. 1896.]
When
Ex.
5.
descending each portion moves with a uniform acceleration
as explained
in Art. 149.
chain brake
is
used at railway depots for arresting runaway trucks,

If the
consisting of a coil of chain between the metals, having a hook at one end so
placed as to catch on to the axle of the truck.

to that of a length
/
mass of the truck be equal
of the chain, less than the whole length, then the truck
running on the
level with velocity
will
of chain over the
rough ground, where
V-jfig
be stopped when it has dragged a length x = i {2x + dl) x-jl-.

[Coll.
Ex. 1897.]
connected with a coil of heavy chain by means of a fine Ex. 6. A weight weightless thread passing over a smooth peg above the coil which rests on a table if be allowed to fall a height A whereupon the thread becomes tight, find the motion, and show that if w BW then in setting the coil in motion energy to the [Coll. Ex. 1887.] amount hWwl{W+w) is dissipated.
is
Eain is falling vertically with a uniform velocity of 20 feet per second two inches depth per day on a cart with a cylindrical cover of semiProve that, if the cover of the cart is 10 feet circular section and horizontal axis. long and 6 feet in diameter, the resultant pressure on it due to the impact of the
Ex.
7.
at the rate of
rain
is
about the weight of one-twelfth of a cubic inch of water.
[Coll.
Ex, 1895.]
Theory of Dimensions.
some simple considerations on the dimensions of the quantities with which we Each side of an equation must be of the same are dealing.
151.
follow at once from
Many theorems
dimensions in space, for we could not have, for instance, an area Again one side of an equation could not be equal to a length.
the square of a time and the other side a cube, and so on.
time, mass, and force
In dynamics we are concerned with the four quantities space, but the dimensions of these quantities are
;
ART. 153.]
HO related that force
this relation
is
EXAMPLES.
83
mass
space/(time)-'.
Taking into account
we have the
general principle that both sides of
every equation must be of the same dimensions in regard to

(1) space, (2) time, (3) mass.
152.
As an example
from
let
us apply this principle to the following problem already
considered in Art. 136.
particle starts
rest at a distance
is /i.r".
a from a centre of force
whose acce-
lerating force at a distance x
To
of a of o
find the time
of arriving at the centre
of force.
It is clear
that
dimensions.
T is some function Expanding T in powers

is
and and
fj.,
n being merely a number without
fi.
we have
(1).
/t
r=SîV
Now
1
the accelerating force ixx^
of the
dimensions space/ (time)-, hence
is
- n dimensions in space and - 2 in time. We also notice that a is one dimension in space and none in time, while T is one in time and none in space.
Considering the equation
space and secondly in time,
(1) and counting the dimensions we have
of each side first in
0^p + {l-n)q,
Hence ?= - 4 ^"^ P h(^~
")
l=-2q
viz.
(2).
-^^
these equations give only one set of values
to p, q, the equation (1) contains only
one term,
r=â5(l-)^-J
It follows that the
....(3).
time of arriving at the centre of force

If the central force
varies as the
(1
- n)th power
of the initial distance.
vary as the distance,
?i=l and the time of arrival at
a theorem by integi-ating the equation of motion. If the central force vary accoiding to the Newtonian law, jj = - 2 and the square of the time varies as the cube of the initial distance, a result in accordance with one of
is
the
same
for all initial distances;
which has been proved in
Art, 136
Kepler's laws.
The symbol A represents a number and as
it
has no dimensions
its
magnitude
cannot be deduced from the theory of dimensions.
153.
Ex.
1.
A particle moves
s
with an acceleration
g,
prove that the velocity

varies as njisjg).
acquired in describing a space
varies as >J{gs),
and that the time
from a centre of force whose attraction varies as the distance and moves in a medium whose resistance varies as the velocity. Prove that the time of arriving at the centre of force is
2.
Ex.
particle starts
from
rest at a given distance
independent of the
initial distance.
See Art. 126."
moves from rest under the action of a constant accelerating force / and a centre of force whose attraction is times the distance, both tending to the same point O and the initial distance OP = a. Prove that
Ex.
3.
/j.
A particle P
where
is
the time of arrival at 0.
CHAPTER
III.
MOTION OF PKOJECTILES.
Parabolic Motion.
154.
General principle.
The
particle
action of a force which, being fixed in

is
moves under the direction and magnitude,

It follows that all
independent of the position of the
particle.
the circumstances of the motion parallel to any fixed direction

are independent of those of the motion parallel to any other
direction.
These circumstances may therefore be deduced from
the formulae for rectilinear motion by taking account solely of the

resolved initial velocity and the resolved force of gravity.
a point
Cartesian axes. Let the particle be projected from with an initial velocity F in a direction making an a with the horizon. Let v be the velocity at any point P angle of the path; v^;, Vy its horizontal and vertical components.
155.
Consider the horizontal motion. Since the component of gravity

in this direction is zero, the horizontal velocity is constant throughout the motion
and
is
equal
to
V cos a.
We
therefore have
(1).
a;= V cos at,
Vx= Fcosa
This gives an obvious and useful rule to find the time of describing
any arc of the
trajectory, viz. the time of transit is equal to the
horizontal space divided by the horizontal velocity.
Consider next the vertical motion.

gravity
is
Since the component of
g we
infer
from the formulae of rectilinear motion (Art.

(2).
25) that
y= Vsmat-^gt\ Vy^=V^smâ-2gy
ART. 156.]
PARABOLIC MOTION.
is
85
t
The Cartesian equation of the path between (1) and (2) we have
;
found by eliminating
This
is
y = cc tan a ^ga^j V^ cosâ the well-known equation of a parabola.

the greatest altitude of the particle.
(3).
To find
We
consider only,
the descending motion; the particle starts downwards with a

zero vertical velocity and arrives at the level of the original point
of projection with a vertical velocity which,
rectilinear motion, is equal to that with
which
by the theory of it was projected

2gh.
upwards.
If
is
the greatest altitude
we have V^ sinâ =
To find
the time of flight.
We
again consider the vertical

If
descending motion, disregarding the horizontal motion.

the time of ascent and descent,
be
V sin a = ^gT. To find the range on a horizontal plane. We consider the horizontal motion the constant horizontal velocity is V cos a,
we have
;
and the time of

fore V'^ sin 2a/g.
the direction
has just been found. The range is thereThe range is greatest for a given velocity when of projection makes an angle of 45 with the horizon,
flight
and continually decreases as the angle increases to a right angle

or decreases to zero.
156.
When
the motion with regard to an inclined plane

is
passing through the point of projection

to take the axis of
oc
required,
it is
useful
along the line of greatest slope and the

to the inclined plane.
axis of
y perpendicular
is not in the plane of wy, let be the components of the velocity in and perpendicular to that plane. The motion perpendicular to the plane of ocy is uniform and z Wt.
If the direction of projection
and
Turning our attention to the motion in the plane of xy, let 7 be the angle the direction of the velocity V makes with Occ and /3 the inclination of the plane to the horizon. The initial component
velocities
being
FC0S7 and Fsin7,
the formula of rectilinear
motion (Art. 25) give
vi = ( Fcos 7)^ - Ig sin fix\ " ^' y =Vsmyt-lg cos /3t^\' Vy^ = {V sin jf - 2g cos ^y] '^ To find the time of flight T before reaching the plane, we
consider the motion perpendicular to the plane.
x=VG0Sjt- ^g sin j3P\
The descending
time
motion gives
Vsmy=gcos^ .T/2.
It also follows that the
86
PARABOLIC MOTION.
to the point
[CHAP.
III.
of describing the arc from

parallel to Oa; is r/2.
where the tangent
is
parallel to the plane
we
In the same way see that the time from

to
by considering the motion

to the point
where the tangent
is parallel
To find
for x.
the range r on the easily find r
Fcos y/g sin/8. inclined plane, we use the

is
Oy
expression
We
= 2 F^ sin 7 cos (7 + iS)
sec'* fi/g.
157.
Oblique axes.
Let the direction of motion of the particle at any point P of the path be PT
let
and
the velocity be V.
The
particle
being acted on by gravity in the direction Pi^, let Q be its position after a time t
Consider separately the motion in the
two directions PT and PJSf. The oblique components of V in these directions are T and zero, while those of gravity are zero and have PT=Vt, and TQ = yt' (5). We therefore g. Draw QN parallel to TP and let PN='n, Q^= ^ The equation
of the path
is
therefore
P=
2F^
17
(6).
This is the equation of a parabola referred to any diameter PJV and its oblique ordinates QN. If S be the focus, this equation We deduce the following must be the same as ^^=^.SP .rj. P of the path is that due any point at velocity The useful rule.
to the distance
of P from either the focus or
directrix.
Since the velocity at the highest point of the path is equal to the horizontal velocity, it follows that one quarter of the lotus
rectum,
i.e.
AS,
is
equal to V^ co'aj2g.
See Art. 155.
have also another formula to find the time of transit along any arc PQ. Let the vertical at either end, say Q, intersect the tangent at the other end in T, then the time of describing the arc PQ is the sam as that of describing QT from rest under the action of gravity. It is also the same as that of describing PT with a
uniform
velocity equal to that at
We
P.
158. Ex. 1. If three heavy particles be projected simultaneously from the same point in any directions with any velocities, prove that the plane passing [Math. T. 1847.] through them will always remain parallel to itself.
If gravity did not act, the
fixed plane.
When
gravity acts each particle
plane of the particles would be always parallel to a is pulled through the same vertical
space in the same time, hence the theorem remains true.
ART. 159.]
Ex.
(1)
POINT TO POINT.
tangents
87
2.
Two
PR, QR
are
drawn
to a parabolic trajectory, prove
that the velocities at

(2)
P and Q
are proportional to the lengths of those tangents,
and
that the vertical through
divides the arc
PQ
into two parts which are
described in eqnal times.
Draw QT
velocities,
vertically to intersect the tangent
PR
in T.
the sides RT,
RQ, TQ
represent in direction
Then by the triangle of and magnitude the velocity
at P, that at Q,
the diameter through

easily.
and that added on by gravity during the time of transit. Since R bisects the chord PQ, the results given above follow
balls A,
Ex.
3.
Two
is
equal in
all
respects are
v,
The
ball
projected towards
with velocity
whUe
on the same horizontal line. at the same instant B is

a parabola of latus
[Coll.
let faU.
Prove that the balls will impinge and that after impact, the coefficient of
restitution being unity,
will fall vertically
and
will describe
rectum
2v^lg.
Ex. 1895.]
The
Ex.
balls will
parallel to itself.
4.
impinge because the straight line joining their centres moves At impact they exchange their horizontal velocities.
projectile,
If V, v', v" are the velocities at three points P, Q, R of the path of a where the inclinations to the horizon are a, a - /S, a - 2/3, and if t, t' be
the times of describing
PQ, QR
respectively, prove that
v"t=vt',
4 = ^^^ V
[Math. T. 1847.]
Besolve along and perpendicular to the middle tangent.
Ex. 5. Three heavy particles P, Q, R are' projected at equal intervals of time from the same point to describe the same parabola. Prove that the locus of the intersection of the tangents at P, i2 is a parabola. Prove also (1) that at any
time time
t
after the projection of Q, the tangent at

is parallel
is parallel to
PR,
(2)
that each 'of
these lines
2t.
to the straight line joining
to the position of
at the
To project a particle from a given point P with a given V so that it shall pass through another given point Q. The velocity at P being known the common directrix HK of all parabolic paths from P to Q is constructed
159.
velocity
by drawing a horizontal at an altitude V^/2g above P. With centres P, Q and radii PH, QK we describe two circles intersecting in S and 8'. Then 8, 8' are the foci of the parabolic trajectories which could be described from P to Q. There are therefore two parabolic paths.
The two
foci are at
equal distances from the chord ^Q, one

du-ections of projection
lying on each side.
The two
may be
found by bisecting the angles

angles
tliese
directions
and HP8\ If <yi, y^ are the of projection make with the chord PQ, and
HP8
88
)8
PARABOLIC MOTION.
the angle
[CHAP.
it
III.
PQ
makes with
the horizon,
easily follows
that
71 + 72 = ^^^-/3.
We
viz.
notice that the three sides of the triangle

if
P/Sf=FV2^,
y be the altitude of Q above P,

distance of
PSQ are known, QS=PS-y,

sum
of the radii
and
PQ is the
known
from P.
It is clear that
when
PQ
is
greater than the
PH, QK, the two trajectories are imaginary. The greatest possible distance of Q from P in any given direction PQ is found by making
the
foci S,
S' coincide and
lie
on PQ.
In this case
PH+ QK = PQ.
This new para-
Drawing
it
a horizontal line
is
immediately follows
H'K' above HK so that HH' = PH, that QK' = QP. The locus of Q is therefore
a parabola whose focus

bola therefore touches
P and
line.
directrix
H'K'.
HK at
its
vertex H.
It is represented in
the figure by the dotted
Unless the point

it is
lie
within the
space enclosed by this parabola,
impossible to project a particle

it
from
P with the given velocity

is
V, so that
shall pass through Q.
If the particle
to be projected from
P with
the least velocity
which
will enable it to reach Q, the direction of projection
must
bisect the angle
HPQ
and V^ = g{r + y), where r
is
the distance
PQ160.
Ex.
1.
from a point
with velocity V, so as to
pass through a point
Q whose
coordinates referred to
dii-ections of
as origin are x, y, the axis
ofy
being vertical.
Prove that the

.
projection are given by the
quadratic
tanâ
2V^
gx
tana + l +
2Vû
gx^
^=0,
and that the two times of
transit are the positive roots of
velocity
Prove that the product of the times of transit is independent of the initial V and is equal to the square of the time occupied by a particle falling from
through a distance equal to PQ.
rest vertically
Prove also that the polar equation of the bounding parabola is V^lgr=l-\-(iosd, where the origin is at P and 9 is the angle r makes with the vertical.
See Arts. 154 and 155.
a point whose abscissa

projection.
Prove that every parabolic trajectory meets the bounding parabola in is x=2hcoia, and whose depth below the directrix of the trajectory is liGoi'â, where h is the height of that directrix above the point of
Ex.
2.
If they meet, the curves
trajectory
must touch for otherwise it would be possible to find a which would pass through a point beyond the boundaiy.
ART. 160.]
EXAMPLES.
89
Ex. 3. The point P being fixed and Q having any position, the tangents at P, Q one parabolic path from P to Q meet in T, those to the other in T', the velocity at P being given. Prove that the locus of the middle point of TT' is the directrix
to
of either paraboltif
and
Prove also that for either parabolic path, the velocities at P, Q are as PTto TQ, for the two paths the times of transit from P to Q are as PT to PT'.
t
Ex.
4.
fort of vertical height k stands
on a plane
hill-side
which makes an
Prove that a gun which can fire with muzzle velocity V from the top of the fort commands a district whose shape is an ellipse of
angle a with the horizon.
eccentricity siu o,
and whose area

focus
is
is irsec
aV^{V^
sec^ a
+ 2kg) jg^.
[Coll.
Ex. 1896.]
is
The paraboloid whose

at
the top of the fort and whose directrix plane

all
an
altitude V^jg is the
boundary of
places which the shot can reach.
Art. 159.
The paraboloid
is
cuts the plane hiU-side in an ellipse whose projection
on
a horizontal plane
circle.
The
rest follows easily.

is
Ex.
is
5.
At a horizontal distance a from a gun there
a wall of height h which
greater than a
- ga^jv^
prove that
if
the shot be fired off with a velocity v in a
vertical
plane at right angles to that of the wall, there will be a distance on the
other side of the wall
commanded by
is real.
the
gun equal
to
j-^
^2^
(''*
~ ^"'^9^ - 2hvâ)^,
Ex. 1893.]
provided this expression
[Coll.
Ex.
6.
I,
particle is projected with velocity
along a straight frictionless tube
of length
inclined at
an angle a
:
to the horizontal,
its
and
after leaving the tube
it
describes a parabolic trajectory
prove that
V'^
a-\
range on the horizontal plane through

f
the point of projection is
cos
cos a sin a
-^1
/
(
2gl 1 + :jvj^.
\^]
)
>
where
Ex. 1893.]
F' 2
= F2 - 2f)fil sin a.
7.
[Coll.
Ex.
Two smooth
planes are at right angles with their edge of intersection
horizontal and are equally inclined to the horizon.

particle projected horizontally in
Prove that a perfectly
elastic
a direction perpendicular to the

will
common
edge
from a point
rebounds.
vertically above
it
return to
its
original position after two
[CoU. Ex. 1896.]
Ex.
unity,
8.
Two
parabolas have their axes vertical and vertices downwards and the
is
focus of each curve

is
on the
other.
particle,
whose
coefficient of restitution is
projected so as to rebound from the curves at each focus in succession

it
prove that
will after the
second rebound pass through
its
point of projection and

[Coll.
follow its original path again.
Ex. 1897.]
from the same point at the same instant with velocities v, i;', and in directions a, a'. Prove that the time which elapses between their transits through the other point which is common to both their paths
Ex.
9.
Two
particles are projected
"
.^
2 _m/ sinja -aO_ g V cosa + u cosa
[Math. T. 1841.]
Ex. 10. A man travelling round a circle of radius a at speed v throws a ball from his hand at height h above the ground with a relative velocity V so that it alights at the centre of the circle. Prove that the least possible value of V is given [Coll. Ex. 1896.] hy V^- = v^ + g {^(a^ + h^)-h\. To find If the man wete stationary, the least value of V^ is given in Art. 159. the relative velocity we add to this ( - v)-.
90
161.
direction
PARABOLIC MOTION.
Ex.
1.
[chap.
III.
making an angle o with the horizon.
from a point A with a velocity F in a After rebounding from a vertical wall, elasticity e, it hits the ground, elasticity e'. Find the condition that after the second rekound the particle may pass through A. Problems of this kind are solved by considering the motion in two directions separately and equating some
element (usually the time)
Consider
vertical
first
common
to both motions.
the horizontal motion.; the blow at
C is
and does not affect the horizontal motion, but the blow at B must be taken account of. Let 0N= h, and let t^, t^he the times of transit along the arc AB and the broken are BCA. Then h=V cos at^, and the horizontal velocity of the rebound at B being eFcoso, we have also 7*= :eFcosato. The whole time is
Kcosa
that at
ej
Consider next the vertical motion, the blow at
B may now be
neglected while
G has to be allowed CA. If k= AN Vie have

One
for.
Let
t^, t^
be the times of transit along
ABC and
-k = V sin ats-igt/.
root of this quadratic is negative
indicates the time before leaving
level of the
at
and the other is positive. The former which the particle might have passed the
ground and
is
here inadmissible.
We take the positive root.
If
V be
the vertical velocity of arrival at
C taken positively, k^ze'V't^-lgt^. V'" = V^smâ + 2gk,

t^
Both the values of
thus found are positive, and give the times of transit from
to
according as the particle passes through
journey.
A on the up or on the down Taking both these values we see that the required condition is found by
+ t2
to either of the values of
t^
equating
t^^
+ t^.
Ex. 2. A ball is projected from a point A on the floor of a room, so as to rebound from the waU (elasticity e) and hit a given point B on the floor. Let the intersection of the floor and wall be the axis of y and let A be on the axis of x.
If u, V,
w
3.
be the components of velocity of projection and
x,
y the given coordinates
of B, prove that
euy=eva + vx, and 2vw=gy.

from a given point
direction
Ex.
O on an inclined plane in a making an angle y with the

that the
plane, the inclination of the plane being

/3.
Investigate the condition
particle passes
through
at
the nth
impact.
We consider the motions
parallel
and
perpendicular to the plane separately. The motion parallel to the plane is not
affected
by the impacts.
If
represent
to
the whole time of transit from

again,
particle starts
with a velocity
we have F cos 7=^5 sin jST. The motion perpendicular to the plane is affected by each impact. The Fsin7, hits the plane at ^^ with the same normal
ART. 161.]
velocity after a time Tj,
EXAMPLES.
91
perpendicular velocity
before.
where Fsin7 = ^jf coSjSTi. The particle rebounds with a eF sin 7 and the time of transit from Aj^ to A.2 is found as
of transit
is
The whole time
therefore
ri + T2 + &c. = {2rsin7/<;co8/3}(l + e+..'.+e"-i).
Equating the two complete times, we have the condition

cot7.cot/3 = (l-e)/(l-e),
which we notice
is
independent of the velocity of projection.
Let Bi, B2, &c. be the points at which the tangents to the path are parallel to to B^ is obviously equal to ^Tj, the inclined plane. The time of transit from
while that from B^ to B^
tangent
is
is 4 (Ti + T^), and so on. If C^ be the point at which the perpendicular to the plane, the time from to C^ is clearly equal to | T.
Ex. 4. A ball whose elasticity is e is projected with a velocity V and rebounds from an inclined plane which passes through the point of projection. If Ri, R2, JR3 be any three consecutive ranges on the inclined plane, prove that
Rs-{e + e^) i?2 + em^

Ex.
5.
0.
[Math. T. 1842.]
At two points A,
If
B ot
a parabolic path the directions of motion are at

the inclination to the horizon,
right angles.
velocity at
be the distance AB,
the
or B, prove that
V^=gD (1 sin 0).
projected &om a point on a rough horizontal plane with a which would be acquired in falling freely through a height h, and in a direction making an angle a with the plane. The particle is inelastic and
Ex.
6.
A particle is
velocity equal to that
the coefficients of both the frictions are taken equal to unity, prove that the range
from the point of projection
to
where the particle comes to

h{l + sin
2a).
rest is equal to
[Coll.
Ex. 1897.]
a parabola with a range 2h sin 2a. On arriving at the plane, there is an impulsive friction which reduces the horizontal velocity from vcosa to v' =v cos a - V sin a. After describing a space s', when v'2=2^', the particle is reduced to rest by the finite friction. The whole range is 2h sin 2a +s'.
particle describes
The
Ex. 7. A perfectly elastic particle slides down a length i of a smooth fixed iuchned plane, and strikes a smooth rigid horizontal plane passing through the foot
of the inclined plane.
Prove that the
maximum
path, as the inclination of the inclined plane
is varied, is
range of the ensuing parabolic 8J/3^3. [Coll. Ex. 1896.]
Ex.
angle
slope.
a, is free to
face of
slope.
of mass M, inclined to the horizon at an move parallel to a vertical plane through the line of greatest A particle, mass m, is projected from a point in the lowest edge, up the the plane with a velocity F making an angle /3 with the line of greatest
8.
smooth inclined plane
Prove that the range of the particle on the plane
is
''-
'"^'^
^sma
M+m
[CoU. Ex. 1897.]
Ex.
9.
Two
inclined planes intersect in a horizontal line, their inclinations
to the horizon being a
and
it
j8; if
a particle be projected at right angles to the
former from a point in

projection is
so as to strike the other at right angles, the velocity of
sin /3 [2(?a/{sin a
- sin /3 cos (a+^)}]%

from the intersection of the planes.
a being the distance of the point
of projection
92
Ex.
vertical. 10.
RESISTANCE VARIES AS THE VELOCITY.
[CHAP.
III.
Prove that when

is
heavy particle descende the outside of a circular arc whose plane is it leaves the circle at some point Q to describe a parathe circle of curvature at
bola the circle
of the parabola.
Thence show that the chord of intersection

the tangent at
QR
:
of the- circle
and parabola and
Q make
equal angles with the vertical.
Prove also that the axis of
the parabola divides the chord
QR
in the ratio 3
1. is
The
first
p,
part follows from Art. 36.
Since the pressure
zero at Q, v^jp, and
therefore
must be the same
for the circle
and the parabola.
The
rest follows
from conies.
Ex. 11. whose plane

that the arc
particle projected horizontally
from the lowest point
of a circle
is vertical
leaves the circle at
C and
after describing a portion of a
parabola intersects the circle at D.
If B BD is three times the arc BC.
is
the highest point of the circle prove
[Despeyrous, Cours de
Mec]
Ex. 12. A particle is projected so as to enter in the direction of its length a smooth straight tube of small bore fixed at an angle 45 to the horizon and to pass out at the other end of the tube; prove that the latera recta of its path before entering and after leaving the tube differ by ,^2 times the length of the tube.
Ex.
velocity
iriterval
13.
A man
at
standing on the edge of a
cliff
throws a stone with given

After
a given inclination in a plane perpendicular to the edge.

first
an
t he throws from the same spot another stone, with given velocity v at an
stone and in the same plane.
strike
angle îr + O with the Hne of discharge of the
Find r so that the stones may

v's vertical
each other ; and prove that the
maximum
value of T for different values of 6
is 2v^lgv},
and occurs when
sin 6 =vlu,
being
component.
Ex.
Jiigc).
14.
from the highest point
of a sphere of radius c
so as to clear the sphere.
Prove that the velocity of projection cannot be less than [Math. Tripos, 1893.]
Resistance varies as the velocity.

162.
To determine
the motion
of a heavy particle when the

with a velocity
resistance of the
medium
varies as the velocity.
Let the particle be projected from any point
in a direction inclined at an angle a to the horizon.
The
equations of motion are

d^x _
dx
dy/dt
^y _
^y
'di^~~''~dt'
.' .
dt'~~^~''dt'
dxjdt -\-Ka)= Fcos
a,
+ Ky = gt + Vsin.a.
Both these equations are of the and integrating, we iind

Kcc
linear form, multiplying
by
e"'
Ky =
= Fcos a (1 e""') - gt + (V sin a + L) {I
-e-"*)]
^^^'
ART. 164]
THE RESULTANT ACCELERATION.
93
where KL = g, so that L is the limiting velocity, Art. 111. horizontal and vertical velocities at any time t are
dxjdt = Fcos
163.
istics
ae-''^
The
dyjdt
= -L + ( Fsin a + L) e""'
.(2).
From
these equations
we deduce
the general character-
of the
motion.
We
is
notice that
finite
when
in-
Kx = V cos a. There is therefore a vertical asymptote at a horizontal distance
OH = V cos olJk from

gin.
the ori-
Let the tangent at

then
.
intersect the asymptote in
VJk and F= OTa. Since any point P may be taken as the origin,
To,
OT,
it
follows that the velocity at
any
point
P is proportional
to the length
FT of the
make
t
tangent at
cut
of
by the vertical asymptote.
Tracing the curve backwards we

infinitely greater
oo
we then
find
is
that both X and y are infinitely great.
Since the exponential
same
ratio.
both y/x and dy/dx have ultimately the Representing this ratio by tan/S, we have
than
t,
tan
13
= tan + L/Vcos a
a.
(3).
The curve has

tote to
therefore an infinite branch, the tangent or

yS
asympis
which makes an angle

initial conditions
with the horizon, determined

This asymptote
from the
by
this equation.
at an infinite distance from the origin.
164.
y,
Eliminating the exponentials from the values of x and
Art. 162,
we
find
y = x tan fi Lt
a linear equation which must hold throughout the motion.
(4),
Drawing a
this equation
straight line
OB
parallel to the oblique asymptote,
PB = Lt,
shows that the vertical distance of where L is the limiting velocity.

of
P from OB
is
The perpendicular distance

resolved velocity at
constant.
P
at
from
OB
being Lt cos /3, the
'perpendicular to the
The resultant acceleration
P is
Mique asymptote is therefore parallel to BO.
94
165.
RESISTANCE VARIES AS THE VELOCITY.

Gerieral principle.
[CHAP.
III.
Since the resistance varies as the
any direction is proportional The general to the resolved velocity in the same direction principle proved in Art. 154 for motion in a vacuum will therefore apply to the motion with this law of resistance. The circiimstances of the rtiotion 'parallel to any fixed straight line are independent of those in any other direction.
velocity, the resolved resistance in
.
on only by the resistance, and the acceleration at any time is therefore - <m, where u is the oblique component of velocity parallel to the asymptote. In the latter motion the particle starting from rest is acted on by gravity as well as by the resistance and has thus acquired its limiting velocity L. This component is constant in direction and
particle is acted
166. Let the particle be projected from a branch with such a velocity that it describes the resolution of the motion in the direction of (1) and (2) the vertical. In the former motion the
distant point
trajectory.
on the obUque
Consider the oblique
the tangent or asymptote at
magnitude so that the acceleration
is
zero.
see that in
is
Combining these two motions, we

the velocity v along the tangent
velocity
any position
P of
If
the particle,
PT
the resultant of
the vertical limiting
L and
a velocity
parallel to the oblique asymptote.
responding velocities at
t
is
the time of transit
any two points and P to P; Art. 102. from

-ku.
of the trajectory,
U and u be corm= ZJe""', where
We
also notice that the resultant
acceleration at
P is equal to
OB
reference
Taking a parallel we have
to the oblique
asymptote and the vertical as axes of

-n^Lt...:
^=U{l-e~''^)lK,
(1),
where
|= OB, -q^BP.
we have
^'
If
we
q'
refer the
as axes,
= 0A,
= AP.
motion to the tangent at and the vertical We find by considering the motions in these
K7,'=^gt-L{l-e-'*)
(2).
directions separately
/cr=F(l-c'-),
167. Ex. 1. Particles are projected from a given point at the same instant with equal velocities in different directions prove that the loeus at any time is a
;
sphere.
Refer the motion of any particle to the tangent

^,
rj.
Both
is
^,
7}
are evidently functions of
locus
therefore a sphere Art. 166.
whose radius
is
OA and the vertical as axes of which are independent of a. The f and whose centre is at a depth tj
O
at the
below 0.
Ex.
2.
Particles are projected from a given point
different velocities in the
same
direction
their locus is a straight line parallel
OA, prove that to OA. Art. 165.
at
same instant with any subsequent time
Ex.
3,
If the axis of
tion of projection
x is inclined at an angle i to the horizon and make an angle y with x, prove that KX= -^8init + (7coS7 + Iy sini)(l-e~''')^
the direc-
Ky= -g cos it + (F sin 7 + 1, cos i)
(1
- e ~ "0)
ART. 168.]
If
THE THREE EQUATIONS.

is parallel
95
fj
reaching
M be the point at which the tangent M and the coordinates of M are

^*
<;"'
to x, prove that the time
of
= 1+ Fsinv
, -= ~
KU-.
i,
a-j
cos
Ji.
= -gcosiUL + ^^ V sin 7,
.
.
i'
(Fsin7 + Lcosi)-(/i(Fcos7 + i sini)=Lrtcos

all
(i'+7);
the latter equation being also true for
points on the trajectory.
varies as the velocity.
under gravity in a uniform medium whose resistance Prove that the hodograph of the trajectory is a straight line and that the velocity of the point on the hodograph is proportional to the Ex.
4.
A projectile moves
horizontal velocity of the projectile.
[Coll.
Ex.]
Resistance varies as the

168.
?i"'
power of
the velocity.
varies as the
To find the motion of a heavy particle, when ?i*'^ power of the velocity.
be the angle the tangent at any point
the resistance
Let
i|r
of the path
makes
iL
with the horizontal, p the radius of curvature
measured
velocity,
positively
downwards
so that p
= dsjd-^.
Let v be the
the horizontal component.
Following John Bernoulli, 1721, we
resolve the motion normally

V"^
I
and
horizontally,
we thus have
I
= q cos xZr,
p
^
d'-''
-
n cos 1^. = Kv"
at
Since v cos
i/r
m and
dt
/o
= vdt/d-^,
u
these become
dii
_
dt,
Ku'^
^
d^~~ g~co^'^'
We
du
^~~(cos^)"-^
^"
obtain one integral by eliminating
_K
g
is
'
d^
where a
Y'^'
-y^J
' '
l_l__/mr* /en [* 1 _ .1
'
d^
'
Vcos
tC^
Uo^
J a
(cos '^Y^^
the angle the initial direction of motion makes with
the horizon, and Uq the initial horizontal velocity.
To
except
effect this integration
we put ^ = tani/r, we then
have,
n 0,
- =- f(l+Oi<->'ci
the sign of the radical
(B),
when n
.
of integration is positive
i.e.
is even being such that the subject = ^tt, between the limits yfr = a and
\|r
p = po
und p
=^
cc
96
RESISTANCE VARIES AS
n^'
POWER OF VELOCITY.
ii
[CHAP.
III.
We
can conveniently take either
or
as the independent
variable,
and thus we
t---jucLpX
ir_ir ^j^
obtain the two sets of relations,

du^
^^
\
^^.yf(.-i)
= --ju'dp = - - j^_,
^^
^^.-)im-i,
(C).
pdu ir _ ir, y--u-pdp - - -j-n^^^ j +f)hm-^)f

The
first
follows from equation (A), the second
and third from

limits in all the
the obvious relations dx = udt, dy

integrals being
= u'pdt.
to
u.
The
p^p^to p
all
or u
= Wo
In this manner
either
the circumstances of the motion can be
expressed in terms of one independent variable which
may be
or
u.
It is evident that the integral (B) has considerable importance

in this theory.
Putting
Wn = Kl+p'f^''-^^dp,
we
see that
when a =
2 or n
3,
w,=\\p{i+pi+\og{p-^{i-vpi%
w,=p+ip\
(D).
We may
also find a general formula of reduction, viz.

(ri
+ 2) Wn^,= {n+1)
is
F,,+i?(l
+p^)^<'^+i)
When
the resistance
a constant force, say Kg, n
= 0,
and the
integral (B) takes the form
(uV _ /l+sin-v/ry
\a)
.
\1 sin-^/ry
particle is
where a
169.
is
the velocity
when the
moving
horizontally.
The equations (C) have been applied

is
to the calculation
of the trajectories of shot in various ways*.
When
the angle of
fire,
elevation
not more than 10 to 15, as in the case of direct
1868, Treatise on the motion of projectiles, 1873; Proceedings of R.A. Institution, 1871 and 1885. W. D. Niven, On the calculation of the trajectories of shot. Proceedings of the Royal Society, An account of Siacei's method is given 1877. Ingall, Exterior Ballistics, 1885.
* Bashforth, Phil. Trans.
supplement, 1881.
by Greenhill
in the Proc. of the R. A. Institution, vol. xvii.
See also Artillery,
its
progress and present position by E.
W. Lloyd and
A. G. Hadcock, 1893.
Greenhill,
On
the
motion of a projectile in a resisting medium, Proceedings of the R. A.
Institution, vols, xi., xii., xiv., 1880 to 1886.
ART. 171.]
THE LAW OF RESISTANCE.

trajectory as so flat that
it
97
we may regard the

square of ^.
inclined
we can
reject the
Taking
as the independent variable the integration

difficulty.
can then be effected without
When
the path
is
more
for
we can
divide the whole path into
subsidiary arcs
each of which
p may
be regarded as approximately constant
though of a different value in each arc. If the arcs were small enough the initial value of p in each arc might be taken as the proper value for that arc. For longer arcs it becomes necessary
to give
mean value taken over the whole
subsidiary arc.
170. In artillery practice the values of the integrals (C) are commonly inferred from tables especially constructed for that purpose, different tables being used to find t, X and y. Opinions differ as to the best methods of constructing and using these tables. Bashforth represents the law of resistance by kv'^ where k is a function of the velocity whose values are deduced from experiment. These values for a shot of given cross section and weight and for air of given density are
tabulated for every few feet of velocity.
In effecting the integrations (C) the
quantity
k.
is
regarded as constant and in a long are a value suitable to a
mean
tlie
velocity over the arc has to be found.
This
difficulty
having been overcome,
integrals (C) are tabulated for different values of k angle.
and between certain ranges of

taken as the indepen-
In the Italian method a quantity allied to the velocity

dent variable.
is
To
enable the integrations to be effected the quantity
is
taken as
constant throughout the subsidiary are.

either by the use of tables or
of velocity in the trajectory.
The
integrals (C) are then determined

to the range
by giving the index n the value suitable
An
account of the methods of constructing and using these vai-ious tables

far
would take us too special treatises on
from our present
subject.
We
must
refer the reader to
Artillery.
171.
Law
of resistance.
Many attempts have been made

the
to discover the law of resistance to
motion of
projectiles.
Passing over the earlier
experiments of Robins and Hutton we

series
may mention
made by
as the
most important the long-continued
F. Bashforth with the help of his chronograph.
By
this
instrument the times taken by the same projectile in passing over a succession of equal spaces can be measured with great
Other experiments have also been made on the conexample by Mayevski in 1881. It appears from all these experiments that the resistance cannot be expressed by any one power of the velocity. The general result is that for
accuracy.
tinent, for
low and high velocities the resistance varies as the square of the velocity, and for intervening velocities as the cube and even a
higher power of the velocity.
98
n*'"
POWER OF VELOCITY.
[CHAP.
III.
To be more
particular, let v
be the velocity measured in feet
per second, d the diameter of the ogival headed shot in inches, w the weight in pounds. Then taking the resistance to be
yS
TTwA
>
Bashforth's experiments
show that
yS= 61-3
/3= 74*4
/3= 79'2
< 850 v> 850 < 1040

V
n=2
w=3 w=6 n=S
w=2
?;>1040<1100
v>1100<1300
v> 1300 < 2780

highest power of w was n
= 108-8 /3 = 141-5.
/8
Mayevski's experiments led to similar results except that the
= 5.
The values
of
yS
were also different
because the shots were more pointed than in those of Bashforth.
We may
When the
notice that though the resistance for low and high
velocities follows the

coefficient /3 is
same general
law, yet
the value of the
much
greater for the high than the low velocities.
velocity of the shot approximates to that of the velocity

air,
of sound in
we might
is
expect a considerable change in the
law of resistance and this

172.
velocity.
shown
in the results given above.

tlie
To
discuss the motion
when
the resistance varies as the square of
In this case we can obtain two first integrals of the equations of motion. Resolving normally and horizontally as before, we find
= g COSl/',
p
-5-= -KV^C08\j/=
at
-KU
-t:
(1).
cit
Dividing the latter equation by u and integrating
logu=A-KS,
where m^ from 0.
is
.:
uûê'"^
of projection
(2),
the horizontal velocity at the point
and
s is
measured
Besides this we have the integral (B) already obtained in the general case by eliminating dt from the equations of motion. Writing p= - ds/dxp and v cos f =m,.
in
(1),
we
find as before
u dt _ ~ df~ gcos^^'
1
tt2
du_ mfi di~~co8f

-TiI
.
^ ''
_2.
#
coB^rl^
g J
^_2./g j\\
is to
where 2?= tan ^ as before, and the radical
be taken positively.
Integrating
ART. 174.]
THE SQUARE OF -THE VELOCITY.

(2)
99
Eliminating m between
and
(5)
we
find
KUq
A'**+i'V(l + l''') + log{i' + V(l + i''')} = G
(6)-
This
is
the intrinsic equation of the path.
173.
To
discuss the form of the curve
it
will be
at the highest point so that initially
^ = 0.
We
convenient to place the origin then have

(7).
J.Jl-e'-''') = Ps/(l
+ p-') + log{p + ^(l + p^)]

we
see from (2)
When
zero and
s increases to positive infinity
and
(7)
that
u tends to
to
minus
infinity.
Since by
(3)
or (C)
-v/'dp,
gdt= -udp and gdx gudt

it
follows that both dt/dp

t
and dxjdp are ultimately

infinite,
zero.
We
shall prove that
while
becomes ultimately
that the curve has a vertical

highest point.
x tends to a finite limit. We therefore infer asymptote at a finite distance on the positive side of the
To prove
that l/2
is
this
we
refer to (5)
of the order p^.
Putting U hjp
and retaining only the highest powers of p, we see when p is very great, we find
gt= - \udp= -hlogp,
gx=
~ ju-dp = h^lp.
Taking these between the limits p = Pi to infinity where jjj is any large finite quantity, the first gives the time the particle takes to travel from the position defined hy p=p^ to that defined by 2?= - oo and the second gives the corresponding
,
horizontal space.
We see that
we
the
first is infinite
and the second
finite.
174.
by
(7)
Consider next the other extremity of the trajectory.

see by
(2)
When
'
the arc is
negatively very great,

that
that
is
positive
and
infinite.
It also follows
tends to a limit
m given
by the equation
-glKUo^ + mJ{l+m^) + log{m + ^(l
+ m^)) =
.'.(8).
Since the left-hand side passes from a negative quantity to positive infinity as
varies
root.
from zero
to infinity,
it is
clear that this equation
has at least one positive

coefficient of the
If the equation could
have two real roots, the differential

this is impossible.
left-hand side would vanish for

differential coefficient is
some intervening value of m.
But since the

on
2^{l + m^)
It follows that the curve
the negative side of the highest point has the horizon.
We
this
shall
now prove
that this
an asymptote inclined at a finite angle to asymptote is at a finite distance from the
highest point.
To prove we have
the axis of y, viz.
we examine the limiting value of the intercept of the tangent on y-xp, when^ = 7. Remembering that gdx= -u-dp, dy=pdx,
9 {y - ^p) =
- jpu-dp +pju^dp,
the limits being p = to p. As we only wish to determine whether the limit is finite or not we shall integrate from p = m-î to p=m, where f^ is some finite
quantity as small as
we
please.
The remaining
parts of the integrals will be
included in two finite constants
M and N.
u'^d^
Writing p=im-^, we have
g{y-xp)= |(m - ^)
the limits being |=^j to
refer to equation
(5).
- (m - D/u^dl - ill
is
pN,
0. To find what function m Remembering that B = \lu^
of ^
when
since u=û^
^ is small, we when p=0, we
100
BESISTANCE VARIES AS n^ POWER OF VELOCITY. [CHAP.
III.
write that equation in the form
Expanding and remembering that dfldp=2tj{l+p^) we
find after subtracting (8)
g
finite constants.
where b^, A' and B' are
Substituting
we find by an
easy integration
(j/
- arp) = - 62| + 62^ log I + &c.,

|.
where the &c. includes only positive powers of
Taking
this
between the limits
1=1^ to
0, the result is finite.
175.
point
Ex.
1.
velocity, the
time of describing the
Prove that, when the resistance varies as the square of the infinite arc on the negative side of the highest
is finite.
Referring to equations (C) and writing

of describing the infinite arc from
finite
p=m-^,
to
v?t^l^ we see that the time

is
2>=m
p=Pi
MiJ{m-p^, where
;
is
quantity independent of | or p.
2.
This result
is finite
see also Art. 116.
Ex.
When
the resistance varies as the square of the velocity, prove that

is
the polar equation of the hodograph
-2=008^ d
^^
772
sinh~^ tan
tf
+ -==2-
where the origin

downwards.
This
is
is
at the highest point,

is
is
the hori?;outal velocity,

is
the
terminal velocity and the initial line
horizontal and
measured positively [Coll. Ex. 1893.]

r,
a transformation of equation
(5)
of Art. 172, writing
6, tor v,
^.
Ex.
3.
When
the resistance varies as the square of the velocity, prove that

(p
the radius of curvature p at the point where the normal makes an angle vertical is given by
2/kp = c sin3 4>+2 sin^
with the
^ log cot i + sin 20.
[Coll.
Ex.]
176.
Ex.
1.
When
the resistance varies as the nth power of the velocity,
prove that the curve has a vertical asymptote at a finite distance on the positive
side of the highest point.
(B). Now, by the action of p continually decreases from one end of the trajectory to the other. After the projectile has passed the summit p becomes negatively great and (B) then gives =L/p, where L is the limiting velocity. We thus have v=L when jp=ao. Substituting u=LIp in (C) and integrating from p=Pi to oo, where p^ is any large finite quantity, we find that t and y are infijiite and x finite.
We have v=u^{}.+p^) where u is given by equation
gravity,
Ex.
2.
Prove that, when the resistance varies as the nth power of the velocity,
the arc of .the trajectory on the negative side of the highest point
being
> 2,
begins at a point at a finite distance from the origin. Prove also that the tangent at this point makes an angle tan~i m with the horizon given by
S\Hn-l)- d^_A. {i+p^)
/:
where Uq and p^ are any contemporaneous values of u and p. Art. 174, this equation has one positive root.
See Art. 116.
As
in
ART. 177.]
In the extreme
VARIOUS RESULTS.
initial position of
101
is infinite.
,
the particle the velocity
Since
v=uj(l+p-) we must
and
this
It
there have either
u orjp
infinite.
If |j=qo
(B) gives
u=Lfp
makes v finite. The equation giving vi is therefore obtained by putting To determine the position of the particle when this occurs we express u in terms of p and iise the equations (C). Let the initial position defined by P =Po ^^ such that p^ m - fj where fj is a finite quantity as small as we please. Substituting pvi-^ in (B) and using the equation given above to find m, we have M"=Zj'7f where 6 is a constant. Substituting in (C) and integrating from ^=^1 to ^ we find that t, x, and y are finite when ^=0.
= 00
in (B).
Ex.
3.
When
the law of resistance
is
the nth power of the velocity, and u, u'

of the trajectory at
-:t It"
are the horizontal velocities at
any two points
tangents
make
equal angles with the horizon, then
112
+
M"
-nr
which the
is
= -r
a"
where a
the
velocity at the highest point.
Ex.
i.
When
the resistance
is k'
+ kV";
investigate the linear equation
dp
(1+2}-)-
where u
horizon.
gration.
is
the horizontal velocity and
is
the tangent of the inclination to the

t,
Thence show that the determination of
x,
may
be reduced to inte-
[AUegret, Bulletin de la Societe Math. 1872.]

5.
Ex.
When
the resistance
is
constant and equal to Kg, the highest point
being the origin and the velocity being a, prove that the horizontal velocity' u at
any point of the path
is
u = a {tan
6)"
t,
integrals (C), Art. 168, the values of

li
finite
where 2d=xl/ + îr. Thence deduce from the x, y in terms of tan 6.

is
K<
or =1, the subsequent path has a vertical asymptote which

if
at the
k>^, but is at an infinite distance if k<1. If K>1 the particle arrives at a point C at which the Plangent is vertical in the finite time Kajg {/c" - 1), the coordinates of C being 2/ca-/(jf (4k2 - 1) and - a^j4:g (k- - 1).
distance x = 2Ka^lg (iK^-1)
On
which
the negative side of the origin, the curve begins with a vertical asymptote
is infinitely
distant
and the time
of describing the arc is infinite.
177.
When
the resistance varies as the cube of the velocity, the equation (B)
of Art. 168 takes the
form
1
{pK
m) (p-
mp + m^ + S),
the origin being taken at the point at which the velocity is infinite and
m being
the
corresponding value of p.
To
discuss the motion
we
substitute this value of
in the integrals (C).
the reduction of these integrals to elliptic forms
we
refer the reader to a paper
For by
Greenhill in the Proceedings of the Royal Artillery Institution, vol. xiv. 1886.
Ex. Show that for the cubic law of resistance the velocity is a minimum at the point given by the negative root of the quadratic p--m{m^ + S)p=l. Show
also that
when the
direction of
is
motion
is
perpendicular to the oblique asymptote,

is
the horizontal velocity u
given by
-=m + where L
the limiting velocity.
102
*
Some
n^^
POWER OF VELOCITY.
Adams
[CHAP.
III.
178.
formulsB have also been given by the late Prof.
to determine
the coordinates of a particle projected at any inclination to the horizon on the

supposition that the resistance varies as the nth power of the velocity and that the path is not very curved. These were first published in the Proceedings of the Royal Society and proofs were given in Nature, vol. xli., 1890. These appear to be long, but they admit of great abbreviation.
170.
it is
The equation of a
trajectory being given in the
form cos^=/(/)COS
^),
required to find the law of resistance.

notice that the equation can be written in this form, except
We
constant, for in that case
pcos^ cannot be taken
when p cos if/ is as the independent variable.
This excepted curve
is
the catenary of equal strength.
Resolving horizontally and tangentially, we have
^{i;cos^)= -jRcos^,
Eliminating dt
i2
-3-=
-R-g8m\f/
(1).
cos
^^
(u cos ^) (iZ
+ ^ sin ^)
(1).
" ^v^(co3i{/)=-gsmil/^(vcosip)
Remembering that the normal
found.
resolution gives v^lp=g gob ^,
we have
coB\]/=f(v^lg).
Substituting this value of cos^, the expression for the resistance
has been
We may also write the expression in the form

E|=-,(l-/^)i|^(./)
(2),
where f=:f{v^lg) and the sign of the radical follows that
of sin ^.
is
180.
Ex.
1.
Find the law
of resistance
when
the trajectory
a cycloid with
the cusps pointing downwards.
In this curve p=2acos^,
/.
f=vliJ2ag.
We
then find that the resistance
R=z -2g(l- v^l2ag)^. Since the radical follows the sign of sin xp, R accelerates the Since particle on the ascending and retards it on the descending branch. V = COB \l/iJ2ag the particle comes to rest at the cusp. The resistance R is then acting upwards and is equal to 2g, the particle then moves vertically. See Art. 176, Ex.5.
Ex.
2.
Find the law
of resistance
when the
trajectory is the catenary of equal
strength with the concavity downwards.
The normal and

22 is
tangential resolutions show that v is constant and a resistance therefore only on the descending branch.
3.
R= -gsmil/.
Ex.
Find the law
of resistance in the parabola

circle
v''^
^008^^= 2a.
The
if/.
Ex.
4.
Find the law of resistance in the

-^g{l-v*ja^g^)^ and
p=a.
resistance is
= ag cos
CHAPTER
lY.
CONSTRAINED MOTION IN TWO DIMENSIONS.

Constrained Motion.
181.
curve, is
velocity
A
and
particle, constrained to describe
a given smooth fixed

required
to
under the action of given forces.

the reaction between the curve
It
is
find the
and
the particle.
let its
Let the curve be referred to fixed Cartesian coordinates and equation be y=f(a;). Let (oe, y)
be the position of the particle

time
angle
t,
at the
its
mass, X,
the resolved
Let the tangent at P make an with the axis of x, and let p be the radius of curvature. Let R be the pressure of the curve on the particle
forces.
>/r
taken positively in the direction in which

p
is
measured;
this direction is generally
inwards.
When
p,
is
the path of the particle
is
known the
to
relations
between
It
the arc s and the other lines of the curve are also known.
therefore
generally more convenient
choose the tangent
and normal as the

dv
directions in which to resolve the acceleration.
Resolving in these directions, we have
mv-T
^ cos ^T =X \fr+ r smixr

.
(1),
A sm Y+
From
these two equations
I cos
ylr
+ Ji
all
.(2).
we may deduce
the circumstances of
the motion.
104
CONSTRAINED MOTION.
Considering the tangential resolution
cos
yfr
[CHAP. IV.
see that since
we
= dscfds, sin -^ = dyjds, mvdv = Xdx + Ydy
(3).
There are two eases to be considered according as the right-hand side of this equation is or is not a perfect differential of some function of x and y.
In the former case the forces are called
conservative.
Let
(4).
Xdx+7dy=dU
We therefore
Let
{xq, yo)
have hy integration
^v^ = U+C
be the coordinates of the
let
initial position
(5).
of the
particle,
and
U become
have
Uo
when we
write for x, y, their initial
values.
We therefore
is
^mv^ -^mvo^=
This equation
U-
Uo
(6).
one case of a general principle usually called
the Principle of Vis Viva.
The dynamical
peculiarity of this case
is
that the equation of
the tangential resolution can be integrated without using the

equation of the constraining curve.
is
prelected
from a
given point
It follows that if the particle with a given velocity and if it is

it to
conducted to another point

particle on arrival at
182.
hy constraining
move along an
of the
arbitrary curve, then, whatever the path
may
he, the velocity
P is
always the same.
When
the forces are such that
Xdx + Ydy
is
not a
perfect differential of
any function of x and y the velocity cannot
be found without using the equation of the constraining curve.

Putting y=f{x), we find
^v^ =J{X + Yf (x)] dx + a

Since
of the equation of the curve, the integration can be effected.
be expressed as functions of x by the help Let the integral be F{x). We then have
X and Y can
^v" - ^Vo^ = F(x) - F{xo).

In
this case the
change of vis viva does not conserve the same
value for
all paths.
ABT. 185.]
THE TWO EQUATIONS.
105
Let us next take into consideration the equation of the 183. normal resolution, viz.
= X sin
P
ylr
+ Fcos
yjr
+ R.
effective
The term mv^p

This
is
is
called the centrifugal force of the particle*.

for the
another
name
is
normal component of the
force, Arts. 36, 68.
The
on the
force
called the
is
dynamical pressure of the curve
particle,
and i2
the dynamical pressure of the particle

yfr
on the curve.
The two terms X sin
+ Y cos yjr make up
the resolved part of the acting forces along the normal to the
curve and are together called the statical pressure of the forces
on the
particle.
Taken with the opposite

on the curve.
signs they are the
statical pressure
184.
We
are
now
in a position to apply the two fundamental
theorems to determine the motion of a particle on any given fixed

curve.
First,
we use the equation
of vis viva, viz.
change of kinetic energy

In this
= work
of the forces.
way we
is
find the velocity.
Secondly, the
position
dynamical pressure on the

/dynamical\
\ pressure /
particle
in
any
given by the equation
mv^ p
\ _ /normal ~ \force inwards/
185. Work Function. The usual methods of finding the work of a system of forces are explained in books on Statics. As however the solution of our dynamical problems depends so much on our knowledge of these rules, it has been thought not improper to recall to mind those few which we shall here use. A more complete list applicable to a system of rigid bodies is to be found in the author's Rigid Dynamics.
* It is perhaps unnecessary to observe that the centrifugal force is not an
actual force acting
on the particle in addition to the impressed forces. It is merely a name for the quantity mv^fp, and measures the amount of force which
;
must act towards the concave side of the path to produce the curvature 1/p the mass of the particle being m and the velocity v. By the first law of motion the particle tends to move in a straight line and the force necessary to curve the path
is
sometimes said to be spent in overcoming the centrifugal
force.
106
If
CONSTRAINED MOTION.
X, X
[CHAP. IV.
Y are
the components of a force
F the work
done when
the particle receives a slight displacement ds from the position

X,
to
+ dx, y + dy may
be written in either of the equivalent
forms
Xdx + Ydy = Fcos<f)ds

where
<}>
(1),
is
the angle the direction of
^ makes
with the tangent to

forces
the path, see Art. 70.
That the work of the two

is
X,
Y is
we
equal to that of their resultant
proved in Statics.
It is also
seen to be true by resolving the forces along the tangent;
then have
^T-dy ^ dx -^+Y X -f=Fcos(f),
ri
which
is
equivalent to the equation
(1).
Either side of (1)

F.
is
also
called in Statics the virtual
moment of the force
The
integral
U when used in the indefinite U = JF cos <f>ds + G
form
is
function.
sometimes the force function and sometimes the work The definite integral JJUo is the work done by the force F as the particle moves from the position (x^, y^ to the position {x, y). Here ?7o represents the same function of Xq, y^
called
that
is
of X,
y.
186.
Work
>S^
of a central force.
be regarded as repulsive in the standard

the centre
particle
Let the central force Let it tend from case.

is
and be equal to f{r) where r
the distance of the
Then since dr/ds is the cosine of the angle the distance r makes with the displacement ds of the particle, the part of the work function due to F is JFdr. The integration
from 8.
is
to be taken from the initial position
to the final position
B of
S
is
the particle.
When
the force
under consideration
is
gravity the centre
regarded as being infinitely distant.
We
then replace dr by + dy,
the upper or lower sign being taken according as y is measured downwards or upwards. Supposing the weight of the particle
to be
mg
is
and that y
is
measured downwards, the work of the
weight
jmgdy = mg{y-y^):
This rule
is
usually read thus, the work done by gravity
is the
weight midtiplied by the vertical space descended.
It should
be
ART. 188.]
THE WORK FUNCTION.

is
107
noticed that the work
independent of the horizontal displace-
ment.
187.
See Art.
70.
of an elastic string. The case in which the particle is attached to a fixed point S by an elastic string differs from that of a central force tending to the same point in a certain
discontinuity.
If
I
Work
be the unstretched length, r the actual length
and
E Young's modulus, the tension T is given by Hooke's law rl when r>l, but the tension T = E ~j when the string is tight,
i.e.
is
zero
when the
string
is slack, i.e.
<
I.
length
Let the work be required when the string is stretched from a If li to I2, and let Ti, T^ be the tensions at these lengths.
li
both
and ^ are greater than
I,
the work
is
/,
arithmetic
The work done by the tension is therefore equal to minus the mean of the tensions multiplied by the extension. The
work done by the
is
the tension
which stretches the string in opposition to the same taken with the positive sign.
force
This rule
is
of considerable use
when the length
of the string
undergoes
many changes during
the motion, being sometimes

less.
greater than the unstretched length and sometimes
It is
all
important to notice that the

states.
still
rule, as
is
given above, holds in
these cases provided the string

If the string
is
tight in the initial
and
final
slack in either terminal state,
we may
use the same rule provided
we suppose the
string to have
its
natural or unstretched length in that terminal state.

188.
The equation of
constraint
vis viva holds also
when
the particle is
free
from
it
and
is
acted on by
forces.
For, whatever curve the particle

to
suppose
be constrained,
like
any conservative system, of may, describe, we may a bead on an imaginary wire,
to describe that path.
motion, but,
The pressure is then zero throughout the what more immediately concerns us here, is that
vis
the equation (6) of circumstances.
viva continues to
hold under these
108
189.
CONSTRAINED MOTION.
[CHAP. IV.
The whole area

of force.
or space taken into consideration

is
when
called
the forces are expressed in terms of the coordinates

the field
Such a
field is
is
usually defined by expressing

one) as a function of the co-
the force function (when there

ordinates.
It follows
particle
from the principle of

in a field defined
vis viva that
when a
differs
single
moves
by a
force function the kinetic
energy of the particle in any and every position

constant
is
from the
value of the force function at that point by a constant.

particles of equal
The
independent of the direction of motion, so that two
mass projected from
the
same point with equal

velocities
velocities hid in difiêrent directions luill
always have equal
whenever they pass over a given point of the field.

190. Examples. Ex. 1. A particle is projected from a given point on a smooth curve and is acted on by no forces. Prove (1) that the velocity is constant and (2) that the pressure varies as the curvature.
Ex.
is
2.
drawn
outivards, so
Prove that
given by
A heavy particle P describes a curve and in any position a normal PQ that PQ is equal to half the radius of curvature at P. the velocity v and the pressure E on the particle measured inwards are
v- = 2gz,
Rp 2v>gz',
straight line,
where which
z,
z'
are the depths of
and Q below a certain horizontal
be called the level of no velocity. Prove also that the particle leaves the curve when Q crosses the level of no velocity.
may
Supposing that the axis of y in the standard figure of Art. 181

upwards, the two fundamental equations for a heavy particle are
^7iiv^-^mvQ'^= mv'jp =
If
is
drawn
mg
{y
-y^),
mg cos ^ + E.
an altitude
y^,
we draw a horizontal
2
straight line at
such that gyi = gyo + ^VQ",
we
see that
= 2/1-2/.
2'
= ?/i-?/ + ipcosi/'.^
If the particle is constrained to
it
The
results to
be proved follow immediately.
remain on the curve merely by the pressure changes sign. But this is what happens when
R
Q
will leave the curve
when
crosses the level of
no
velocity.
vertical plane.
is
swung round a fixed point at the end of a string in a Prove that the sum of the tensions of the string when the particle at opposite ends of a diameter is the same for all diameters.
Ex.
3.
particle is
[Coll.
Exam.
1896.]
whose plane is vertical and major axis inclined at an angle a to the horizon, is projected from the Find the velocity v^ upper extremity A of the major axis with a velocity Vq. with which it passes the upper extremity B of the minor axis and the pressure
Ex.
4.
heavy
particle, constrained
to describe
an
ellipse
at that point.
ART. 190.]
Since the altitude of
jB
EXAMPLES.
above
109
CA
is
the difference between the projections of
and
CB
on the
vertical, the equation of
vis viva gives
Jm (v^ - v^) = -mg{b cos a - a sin a).

opposite signs.
This gives two equal values of v^ with One or the other is to be

is
taken according as the particle

jected
pro-
from
A upwards
of
v^
or downwards.
If the values
are imaginary the
particle will not reach B.
The pressure B^
at
solving the forces along
B is found by reBC inwards. We have
- =mg COS a +
Pi
Rj^,
where piâ^jb.
Let us suppose that in addition to its weight the particle is acted on by a centre S such that the attraction at a distance r is jur". The equation of vis viva would then have on the right-hand side the additional term - j/ir"dr, the limits being the initial and the final values of r, i.e. r=a (1 + e) and
of force at the focus
r=a,
Art. 186.
The
velocity v^ is then given
by
a)-/i
z
Jwi (Vi^-V(,^)= -
mg {b COB a - aain
{1-
{l
+ e)'^+^}
and the pressure
is
determined by
natural length is
Pi
- = mg cos a + u.a^.-+B^. a
Let us next attach the particle to the centre C by an elastic string whose I. The effect of this is to add another term to each equation. li l<b and <a the string is stretched throughout and the term to be added to the equation of vis viva is -^{TQ + Tj)(b-a) where T^, and T^ are the tensions at ^ and B, see Art. 187. In our case TQ=E{a-l)jl and T^ = E(b-l)ll. If however l>b and -ca the string becomes slack at some position of the particle between A and B ; the term to be added is now -^(T^ + Tîl-a) where T^=Q and Tq has the same value as before. Lastly if l>b and >a the string is slack throughout and no term is to be added.
an additional term on the right-hand where Tj has the same value as in the equation of vis viva. In this way the velocity of the particle and the pressure at any point may be found with ease no matter how complicated the forces may be.
of pressure will also have
side.
The equation
This term
is Tj,
Ex.
5.
small ring without weight can slide freely on a smooth wire bent
into the form of
an
ellipse.
An
elastic string
whose natural length
is I
also passes
through the ring and has one end attached to the focus S and the other to the centre C. The ring being projected from the extremity A of the major axis, prove that the velocity v^, and the pressure B^ at the extremity B of the minor axis are given by m (Vj^ - V) = {Ti + To) (a + ae-b),
mv,^
-J^
where T(,=E (2o + ae1)11,
b = Ti + T,l+B
T^=E(a + b-l)jl provided
the string
is
stretched at the
beginning and: end of the transit.
110
Ex.
6.
CONSTRAINED MOTION.
A
heavy bead
is initially at
[CHAP. IV.
the extremity of the horizontal diameter of
is vertical. The system falls through a space equal to the radius. The circular wire is then suddenly fixed in space. Find the subsequent motion of the bead, and determine if it ever
a uniform heavy smooth circular wire whose plane
from
rest
comes
,
finally to rest.
Find also the pressure on the wire
for
any possible position
of the particle.
Ex.
fifth
7.
particle, constrained to describe a circular wire, is acted
central force tending to a point
on by a on the circumference and varying inversely as the

is
power of the distance, prove that the pressure
constant.
Ex. 8. A particle is constrained to describe an equiangular spiral and is acted on by a central force tending to the pole whose acceleration is /.?". The particle being projected with a velocity Vq at a distance from the pole, prove that the velocity and pressure are given by
R
7
f \
"
2/x
\ sin a
h
it
+l
+3 + 1'^
The
If
?j=-3 and
Vf^
iJ/ija,
the pressure
R 0.
sinral is therefore a free
path when the
force varies as the inverse cube of the distance,
and since any point

is
may
be regarded as the point of projection, the velocity at every point

v = Jfilr.
given by
Ex.
jected,
9.
particle is constrained to
move
in
an
ellipse
along which
it is
pro-
law.
Newtonian Prove that the resultant attraction varies inversely as the normal and that
straight line joining the foci attracts according to the
is
and the
the velocity
constant.
Ex. 10. A particle of unit mass moves in a smooth circular tube of radius a, under the action of a centre of force which repels as the inverse square of the distance. If the centre of force be midway between the centre of the circle and the circumference, and the particle be projected from the end of the diameter
'
through the centre of force remote from that point, with a velocity whose square is 4(U (^3 - l)/3, the particle will oscillate through an arc 27ra/3 on either side of the
point of projection.
[Coll.
Ex. 1897.]
Ex.
11.
particle is constrained to describe a lemniscate
and
is
under the
action of two central forces tending to the foci and varying inversely as the cube of the distance.
prove that the pressure at any point

of the curve.
Supposing the forces to be equal at equal distances from the foci, P varies as the distance of P from the centre
pressure on the curve
down a smooth curve in a vertical plane. If the always \ times the weight of the particle, prove that the [Math. Tripos, 1863.] differential equation to the curve is y + c=a (dx/rfs -X)*2.
Ex.
12.
particle slides
is
191.
Rough Curve.
is
fj,
When
the particle slides on a rough
curve the friction acts opposite
to the direction
of motion and
its
magnitude
times the normal pressure taken positively.
The
ART. 192.]
EOUGH CURVES.
Ill
equations of motion are by Art. 181
mv
-r-
= X cos = Jl
yfr
+ Y sin
-ur
-ijr
Îr
fiR,
sin
4-
1 cos
+ R.
p
It is important to
determine the signs of the terms containing

of the
initial
R before
found,
it
proceeding with the solution.
velocity being
The initial value known the second equation determines the

Taking
direction of R.
R
to
to act positively in the direction thus
will continue
it
be positive during the subsequent
The initial direction of the velocity being known, the friction jxR must be made to act in the first equation opposite to that direction. If the particle start from rest the friction /aJR must be made to act opposite to the direction of the tangential force. The sign of fx will then continue unmotion until
vanishes.
changed until either the pressure becomes reversed in direction.
R or the
velocity v vanishes
and
To solve the equations of motion we in general eliminate R. Remembering that when s and increase together p = ds/d-\jr, we
-v/r
obtain an equation of the form
By
using the geometrical properties of the curve
terms of yjr.
The equation being
linear,
we express we then have
P in
The value
of v being found, the value of
follows from either of
the equations of motion.

192. Examples. Ex. 1. A particle is projected with a velocity V along a rough horizontal circle in a medium whose resistance varies as the square of the Prove that velocity.
where v
I
is 2.
the velocity after a time
t,
the arc described, and

is
/3
is
a constant.
Ex.
A small
is
bead of unit mass
constrained to
bent into the form of an equiangular spiral of angle

resistance
v^ cos a/c
move along a rough wire, a, in a medium whose

If the coefficient
and
is
under the action of no other forces.
of friction is cot a, prove that the time of travelling from a distance c to a distance
b
from the pole
is e* (6
of these points
and
is
-c)/F cos a where ci=b-c, and directed from the pole.
is
the velocity at the
first
112
CONSTRAINED MOTION.
[CHAP, IV.
Ex. 3. A heavy particle moves on a rough cycloid placed with its convexity upwards and vertex uppermost. The particle is started with an indefinitely small velocity at the point at which the tangent makes with the horizon an angle e equal to the angle of limiting friction. Prove that the velocity at a point at which the tangent makes an angle /2ar/ (cos J e - sin Je).
[Coll.
Ex. 1889.]
Ex.
4.
particle is projected horizontally with velocity
V along
the inside of a
it
rough
vertical circle
will return to the lowest point with a velocity v given
from the lowest point, prove that if by
it
complete the circuit
v^=Vê-^'^''-2ag{2ix^-l)(l-e-'î^'^)l{4/jfi +
l).
[Coll.
Ex. 1887.]
193.
Condition that a constrained motion
is
also free.
is
It has already been pointed out that the required condition
that the pressure

Art. 190, Ex. 8.
must be zero throughout the motion,
see
In this way we easily obtain several useful cases
of free motion.
If
T and
be the tangential and normal components of the accelerating force

s
estimated positively in the directions in which the arc

p
and the radius of curvature
are measured,
we may prove
is
that the condition
leads to the result
2T=-r- (pN).
as
This
obtained by eliminating v- between the normal and tangential
resolutions in Art. 181
and
is
differentiating the result.
This form of the criterion
though necessarily true

it
not sufficient to
it
make R = 0.
As no
notice
is
taken in
of the initial velocity,
is
generally less convenient than the simple rule
that
E = 0.
Examples.
Ex.
1.
194.
particle is constrained to describe a

circle
smooth under the action of two centres of force tending to fixed points S, S' on the same
diameter, the accelerating forces being
/jlJi-^
and
where r, r' are the distances of the If S and particle from the centres of force.
/J-'lr'^
S' are inverse points,
prove that the pressure

/j-'j/x
can be made zero by giving
and the
velocity of projection suitable values.
Let a be the radius

points are inverse
similar and r'lr=ajh.
ft,
ft'
the distances of S, S' from the centre C.

If
Since the
hh'a^.
be the particle the triangles SPC, S'PC are

resolutions give
The fundamental
'
-.
cos
SPC +
-,.
cos
S'PC+-
From
these
we
easily obtain
1
t^
m'
a?-V'
,(bY\
ART. 195.]
MOTION ALSO FREE.
113
In order that ii=0 we have two conditions

(1)
^=/(^y,
first
m v=i+4.
Since r'lr=alb, the

to the
condition shows that the tangential accelerations due
Since any point may be regarded as the point of projection the second condition gives the velocity at all
two
forces are equal at all points of the circle.
points of the orbit.
Since Vq
is
zero at an infinite distance, this formula shows
that the velocity at any point of the orbit is the
same as
if
the particle were con-
ducted from rest at an infinite distance to that point ; Art. 181.

If the
attraction at
two centres of force are indefinitely near to each other the resultant any point P at a finite distance from them is the same as that of a
circle
single centre of force of double the intensity of either.
theorem that a
cumference.
Hence we arrive at Newton's can be described freely under a single centre of force whose acceleration varies as the inverse fifth power, the centre of force being on the cir-
When
the particle comes indefinitely close to the two centres of force, they
cannot be Considered as one centre.

with an infinite velocity.
directions with forces
The particle passes between the two centres The two centres of force attract the particle in opposite //(a - b)^ and fi'l(b' - a)^ both being infinite. The resultant
which
is
force tending to the centre of the circle is therefore /ila(a-b)*

infinite.
also
This last force gives the

2.
initial
curvature to the subsequent path.
Ex.
A particle describes
Show
that
if
a catenary under the action of a force parallel to

is zero,
the ordinate.
the pressure
both the force and the velocity
vary as the ordinate.
Ex.
3.
Show
that a particle can describe a parabola under a repulsive force in
the focus varying as the distance and another force parallel to the axis always
three times the magnitude of the former.
describe the
Prove also that
if
two equal particles

their directions of
[Coll.
motion
will
same parabola under the action of these forces, always intersect on a fixed confocal parabola.
Ex.]
Ex. 4. If a curve be described under the action of a force pole and a normal force N, prove that
tending to the
'''|.("'-|) +
195.
is
'
l(^'|)=-
[Math. Tripo.l
Does the particle leave the curve ?

it
If the particle
a small ring which slides on the curve
is
obvious that
it
cannot separate from the curve.
In this case the pressure
R may
have any
sign.
If the particle slide on one side of the curve the pressure on
the particle must tend towards that side on which the particle
moves.
motion.
The pressure
suits this direction
must therefore have the sign which and must keep that sign throughout the
When
therefore the analytical expression for

(Art.
given
by the normal resolution

separates from the curve.
184) changes sign the particle
114
CONSTRAINED MOTION.
[CHAP. IV
Since the forces in nature cannot be infinite the points at which can change sign are found by putting R = in the normal
resolution.
Let
<f>
mf
be the resultant
force,
and
let its direction
make an angle
with the normal.
Then
<f>
^ = mf
r
cos
+ K.
by
The
possible points of separation are therefore given
v^=fpco8<l>.
Now
force
2/3
cos
^ is
the chord of curvature in the direction of the

one-fourth of
this
mf.
Representing
v^
chord
by
c,
the
equation becomes
= 2/b. Hence
the particle
is that
can leave the curve

to one-fourth the
only at a point such that the velocity
due
chord of curvature in the direction of the resultant force.
Art. 25.
196. Examples. Ex. 1. A heavy particle is suspended from a fixed point G by a string of length a. A horizontal velocity Vq is suddenly communicated to the
particle so that
it
begins to describe a vertical

will oscillate or the string
circle.
It is required to
determine
whether the particle
become
slack.
The equation
of vis viva
is
shows that the velocity v at an altitude y above the
lowest point of the circle
given by
i;2=V-25j/
(1).
The
tension
R is given by
v^
-=^ga
y-a
a
+ -;
(2).
R m
.^=v,^ + ag^-dgy
from
If the particle oscillate the velocity is zero at the extremities of th<e arc of
oscillation.
that the altitude of this point above the lowest becomes slack the tension vanishes at the point of separation. It follows from (2) that this occurs at an altitude {v^+ag)l3g above the lowest point. Tiiese points cannot be real points unless their altitudes are less than the diameter.
It follows
(1)
point
is
v^fig.
If the string
We
If
also notice that the altitude of the first of these points is greater or less
v,,' is
than that of the second according as
greater or less than 2ag.

particle
v^>5ag
v^<2ag
neither point is real.
The
must
-describe the
whole
circle
and the
If
string does not
become
slack.
the velocity vanishes at an altitude less than that at which the
tension vanishes.
slack.
The
particle therefore oscillates
and the
string does not
become
v^<.6ag but >2ag the string becomes slack before the velocity vanishes. and describes a parabola freely in space. If the particle, instead of being suspended by a string, were constrained to move like a bead on a vertical smooth circle of radius a the particle could not separate from the circle. It therefore oscillates or describes the whole circle
If
The
particle therefore leaves the circle
according as v^ < or
> âg.
ART. 197.]
MOVING CURVES.
115
Ex. 2. A bead can slide on a horizontal circle of radius a and is acted on only by the tension of an elastic string, the natural length of which is a, fixed to a point in the plane of the circle at a distance 2a from its centre find the condition that the bead may just go round. Prove that in this case the pressures at the extremities of the diameter through the fixed point will be twice and four times the weight of the bead if that weight be such as to stretch the string to double its
;
natural length.
heavy particle is allowed to slide down a smooth vertical circle of radius 27a from rest at the highest point. Show that on leaving the circle it moves in a parabola whose latus rectum is 16a. [Coll. Ex. 1895.]
Ex.
3.
Ex.
axis
is
4.
particle
horizontal.
moves on the outside of a smooth elliptic cylinder whose The major axis of the principal elliptic section is vertical and
is e.
the eccentricity of the section

generator,
If the particle start
from
rest
and move in a
<f>,
vertical plane, it will leave the cylinder at a point

e^ cos^
<p
eccentric angle is
where
= 3 cos <p-2.
on the highest whose [Coll. Ex. 1892.]
Ex.
concave
5.
A particle is projected
whose major axis 2a
horizontally from the lowest point of a smooth

is vertical
elliptic arc,
and moves under gravity along the
Prove that it will quit the curve at some point if the velocity of projection V is such that V- lies between 2â and ga (5 - e^), where e is the eccentricity; and if the velocity have the latter value, prove that the particle will continue to move round the ellipse in the periodic time
side.
\gj Jo \3-e' + 2coB^)

Ex.
6.
a smooth circular tube, moves under an from a point within the rim of the tube and in its plane. Prove that the pressure cannot vanish at any point if the particle is performing complete revolutions. [Coll. Ex. 1897.]
particle, projected inside
attractive force varying inversely as the square of the distance
197.
Moving curves of constraint.

plane.
To
find the equations
of motion of a particle constrained to slide on a curve

its
moving in
own
Let
be any point of the plane of the curve which it will be Let f be the acceleration of this point, then the motion relative to will be unchanged if we apply to every point of the curve and to the particle an acceleraconvenient to take as origin.
tion equal
and opposite
to that of 0.
If
we
also apply to every
point an initial velocity equal and opposite to that of 0,
we
may
regard
as a fixed point.
to rest.
The point
is then
said to have
been reduced
We shall
where 6
is
now take
as the origin of the polar coordinates
r, 0,
measured from a straight line 0^ fixed relatively to the curve. Let a> be the angular velocity of Of referred to a straight line Ox fixed in space. Let ^ be the angle the radius .82
116
vector r
CONSTRAINED MOTION.
[CHAP. IV.
of motion are
makes with the tangent.

<Pr
The equations
(dd /dd fdff

\dt
y
\ J
P
Q
E M R m
A
Y,
Id
r dt
.
'
^
forces,
where P, Q are the components of the impressed

those
.
andfi,/^
of/
foi^ms
These equations may be written in the
d^
1
(dOy
(
P
Q
[R
^dd\
d<o
^{R
= v cos
since
rdOJdt = v sin
(f>,
drjdt
<^.
These are the equations of motion we would have obtained if we had supposed the curve to be fixed in space and the particle to be acted on (in addition to the impressed forces) by three fictitious forces. The introduction of these forces is said to reduce the curve
to rest.
These
is
forces are, (1) the force Fi
reduced
to rest
(2) the force F^
= mf by which the origin = mco^r acting on the particle

;
along the radius vector from the origin
(3) Fs
= mr -^
acting
perpendicularly to the radius vector in the direction tending

to increase
6.
We
also observe that the expression
R 2ma)V
The
takes the place of the pressure of the curve on the particle.
Here
v represents the velocity relatively to the curve.

is
velocity in space
the resultant of v and the velocity of the
point of the curve occupied by the particle.
By
resolving the impressed
and the
fictitious forces
along the
tangent we obtain an equation free from the reaction, and from

this the velocity v of the particle relatively to the curve
may
be found.
This equation
dv
ds
is
By
norma inwards resolving the forces s along the normal
we have
= N + R- 2mo)V,
where
forces.
P
is
the normal component of the impressed and fictitious
This equation gives R.
ART. 199.]
TIME IN AN ARC. a uniform angular

velocity about
117
If
the curve turn with
an
origin fixed in space, these equations
become
Ydrj)
^m {v^
Tnv^
Vo^)
+ J(Xd^ + = ^mod^r- + U + C,
=Jma)^rdr
yfr
= mwV sin + ( Fcos

cf)
X sin
The
^fr)
R 2m(ov.
circular wire.
P
198.
Examples.
bead
is
Ex.
1.
A bead
can
slide freely
circle
on a smooth
Initially the
at rest at a point A.
that
uniform angular velocity about a point O when the bead is at a distance r from O, the pressure on the curve
then begins to turn with in the rim, where OA is a diameter. Prove
= mw2(3r2-4ar)/2a,
where a
is
the radius of the circle and
m the mass
of the bead.
To reduce the cir/ile to rest we apply the fictitious accelerating force F^ = u-r. Hence \v^=^byh^+C. Since the bead is initially at rest in space, it has a velocity relatively to the curve ?;= - w 2a when r=2a. Hence C = and v= -ur throughout the motion. To find the pressure, we have
.
=
a
-err.
jr- 4
2a
2wv.
Substituting for v its value, this gives the result.
Ex. 2. A bead is at rest on an equiangular spiral of angle a at a distance a from the pole. The spiral begins to turn round its pole with an angular velocity . Prove that the bead comes to a position of relative rest when ?'=acosa, and that the pressure is then \mu)'âsm2a.. Prove also that when the bead is again at its original distance from the pole, the pressure is mwâ sin a (3 + sin'-^ a).
199.
Time
of describing an arc.
heavy particle
is
in
Mahle equilibrium at the lowest point
of a smooth fixed curve.
Find
the time
of a small
oscillation.
Let ^ be the angle the normal at any point

with the vertical,
s
P near A
makes
the arc
AP,
sjp.
,
Then ^
is
ultimately equal to
d^s
.
p the radius of curvature at A. The equation of motion is

/s
T,
- = ^gsmc}> = -g{-^ + Bs'+...

s.
when
of
s.
sin
is
expanded in powers of
If the arc of oscillation is
sufficiently small
we may
reject all the
terms after the
first
powers
The time
of a complete oscillation is therefore 27r \/p/g.
The
time of oscillation is therefore the same as if the constraining curve were replaced by the circle of curvature at A.
When
motion by
it
is
necessary to take account of the small quantities

it is
of the order /,
more convenient
to replace the equation of
its first integral,
as in Art. 200.
118
Ex.
1.
CONSTRAINED MOTION.
[CHAP. IV.
particle
makes small
oscillations about a position of stable equi-
librium at the point

situated at a point
^ of a smooth curve under the attraction of a centre of C on the normal OAC to the curve, the magnitude of the
Prove that the time of oscillation
is 27r <7
force
force
being /(r) where
r=CP.
i{a
^r-=>
p)F)
where
F=f(a),
a=AC
taken positively
when C
is
on the convex
is
side of the curve
and
p=OA
Ex.
is
the radius of curvature.
Notice that the time
independent of the law
of force but depends

2.
its
on its magnitude F &t A. A smooth wire revolves with constant

plane and a bead
2ir
is
if
angular velocity
u about a
fixed
point in
in relative equilibrium on the wire at

slightly disturbed,
distance a from the fixed point ; prove that,
an apse at the period of a
small oscillation
the apse and
is
/ w V a-p
/
a
where p
'^
is
the radius of curvature of the wire at

[Coll.
is less
than
a.
Ex. 1887.]
Beduce the curve to
rest,
and use Art.
199.
200.
Time of
describing a finite arc.

of vis viva
is
By
using the
equation of vis viva the determination of the time can be reduced

to integration.
The equation
where V'=
point
<f>{bs,
y)
is
is
The constant G
known function of the known when the velocity

a
{h, k).
coordinates {x,
is
y\
given at some
B whose coordinates are
We
use the
known equations
of the curve to express any two of the variables x, y, s in terms of = '>^ (s). Hence the third. Choosing s as this variable we have
^2.t=j
ds
the integration being taken from one extremity of the arc described to the other.
aoi.
Ex.
1.
A heavy particle is projected

it
^4
centre 0, with such a velocity that
from a point A of a vertical circle, would come to rest at the highest point B.
to
Prove that the time of transit from
is
^ /-logrl- where BOA=a, cotja V

</
BOP=d and a is the radius. We

point
is infinite.
notice that the time of arriving at the highest
Ex. 2. Prove that the curve such that the time of descent of a heavy particle from rest at a given point A down any arc AP is equal to the time down the chord is a lemniscate. Taking
for origin
and using polar coordinates, 6 being measured from the
= 2
Diff erentiatmg
both sides and solving the differential equation we
find that
is
r^=4sin20.
The
be
condition that the lower limit on the left-hand side is zero
found on
trial to

ART. 202.]
satisfied
TIME IN AN ARC.
is
119
axis inclined at
J.
by this value of r. The required curve an angle of 45 to the vertical.

if
therefore a lemniscate with the
A. Serret remarks that
the ratio of the times were k
1,
the differential
equation would be
(F-l)(
+2ft2tan^r^ + (ft2tan2^-l)r2=0.
is
This quadratic gives drjrdd=f(d), and the solution
reduced to integration.
The
history of this problem is given in the Bulletin de la Societe Mathimatiques,

It
vol. XX. 1892.
was
xii.
first
solved by Euler in his Mecanique 1736 and afterwards

de Saint Petersbourg, 1824.
by Fuss in the Memoires

proof in Liouville,
(&c.
Bispal gives a geometrical
1847.
the time of describing from rest an arc from a given point

Liouville, vol. ix.
on by a centre of force varying as the distance. If A is equal to the time of describing the chord, prove that the curve is a lemniscate. Ossian Bonnet,
Ex.
3.
particle is acted
Ex.
4.
If the
down any
prove
2
s
arc
AP
time of descent of a heavy particle from rest at a given point A bears to the time of descent down the chord a ratio equal to
the ratio that the length of the arc bears to k times the length of the chord,
= Cy,
where y
is
the vertical ordinate of
P and C is a constant.
202.
Subject of integration infinite.
difficulty
finite arc
some-
times arises in finding the time of describing a

the velocity is zero at either limit.
AB if
B
Let a particle he projected
from a point
is zero.
in such a
manner
that the velocity of arrival at
It is required to find the time of describing the arc
AB.
determined by s = a, s h. Since the velocity at B is zero, we have C= "^(b). The time of describing the arc AB or BA is therefore given by
Let the points A,
Bhe
V2.(=f
the limits ot integration being
a, h.
^^
,,
The
subject, of integration is infinite at the limit s
= h,
but
the integral itself

express the work
may
a
bp
finite.
;
If
we
write s
=6+
o-,
we can
[7 in
seriv.:*
let
where n
is
the lowest power of
in the expansion.
(cr
The part
+
I
of the integral from s
=ha
to h
being small)
is
v^j
j-
This vanishes with

If,
o-
if
7i< 2 but
is infinite if
= 2 or > 2.
we have
as usually happens, Taylor's expansion holds true,
= l.
The time
to
or from a position of rest is then finite.
120
MOTION IN A CYCLOID.
[CHAP. IV.
If the point J? is a position of equilibrium as well as of rest,
we have d TJjds =
that
when
to
cr
= 0.
It follows
from Taylor's theorem

lie
n = 2.
The time
infinite.
If Taylor's
a theorem does not hold, n may
position of rest at equilibrium is therefore
between
and 2 and
Another
the time is then finite.

given oy Despeyrous in his Cours de Mecanique,
is
role,
useful
when
gravity
is
the acting farce.
If JB is a position of equilibrium the tangent at
is
horizontal.
point
Let p be the radius of curvature at B, 6 the angle the normal at any near B makes with the vertical. The equation of vis viva is then
(^P~y=2gp{i-oose).
The time
of describing a small angle a is therefore given
by
/2g\i
de
[o-d
The time of
at
transit
from
to
is therefore infinite unless the
radius of curvature p
is zero.
203.
curve
Szamples.
Ex.
1.
heavy particle
is
constrained to describe the

that the radius of curvature
x^+y^=a^,
the axis of y being vertical.
Show
at every cusp is zero.
Show
also that a particle projected from the lowest cusp

is
with a velocity {2ga)^ will arrive at the next cusp in a time which
three times
that of falling freely from rest at the origin to the lowest cusp. [Despeyrous' problem.]
Ex.
cycloid.
2.
The axes
small ring can slide freely on a smooth wire bent into the form of a of x and y being the tangent and normal at the vertex B, the
force function is given

by
U=My'^ where m
is positi\K is
and <1.
Prove that
if
the
from a point
is t
P whose ordinate
^
h with a velocity {2Mh"*)^ the
i-t i
time of arrival at
where
Mi (1 - m) = 2a* h
Ex.
3.
If the only force acting on the particle
is
gravity U=:gy.
Iiy=Ms^+ ...
prove that p = Ns^-^ +... where N-^ = Mn (n-1), provided n > 1. Hence n < 2 when p=0 and n=2 or is >2 when p is finite or infinite at the position of equilibrium.
Use the theorem
PW-=fs=\^-{fJ\
Motion in a
204.
cycloid.
heavy particle
is
constrained to move in a smooth
fixed cycloid whose plane
is vertical
and
vertex downwards.
It is
Let A, A' be the cusps,
the vertex,
OQD
a circle equal
to the generating circle placed with its
diameter on the axis OD,
ART. 204.]
FUNDAMENTAL PROPERTIES.
Let
121
its centre.
PQN
be a perpendicular on the axis drawn

cycloid.
from any point
on the
The
following geometrical
properties of the cycloid are given in treatises on the differential

calculus.
(1)
The tangent
is
at
is
parallel to the chord
OQ
and the
arc
OP
(2)
is
twice the chord OQ.

of curvature at
The radius
P is parallel to
'
the chord
QD
and
equal to twice that chord.
(3)
The
distance
Let the angle

rating circle.
(Art. 181)
PQ is QDO =
equal to the circular arc OQ.
(f),
and
let
a be the radius of the gene-
The
tangential and normal resolutions at
give
d^s
dt
-=-gsm(f} = -g
4a
.(1).
V''
= q cos ^ + R m
a>
The
first
equation shows at once that the motion

of a complete oscillation
is oscillatory.
Art. 118.
The time
is 47r
/- and
is
independent of the arc described.

instant at which the particle
Let
be measured from the
passes the vertex, let c be the

first
semi-arc
OB
of oscillation.
The
equation gives
It follows that if
two
particles oscillate in the
cycloids both starting from the vertex, the
same or in equal two arcs described
in equal times are in a constant ratio, viz. that of the complete

arcs.
If therefore the circumstances of the
motion of a particle
oscillating
from cusp to cusp are known, those of a particle
oscillating in
any smaller arc can be immediately deduced.
122
205.
If b
is
[CHAP. IV.
the depth below the cusp of the extremity
of
the arc of oscillation, we have by the principle of vis viva
v'=2g{2a-b-ON).
It follows at once
from the geometrical properties of the curve
that
R = 27ng cos "

<f>
The
first
term
is
twice the resolved weight of the particle along
the normal at
the second
is
the centrifugal force of a particle
moving uniformly with the

cusp of the extremity
206.
Examples.
Ex.
velocity
due to the depth below the
B
1.
of the arc of oscillation.
particle oscillates in a complete cycloid
from
cusp to cusp.
(1)
Prove the following properties.
The
velocity v at
any point
P is
equal to the resolved part of the velocity

v
at the vertex along the tangent at P,

(2)
i.e.
= Vcos<ji.
ODQ,
i.e.
The time
of describing an arc
OP is
proportional to the angle
(3)
V 4a
The
particle
moves
as
if it
were rigidly attached to the generating

d<l>ldt is
circle,
that circle being supposed to roll with a uniform angular velocity on the base AA'.
This follows from the last result because

(4)
constant.
of the
The
2.
centrifugal force at
weight along the normal at
any point P is equal to the resolved part P, and the pi'fessure is twice either of these.
Ex.
the time
of transit from
heavy particle starts from rest at a point ^ of a cycloid, prove that any point P to any point Q is given by
(*VI)
where p,
q,
I
are the depths of P,

circle.
Q and
the vertex below the level of A, and a
is
the radius of the generating
Ex. 3. A particle slides down a smooth cycloid starting from rest at the cusp. Prove that the whole acceleration at any instant is in magnitude equal to g and [Coll. Ex.] that its direction is towards the centre of the generating circle.
The required
Ex.
acceleration is equivalent to the resultant of g
and JJ/m; the
result follows at once

4.
from the triangle of accelerations.

is
smooth cycloid
;
placed with
its
axis
AB
inclined to the vertical,
and
its
convexity upwards
a particle begins to slide
down the
cuts at
arc from A,
and
leaves the curve at
as diameter, and
P QR
the perpendicular from
P on AB
the circle on
horizontal.
AB
is
a diameter of this circle ; prove that
PR
is
[Math. T. 1888.]
207.
When
n,
a pendulum
is
removed irom one place
to another
the number,
is
of oscillations in any given time (such as a day)
altered by the change in the f^rce of gravity
and the alteration
ART. 209.]
of the length
I
THE CONVERSE PROBLEM.

of the
123
pendulum due
to a change of temperature.
Since the
number
of oscillations in a given time varies inversely
as the time of a single oscillation,
we have
n^
= Ggjl
where
find
G is
some constant.
Taking the logarithmic

^ hn
differential,
we
Bg
Bl
I
n
This formula
of Bn.
is
a very ccJnvenient
first
approximation to the value
a08. Ex. 1. Prove that a seconds pendulum brought to the summit of a mountain x miles high loses about 22a; seconds per day if the attraction of the mountain can be neglected. If the mountain is of the form of table-land, the loss The length of the pendulum is supposed is only five-eighths of the above amount.
to be unaltered.
By Dr Young's
where a
Ex.
is
rule the attraction at the top of table-land is g
{l--r-\
nearly
the radius of the earth.
2.
railway train
is
running smoothly along a curve at the rate of 60

ordinarily oscillate seconds is observed
miles per hour, and a

to oscillate
pendulum which would
121 times in two minutes.
Show
that the radius of the curve is

[Coll.
approximately a quarter of a mile.
Ex. 1895.]
Ex.
3.
If the
moon
be in the zenith, prove that a seconds pendulum would be
losing at the rate of ^-J-^th of a second per day.
The moon
attracts the earth as well as the
pendulum and
its
disturbing effect is
measured by the difference of

pendulum.
This
is
its attractions' at
the centre of the earth

is
and
at the
is
-=-
r?
where M=-^j;E
the mass, and
r=60a
the
distance of the
moon.
1.
a09.
Ex.
heavy particle
oscillates
on a smooth
fixed curve,
is
and the
periods of oscillation in all arcs are the same.
Prove that the curve
a cycloid.
curve and
the time
Let the axis. of y be measured vertically upwards from the lowest point of the Let the equation of the curve be let T/ = /t be the initial value of y.
Since
s=f(y), where s is the arc measured from the lowest point. t of reaching the lowest point is .given by
'
v^=2g{h-y)
^h:9Put y = hz, then

Since the time
t is
(y)
dy
y)
^201 = h^
to be the
T
J
^ ^V/f v(i-'S)
same
for all values of h,
we have
dtldli0.
Hence
/:,v(fe)<?Af*'/'(*^)i=-
This equation requires that the second factor under the integral sign should be zero. If this were not true we could, by taking h small enough, make that factor keep the same sign, while hz varies from ^2=0 to hz = h. Every term of the integral
would then have the same sign and the sum could not be
zero.
Hence h^f
{hz) is
124
independent of
of h and
z.
h,
[CHAP. IV.
and therefore /'
(hz)
= M(hz)''^ where M is a constant independent

This
is
thus find by an easy integration that the &rcf{y) = 2My^. the equation of a cycloid having the line joining the cusps horizontal.
We
Ex. 2. A body of mass can slide on a perfectly smooth horizontal plane and has attached to it a thin tube in the vertical plane containing the centre of gravity. The form of the tube is such that the periods of the oscUlations of a particle of mass m placed in it are the same for all arcs. Prove that the form of
the tube
may
be derived from a cycloid by elongating the ordinates perpendicular
to the axis in the ratio

I'Acad., Paris, 1742.
^{M+m)IJM.
This problem
is
due to Clairaut; Mem. de
210.
Resisting medium.
If the particle
velocity,
oscillate
on a
smooth cycloid in a medium resisting as the equation of motion becomes

d's
the tangential
ds
where n^ = gj4ia. This problem has been discussed in Arts. 121 and 126. The interval between two successive passages through the lowest point is always the same and the successive arcs of descent and ascent are in geometrical progression.
If
is
the resistance vary as the square
of the
velocity,
the motion
discussed in Art. 129.

211.
Tautochronous curves.
When
a particle oscillates
on a given smooth curve either in a vacuum or in a medium whose resistance varies as the velocity, we know that the oscillation is tautochronous about the position of equilibrium if the tangential force F=m^s where s is the length of the arc measured from the position of equilibrium and m is a constant. Art. 118. If therefore any rectifiable curve is given a proper force to produce a tautochronous motion can at once be assigned.
catenary
is
a tautochronous curve for a force acting along
the ordinate equal to m^y because the resolved part along the tangent is obviously m^s.
spiral is tautochronous for a central force tending to the pole, because the resolved part along the tangent being m^s where m^ = fi cos^ a, the time of arrival at the
The equiangular
fir
pole
is
the same for
all arcs.
chronous curves
In the same way the epicycloid and hypocycloid are tautofor a central force tending from or to the centre
ART. 212.]
of the fixed circle
TAUTOCHRONOUS CURVES.
and varying as the
r2
125
distance, because since
= As^ + B,
viz.
the resolved part along the tangent,
firdr/ds, varies as
s.
In
is
all
these cases the time of arrival at the position of equilibrium

?i^
the least positive root of tan
= n//c
(Art. 121),
where 2kv
is
the resistance and n^

of
+ K^ = m^.
The whole time from one position

more
fully discussed in the author's
momentary
The
rest to the next is tt/w.
properties of tautochronous curves are
Rigid Dynamics.
A historical summary
cycloid.
luith
its
is
also there given.
212.
Rough
particle slides
from
rest
on a
rough cycloid placed

chronous.
axis vertical in a
medium whose
is tauto-
resistance varies as the velocity.
Prove that the motion
The descending motion

jCLv
is
given by
2kv,
fiRg sin (}>
- =Rgcos(f>
P
(1),
where v
is
really negative.
Eliminating
R
'
^ dt
where tan e = /*.
f!lv^
p
This
2KV
= 0, + -^sm(<b-) ^^
cos e
may be
written
(<^
^ (eH) + 2k (e-v) + -^ e sin

provided
-=-
- e) = 0,
e^
= fidhu
that
^
is
u=
g
fjL<f).
Put
/,
ds=dw;
\
dw
..x
Now
w = /e~'** 4a cos ^cZ^ = 4a cos e e"*** sin

therefore reduces to
{(f>
e).
The equation
d^w
dt^
dw
dt
qiu
4acos2
This
is
the linear equation, Art. 121.

is
We infer that at
placed at rest,
is
<f>
what-
ever point of the cycloid the particle

at the point
it
arrives
determined by
is
w = 0,
that
= ,
in the
same
time.
clearly
Such a motion
called tautochronous.
The point
is
an extreme position of equilibrium in which the limiting
friction just balances gravity.
126
MOTION IN A CIKCLE.
[chap. IV.
of
The time
of arrival at
E is given by the least positive root

where
n^
the equation tan nt
= u/k
particle
+ k^= gj4ia cos^

in the
e.
The whole
is tt/w.
time from one position of momentary rest to the next
So long as the
constant
//.
is
moving
retains
e-A**
the same sign.
same The motion
direction the
is
therefore
given by
sin (^
e) = Ae^"*
sin {nt
+ B).
^
When
the particle arrives at the next position of rest, it will begin

greater or less than the angle of friction.
to return or will remain there at rest according as the value of
at that point
is
Motion in a
213.
circle.
heavy particle
is vertical.
is
constrained to move in a fixed circle

to
whose plane
It is 7êquired
find the time of describing
an
arc.
Let
C be
the centre,
and
the
B the
circle,
lowest and highest points of
its radius.
Let
be the ^
position of the particle at any time
^*the angle
CBP.
Let the particle be projected from

the lowest point with a velocity V.
The equation
of vis viva gives
2fY-r^ =
2ga
(1
cos 2^).
velocity of projection is that
Let us put V^ = 2gh, so that the due to
a height h; we
the lowest point
also
is
put h = 2a.K\ If /c> 1, the velocity at more than sufficient to carry the particle
to the highest point of the circle, the particle therefore goes
continually round the circle in the same direction. If < 1 the velocity at the lowest point is insufficient to carry the particle
round the
circle,
the particle therefore oscillates.
If
/c
=l
the
particle arrives at the highest point with a velocity zero, but only
after an infinite time has elapsed. Art. 201.
Substituting for V^ in the equation of vis viva,
we have
(^)-
-A^J-'-^^'^
ART. 214]
If
t
THE ELLIPTIC INTEGRAL.
127
be the time of describing the arc angle 2^ at the centre, we have
AP
which subtends an
^JlH
where one d^ldt
If
/e
'o \/{ic^
sinî^)
.(3),
radical is positive
and the other has the same sign as
= 1,
the integral
is
a known form.
We
have
when ^ = \ir,
If /c> 1,
is
infinite so that the particle takes
an
infi^nite
time to reach the highest point.
we
write the integral in the form
'"
^"*''^"7FI^"
This
elliptic
integral* gives the time of describing the arc which
subtends an angle
at the highest point of the circle.

is
The time
of arriving at the highest point
found by writing ^tt for the
upper
limit.
214.
When k<1, we
put
/c
= sin a.
We
is
see from (2) that
sm (^
cannot exceed k and that the velocity
zero
when
sin
<j>
k',
the particle therefore oscillates on each side of the lowest point
through an arc
highest point.
to
^TT.
AD
or
AE
which subtends an angle a at the
We
Let sin ^ = /c sin yjr, so that i/r varies from zero then find after an easy substitution in (3)
V
This
JoOos<f>
Jo\/(l-K'smîr)
^^'
(f>
elliptic integral
yjr
determines the time of describing an angle

<f)
where ^ and
are related by the equation sin
= K sin
i|r.
We
can construct the angle ^jr geometrically.
Describe a circle
this circle in
with centre
chord
*
to touch
BD, and
i/r.
let
BP intersect
then the angle
BQG =
For another construction we draw a
AT'
equal to the chord

is referred
AP, then
the angle
GBP' =y\r.
The reader
to Prof. Greenhill's Treatise
on the applications of
elliptic functions.
He
begins with the problem of the simple circular pendulum as
i)eing the best introduction to the theory of these functions.
128
MOTION IN A CIRCLE.
In obtaining (6) we supposed the sign of cos
[CHAP. IV.
as that of the radical in (3)

d(f>/dt.
i/r to be the same and therefore the same as that of
Since cos
<f)
is
positive, it
then follows from (6) that

circle accord-
dyff/dt is positive.
The point Q
therefore travels round the circle,
being the lower or upper intersection of BP with the ing as P is moving from A to D or from to A.
215.
Series for the time of oscillation.

closely to the
We may approxi-
mate very
series.
If
time of a complete vibration by using a be this time, the formula (6) gives \T when the
upper limit
is ^tt.
We
have by the binomial theorem
By
a theorem in the integral calculus
*'(sin,^)d^
/.
= l-5--<2-l) 2.4.6... 2w
"2'
It immediately follows that
where k
= sin a and
is
is
the angle subtended at the highest point

It is also useful to
of the circle by the half-arc of oscillation.

notice that k of the circle.
the ratio of the chord of the half-arc to the diameter
The
first
term of
this series represents the
time of an
infinitely
small oscillation.
tions to this time,
The other terms
are regarded as small correc-
and are sometimes called the "reduction to The second term is usually a sufficient correction. Thus suppose the arc of oscillation on each side of the vertical to subtend an angle of 36 at the point of suspension, then a= 18 and k = -^. The second term is only about ^th and
infinitely small arcs."
the third -g^th of the

216.
first.
Relation between continuous and oscillatory motions. Comparing (5) and (6) we see that the integrals are the same except that the moduli K and 1/k are reciprocals. This leads to a theorem by which we connect a motion all round the circle with an oscillatory motion.
the formulae
Let two particles P, P' be projected from the lowest points A, A', of two circles a', and let these be acted on by unequal gravitational forces g and g'. be such that the moduli are reciprocals. Let the velocities of projection F, Then k being less than unity, we have V^=iagK\ V'^=ia'g'lK^. It then follows from
of radii a,
'
ART. 218.]
TWO KINDS OF MOTION.
129
arc equal to
what precedes that the particle P' travels round the circle and AD, where the angle DBA = a and K=siu a.
P oscillates in a semi-
Let P, P* be the positions of the particles when the angles ABP=<t>, A'B'P'=\j/, where sin = k sin ^. If t, t' be the times of describing the arcs AP, A'P* we have
\/
a'
"jo V(l-f'sin2^)'
V
*
^/(1-K^sin^^)'
therefore corre-
It follows therefore that
\/
,t'=''
\/
The points P, P'

it
spond
to
each other in the two motions, and
is
easy to see that they are
geometrically connected by the relation
chord
AP _Ka _
a'
chord
AD
chord A'P'
It is obviously
diavu A'B'
convenient that the particles should occupy corresponding points

the constants
a',
g',
at the
t=t'.
We therefore choose We then have g'la'=K^gla. The equations of

same instant of time.
/a
dd)
,
so that
motion take the forms
/a'/c^ dxl/
where the
If
circle.
coefficients
on the
left
hand
are equal.
particles to describe the same
we make the
radii equal
we can suppose both
We
then have
a'=a,
g'=K^g,
V'=-V, A'P'=-.AP.
217. Ex. 1. If the circle described by P' has AM for its diameter, prove that move 60 as to be always on the same horizontal line, the gravitational forces being g and git^ respectively.
P, P'
Ex,
that
2.
If the circles are equal
and the arc PP'
is
bisected by a point Q, prove

all points) is
Q moves on
"of
the circle as
if it
were a third heavy particle acted on by a gravi-
tational force
g"=gK.
The
velocity of
at
(and at
equal to the
mean
goes
the velocities of
P and P'.
Prove also that
goes half round while P'
all
round.
Sang, Edinburgh Trans. 1865, vol. 24.
These results follow at once from Art. 216.
318.
theorem
Kelations between two oaelllatory motioiis.

will serve as
The
investigation
of
these relations is properly a part of the theory of elliptic integrals, but the following
an example.
130
MOTION IN A CIRCLE.
[CHAP. IV.
two semi-arcs which
If r, T' be the periods of oscillation corresponding to
subtend angles
a,
a'
at the highest point of
the circle and so related that
sin a = (tan J o^, then will
T=T' (cos | a')^.

t
The half
the angle

Jocos^'
is
the angle the arc A'Q in the
figure of Art. 213 subtends at B'.
Eliminating
<p
we
find tan;^=
,26
'
^^
\j/
now change
the independent variable from

is to find
the shortest) method of effecting this
trigonometry both in terms of
d.
^ to 6. The simplest (though not df by differentiation and sin^ by The substitution is then obvious and we have*
v'(l-K2sin2^)
~r+Kjos/(l- X^ 8in2 6)
'
where
write
X= 2^^/(1 + f)' Kemembering that /c=sina and sin^ = K8in^, we now \=sina' and sin(^'=Xsin ^.
particles P, P' oscillate in the circle
a, a' at
Let two
times
t,
t',
APB
(p',
through arcs AD, AD' which
subtend angles
the highest point , then the last equation shows that the
are connected by the relation
of describing corresponding angles ^,

t
= 2t'l{l + K).
the figure of Art. 213.
To compare the changes of the values of these corresponding angles we refer to As P moves from ^ to D and back to A, Q travels round
to v,
the semicircle A'QB', 26 increases from
and ^' increases from
to
o'.
Thus the
of P'.
oscillation
i.e.
from
to
D and
back to
corresponds to the oscillation
to D' only,
a complete oscillation of P corresponds to half a complete oscillation If T, T' be the times of a complete oscillation of P, P*, we have therefore
T=T'1{1 + k).
The two angles
a, a'
are connected by the relation
2Jk ^ sma=X=Y-5^; 1+K

,
.-.
Jk= ^
lco8a' 1sma'
-.
Siuce K<:1 and

sin a
a'
<^'7r
we
take the lower sign in the value of i^k.

t
Hence
= (tan ^ a')^.
If a^, Og,
It follows also that

...
= 2t' (cos J a'f.
Ex,
be a series of angles connected by the relation

sina+i = (tanâ)2,
and
T^ be the time of a complete revolution in an arc subtending 4ai at the point of suspension, prove that
if
ri=(sec4oi secôj
.
...
toaD)^.2wiJ(alg).
[sang.]
219. Co-azial Circles. Two heavy particles, constrained to describe the same vertical circle, are projected from any two points with velocities due to their depths below the same horizontal line. It is required to prove that the straight
line joining the particles always touches a co-axial circle.
* Cayley's Elliptic Functions, Art. 243.
ART. 219.]
'
CO-AXIAL CIRCLES.
131
Let Oy be the radical axis of two co-axial circles whose centres are G, C. Let a tangent at any point T of one circle intersect the other in two points P, Q.
Let PM,
QN
he perpendiculars on the radical axis.
By
known property
of
co-axial circles the tangents the relations *
FT,
QT drawn
.
from points on the outer

. .
circle satisfy
PT^=2.
cc PM, gr2= 2 CC
QN.
In the time dt let the tangent move into the position P'TQ'. Then since the elementary arcs QQ', PP', make equal angles with the chord P'Q', the triangles
QTQ', PTP' are similar
hence
arc
QQ'la.TGPP'=QTIPT.
It follows
from these two geometrical theorems that

(veL of Qfl{vel. of
P)^= QNjPM.
.
If
then the point
move with a
.
velocity equal to (2^
PMy,
the point
Q must
move with
It follows that the points P, Q are the a velocity equal to {2g QN)^. positions of two particles moving with velocities due to their depths below Oy.
H
points
the radical axis
particles go
is external to the circle described by the particles, the round the circle. If the radical axis intersects the circle in the two and E, the particles oscillate in the same arc DAE.
In the figures the particles have been supposed to move the same way round the circle. If their directions are opposite the chord PQ envelopes a circle or a part of a co-axial circle situated above Oy.
*
The
properties of co-axial circles are fully discussed by geometrical
methods
in Lachlan's Modern Pure Geometry.
The
following is an analytical proof of the
property
PT^=2.GG'. PM.
be the distances of the centres G, C" from Oy, d the length of a tangent
to
Let
c, c'
drawn from
any
co-axial circle.
The equations
of the circles are therefore

(1),
x^-2c'x + y^ + 8^ =
x^-2cx+if + d^=0
If X,
(2).
y be any point
P external to
the
first circle,
PT
a tangent
Pr2=a;2-2c'j; + 2/2 + g2.

If
P lie on the
This
second circle this becomes 2

the result to be proved.
(c
- c') x by subtracting the second
equation.
is
132
MOTION IN A CIRCLE.
of contact
is
[CHAP. IV.
the ratio of the velocities at
The point
P, Q.
diviaes the chord
PQ in
That point
therefore the centre of gravity of two masses placed at P,
inversely proportional to the velocities at those points.
The ordinary
formulae for
the centre of gravity enable us to write

line. It follows, for
down the
Q.
distance of
from any straight
example, that the depth of
heloio
the radical axis is the
geometrical
mean of
the deptlis of
P and
and therefore of T, being known from the initial conditions, the circle enveloped by the chord touches PQ in T and has its centre in OA. The distance between the centres C, C may also be found from the
Some
positions of P, Q,
equation
chord,
it
PT^=2 CC PM.
. .
If x, x' are the initial depths of P, Q,
the initial
follows that
^(2 CC) = lj{>Jx + ^x').

.
Let the two particles P,
take the positions P', Q' after the lapse of any finite
time
time
*.
It follows that
a third particle
moving on the
circle
with a velocity due
to its depth below

t.
Oy
will describe
each of the
finite arcs PP',
QQ' in the same

to
By
adding or subtracting the time of describing the arc P'Q, we see that
i.e.
the times of describing PQ, P'Q',

circle, are equal.
the arcs cut off by
any two tangents
a co-axiat
When
L,
the radical axis
is
external to the system of circles there are two points
each side of Oy which are the positions of the two co-axial circles whose radii are zero. Since L is an evanescent circle the distance OX, is equal to
the tangent drawn from
straight line
U one on
to
any
co-axial circle.
Also, for the
same reason, any

which are
drawn through
divides the circle
APB
into two parts
described in equal times.
220.
Examples.
Ex.
1.
circle is
drawn
to touch at their middle points
the chord and arc of oscillation of a particle which is moving on a vertical circle under the action of gravity. Prove that a point on the first circle in the same
horizontal line with the particle moves with a velocity equal to 2i^{gr) sin^Ja cosj^
where r is the radius of the circle on which the particle moves and a, are the angles which the radius drawn to the particle makes with the vertical at the instant [Math. Tripos.] when it is stationary and at the instant considered. Ex.
its
2.
A particle
describes a vertical circle of radius a with a velocity due to
depth below the highest point B.
Prove that the radius of the
circle
enveloped
by the chord joining any two positions of the particle at a constant time interval T Prove also that the depth of the point of contact of the chord is alcosh.^{TJgla). and its envelope below B is 2a/cosh ^^ cosh I, where îsjafg and ^^s/^ls ^ê the
times from the lowest point of the extremities of the chord.
[Coll.
Ex. 1897.]
pro-
Ex.
inside
3.
Prove that
outside,
if
a particle move round a circle so that

its
its velocity is
portional to the product of
distances from two fixed points in the plane, one
and one
any
circle
drawn through them
divides the orbit into two
parts which are described in equal times. points are both inside, or both outside.
State the corresponding result
when the
Describe two consecutive circles through the fixed points A,

circle in
to cut the given
the points P, P' and Q, Q'; we shall prove that the times of describing the elementary arcs PP', QQ' are equal.
The distance between any two
parallel tangents to these co-axial circles is
easily seen to be proportional to the product
AP BP
.
where
is
the point of
ART. 220.]
contact of either.
to the time from
If
EXAMPLES.
then PR,
133
QS
are
secting the consecutive circle in
B and
S, the time of
any two normals to the circle moving from P
APQB
inter-
to ii is equal
to S.
circle
Because the given
and the
circle
^P^Qare
symmetrical about the straight
line joining their centres, the tangents PP', QQ'
make equal angles with the normals PR, QS; the lengths PP', QQ' are therefore proportional to PR, QS.
arcs PP', QQ', therefore, are also described in equal times.
The
Then PP' in the larger arc CD has a corresponding elementary arc QQ' in the smaller arc CD, and these are described in equal times. The times therefore of describing the smaller and larger
Let
be any one co-axial circle cutting the given circle in C, D.
describing all the co-axial circles, each elementary arc
arcs
ABCD
CD
are equal.
Wherever A, C, D and C", D'.

arcs
B may
be, let
It follows
two of the co-axial circles cut the given circle in from what precedes that the times of describing the
CC, DD'
4. is
are equal.
particle oscillates in
Ex.
tangent
a circular arc
BAD,
see
fig.
of Art. 219.
drawn from
to the co-axial circle to cut the arc of oscillation in X.

It follows
horizontal tangent to the same co-axial cuts the same arc in Y.
from
the theorem of Art. 219, that the time of moving from
to
i&
twice that
from
to Y.
Prove that this
is
equivalent to the theorem
where
sin^'=2sin^cos^(l-K2gin2^)4 (l-K2gin4^j-i_
[Cayley's Ellwtic Functions, Art. 249.]
CHAPTER
V.
MOTION IN ONE PLANE.

Moving Axes.
221.
The components
of velocity and acceleration along the
axes of coordinates, the tangent and normal to the path and in
some other directions have been already considered in Chapter I. The solution of the more difficult problems in dynamics requires however that we should have at our command a greater power of resolution than is given by these. We shall now investigate the general components for any moving axes in one plane.
222.
To avoid the continual
we
shall use the
sideration,
repetition of the same argument, term vector to represent the subject under conwhether it be a velocity or an acceleration.
Let us understand by a vector any quantity which has direction

as well as inagnitude, and which obeys the parallelogram law.
Thus the radius vector

velocity of
of a point
is
a vector and
y.
its
resolved
parts along the axes are the coordinates x and
Again the
a vector and
if
is
a vector, and
its
resolved parts along the axes
are dxjdt
and
dy/dt.
The
acceleration of
d'^y/dt^.
'\lr
P is also
Lastly
the resolved parts are d^x/dt^ and

vector whose direction
be any
x, its
makes an angle
with the axis of
components along the axes, supposed to be rectangular, are R cos y{r and R sin i/r.
223.
Fundamental theorem.
vector
having
been
resolved in the directions of two rectangula^r axes 0^, Oi] which
turn round a fixed origin in a given manner,
it is
required
to
find
the rates at which these components are increasing with the time.
Let
be the position of the moving point at any time
t.
Draw a
straight line
PQ
to represent the instantaneous direction
ART. 223.]
FUNDAMENTAL THEOREM.
Let
u, v
135
and magnitude of the vector R.
be the resolved parts of

Or,.
the vector in the directions of the axes 0^,
V'\
"^
Avill occupy a position P', the and may be represented by the vector M will become will turn round through a The axes Orj straight line P'Q'. Of, small angle d(f> and will take the positions Of, Otj'. The resolved parts of R + dR along these new axes will he u + du, and v + dv.
After a time
dt,
the point
R + dR
At
is
the time
the component of the vector in the direction

t
Of
u.
At the time
(u
+ dt
the component in the same direction

is
(i.e.
in the direction
Of not Of)
+ du) cos d(}> {v + dv) sin
d^.
u in the direction Of is found by subcomponent at the time t from that at the time t + dt and dividing by dt.
The
rate of increase of
tracting the
If
we represent the
rate of increase in the direction
Of by
Ui,
we have
M,
[{u
+ du) cos d(ji {v _ + dv) sin rf<^] u
When we
rf<^
reject the squares of small quantities according to the
rules of the differential calculus,

for sin d^.
we
d
dt
_ d^ dv '""dt^df
136
324.
This theorem
is
MOVING AXES.
of great
[CHAP. V.
importance and particular attention should be
given to the meaning of the letters.

the moving axis 0^
space which
is
The
rate of increase of
u in the direction of an axis fixed in

is left
is
ât
Its rate of increase in the direction of

i,
coincident with the position of OJ at the time

is
and which
.
behind when 0| moves into some other position 0^'

rate of increase not the former
-v
-7-
It is the latter
which
is
required in dynamics.
To make
this point clear let us suppose that
u represents the component
velocity of a point P.
Then
0|'\
"~\
_ /component along sd time t + dt
/component along timet
OA
/'
^comp. along 0^^ /comp. along 0^\ du-vd<p=('''^J^-^l'''i''^)-(' ^ \ tune t + dt J time t \

J
When
it is
necessary to distinguish between these two we
may
call the first the
relative rate
and the second the space
rate of increase of the vector.
225.
There
is
theorem which
into a
is another method of establishing the fundamental very generally used and which puts the argument
more algebraic form.
direction
Let the moving axis 0^ make an angle <}> with an arbitrary Ox fixed in space. Then if U be the component of the
vector along Ox,
U=u cos v sin

<j)
<}> ;
dU
dt
(du
dd)\ d<f>\
'
dtp a<p
dv\ av\
This gives the rate of increase in the direction of the fixed Let Ox coincide with 0^ and be left behind when 0| axis Ox.
moves into the position 0|', then <^ = By definition dU/dt = ih, and therefore
though
d(}>/dt is
not zero.
du
d(b
'"^^dt-'^tAgain moves
let
Ox
Or)'.
coincide with Orj and let
it
be
left
to
Since
(f>
is
the angle
0|
makes with
îj,
behind when Or) Ox measured
from Ox round
value of
d<f>{dt.
positively in the direction
the instantaneous
^ By
is
- ^-rr though
dU/dt
as before
is
it is
increasing at the rate
definition
now
v^,
and hence
dv
deb
ART. 227.]
226.
Ex.
1.
COMPONENTS OF ACCELERATION.
To deduce
the components of velocity
137
and acceleration along and
perpendicular to the radius vector, Art. 35.
We
Regarding ^=r,
the velocity are
take the arbitrary axis of | to coincide with the radius vector, then (p = 0. i; = as the components of the vector r, the space components of
d?
dt
'
dd
dt
dr
dt
d-n
^dd
dt
dd
dt
dt
Taking the velocity as a second vector, the components are u = drldt, v=rdOldt, and the space components of the acceleration are
du
Vr,=-z dt
do
v-Tdt
= dh
dt^
do ''^=di+''di
dv
dt\
dtj'
and normal,
Ex.
Art. 36.
2.
To deduce
the components of acceleration along the tangent
Taking the axis of

tion are therefore
^ parallel to the tangent,
be the vector, then u represents the velocity and ^ = 0.
we have (/. Let the velocity The components of accelerad\j/
_du d\}/ du '"'-Tt'^'Tt^'di'

227.
dv
d\p
^^^"'dt^'"'Tt-'''dt'
regard
to
To find the components of moving axes.
velocity
and
acceleration with
Let the position of the moving point

ordinates
T])
be given by
its co-
with regard to two rectangular axes 0^, Or} which {^, turn round a fixed origin with an angular velocity d<}>/dt. Let (u, v) be the components of the velocity of P parallel to the
Let (X, Y) be the components between (f, tj), (u, v), (X,Y) We have follow at once from the general theorem.
instantaneous positions of 0^,
Orj.
of the acceleration of P.
The
relations
"=*-"*
d(f>
d^
dr)
d4>
"-"di+^s
-IT-
^^>'
,,-,.
....
du
d(b
dv
d<b
^^dt-'Tf
by the former, we have
^=s+"a
(^^-
Substituting for u, v in the latter expressions their values given
dt'
^\dt)
ndtV.dtJ
.(C).
dP
If
the origin
is also
jp,
^\dtj '^^'dtV dtl]

in motion, these equations require
some
modification.
Let
q be the components of the space velocity
138
MOVING AXES.
[CHAP. V.
of the origin in the directions of the axes. Let u, v continue to represent the components of the space velocity of the point P.
To
find u, v
we add
to the expressions (A) for the relative
component
thus have
velocities the
component
d(l>
velocities of 0, Art. 10.
We
d^
dn
^d6
,.,.
;'=^+sf-'&'
''=+J+fi
P
(^)-
These equations give the motion of
referred to a system of
moving axes having any fixed origin but always remaining parallel to the original moving axes. With these values of u, v, the accelerations X, Y will continue to be expressed by the
formulse (B).
228.
We may deduce
the expressions (C) for the accelerations

^,
tj
X,Y
to
in terms of the coordinates
from the theory of
relative
motion, explained in Art. 10.
The motion
of
M together with that of M in space

is
in space is
made up
;
of the velocity relative

fig.
see
of Art. 223.
Now
OM
the radius vector of
M, and the component

and
^^',
velocities in
the directions
OM,
MP
are |'
while the accelerations in
the same directions are
r-W'
and
j^^(rf)
where accents represent differentiations with regard to the time. Again regarding as fixed, MP is the radius vector of P, hence the component velocities of P along and parallel to MO (not OM) are tj' and tj^', while the accelerations in the same directions
MP
are t]"
ijcf)'^
and -
-^
{rj^
<f)').
Adding together these components,

.
we obviously obtain the values

Art. 227.
of w, v;
X,
already given in
229. Relative and actual patb. When the motion of a point is referred to moving axes 0|, Orj it is necessary to distinguish between the path in space and the
path
relative to the
moving axes.
Suppose a sheet of paper to be attached
to the
moving axes and to turn round the fixed point with them. The point P traces out on this sheet the relative path which is not the same as that traced out on a
sheet fixed in space.
The coordinates
of
in the relative
motion are
(^,
ij)
and the displacements
parallel to these axes are df
and
dr^.
The
direction of the tangent of the relative
path and the radius of curvature of that path are therefore found by the ordinary rules of the differential calculus. The coordinates of P in the path in space are
also
(^, 7j),
but the displacements have just been proved to be d^-7jd<p and

dij
dri
+ ^dip.
These must be used instead of dx and
in the formulce of the differential calculus.
ART. 231.]
RELATIVE AND ACTUAL PATH.
139
Let us represent by accents the differential coefficients with regard to any

independent variable
motion of
for
t.
The formulae of
the differential calculus giving the space
referred to fixed axes
may
he adapted to
v=:r}'
x', y' respectively,
where u=^' -T](p',
Ui = u' -Vip',
+ ^^', and ztj, Vi = v' + U(p'.
moving axes by writing v^^for x", y" where
u,
Thus,
if
TJ/,
X be
the angles the tangents to the relative and actual paths

the radii of curvature of these paths,
make
with 0^, and
p,
R be
we have
tan^=p,
tanx =
(u2
j.,
^,
-V'.
When we
apply Mnematical theorems to purely geometrical properties in which

is
the idea of time
absent,
we regard
as
to represent the independent variable.

variable,
If
an auxiliary arbitrary quantity introduced we wish the arc s to be the independent

Let P, P' be the
we
write t=s.
The
effect of
these changes
may
be exhibited in a figure.
at
positions in space of the
moving point
the times
t,
+ dt, and
0|, 0^' the positions
of the axis of reference at the If
same
times.
PM, P'N
be perpendiculars on 0^, 0|',
we have
0M=^, ON=^ + d^, MP=-n, NP'=-n + dri

Let P'M',
(A).
PH
be perpendiculars on 0^
and P'M'
respectively.
The coordinates of
Or) fixed in
P, P' referred to axes 0^,
space for a time dt are
0M=^, OM' = ^ + d^-i}d<j>,
MP =
ri,
M'P' = ri + dri + ^d<t>
(B).
These values of 3IM', P'H follow at once from Art. 223, but they may be obtained by projecting the broken line ON, NP' on Of, 0-q. If x ^^ t^G angle the tangent PP' makes with Of and dtr the arc PP', we have tan x^P'HjPff and
(da-)'^
= {P'H)^ + (PH)^, and

Many
these by substitution from (B) lead to the
same
results
as before.
230.
of the formulse used in the differential calculus
may
be inferred
For example, the formul for the radius of curvature in polar coordinates may be written down by simply resolving the polar accelerations of Art. 35 along the tangent and equating the result to V'-^jR. The expressions for R in Cartesian moving and fixed axes may be obtained in the same way.
by resolving the accelerations in different directions.
231.
Examples.
Ex.
1.
The
position of a point
is
referred to rectan-
gular axes Q^, Qri which move so that Q describes a given curve AQ while Q^ is always a tangent to
the curve.
Prove that the component and accelerations of P are

=s'-t-f'-i7^',
v=y]' +
^<t>',
velocities
X=u'- V(p',
Y=v'-\- u<f>',
,
where ^' is the angular velocity of f and (p' = s'jp. Deduce an expression for the radius of curvature of the space locus of P.
140
Ex.
is 2.
MOVING AXES.
A
particle
[CHAP. V.
I
P is attached
to the extremity of a string of length
which
being
wound on
to a fixed curve after the
mannei^ of an involute.
Prove that
the component accelerations of of the string are respectively
P along
and perpendicular
to the straight portion ^
where ^'
is
the angular velocity of
|.
Also ^'= -^'Ip.
Ex. 3. Assuming the earth to be uniformly describing a circle of radius a about the sun with velocity U, and the sun to be moving in a straight line in the
plane of the earth's orbit with a uniform velocity V, prove, that the radius of
. **v. , *v.. u-*curvature at any point of the earth s orbit ""^
.
m space
'^
is
{V^ + 2VUsme+U^)â
^v^-rrf
U^(U+V smd)

77.
7:7^
where
6 is the angle the line joining the earth
and sun makes with the
direction of the
[Coll.
sun's motion.
Ex. 1892.]
its
Ex.
4.
fine string
wound round a
circle
has a particle
its
attached to
extremity and the circle
is
constrained to turn round
centre in its
own plane
with a uniform angular velocity w. The particle is initially in contact with the If | be the length of string circle and has a velocity V normal to the circle. unwound at the time t, prove that ^=a^<aH^ + 2aVt.
Ex.
5.
particle
P is
attached by a rod
PA
without mass to the extremity of
another rod AB, n times as long, which revolves about the other extremity B, the
rods,
whole motion taking place in a horizontal plane. If 6 be the inclination of the w the angular velocity of ^B at the time t, prove that
^ + ^+n(^cose +
dt^
dt
\dt
ux'sine\=0. J
232. Oblique axes. The general method of finding the resolved velocities and accelerations of a point referred to moving axes may be extended to oblique axes. These extensions however are not of any great importance because oblique
axes are seldom used in mechanics.
Let 0|, Or) be any two axes which make angles 6, <p with an axis Ox fixed in These angles we shall suppose to be perfectly arbitrary so that the angle Ôt) between the axes is not necessarily constant. See figure of Art. 223.
space.
Let
PQ
represent any vector
u, v its
components obtained by oblique resoluLet Uj,

t>i
,
tion according to the parallelogram law.

of increase of the
represent as before the rates
components
of the vector in directions fixed in space but coint.
cident with the positions of Of, Orj at the time
Let us resolve the vector in a direction perpendicular to Of. The resolved parts of Uj and v^ are clearly zero and Vj sin {<p-d). Since ^0^'=d6, 17O1;' = d^, the
resolution gives
. ,
Uj sin (^
/,
^)
d>-d + dd>)]-[v sin ^-^ = Uu + du) sin dd + (v + dv) sin -z~

^ ' (
{d>- 6)]
dd
dv
dd>
By
resolving in a direction perpendicular to Or)

1/1
we obtain in the same way

It
, -V sm (4> - e)=
.
dd>
du
,
sin
{<p-d)-
cos
{^-d)j-.
..
d&
ART. 234.]
If f ,
77
HYPER-ACCELERATIONS.
141
are the oblique coordinates of P, the space velocities u, v oi
are
similarly
usm{<t>-e)=
-7]
~ + âin{(f>-0)-^cos{tf>-d)
and
The advantage
of resolving perpendicularly to 0^
Orj is that
only one of
thus obtain each indepenthe components Ui, v^, enters into the resolution. dently of the other. If we resolve in the directions 0^, Or) we obtain the values
of
2*1
We
+ ^1 cos
((f)
- d) and
v^
+ ti^ cos
were
{<p
- d) and, from
these, j
and
u^
can be obtained
by solving the equations.

These values of
1861.
u^, v^
first
given by H.
W. Watson
in the Math. Tripos of
233.
coefficients
Hyper-accelerations. It is seldom that we use higher differential with regard to the time than the second, Art. 21. When these are
required the general theorem on vectors (Art. 223) gives the components for differential coefficients of
any
order.
y be the coordinates of a moving point referred to fixed axes, then X^^d^xjdt'"', Y^=d^yldt^ are the components of the space hyper-acceleration of the n^^ order, Art. 21. Let 0|, O17 be any set of moving axes, the relations between the space components of two successive orders of acceleration are
Let
X,
"+^~ dT "
^'*
dt
'
-^"+1- dt "*'^" dt
The reader may consult a Note Sur Us Principes de la Mecanique by Abel Transon, Liouville's Journal, vol. x. 1845, for another mode of treatment.
Ex. 1. A point moves along a curve with velocity u, prove that the components along the tangent and normal of the adceleration of the third order are, respectively
d^M
dt2
u^
d /u^\
Ex.
tan
2.
point
P
5,
moves along a curve with uniform

5'
velocity.
Prove that
5=1 cot 5' where
are the angles the diameter of the parabola of closest
contact and the direction of the hyper-acceleration
make with
5.
the normal at P.
Show
also that the semi-latus rectum of this parabola is p cos^
D'Alembert's Principle.
234.
When
a single particle moves under the action of given
motion may in general be found by resome convenient directions. In the case of a system of particles the mutual reactions must also be taken into the account; these are in general unknown and will have
forces the equations of
solving the forces in
to be eliminated from the equations. to write

first
It is important to be able
down some
of the results of this elimination without
forming the equations of motion of every particle.
Various
142
d'alembert's principle.
to
effect
[chap. v.
methods have been given

partially.
this
either completely or
When
in a statical problem,
we wish
to avoid introducing into
our equations the mutual reactions of two bodies,
we
treat the
two as one system. We resolve and take moments for the two We may adopt the same method in bodies as if they were one.
dynamics.
235.
convenient to use the term

as follows.
In applying this principle to dynam'ics, This effective force.
it
will
be found
defined
may be
moving as part of a system, it is acted on by the external forces and the reactions of the other
a particle
is
When
we
all
particles.
If
consider this particle to be separated from the
S3fstem
and
these forces removed there
is
some one
force
which, with the same initial conditions, would
make
it
move
in
the same
way
as before.
This force
is
called the effective force on
the particle.
It follows that the effective force is statically equivalent to
the impressed forces which act on the particle and the reactions
of the rest of the system, but
is
differently expressed.
Let
be the mass of the
particle, {x, y)
the Cartesian. coordinates; the
components of the force which must act to produce any given motion have been proved to be 7rid^x/dt^ and md^y/dt^, these then In the same way if v are the components of the effective force. be the velocity and 1/p the curvature of the path, the tangential and normal components ,of the effective force are mdv/dt and mv^/p.
See Art. 68.
236.
Considering any one particle of the system,
we know
that the resolved parts of the effective forces in any directions
are equal to the corresponding resolved parts of the impressed

forces
forces
and the
on each
reactions.
It immediately follows that the effective
particle, if reversed, are in equilibrium
with the
impressed forces and the reactions.
But, by Newton's third law,
the mutual reactions of any two particles are in equilibrium.

selection of the particles of a system, the reversed of those particles are in equilibrium with the external forces which act on them, excluding their mutual reactions, but including the pressures (.if any) of the remainder of the system.
Making
then
any
effective forces
ART. 238.]
RESOLUTIONS AND MOMENTS.
1.43
Some
of the equations ot motion
may therefore be found
(1)
by
equating the
sum
of the resolved parts of the effective forces in
any convenient directions to the sum of the resolved parts of the external forces, (2) by equating the sum of the moments of the effective forces about any point to the sum of the moments of
the external forces.
The
effective
resolved parts and
moments
of the external forces
may
be written down by the rules of

forces
statics.
The components
of the
in various directions
have been found in the

then follows
preceding
articles.
The moment about any point
by multiplying that component by the length of the perpendicular

from 0, Art.
If
6.
(a?!, 2/1),
{x2,
2/2)
&c. are the Cartesian coordinates of a system
of mutually attracting particles whose masses are

if
m^
m^
are
&c.,
and
these are acted on by the external accelerating forces (Xi, Fi),
(X2, Fg) &c., the equations of resolution and
moments
where the S implies summation

237.
If
for all the particles.

to resolutions
So long as we confine our attention
and moments
it is
unnecessary to include the mutual actions of the particles under consideration.
however we use the principle of virtual
velocities to express the conditions of
equilibrium
together.
we must remember
that the particles
may
not be rigidly connected

obvious
Now
the work of two equal and opposite forces F, - F, acting on two
particles distant r
from each other
is
proved in statics to be Fdr.

is
It is
is
that this does not vanish unless the distance r

tant in using the principle of vis viva.
invariable.
This point
impor-
The most convenient way of applying the principle of Virtual Velocities to Dynamical problems is to use Lagrange's equations.
238.
When
the selected system of particles
is
it
a rigid body,
are invariable.
the mutual distances of the particles composing

It is
proved in statics that the position of such a body in
space of two dimensions can be defined by three quantities usually

called coordinates.
coordinates of
For example, these might be the Cartesian some point and the angle which some straight line fixed in the body makes with some straight line fixed in space. Three independent equations of motion, free from mutual
144
[chap. v.
and sufficient to determine the any time t. These three are supplied by the two resolutions and the equation of moments above
reactions, are therefore necessary
position of the system at
described.
It
is
proved in statics that a system of forces can be reduced
to a single force
acting at some convenient point

of the force
and a
couple G.
The components
R are equal to the sums

G
0.
of the components of all the forces of the system, and the couple
is
equal to the
sum
of their of
moments about
This
is
usually
called Poinsot's
method
compounding
forces.
We
shall
now
apply this method to find the resultants of a system of effective

forces.
239.
of two dimensions.
(^, y),
system of particles, rigidly connected, moves in space The coordinates of the centre of gravity are
the angle which a straight line fixed in the body makes
and the whole mass is M. with a straight line fixed in space is It is required to prove that the effective forces of the whole system
are equivalent
to
two
effective
forces
M^-^, -^ lin
^c**''5'
* ^^^
centre of gravity,
and an
effective
couple MT{?
-~
where Ml?
is
constant which depends on the

system.
form and
structure of the body or
Let m be the mass of any particle of the body, x = x + ^, y = y + r} be its coordinates. Then since Xm^/'Em, Xmrj/lm are
the coordinates of the centre of gravity referred to the centre of
gravity as origin,
it is clear
that
1m^ = 0,
2m?;
= 0.
The sum
the axis of cc
of the resolved parts of the effective forces parallel to

is
The resolved part parallel to the axis of y may be found in the same way. These two effective forces are the same a^ the effective placed at the centre of gravity forces of a particle whose mass is and moving with that point in space.
240.
To
find the effective couple
the centre of gravity.
we take moments about Remembering that ^, nj are the coordinates
ART. 241.]
of the particle
THE EFFECTIVE COUPLE.
145
when
referred to the centrie of gravity, the
couple
is
Since
term.
^m^ = 0,
Let
is
Smi; = 0, the right-hand side reduces to the
first
p^
6 be the polar coordinates of the particle m, referred
to the centre of gravity as origin, then ^drj
rjd^ = pdd. The
coupl^
therefore
We
shall
now
is
introduce
the condition that the particles are
rigidly connected together.
When
d<f>/dt,
this is the case
every particle
equal to
the dd/dt of and the length of every p is
constant during the motion.

vector p of any particle = ^ + ol the body, then
particle, yet its value
For, let a be the angle the radius
makes with the straight line fixed in Though o may be different for every
JaJL
does not change during the motion, hence
da/dt =
0,
and dOjdt = d^/dt.
The
effective couple is (Smp^) -j^
241.
The constant
"ZmpP is called the
moment
of inertia of
the system about an axis drawn through the centre of gravity

perpendicularly to the plane containing the particles.^
To find we multiply
from
the
moment of inertia of any system about any aans, mass of every particle by the square of its distance axis and add the results together.
the the
When
continuous body, the
the particles are so close together that they form a sum is an integral. Thus for a circular
is
area of radius a and density D, the area of any element
pdddp;
hence the
moment
of inertia
about an axis drawn through the
centre perpendicular to its plane is
Xmp^==JJDpd0dp
.p'
= D [Ip*]
[d],
where the square brackets imply that the quantity is to be taken between the limits of integration. These limits being p = to a, and ^ = to 27r, the moment of inertia about the centre is ^Ma\ In the same way the moment of inertia of a rectangle whose 2a and 26 about an axis drawn through the centre of
is
sides are
gravity perpendicular to its plane
^M{a^ + ).
146
[chap. V,
The moment
is
of inertia of a sphere of radius
a about a diameter
^Ma\
The moment
of inertia of a triangular area about any axis
its
is
the same as that of three particles each one-third of placed at the middle points of the sides.
243.
for,
mass
The moment
of inertia is of special importance in rotational motiouB,

it
in a certain sense,
structure of the
moving body.
measures the dynamical significance of the form and Thus all free bodies having equal moments of
inertia rotate with equal angular accelerations
The
translational motion depends
when acted on by equal couples. on the mass and the position of the centre of
gravity, Arts. 92, 239.
243. Buffieieney of tbe eqnatldns. moving freely are

dt2-^'
where X,
The equations
of
motion of a
particle
dt^~
'
Y are
that
the accelerating components of the forces. Arts. 68, 73.
We
shall
values of x, y, dxjdt, dyldt are also given, these equations are sufficient to find x, y as functions of t.
initial
now prove
when the
we
To prove
this
replace the proposition by a
more general theorem, the

(t),
limit-
ing case of which
is
the proposition to be established.

dt.
Let t be any very small

y = ^{t); the equations
time which we shall afterwards replace by
Let x = <l>
may
be written in the functional forms

4,{t
+ 2r)-2,p{t + T) ^(t + 2r)-2f ( + t)

(t) = XT') + vJ'(0=M

(t).
where X,
Y are known functions of

^(0),
and ^
Bepresenting the initial time hy t=0, we suppose that the four

v('(0),
initial values
(2)
;
0(r)-0(O),
^f'(r)-^f^{0)
<ft
are given.
Patting
t=0
in (1)
t=T
vfe
obtain
(3t),
^{3t),
ij/
process the values
of,
^ (nr),
we deduce the values of (2t), ^ (2t) again putting and so on. Thus by a continual repetition of the (nr) and therefore of <p (t), {t) can be found.
yj/
That the solution of the two equations of motion of the second order leads to results which contain four arbitrary constants (to be determined by the initial conditions) is also proved in treatises on differential equations; see Forsyth's
Differential Equations, Art. 173.
244. On general and particular integrals. motion of a free particle are x"=X, y" = Y
The Cartesian equations

(1),
of
where accents denote differential coefficients with regard to the time. These are usually solved by. combining them together so as to obtain a perfect differential. We then have by integration
F(x,
y, x', y',
t)
=G
(2),
where C is a constant. When an integral is obtained in this manner there is nothing to limit the initial conditions. However the particle may be projected the
ART. 246.]
equation
is
(2),
ON GENERAL INTEGRALS.
after determining the proper value of C,
147
whole motion.
Such an integral
is
called a general integral.
must be true throughout the An integral which

integral.
true only for special initial conditions is called
a particular
246.
equation
is
If
any equation such as
(2)
be arbitrarily written
down
containing one
arbitrary constant
we may enquire
integral.
ichat the dijnamical problem is of
which that
a general
this
To answer
we
differentiate (2)
and substitute from
(1).
We then have
(3).
dF
dF
rf^"+d^2/'
motion the quantities
fore be such as to
+ ^,^+^,l^+^ =
t
dF ^ dF^^ dF
Since the state of motion at any time
may
be taken as the arbitrary initial
x, y, x', y' are really arbitrary.

(3)
The
forces X,
Y must
there-
make
an
identity.
To determine X, Y we
differentiate (3) partially with regard to
any of the four
letters x, y, x', y', treating the others as constants.
Supposing that X,
are
intended to be functions of
tiations, several equations
x,
partially with regard to x', y'.
y only, they are constants when we differentiate In this way we may obtain, by successive differen-
each containing
X,Y in
the
first
degree.
infer that the given
If these equations lead to inconsistent values of X,
Y we Y
equation cannot be a general integral.

It
may
also
happen that
all
the equations to find X,

integral (2) has the
are identical, and in
this case the forces X,
Y are
to a certain extent arbitrary.
Bertrand has shown
that this can
happen only when the
form
(4).
(xy'-x'yY+f{^^ = C
This therefore, when X,
integral
are functions of x, y only, is the only general

several
which can be common to

If x'^ + y'^-2f{x, y)
dynamical problems.
Limiville's
Journal, 1852.
Ex.
1.
=C
be taken as the general integral, prove that
Xdffdx, Y=d/ldy.
Ex.
2.
This
is
the equation of vis viva.
Prove that
xy'^x'y=C with
the upper sign cannot be a general
integral; but, with the lower sign, is a general integral
when
the resultant force
tends to the origin.
The Principle of Vis Viva.

246.
particles.
To
investigate the principle of vis viva
for a system of
Besides the external forces which act on the several particles
we must here take

actions.
into account their
mutual actions and
re-
Let
let
X,
be the mass of any one particle x, y its coordinates be the components of all the forces which act on that
;
148
particle.
THE PRINCIPLE OF VIS VIVA.
[CHAP. V.
The equations
of motion of that particle are
^rf^ = ^'
we have
/dos
"^dh^
^^>-
Multiplying these by dx/dt and dy/dt respectively and adding the

results,
d^x
dy d^y\
dx
^^
dy\
,_.
Summing
this for all the particles of the system,
we have
{'^\
(dx d'x
dy d'y\
^"^[didt^-^drtdf^j-^v^dt^^^t)
_v(x^'^4.VÂ
^^>-
The right-hand side of this equation, after multiplication by dt, is the work done by the forces as the system makes a small displacement, Art. 185.
Amongst the
on the several
forces
X,
Y are
it is
included the
clear that
unknown
r'eactions
particles,
but
right-hand side all the reactions

principle of work in
statics.
we may omit from which would disappear in
the
the
When
where
the remaining forces are such that the work integral
fZ(Xdx + Ydy) = U+C

?7 is
these forces are said to form
(4),
a known function of the coordinates of the particles,
a conservative system.
Art. 181.
Representing by v the velocity of the particle m, the integral

of (3) becomes
^tmv^^=U+G
(5).
Let Uo be the same function of the initial coordinates that ?7 is of the coordinates at the time t, and let Vq be the initial value of V. The equation of vis viva may also be written in the form
^Xmv^-^tmvo''==U-Uo
247.
reasons.
(1)
(6).
The The
principle
of
vis
viva
is
important
for
several
principle
is
of general application.
is
The
forces in
nature are such that there
a work function, and the unknown
reactions, in general, disappear from the equation. (2)
When
there
is
is
only one
way
in
which the system can
move, that motion
determined by the principle.
ART. 249.]
(3)
THE FORCE FUNCTION.

principle gives a relation
149
The
of the motion in
the initial stage.
between the circumstances any stated position of the system and those at When the intermediate motion is not required
this is particularly important.
248.
effected.
The
force fanetion.
The equation
of vis viva can be usefully
em-
ployed only
when the
integrations necessary to obtain the force function XJ can be
It is also
important to notice beforehand what forces and reactions
may
be omitted in forming that equation.
The acting
(1)
forces
may
be
classified thus,
the external forces which act on the particles, the mutual actions of such of the particles as are rigidly connected
(2)
together,
(3)
(4)
the mutual attractions of independent particles,
the pressures due to any fixed curve or surface on which some of the
particles are constrained to
move.
The external
It follows
forces are in general central forces tending to or

that,
from fixed points.
from Art. 186
from the fixed point,

integrated.
some function of the distance the contribution of each to the work function can be
force is
when each
Let
apart
It is
is r,
R be the mutual action between two particles whose instantaneous distance and let R be measured positively when the action tends to increase r.
statics that the
proved in
work of both the action and reaction
is
Rdr.
between any two particles which keep an invariable distance from each other throughout the motion disappears' from the equation of vis viva, for in such a case dr=0.
It follows
from
this that the, reaction
If
any two independent
particles repel
each other with a force
which
is
known function
If
is
of their distance r, the contribution of this force to the
work
function can be integrated.

tiDo particles
are connected together by a tight string, even
if is
bent by passing
over smooth pulleys, fixed or moveable, the work of the tension the whole length of the string.
is zero.
- Tdl, where
If the length of the string is invariable the
work

Art. 187.
an inextensible string may therefore be omitted in the string is extensible and the tension obeys Hooke's law, the corresponding work can be found by integrating -Tdl, see
The action
of
If
249.
If
one
is
oi the particles is constrained to
move on a smooth fixed curve
whose equation
R cos
<l>
ds
is f{x, y)=0, let R be the n6rmal pressure. The work of this is zero because <f>, being the angle between the direction of 22 and
the arc of the path, is | tt. If however the curve is itself constrained to move, the angle tf> is not necessarily a right angle and the work may not be zero. Since the
equation of the moving curve will contain

are to disappear.
t,
this is usually expressed
by saying
that the geometrical relations must not contain the time explicitly, if the reactions
If the curve or surface is rough, the friction acts along the tangent to the path,
and the work
is
zero only
when
the particle in contact
is
not in motion.
150
[CHAP. V.
Energy. Selecting some geometrically poasible ar250. rangement of the particles as a standard position, the work done by the forces as the particles move or are moved from any other given arrangement to the standard position is called the potential
energy in the given position.
Let the standard position be called S let the system move from some given initial position \4 and at the time < let its position be P. It has already been proved (Arts. 69, 246) that
;
Kin. En. at
But
:.
Kin. En.
follows
A = work A to P. Pot. En. at P = work P to S, Pot. En. at J. = work A to S. at P + Pot. En. at P = Kin. En. at ^ + Pot. En. at A.
P - Kin. En.
at
It
therefore that
the
sum of
th0> kinetic
and
potential
energies is constant throughout the motion.
This
sum
is called
the
energy of the system, and
it
has just been proved that the energy

its initial value.
of the system
chosen, but
is constant
and equal to
This theorem
it will
is true whatever standard position may be be found convenient to so choose this position
that the system
may
finally arrive there.
When
this choice is
made
the potential energy represents the whole work which can

its
be obtained from the forces as the system moves to

position.
final
251.
As a simple example,
of a room
let
a heavy particle
;
fall
from rest
at the ceiling
to the floor
the kinetic energy after
Let us take the floor (i.e. z = h) as the standard position, because the particle cannot descend any lower; the potential energy at the depth z is
falling a distance z is
îv^ = mgz.
mg (h z).
throughout the motion.

floor
The whole energy is therefore mgh, which is constant At the ceiling the energy is wholly
;
potential because the particle starts from rest
on arriving at the
the
energy
is
wholly kinetic,
all
the available potential
energy having been changed into kinetic energy.

252.
free
to
Degrees of freedom. If a system move in space of two dimensions, its
contain n particles
position can only
be defined by the use of the 2n coordinates of the particles. There are evidently just 2n different ways in which the particles can be moved,
all
other displacements being compounded of these.
ART. 253.]
VIS VIVA OF
is
A BODY.
If
151
The system
then said to have 2n degrees of freedom.
some
of the particles are constrained to
move on k given
are
curves, or
more generally
if
there are k given relations between the 2w
coordinates, only
2n
coordinates
necessary to
fix
the
position of the system and there are then 2n
degrees of
freedom.
the
The degrees of freedom of a system
may
be defined to be
mmiber of coordinates required

253.
to fix its position.
Vis viva of a rigid body.
When some
or all of the
particles of a
system are rigidly connected together a simple and
useful expression for the vis viva can be found.
Let
(x, y)
be
the coordinates of the centre of gravity,

straight line fixed in the
space,
the angle which a

line fixed in
body makes with a straight
and
M the mass.
imw'
The
vis viva is
then
=^{(D'-(l)V^Kf)'x = x -\-
where MJc^ is the constant called the moment of inertia of the body about the centre of gravity, see Art. 241.
To prove
particle
this, lei
^,
= y \-
r)
he the coordinates of any
m, then
Since
2m^ =
as in Art. 240 the middle term is zero.
Hence
This equation expresses the proposition that the whole vis viva
of a moving system, whether rigid or not, is equal to that of a particle moving with the 'centre of gravity together with the of mass
vis viva
of the motion relative
to the centre
of gravity.
is
to polar coordinates
To introduce the condition that the system by writing

{d^y
rigid
we change
+ (dvf = (dsf = {dpf + (pddy.

is
Remembering that dO/dt
now the same
for all the particles
and
equal to d^/dt (Art. 240) and that dp/dt
is zero,
we
find
-^(f;-(t)i=(W)(f)'='(r
152
354.
in the

Examples.
Ex.
line
1.
[CHAP. V.
21,
An
endless light string of length
threaded beads of masses
M and
m, passes over two small smooth pegs

a,
on which are A and B
same horizontal
and at a distance apart

let go.
festoons into which the string is divided by the pegs.

to the mid-point of
AB
and then
one bead lying in each of the The lighter bead m is raised Show that the beads will just meet if
tl"':= 2
(~)
We
notice that only two positions of the system are contemplated in the
(1) the initial position in which the bead' vi lies in AB, and (2) the which the beads are in contact. In both these cases the kinetic energy
problem, viz.
position in
is zero. to
The
principle of vis viva asserts that the change of kinetic energy is equal
It immediately follows that the work done when the system passes from the first to the second position is zero. Let x be the depth below AB at which the beads meet. Then omitting the tension, Art. 248, we have
the wm-k.
mgx + M{x->^(P-al)} = 0.
We also have by geometry 4iX^ + a^=P.

T'Le circumstances of the
Eliminating x we obtain the result.
below
AB
are at any depths motion when the beads m, may also be deduced from the principle. We have
i{mv^- + Mv'^)=mgy
y,
rf
Since the
equation
sum
of lengths joining
+ 3Ig{v-s/(l^-al)} and M to A is we have

I,
Wthe geometrical
J{ia^ + y^)+y/(ici^' + V^) = l

Differentiating the second equation,
(2).
we have
"
17 ^
V(a2 + 4y2)"^^(a.' + 4,f")

Joining this to
inconsistent with
(1)
we have the values

mass
of v, v'
when y and
have any values not
(2).
Ex.
2.
particle of
has attached to
it
strings passing over pulleys in the
same horizontal
if
line
two equal weights by means of and is initially at rest half
way between them.
Prove that
the distance between the pulleys be 2a, the

fallen
velocity of ? will be zero
when
it
has
through a space ^
,^,_
[Coll.
Exam.]
is coiled
which round the perfectly rough rim of a uniform circular disc of radius a supported in a vertical plane on a smooth horizontal axis, and the pails can descend into a well so that when one comes up the other goes down. If the pails be allowed to move freely under gravity, and, when the- heavier has descended a distance h from rest, a drop of water be thrown off from the highest point of the rim of the disc, prove that this drop will strike the ground at a horizontal distance
Ex.
3.
Two
pails of weights
W, w,
are suspended ai the ends of a rope
X from the axis of the disc given by
x^[lW'+W+w)=4.hb{W-xo),
where
is
the weight of the-disc, and h
is
the vertical distance above the ground
of the highest point of the
rim o! the
disc.
The equation
of vis viva gives

iTi'fcâjS
+ (jlf+m) v"=2 (M-m) gb.
ART. 254.]
EXAMPLES.
153
Putting w=i;/a and
The theory of parabolic motion gives x=vt, and h=\gt^. W=\a?, we obtain the required value of x.
Ex.
4.
Two
small holes A,
are
made
mass
in a
smooth horizontal
table, the
distance apart being 2a.
particle of
A and B and
;
a particle of mass two equal weightless and inextensible strings, passing through the two holes. in a direction The length of each string is a (1 + sec a). A blow J is applied to will oscillate to and fro perpendicular to AB; show that if J^>2Mmag i&n a, through a distance 2a tan a. But if J^ is less than this quantity and equal to oscillates will be 2Mmag (tan a - tan /3), the distance through which
M rests on the table midway between m hangs beneath the table, suspended from M by M M
2a{p(p + 2) }i, where
i)
= sec a - sec
/3.
[Coll.
Ex. 1895.]
to the
The effect of the blow J is to communicate an mass M, leaving m initially at rest.

Ex.
5.
initial velocity
V=JIM
Two
particles
M,
are connected by a string passing over a smooth

vertically,
pulley, the lesser
mass
hangs
and
M rests on
^^ ^^^
angle a to the vertical.
starts without initial velocity
a plane inclined at an from the point of the
inclined plane vertically under the pulley.

^"^
Prove that
M will oscillate through a

p^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^^
[Coll.
j^^j^.^^
distance
position of
^cosa
vi is greater
(-^-J") - M^ COS"' a m^
^^^^^ ^
than
.^
^^^
^^^^^
M,
Moos
a but less than M.
Ex. 1897.]
Ex.
tube.
6.
Two
In the circumference
if v, v'
equal particles connected by a string are placed in a circular is a centre of force varying as the inverse distance.
One
particle is initially at rest at its greatest distance
prove that
from the centre of force, be the velocities with which they pass through a point 90 from
e
the centre of force,
" ^"Z** + e "'''"'''* = 1.
[Coll.
Exam.]
Ex.
7.
thin spherical shell of
mass
M is
driven out symmetrically by an
internal explosion.
Prove that
if
when
the shell has a radius a the outward

[Coll.
velocity of each particle be V, the fragments can never be collected by their
mutual attraction unless V^<Mla.
Exam.]
The
if
attraction of a thin spherical shell
on an element
of itself is the
same
as
half the
mass of the
shell
were collected at the centre.
Ex. 8. Three equal and similar particles repelling each other with forces varying as the distance are connected by equal inextensible strings and are at rest if one string be cut, the subsequent angular velocity of either of the other strings
will vary as
a
/ -^
^-
6 being the angle between them.
[Christ's Coll.]
Ex. 9. form of a
its
An
elastic string of
mass
circle of radius a.
It is
now
and modulus E rests unstretched in the acted on by a repulsive force situated in

Prove that the radius of the
r"^
centre whose magnitude

it
is fi (distance)"^.
circle
when
next comes to rest

10.
is
a root of the quadratic

of
- armfj.jETT.
[Coll.
Exam.]
rigidly attached to
h, without mass, has a heavy particle from its centre, and its inner surface is constrained to roll on the outer surface of a fixed circle of radius a {h being greater than a), under the action of a repelling force from the centre of the fixed circle equal to ii times the distance. Prove that the period of small oscillations of the
Ex.
circular
it
hoop
radius
at a point distant c
hoop
will be 2tr
c/i
154
Prove that when
c

= b,
all oscillations large
[CHAP. V.
and prove
continue to
further that in the general case the

roll
or small have the same period; hoop may be started so that it will
with uniform angular velocity equal to {/t6/(6-a)}*. [Math. Tripos, 1886.]
The following is a simple (but not necessarily the shortest) method of writing down the equation of vis viva in problems of this kind. Having selected some
independent variable to
fix
the position of the system, say, the inclination 6 of the

of the two circles to the vertical,
straight line joining the centres C,
we
find the
vertical
coordinates x, y of the particle in terms of 6 by projecting OC, and horizontal. The vis viva, being the sum of (dxjdtY and
CP
on the
.
m {dyjdt)^,
follows
Equating the half of this sum to the force function Jm/* CO^ + C we have an equation giving ddldt in terms of d.
immediately.
It is
then easily seen that,
if
the constant
ddldt reduces to the constant given in the question.
be properly chosen, the value of To find the small oscillations,
we
differentiate the equation of vis viva
and
reject the squares of 6.
When c=a,
the path of the particle is an epicycloid and the oscillations large
or small are, by Art. 211, tautochronous.
field of force. When a particle moves in with a uniform which rotates round the origin angular velocity n, an integral of the equations of motion can be
255.
Rotating
field of force
found which reduces to that of vis viva when w =
0.
Let Of,
Or}
field of force,
be two rectangular axes which rotate with the and let X, Y be the component accelerating forces.
We then have
by Art. 227
^^1^
^V
of.
xr^
(1).
Multiplying these by d^/dt and drj/dt and adding,
we
find
d^ d'^
drid^r} .ft^^, didr^^~dtdi'~'''[^dt^'^dt)-^
^\-Y^mV^ dt^^ dt'

'''
H(iy^-f^p^'''^=/^^'^^^*'^
We
introduce the condition that the field of force rotates by = dUld^ and such functions of f, t] only that making Z,
Y=dU/dv.
Then
is
&.
function of
f,
v only and not of
t.
The
equation then becomes

^(^2_2y.2)
= [7-+(7
(3),
where v is the velocity of the particle relatively to the moving axes and r is the radius vector.
ART. 256.]
ROTATING FIELD.
notice that if
155
cot
We may
ordinates X,
also,
be expressed in terms of the
referred to fixed axes, the expression will contain

force is central
except
when the
and tends to
0.
is
The
equation,
when written
in the form (2),
a slight ex-
tension of that given by Jacobi in the Comptes Mendus,

p. 59, 1836.
Tome
III.
If
momentum about
be the space velocity of the particle, A the anguiar referred to a unit of mass, then
V^-2nA=v^-r^^
The equation of Jacobi then becomes
(4).
^V^-nA = U+C
To prove the
and
relation (4), let
(5).
be the perpendicular from

Since
on
the tangent to the relative path.

nr, (the latter
V
r),
is
the resultant of v
being perpendicular to
-j^
we have
moments about
V^ v^ + wV
rvp,
Avp-^r nr^,
0.
the second equation being obtained by taking
The equation
(4) follows at once.
An
astronomy.
example of a rotating field of force is met mth'in If the components of a binary star describe circles
about their
common
centre of gravity, the force
is
always the
same at the same point of the rotating plane. Jacobi's integral will therefore apply to the motion of a satellite moving in that plane, provided it is of such insignificant mass that the motions of the primaries are undisturbed by its attraction.
266.
When
the particle moves in space of two dimensions and the field of
force rotates about a perpendicular axis with a variable angular velocity 0'
we mayof the
obtain an extension of the equations.
We know
forces divided
that \dY-\dt
is
equal to the
sum
of the virtual
moments
by
dt, (Art. 246),
hence
IdV^ldt^Xu^Yv
But dA\dt=^Y - 7]X by taking moments about the
1
origin,
hence
..
dV^
dA
dU
^,
?;,
2"dr~^'dF=dF
where
f7 is
^^''
a function of the moving coordinates

(5).
z.
When
</>'
is
constant, this
can be integrated and we obtain the equation
consideration,
a system of particles moving in a given rotating field of force is under we have for each an equation similar to (6). Multiplying these by the masses of the particles and adding the products, we have an extended equation
When
156
of vis viva.
If

2T be
the vis viva,
[CHAP. V.
of the system, TJ the
the angular
momentum
.;
force function, this equation is
T-<p'A =
where
<f>'
U+C
(7),
is
the angular velocity of the field supposed to be constant.
In this form
we may omit from

of virtual work.
U all
the actions and reactions which disappear in the principle
257.
Coriolls'
tbeorem on relative vis
viva.
system of particles
is
referred to
moving axes 0^, Or]. Supposing the system at any instant to become fixed to the moving axes, let us calculate what would then be the effective forces on the system. If we apply these as additional impressed forces on the system, but reversed in direction, we may use the equation of vis viva to determine the relative
motion as
if
the axes were fixed in space.
Let %, wij, &c. be the masses of the particles; (Xj, Y^), {X^, Y2), &c. the components of the impressed forces. Let also p, q be the resolved velocities of the origin, then, including these as explained in Art. 227, the equations of motion of any representative particle
are
-il'^">+t-'"l
,^,^
where w=d<f>ldt.
The
forces
left-hand sides of these equations measure the components of the effective

particle m, Art. 227.
on the
The corresponding components on an imaginary

?,
17
particle of the
same mass
(
attached to the moving axes and momentarily coinas contants.
ciding with the real particle are found by treating

do)
,
These are
dp
(2).
These we represent by Zq, Yq
for the sake of brevity.
Transposing these terms to the other sides of the equations of motion, we have
(i-4:) -(-f)--4
.1
These equations
Art. 197.
may
also be used to supply another proof of the theorem in
Multiplying these respectively by d^jdt, d-qidt and adding,

{d^ d?^
dri
we have, as in Art.
dv
255,
d:^r,)_
^
y.d^_^
'"{didT^+diM
Sununing
'^di'-^^-ô^Tf
and integrating
(4).
this representative equation for all the particles
4Sm|(|)V(gyj=:Sj{(z-^Zo)d|+(r-r)d,}
If the axes rotate
round a
fixed origin with a
uniform angular
velocity,
is
constant and p, q are zero.
The equation
^2/ni;2=
[7-1-1
of Coriolis then takes the simpler form

w22Hir2 +
(5),
ART. 260.]
where r
is
CORIOLIS ON VIS VIVA.
157
is its velocity rela-
the distance of the particle
from the origin and v
lively to the axes.
For a
single particle this is tKe
same as
Jacobi's integral.
If the angular velocity
is
not uniform and p, q not zero, the system of

(4)
additional forces (X^, r^)
is
not conservative and the integration in
cannot be
effected except in special cases.

first
The equation
(1)
is
however
still
important, for the
step in the integration of the equations
must be
to eliminate the
unknown
reactions, if
any such
exist.
Now
the equation
(4) is free
from
all
the reactions
which would disappear in the principle of vertical work, and that equation therefore supplies us at once with one result at least of the elimination.
the forces of
For the purposes of this proposition the forces measured by Xg F are called moving space. When the origin of coordinates is fixed, these take the simple form
,
^.=
This theoren*
is
_^{_,^.
;
y.^-^î"^
(6).
due to Coriolis
see the Journal Polytechnique, 1831.
258.
Xiaisant's tbeorem.
Ex.
A particle
moves under the action

where v
is
of a force
whose Cartesian components are X=v^--r-,

Prove that the equation of vis viva
is
Y=v^-,
the velocity.
v'^~'^={2
-n)U+C.
vol. xxi.
See the Bulletin de la Societe Mathematique, 1893,
Moments and
Resolutions.
The equation of Moments. If P, Q are the com259. ponents of the force on a single particle resolved along and transverse to the radius vector, it is clear that Qr is equal to
the moment of the forces about the origin. Representing this moment by M, the transverse polar equation of motion becomes
srs)=*
260.
^^)-
When
a system of mutually attracting particles moves
under the action of external forces
we have by adding together
the transverse polar equations of each particle
2l(4f)=^^^
If
w.
be the attraction of mi on m^, the reaction of m^ on mi is and the sum of the moments of these two must disappear from the right-hand side. If then the external forces are such
R,
that their resultant passes through the origin,
we have 2ilf=0,
and therefore by" integration
^^nr^~ =
(3),
158
MOMENTS AND RESOLUTIONS.

is
[CHAP. V.
where If
a constant.
This equation expresses the proposition
that when a system of mutually attracting particles moves under the action of eocternal forces such that the sum of the moments about a fixed point is zero, the sum of the angular momenta of all
the particles about that point is constant.
For example,
if
any
number
of mutually attracting planets
of a fixed sun, the
sum
of their
move under the angular momenta is

the equation (3) of
influence
constant.
See also Art.

Since
93.
xdy ydx = r^d6
(Art. 7),
moments
when
written in Cartesian coordinates takes the form
H^t-y^y^
261.
is
w-
useful
Rigid system. When a system of particles is rigid it to have an expression for 'the resultant angular mothe origin.
mentum about
centre of gravity,
Let (x, y) be the coordinates of the the angle a straight line fixed in the body
makes with a straight line fixed in space, and angular momentum of the whole mass is then
M the
mass.
The
^-^Vdt
where
ydtj^^^dt'
inertia about the centre of gravity.
Mk^
is the
moment of
See Art. 241.
To prove
then x = x +
this, let (x, y)

^,
y = y + v- Remembering
be the coordinates of the particle m, that Sm| = 0, Xmi] =
as in Art. 239,
we
find
by substitution that
H4-y^hM-fryf:)-H^t-'>t
Since dxjdt, dyjdt are the components of the velocity of the
centre of gravity, the
of a particle
first
term
is
the
moment
of the velocity
of mass
it.
placed at the centre of gravity and

therefore asserts that the angular
moving with
The equation
is
of the whole mass collected at the centre of gravity together with the angular momentum round the centre of gravity of the relative motion.
equal
to that
momentum about any point
To introduce the
to polar coordinates
condition that the system
is
rigid
by
writing ^drj
7)d^= p^dd.
we change The second

is
term then becomes %mp^ -^
dO
.
Remembering that ddjdt
the
ART. 263.]
ANGULAR MOMENTUM OF A BODY.
159
same
for
every particle and equal to dt^jdt (Art. 240), this term
becomes Mk^
^ at
when a
rigid
is
It follows that,
body
is
acted on by any forces
whose moment about the origin
G, the equation of
moments
is
262.
Ex.
1.
A particle moves in
field of force defined
by the force function
U=mf{r) +
Show how
The
to find the coordinates
r,
^.
Q=dUlrd6.
in terms of the time.
force transverse to the radius vector is
The equation of
r^de/dt, the inte-
moments
therefore becomes jI
y^ dt) ~ ~i ~^
'
^^^^V^J^^S by
gration can be effected and
we
find
('"Sy=2i^(^)+^
where A is an arbitrary constant. both Jacobi and Bertrand.
(1).
This integral is equivalent to a result given by
The equation
of vis viva is
Eliminating ddjdt by the help of

function of
integration.
r.
(1) we arrive at an equation giving dtjdr as a The determination of t in terms of r has thus been reduced to an The relation between 6 and t may then be found from (1) by another
integration.
Ex.
2.
A particle is placed at rest at the point

.
x=0, r=a
in
a-
field
defined by
3U=m d^X
Show by
writing
down the equations
of vis viva
and moments that the
path
is
circle.
263. The equation of resolution. If a system of particles moves under the action of external forces, we have by resolving
parallel to the axis of x, (Art. 236)j
where
is
this equation
the tjîcal accelerating force on the particle m. In we may omit the mutual attractions of the particles,
for the action
and reaction being equal and
opposite, these dis-
appear in the resolution.

If any direction fixed in space exist such that the sum of the components of the impressed forces in that direction is zero, we
160
{CHAP. V.
can take the axis of parallel to that direction.
We
then have
where
is
a constant.
This result
is
the same as that alread}
arrived at, and

264.
more
fully stated, in Art. 92.
Summary
of methods of integration.
field of force
When
the
system of particles moves in a given

motion.
If the
the equation
of vis viva in general supplies one integral of the equations of
system has only one degree of freedom, this
integral is sufficient to determine the motion.
When
another integral
is
required, there
if
is is
of proceeding.
We
usually search
there
no general method any direction fixed

is
in space in which the

zero, or
sum
of the resolved parts of the forces
any fixed point about which the sum of the moments i^ In either of these cases an additional integral is supplied zero. The first case usually by the methods of Arts. 263 and 260.
occurs
when the
acting force
is
gravity, the second
when the
force is central.
fail we have recourse to some artifice Suppose that we have some reason for believing that a particle describes a certain path, we constrain If the pressure can be made the particle by a smooth curve. zero by the proper initial conditions, the constraint may be
When
these methods
suited to the problem.
removed and the

265.
table, are
particle will describe the path freely, Art. 193.
Examples.
Ex.
1.
Two
particles, of
masses m, M, placed on a smooth
connected by a string of length a + b, which passes through a fine ring fixed at a point on thie table. The particles are projected with velocities U and V perpendicularly to the portions of the string attached to them, and the initial
lengths are respectively a and
6.
Find the motion.
Let
(r, e), {p, <p)
be the polar coordinates of
principles of angular
momentum and
vis viva,
m and we have
M at
the time
t.
By
the
r'g=U,
p=FI,
(1),
m
We have
m-'-m ^- mA%'\ ='^'^"'"

\
<^'-
also the geometrical equation
r+p=a + 6
Eliminating
p, 0,
<t>,
(3).
we
find
ART. 265.]
EXAMPLES.
161
expressed in terms of r by an integral.

effected.
'
Id this differential egaation, the variables 030* be separated and thus t can be The integration cannot be generally
If the
We thus
system have
oscillate,
the extreme positions are determined by putting drfdt=0.
'^^,i^.-<-^---'>=
Since the left-hand side
is
positive
when r=0 and r=a + b and vanishes when
;=a there is a second positive root less than + 6. This second root may be proved to be greater or less than a according as mTJ^fa is greater or less than MV^fb. These values of r determine the extreme positions of the system. We notice that if F be very small, the second root is very nearly equal to a+ 6.
If
F=0 the
particle
M arrives
In fact
at the origin, but the appearance
when r=a+fe
(4) is
of the singular
its
form 0/0 in the
equatiolji (5) is
if
a warning that the motion changes
character in this case.
the third term on the left-hand side of

is finite
removed, the velocity of arrival at
instead of being infinitely grât.

radial equation of motion for
To
find the tension

particles.
of the string,
we use the
one of the
This gives
dt^
'^\dt)~
m'
and
r^b'^
Differentiating (4)
we
find drldt in terms of r
after
some
slight reductions
j,_
Mm
fVâ^
r^
~M+m\
become
(a
+ b-rf)'
The
stiing therefore does not

2.
slack.
Ex.
horizontal table,
the table :
particles whose masses are in the ratio 1:2 lie on a smooth and are connected by a string that passes through a small ring in the string is stretched and the particles are equidistant from the ring
Two
the lighter particle is then projected at right angles to
its
portion of the string.

initial velocity of
Prove that the other particle will strike the ring with half the
the
first particle.
[Coll.
Ex. 1896.]
Ex. 3. One A of two particles of equal mass, without weight, and connected by an inelastic string moves in a straight groove. The other B is projected parallel Prove that the greatest tension is four to the groove, the string being stretched.
times the least.
[Coll.
Ex.]
Beduce
to rest, then
is
acted on by
T and T cos d,
the latter being parallel
to the groove,
where 6
describes a circle,
velocity
The particle B now is the angle AB makes with the groove. and the normal and tangential resolutions give the angular
and the tension.

4.
Ex.
Two
particles
passes through a hole in a smooth table ;
m, M, are connected by a string, of length a + b, which hangs vertically at a depth b below
the hole,
m is projected horizontally and perpendicularly to the string with velocity

Prove that
if
if
V from
a point on the table distant a from the hole.
the table,
mV^ (2a5 + IP) = 2Mgb (a + bf.

mV^=Mga'i
Prove also that
M just rise to
oscillates,
'mV^ + 2Mga > 3
(MhnVYa-
What
is
the motion if
'
162
Ex,
5,

Two
small spheres of masses
in
[CHAP.
fixed at the
;
V.
and 2m are
its
ends of a
the heavier
weightless rigid rod
AB
which
is free to
turn about
middle point
it. If a sphere with velocity u strike the lighter sphere directly, prove that the impulse which the heavier sphere ultimately gives to the table is
sphere rests on a horizontal table, the rod making an angle 30 with

of
mass
falling vertically
^mu{l + e), where

At the
first
e is
the coefficient of restitution between the two spheres, the

[Coll.
table being perfectly inelastic.
Ex. 1893.]
impact we take moments for the two particles m, 2m about O to avoid the reaction at 0. We therefore have Smv'a = Ra cos a,m{u'-u)=-R where a =30. At the moment of greatest compression the velocity of approach of the
centres is zero,
u'=v'coBa, and R=^mu. Since the complete value of jR is found by multiplying this by 1 + e, the velocity of either end of the rod after impact
.".
is
^ u cos a
(1
+ ).
The
balls
m and 2m rotate with the rod round O through

with a velocity
..
angle,
and 2m
finally hits the table
v'.
some Taking the same equation
of
moments
as before iJ'a cos a =8mi;'a,
R'=^mu
(l
+ e),
Ex. 6. One end of a string of length { is attached to a small ring of mass m which can slide freely on a smooth horizontal wire, and the other end supports a heavy particle of mass m'. If this particle be held displaced in the vertical plane containing the groove, the string being straight and then let go, prove that the path of m' is part of an ellipse whose semi-axes are I, lml{m+m'), the major axis [Coll. Ex. 1896.] being vertical.
Only the horizontal resolution and the geometrical equation are required.
is free to slide between two Ex. 7. A rectangular block of wood of mass smooth horizontal planes, and in it is inserted a smooth tube in the shape of a quadrant of a circle of radius a, one of the bounding radii lying along the lower plane, and the other being vertical. A particle of mass m is shot into the tube horizontally with velocity V, rebounds from the lower plane, and leaves the tube
again with a relative velocity
V,
prove that
(1
V'^=e^V^ - 2ga
where
e
is.
- e^) (M + vi)IM,
[Coll.
the coefficient of restitution for the lower plane.
Ex. 1895.]
Ex.
8.
If in the case of three equal particles the units are so chosen that the
is
energy integral
iiv^^ + v^^ + v^^j^

1'23
\-
-\
where
r^g
is
the distance
''12
,
''
between the particles whose velocities are v^ and v^ and if r is a positive constant, the greatest possible value of the angular momentum of the system about its
centre of inertia
is -|v/(2r).
Ex.
9.
Two
equal particles are initially at rest in two smooth tubes at right
angles to each other.
Prove that whatever be their positions and whatever their

will reach the intersection of the tubes together.
[Coll.
law of attraction, they
Ex.]
Ex.
rest
Three mutually attracting particles, of masses mj, wig, wij, are placed at within three fixed smooth tubes Ox, Oy, Oz at right angles to each other. The
10.
attraction between
any two, say
%,
vi^, is
ixm-^m^r^
where
r^ is
the distance.
If
the triangle joining the particles always remains similar to
its initial
form, prove
that the initial distances satisfy the equations
m^ + nig - Ml
m,j
+ tj - m^
m^ + m^- m^
ART. 267.]
aee.
through
line
EXAMPLES.
answers.
163
mass M, constrained
to slide
DouUe
Ex.
cube, of
on
a smooth horizontal table, has a fine tube

its centre of gravity,
ACB
cut through
it
in the vertical plane
the extremities A,
horizontal.
being on the
same horizontal
is
and the tangents
&t A,
particle, of
mass m,
projected into
the tube at
momentum
with velocity F, deduce analytically from the equations of linear and vis viva that the velocity of emergence at B is also V.
Let u, V be the velocities of the cube and particle at emergence.

referred to give
The
principles
MuJrmv = mV,
These give two solutions, where
viz. (1)
Mu^+mv^mV^.
(2)
u=Q,v = V, and
we
linear
u=2mVIS, v=(m- M)VIS,

vis
S=m + M.
To
interpret these
notice that there are two sets of initial
conditions which give the
same
momentum and
determined by the values of u, v just written down. solved two problems and have thus obtained two results.
We
viva. These are have therefore really
To distinguish the solutions, we investigate the intermediate motion. Let P be any point in the tube and let p be the tangent of the angle the tangent makes with the horizon. If u, v now represent the horizontal velocities at P, the same two
principles give
Mu + 7nv = mV,
where x'=v-uis the
Mv? + m (v^ +p^x'^) = mV^

These give
1
relative velocity.
M+m
initially when p = 0, hence the radical must have the positive sign and must keep that sign until it vanishes. On emergence therefore, when p is again zero, v=V. The negative sign of the radical evidently gives the initial conditions
Now v = V
of the other problem.
267.
the
Bodies without mass.
Ex.
1.
heavy bead
is free
;
to shde along a
rod whose ends move without friction on a horizontal circle
when mass of the rod is negligible compared with that of the bead, the bead will, when started, continue to shde along the rod with an acceleration varying inversely
prove that
its
as the cube of
distance from the middle point.
The
mass.
reaction between the rod
and the
particle is zero because the rod
has no
is
To prove this, let R moments about the centre
be the reaction,
of the circle,
M the
mass of the
rod, then, taking
we have MKHuldt=Rp, where w
the
angular velocity of the rod.
Hence
R = when M= 0.
line in space with
on by any horizontal force, describes a straight uniform velocity b. If x be the distance of P from the middle on the path and on the rod, we point C of the rod a, c, the perpendiculars from have x2 + c = 0JP2 = a2 + bHl
The
particle P, being not acted
This gives
O^xldt^
rigid wire without
= b^ (a^ - c^)lxK
mass is formed into an arc of an equiangular spiral heavy particle fixed in the pole. If the convexity of the wire be placed in contact with a perfectly rough horizontal plane prove that the point of contact will move with a uniform acceleration equal to g cot o, where a is the
Ex.
2.
and
carries a
angle of the spiral.
164
268.
Let

Equation of the path.
Let P,
[CHAP. V.
be the resolved accelerating forces

to the radius vector.
acting on the particle respectively along
and perpendicular
P be
regarded as positive when acting towards the origin.
The equations
of
motion are
dt-^
\dt)t.
^'
rdt\ dt)-^
^^'
To
i^dOjdt
find the path
we eliminate
The second
equation, after multiplication by
and integration, as in Art. 262, becomes
U'^y=W + 2\QT^de
For the sake of brevity we represent the right-hand u = 1/r, we find dOjdt = Hu^. We then have
dr _
1 side
(2).
by H^.
Putting also
du dd_
di~~u^dedt~~
d2
^du d0\
d9\
dej
Substituting in the
first
equation of motion
Beplacing
/d^w
du
dm
Q du
H^ by its value [dH
given in
(2),
\ /^
[Q
^\
P
(^)-
(d^+)r+^j3'^^)+Sd^=^^
This
P,
The forces is Laplaeeh differential equation of the path of the particle. being given in terms of the coordinates u, 6, of the moving particle, this
equation,
when
solved, will determine
as a function
t
of
6,
and thus lead to the
equation of the path.
To
find the motion along the path
we use equation
(2).
Substituting in that equation the value of
in terms of 6
we
find
by integration the
time
at
which the
particle occupies
any given position.
The
special
polar differential equation of the path cannot be integrated except for
forms of the forces P, Q.
If
Q=0,
the equation takes the form
d%
This can be integrated when
_ P
is
d^"*""~/i22
Wconsidered
P is
a function of u alone, a case which

It
in the chapter on central forces.
can also be integrated when P=m2jF(^), the

Art. 122.
method
of solution being that
shown in
When P=u^F{0)
equation
tuting
is
If one solution of the differential known, say u=(f>(d), the general integral may be determined by substi-
the equation is linear.
u=z^ (0).
After integration
we
find
z=A+B j[(p {0)]~^ dO.

tlie
269.
When P=u^F{6), Q=u^f' (6),

(S+){/^ +
the differential equation of
path takes
the linear form
2/(fl)K/'(^)g--P'()=0
(5).
The various
in treatises
cases in which this equation can be integrated are enumerated
on
Differential Equations.
AET. 270.]
EQUATION OF THE PATH.
165
multiplying the equation by the proper factor we can make the left-hand a perfect differential. Conversely choosing any factor, we can find the relation between P and Q that this may be the proper integrating factor. If we wish the relation between P, Q to be independent of the initial conditions, the terms containing h^ as a factor must be made a perfect differential independei^tly of the
By
side
remaining terms.
differential
The
dhi
coefficient of
h^ ia
ad
jT5+ and
this is
made a
perfect
therefore also
by either of the factors sin 6 or cob 6. The remaining terms must become a perfect differential by the same factor. The condition that
yT:;
dd^'
+M
-l^
dd
+ Nuia&
do
perfect differential is
m.
N--yrr +
dd
-jt
dff^
=0, and the in
known
to be I, -7-
M- do
(5)
-5-r-
J
is
Multiplying equation
by sind, the product
a perfect
d^
differential if
d {2f(d)-F{e)}8ine-^{Binef'{e)}
which reduces at once to
-i
+ 2^{Bin0f(d)}=O,
(6).
= -T^ -^ + 3cot0-5
becomes
The
integral, since/' (^)
= Q/w^
(h^ + 2\%de\ Tsin^^-cos^tt^
-^sin du=C
(7),
where
is
a constant.
This
is
integrated a second time
when Q/u^
a linear equation of the first The determination is given as a function of 6.
order and can be
of the path can therefore be reduced to integration
when
6,
the relation (6) is satisfied.
In the same way,

a perfect differential
if
if
we multiply
(5)
by cos
we
find that the product is

(8),
'
l=^%-it&Ta.d%
and the
which
is
integral is
linear
(h^ + 2
\%^)
%^^^~^' i^^^^â'^ "^ ^") ~

(3)
^)'
and can be integrated a second time.

can be effected
Another case in which the integration of from Art. 262. The equation (3) is
may
be deduced
d^L
If then
\\d0
(J-w^
dd
+3-
-5=/ (m) + 2
-^ dd, the integral is
|^' + 2
Jl^^^j-
{(Sy + "j =2 j/()

(5).
udu + 2u^ j^,dd + C
(10).
270.
Ex.
1.
If
F=u^F(d) and Q=Pt&n0, prove

2 is
ticular solution of the linear equation
by putting u=z aind, where a linear equation of the first

Ex.
2.
that u=Aand is a parThence obtain the general int^ral a function of d which is determined by solving
order.
A particle
moves under the forces P=/m^{3+5coB2d), Q=ixu^ Bia20;

its
prove that an integral of

h'^
"I
motion
fli
is
jfl
sin ^
- tt cos
+ /*
-{^
(sin ^
sin 8^)
-^
+ cos 3dui =C.
"
166
SUPERPOSITION OF MOTIONS.
if
[CHAP, V.
Obtain also a Bimilar integral
P = fm^ cos nd
T,
/.
3tanw^) <n + r ^j-,

f
^ Q=fM^Bmn0.
/.
[Coll.
Exam.
1892.]
Ex.
3.
If the Cartesian accelerating forces X,
are unrestricted, prove that
the diiferential equation of the path is
where
is
a constant depending on the
initial conditions.
Prove also that the determination of y as a function of x can be reduced to integration when both X, Y are functions of x only.
Ex.
path
4.
If
and YJy are functions of x only, the

Prove that
it
differential equation of the

first
is linear.
can be integrated when Y=:y -j-, and that the
integral is
(A
+ 2jXdx)^-Xy = C.
Prove also that when
= - +
y
ax
the differential equation can be integrated
and that the
first
integral is
(A
+ 2JXdx)x^-(A + 2JXdx+xX)y = C.
Ex.
5.
Prove that the Cartesian equations of motion can be completely
integrated
when
the force function satisfies
dx^
dy^
dxdy
<f>
To prove
this
we
notice that
U=
(y
+ ax) + ^{y + a'x),
where a, a' are the roots of a^-Ka=l. We then change the variables to ^=y + ax and rj=y + a'x. The new coordinates f, rj are also rectangular. The equations of motion become d^^fdt^^tjJ (^), d^jdt^zzij/' (t)), which may be solved as in
Art. 122.
Ex.
line.
6.
If the direction of the acting force is
always a tangent to the direction

is
of motion, as in the case of a resisting
medium, prove that the path
a straight
Consider the resolution along the normal.

7.
Ex.
If the direction of the force is
always perpendicular to the path, prove
that the velocity is constant.
Superposition of Motions.
A particle is constrained to describe a fixed curve. When A with a velocity Mi under the action of any forces the velocity and pressure at any point P are Vi and Ri. When projected with a velocity u^ from the same point A under a second system of forces the velocity and pressure at P are
271.
projected from a point
v.^
ART. 274.]
DIFFERENT MOTIONS, SAME PATH
167
and R2.
When
u^
the particle
u such that
systems of
= u^'\-u^,
forces,
is projected from A with a velocity and moves under the action of both the velocity and pressure at P are v and R.
It is required to
prove that
To prove
this
we
write
down the two equations

iV^,
for
each of
the three types of motion.
Representing for the sake of brevity

N^,
N-^
the normal components of accelerating force by
+ N^,
we have
v,^
-Ui' = 2 JiX^dw + Y,dy),
V.}
v^
- ih^ = 2 ^{X4x + T4y), -V? =2/{(Z, + Z2)(â; + (F,+

The
Y,)dy],
= iV; + R^/m, vijp = i^2 + R^lm, v^p ^N. + N^ + RIm,

vi'/p
the limits of integration being always from the point

results
to P.
follow
at
once by subtracting from the third
equation the
272.
sum
of the other two.
The
following corollary will be found useful.

freely
A
A
particle can describe a curve
certain forces, the velocity at

particle
is
some point
under the action of being u^. If the
now
constrained to describe the same curve the velocity

u^,
at
being changed to
is
then the pressure at any point
is
Cjp, where p
the radius of curvature at P, and
is
the
constant
m {u^ u^).
this
To prove
velocity at
we
notice that
when the
velocity at
is
is u^
and
the forces act on the particle, the pressure
Pi = 0.
If the
pressure at
were u' and no forces acted on the particle, the would be mu'^/p. Superimposing these two states and putting u'^ = n2Ui^,the theorem follows at once.
particle
We may also deduce the following theorem due to Ossian Bonnet. If a can freely describe the same curve under two different systems of forces, the velocities at some point A being respectively Uj and M21 then the particle can describe the same path under both systems of forces provided the velocity at A is u, where u^û^^+u^^. Since any point may be taken as the point of projection this Liouville's relation between the velocities holds at all points of the curve. Journal, Tome ix. page 113.
273.
will be
274. The following example shown in the chapter on
of Ossian Bonnet's theorem is important.
It
central forces that a particle
P will describe an
is
ellipse freely
about a centre of force in one focus H^, whose law of attraction
168
fhlî^t
INITIAL TENSIONS
AND CURVATURE.
A
is
[CHAP.
V.
provided the velocity of projection at any point
given by
The same
ifg
ellipse
whose law of attraction

It
value.
can also be described about a centre of force in the other focus is /^Jr^ provided the velocity v^ hap the corresponding immediately follows that the particle can describe the ellipse freely about
(1)
both centres of force acting simultaneously, provided
the velocity v at any point
is
given by
and
(2)
the direction of projection at
bisects externally the angle
between the
focal distances.
According to this mode of proof both the centres of force should be

for it is evident that
attractive,
an
ellipse could
not be freely described about a single centre
of repulsive force situated in either focus.

this limitation is unnecessary.
But the law of continuity shows that and fj^ to have arbitrary positive values, it has been proved that the equations of motion of a particle moving freely under both centres of force become satisfied when this value of v^ is substituted in them. The equations contain only the first powers of ^t^ and /^ (see Art. 271) and can be satisfied only by the vanishing of the coefficients of these quantities. They wiU therefore still be satisfied if we change the signs of either yuj or /ag
Supposing
fi-^
In the same way we
may
introduce other changes into the theorem, provided

result. ellipse freely
always we can obtain a dynamical interpretation of the
275.
Ex.
1.
Prove that a particle can describe an
under the
action of three centres of force ; one in each focus attracting as the inverse square
and the third in the centre

of projection.
attracting as the direct distance.
Find
also the velocity
Ex. 2. Particles of masses wt,, m^, &c. projected from the same point in the same direction with velocities %, 2 *- under the action of given forces Fj, F^, projected in the &c. describe the same curve. Show that a particle of mass same direction with a velocity V under the simultaneous action of all the forces Fi, F^, &c. will also describe the same curve, provided
MV^=mjU^+m2U2^+....
Ossian Bonnet, Note
iv.
to Lagrange's Mecanique.
Ex. 3. A bead is projected along a smooth elliptical wire under the action of two centres of force, one in each focus, and attracting inversely as the square of the distance. If TP, TQ be any two tangents to the ellipse, prove that the pressure when the bead is at P pressure when the bead is at Q TQ^ TP^.
:
: : :
Initial Tensions
and radii of Curvature.
Particles, of given masses, are connected together by inrods or strings of given lengths and are projected in any given manner consistent with these constraints. It is required to find the initial valuss of the tensions and the radii of curvatures of
276.
elastic
the paths.
ART. 277.]
INITIAL TENSIONS.
is
169
that the
The
peculiarity of the problems on initial motion
velocities
and
directions of motion of all the particles are known.
It will thus not
be necessary to integrate the
differential equations
of motion, for the results of these integrations are given.
Supposing that there are n

to each reaction.
particles,
we
shall require besides
the 2n equations of motion a geometrical equation corresponding
To show how the
geometrical equations
may be
formed, let
us suppose that two particles mi, mj are connected by a rod or The component velocities of the straight string of length I.
two
particles in the direction of the string being necessarily equal,
their relative velocity is the difference of their
component
If
velocities
perpendicular to the rod; let these be V^, Y^.

the rod makes with some fixed straight
equation
is Z
^ be
the angle
line,
the geometrical
-^ = Fg
Fi.
The
simplest
method
of obtaining the relative equations of
motion is perhaps to reduce Wi to rest. To effect this we apply to both particles (1) an acceleration equal and opposite to that of Wj, and (2) an initial velocity equal and opposite to that of wii. The
path of
radius
TO2
I,
being
is
now a circle whose centre is at mi and whose the relative accelerations are those for a circular
motion.
(Art. 39.)
Let Xi, Xa be the components along the rod of junction of all the forces and tensions which act on m^, m^ respectively. We
then have (Art. 35)
j^(d<f>V^
(F,-Fi)^^X,
I
\dt)
In this way we
actions.
mg
Zi mi'"
may form as many equations as there are reBy solving these the initial values of the reactions become
known.
If the angular accelerations of the rods are also required, let
Fi, F2
be the component forces perpendicular to the rod which

rrh, '^2.
act on
Then
;^ = Z?_Zi mi
dt^
TTiz
(2).
277.
tions of
To find
the curvatures
of the paths, we refer

velocity
to the
equa-
motion in space.
The
and direction of motion of
170
INITIAL TENSIONS
AND CURVATURE.
[CHAP. V.
each particle being known,

gential
we may
conveniently use the tan-
and normal
resolutions.
We
thus have 2n equations of
the form
m- = N,
p
m-jat
=T
forces
(3),
where N, T are linear functions of the act on the particle m.

motion,
and tensions which
These reactions having been found by considering the relative
we
substitute in
(3).
The
first
of these determines the
radius of curvature p of the path of m, and the second the tangential acceleration, if that be required.
When any
reactions.
one of the particles
is
constrained to descHhe a given
curve, the initial pressure of that curve is
one of the unknown
This pressure will be determined by the normal resolu-
tion of (3) since the radius of curvature of the path is the

as that of the constraining curve.
same
278.
of relative
If some
or all the particles start from rest, the equations

for
motion are simplified,

is
we then have (j>=0 where
the
accent denotes d/dt.

free particle at rest
Since however the direction of motion of a not given, the tangential and normal resolu-
tions are then inappropriate.
We
can however use the Cartesian

$'
or polar resolutions in space.
Since
= 0,
the polar resolutions
reduce to r" and r^" which are very simple forms.
We
must
however bear in mind that if we require to differentiate the equations of motion this simplification must not be introduced We until all the differentiations have been effected, Art. 281. may also use Lagrange's equations, when the curvatures and not
the tensions are required.
method are more

discussed in the
subject.
especially useful in Rigid

first
These modifications of the general Dynamics and are volume of the author's treatise on that
Sxamples. Ex. 1. Particles are attached to a string at unequal and placed in the form of an unclosed polygon on a smooth table. The It particles are then set in motion without impacts and are acted on by any forces. is required to find the initial tensions and curvatures. Let ABCD &c. bp any consecutive particles, and let the tensions of AB, BC, &c.
279.
distances,
be T-^,T^, &c.
making angles
the
a,
Let the given forces be F-^^, F^, &c. and let them act in directions Let lidtpjdt, l^d(pjdt, &c. stand for /3, &c. with AB, BC, &c.
known
difference of the velocities of the consecutive particles resolved perpen-
dicular to the rod or string joining them.
ART. 279.]
The
particle
EXAMPLES.
171
B being
reduced to
rest,
is
acted on by Tg/nig along CD, T^jvi^
along CB,
TJm^ along CB, T-Jm^
parallel to
AB.
Besides these there are the
impressed accelerating forces FJm.^ and

relatively to
J5,
-FJm^
T-
Since
describes a
circle
we have
m^
7
for the particle
\dt J
\m2
sin
m^J
+ ^cosB + cos
[C
+ i) +
/S,
C03/5,
^=^
if
C- ^
8inB + - sin((7+7) + ^8in
where A, B, C, &c. are the internal angles of the polygon.
The second
resolution
may be omitted
not required.
the angular accelerations of the several portions of string are
An
of the
equation, corresponding
t<)
the
first
of these, can be written
particles, beginning at either end, except the last.

1) tensions.
We
down for each thus form (n - 1)
equations to find the {n -
To
we
find the initial radius of curvature of the path in space of
resolvQ along the
particles
any particle C normal to the path. Let the directions of motion of the be AA', BB', &c. and let v^, Vg. *c. be the velocities of the particles. Then
V^= T
Ps
sin
DGC + T^ sin BCG' - F^ sm {BGC - y).

and the
last equation fails to deterfirst
If the particle nig is initially at rest, 173=0
mine
pj.
The
initial tensions
may
still
be deduced from the
equation.
The
initial direction
of
motion of the
particle
coincides with the direction of the
resultant force
and is therefore known when the initial tensions have been found. The tangential acceleration is also known for the same reason. The determination
of the radius of curvature requires further consideration.
Ex.
2.
Heavy
particles,
are placed with their connecting strings
whose masses beginning at the lowest are m^, tk^, &q., on a smooth curve in a vertical plane.
Find the
initial tensions.
In this problem the arc between any two particles remains constant, so that the tangential accelerations of all the strings are equal. Let this common acceleration be /. Taking all the particles as one system, the tensions do not appear in the
resulting equation,
we have
therefore
?ifif
(wtj
+ m2 + &c. )/= -
sin ^^
- m^ sin ^2 - &c.,
where
\pi,
\j/^,
&c. are the angles the tangents at the particles
make with the
horizon.
Considering the lowest particle, we have
wii/= - %<; sin ^^ + Ti
172
INITIAL TENSIONS
AND CURVATCTRE.
[CHAP. V.
Considering the two lowest,

{ni^
+ Hij) f=-m^g sin )î - mg sin ^^ + Tj

that string immediately becomes slack.
and so on.
If
Thus
all
the tensions Tj, T,, &c. have been found.
any tension
is negative,
We
also
notice that the initial tensions are independent of the velocities of the particles.
To
find the initial reactions,
we use the normal

find
resolutions.
xp
If
v be the
initial
velocity of the particle m,
we thus
= -mg
cos
+ R.
Ex. 3. Three equal particles are connected by a string of length + 6 so that one of them is at distances a, b from the other two. This one is held fixed and the others are describing circles about it with the same angular velocity so that the string is straight. Prove that if the particle that was held fixed is set free tht tensions in the two parts of the string are altered in the ratios 2a + 6 3a and 2b + a:3b. [CoU. Ex. 1897.]
:
Ex.
i.
about their centre of gravity.
Three equal particles tied together by three equal threads are rotating Prove that if one of the threads break, the curva-
tures of the paths instantaneously
become
3/5,
6/5, 3/5ths respectively, of their
former
common
5.
value.
particles are fastened at
[Coll.
Ex. 1892.]
two adjacent points of a closed loop of string without weight which hangs in equilibrium over two smooth horizontal parallel rails. Pro^fe that when the short piece of string between the particles is
cut the product of the tensions before and after the cutting is equal to the product of the weights of the particles.
[Coll.
Ex.
Two
Ex. 1896.]
Ex. 6. Two particles of equal weight are connected by a string of length I which becomes straight just when it is vertical. Immediately before this instant the upper particle is moving horizontally with velocity ,Jgl, and the lower is moving vertically downwards with the same velocity. Prove that the radius of curvature of the curve which the upper particle begins to describe is -îî^/Sl. [Coll. Ex. 1897.]
Just after the impulse the upper particle begins to tan~^ 1/2 to the horizon.
move
in a direction inclined
Ex.
7.
middle point
describe the
Two equal particles A, B, are connected by a string of length I, the G of which is held at rest on a smooth horizontal table. The particles
same circle on the table with the same velocity in the same direction, and the angle ACB is right. The point C being released, prove that the radii of curvature of their paths just after the string jbecomes tight are 5,^5i/4 and infinity.
Ex.
radius
8.
to a string,
is
Four small smooth rings of equal mass are attached at equal intervals and rest on a smooth circular wire whose plane is vertical and whose
the two uppermost

diameter.
equal to one-third of the length of the string, so that the string joining is horizontal, and the line joining the other two is the horizontal
If the string is cut
between one of the extreme particles and the nearer

5.
of the middle ones, prove that the tension in the horizontal part of the string is
immediately diminished in the ratio 9
[Coll.
Ex. 1895.]
Six equal rings are attached at equal intervals to points of a uniform weightless string, and the extreme rings are free to slide on a smooth horizontal
Ex.
9.
rod.
If
the extreme rings are initially held so that the parts of the siring
'
ART. 280.]
attached to them
EXAMPLES.
make
angles a with the vertical, and then
let go,
173
the tension in
the horizontal part of the string will be instantaneously diminished in the ratio of
cosâ to l + sinâ.
[Coll.
Ex. 1889.]
Ex. 10. Three particles A, B, C are in a straight line attached to points on a and are moving in a plane with equal velocities at right angles to this line, their masses being m, vi', m respectively. If B come in contact with a perfectly elastic fixed obstacle, prove that the initial radius of curvature of the paths which A and C begin to describe is â, where AB=BC=a. [Coll. Ex. 1892.]
string
The
particle
rebounds with velocity

4x)^la=Tlm.
v.
By
considering the relative motion of
A and B we have
By
considering the space motion of A, v^jp^Tjin.
Ex. 11. A tight string without mass passes through two smooth rings A, B, on a horizontal table. Particles of masses p, q respectively are attached to the between A and B. If m be projected ends and a particle of mass m to a point
horizontally perpendicularly to the string, the initial radius of curvature p of its
path
is
given by {m +p + q)lp =pla
- qjb, where OA =a,
0B= b.
[Coll.
Ex. 1893.]
Ex. 12. A circular wire of mass is held at rest in a vertical plane, on a smooth horizontal table, a smooth ring of mass m being supported on it by a string which passes round the wire to its highest point and from there horizontally to a fixed point to which it is attached. If the wire be set free, show that the pressure
of the ring
on
it is
immediately diminished by amount
-^-z
where
is
the angular distance of the ring from the highest point of the wire.
[Coll.
Ex. 1897.]
Ex. 13. Two particles P, P' of masses m, m' respectively are attached to the ends of a string passing over a pulley A and are held respectively on two inclined planes each of angle a placed back to back with their highest edge vertically
under the pulley.
If each string
makes an angle
-
/3
with the plane, prove that the

if
heavier particle will at once pull the other off the plane
m'lm < 2 tan a tan
/3
1.
[Coll.
Ex. 1896.]
Ex.
string
14.
Two
particles of
masses m,
M are
attached at the points B,
oi &
The two portions AB, BG rest on a smooth horizontal table, the angle at B being o. The particle has a velocity communicated to it in a direction perpendicular to BC. Prove that if the strings remain
ABC,
the end
being fixed.
tight, the initial radius of curvature of
the locus of 31
is
n=Mlm
and BC=a.
a(l+Msinâ), where [Coll. Ex. 1895.]
280.
starts
To find
rest.
the initial radius
from
In this problem
of curvature when the particle it may be necessary to use than the second.
differential coefficients of a higher order

OS,
Let
y be the Cartesian coordinates of a particle, then representing differential coefficients with regard to the time by accents
P
_ {x^ + y'")^ ~ xy"-y'x"

velocities
x',
which takes a singular form when the component
y'
174
are zero.
INITIAL TENSIONS
AND CURVATURE.
,
[CHAP. V.
Putting u = w'y"
y'x" we
.'
have after differentiation
u
u"
It,'"
=xy y X
''/
_
= a?V' - y'^' + ^"y"' - y"^'"' = x'f - 2/V + 2 (x'Y - y"^")let
For the sake of brevity

denoted by the
of x".
the initial value of any quantity be
suffix zero,
thus
x"
represents the initial value

0,
Using Taylor's theorem and remembering that x^ =
y'=
0,
we have
a^'y"
- y'x" = \{x:'y:" - xry") f' + licOoV - <y") ^ + &c.

{x^
Similarly
+ y'f = {x^'^ + y"^f + &c.

But
if
If the particle start from rest the initial radius of curvature

is
therefore zero.
the circumstances of the" problem are the radius of curvature

is
such that
Xo'y"' x^"y^' = 0,
given by
T"'>i"r'"'n"
This
is
the general formula
when the axes
of x,
y have any
positions.
If the axis of y be taken in the direction of the resultant

force Xq'
= 0,
and
if
we then
also
have
x^l"
= 0,
the expression for
the radius of curvature takes the simple form
If Fo be the initial resultant force on the particle,
X the transwritten
verse force,
the formula when
Xq = 0, X^ =
may be
= ^x7
coordinates
The corresponding formula for p in polar We have when obtained in the same way.
initially,
may be
r(r"d'" -r'"0")
=O
(7^0"'
+ r"^) ^ g^,^3
_j_
Q^,0
^ ^vîv _ ^^/yv^
initial values.
where the letters are supposed to have their

initial
If the
value of r"
0,
this takes the simpler form

7'
^[p
r)~
?^r^
ART. 283.]
281.
SYSTEM STARTS FROM REST.
175
Let n particles Pi, P^, &c. at rest, be acted on by given and be connected by k geometrical relations. To find the initial radius of curvature of the patn of any one particle P we proceed in the following manner, though in special cases a simpler
forces
process
may
he tbsed.
We
{x^,
differentiate the
dynamical equations
Avriting for all the
tvdce and reduce each to its initial form

coordinates
{Xx, yi),
{x^^ y^, &c. zero.
by
y^, &c.
their
initial
values,
and
for
We
differentiate the
geometrical equations
four times
and reduce each
to its initial form.
We
then have
c^^^
sufficient equations to find the initial values of x", x"\

i2, PC,
&c.,
R", &c. where
is
any
reaction.
Lastly solving these for
the coordinates of the particular particle under consideration

substitute in the standard formula for
/>.
we
This process
may sometimes be
shortened by eliminating the
tensions (if these are not required) before differentiation.
We
thus avoid introducing their differential

work.
coefficients
into the
Sborter Methods. We can sometimes simplify the geometrical relaby introducing subsidiary quantities, say 6, tj>, &g. In this way we can express all the coordinates (x^, yi), &g. in terms of $, <p, cfeo. by equations of the form
aaa.
tions
x=f(0,
where
d,
<p,
</>,
&c.),
y=F(d,
4>,
&c.)
(1),
&q. are independent variables.

reactions,
Substituting in the dynamical equations
and eliminating the

determine
6,
</>,
we have 2n-K
t.
equations of the secpnd order to
&o. in terms of
These eliminations
equations.
may
be avoided
and
the
is
results shortly written
down by using Lagrangeh
Lagrange's method
described in chap.
vii.
differentiation
These equations, however obtained, contain 6, 6', 6"; <t>, (f>', </>", &c. and by* we can find as many higher differential equations as are required.
Since
6','tp',
&c. are zero,
we
find
by differentiation
where
sufiixes as usual
indicate partial differential coefficients, thus j'Q=dfjd9.

'
There are similar expressions for the differential coefficients of y. Substituting in the standard form for p, we obtain the required radius of curvature.
283.
d,
We notice that if
x'"
the partial differential coefficients f^, /.
&c. are zero

<f>,
does not depend on any higher differential coefficients of &c., than the second, and these are given at once by the equations of motion.
Since p=3y"^lx^'', when the axis of y is taken parallel to the resultant force on the particle, the radius of curvature can then be found without differentiating the equations of motion.
176
. ^'""^^
INITIAL TENSIONS
dx
f
AND CURVATURE.
j^
[CHAP. \
do
dtp
the geometrical meaning of
drrHt'''^^Tt^the equations /j = 0, /^ = 0,
required,
&. clearly
is
that
dxldt=0
whose
for every geometrically possible displacement of the system.

initial radius of
The
point,
curvature
is
must begin
to
move
parallel to the axis of
however the system
is displaced.
284.
Examples.
Ex.
1.
particle is placed at rest at the origin
and
is
t
acted on by forces X,
Y parallel
to the axes.
If X,
Y are expanded
in powers of
and the lowest powers are X=ft, Z^gr, .show that the path near the origin is y^=:mx^ and that the radius of curvature is zero. If Z=|/2, Y=g, the path is a parabola whose radius of curvature is '6g^lf. We notice that in the first of these
cases X'
is finite,
in the second zero.

is at rest
Ex. 2. act on it.
A particle
on a plane, and forces X,

is
in the plane begin to
If these forces are functions of the cbordinates x, y only, prove that the
initial radius of
curvature of the path
[Coll.
Ex. 1895.]
This result follows from Art. 280. Ex. 3. Two heavy particles are attached to two points B, C of & string, one end A being fixed. Prove that if the string ABC is initially horizontal, the initial radii of curvature of the paths of B and G are equal.
Prove also that
if
there are
radii of curvature are equal.
B, and having A
unequal.
fixed,
on the horizontal string, all the initial were two equal heavy rods, hinged at prove that the initial radii of curvature at B and G are
particles
If
AB,
BG
In this problem we see beforehand that

the equations of motion.
initial position
it
will be unnecessary to dijfferentiate
Take the angles
6,
<p,
which the strings make with the
ABG as
the independent variables, Art. 283.
Ex. 4. Two heavy particles P, Q, are connected by a string which passes through a smooth fixed ring 0, the portions OP, OQ of the string making angles If the masses m, of P, Q, satisfy the condition 0, ^, with the vertical.
m cos ^=Mcos
<^,
the initial radius of curvature of the path of
P is given by
M+m
sin2^_sin2d
p
r~"
sin2<^
l-r
'
where
/= OP and
is
the length of the string.

of motion, eliminate the tension
6", r",
Take the polar equations

twice.
for p is
and
differentiate
We
5.
thus find the initial values of

simplified.
r"; since
r"=0
the polar formula
much
Ex.
A uniform
rod,
moveable about one end
which
is fixed, is
held in a
released
horizontal position by being passed through a small ring of equal weight; show
that if the ring is initially at the middle point of the rod,
when
it is
the initial radius of curvature of
its
path
is
9 times the length of the rod. [CoU. Ex. 1887.]
Taking
as origin, the polar equation of motion of the particle shows that the
initial values of r", r'" are zero,
while that of r^''gd" + 2r$"^.
Taking moments
ART. 285.]
SMALL OSCILLATIONS.
j[(Mk^+mj^)
The length
e']
177
This gives the
about O, Art. 261, we have

initial
= (Ma + mr)geoBe.
value of ff'=Qgpa.
of the radios of curvature follows
by the
differential calculus, Art. 280.
Ex. 6. Three particles whose masses are m^, m^, tr, are placed at rest at the comers of a triangle ABC, and mutually attract each other with forofis which vary according to some power of the distance. If mim^cF^, m^wâFi, m^mjbF^ are theforces,
prove that the

0102
initial
radius of curvature p of the path of

sin
C is
given by
= - m^
{- mî^ + rn^F^ (F^ - F^) - PF-^}

{-
+mjb sin
where
0,
tf>
msF^^+m^s (î " ^2) - Qâ'},

with the resultant force on C,
are the angles CA,
CB make
Fj;=dFJda,
F,'=dFJdb,
P={m2+m^) aFi+rn^ (F3C cosB + F^b cos C7), Q={mi+m^ bF^+m^ (F^ cos A +Fjaooa C7),
and
B is the resultant force on

is equilateral.
C.
Deduce that the

the triangle
initial radii of
curvature of the three paths are infinite
when
Small
285.
oscillations with one degree
of freedom. been
dis-
The theory of small
oscillations has already
cussed in the chapter on Rectilinear Motion so far as systems with one degree of freedom are concerned. In this section a
series of
in cases
examples will be found showing the method of proceeding somewhat more extended.
particle, or
The
in
system of
particles, is
supposed to be either
equilibrium or in some given state of motion.
slight
disturbance being given,

several particles at
we
express the displacements of the
in the state of equilibrium or motion
any subsequent time t from their positions by quantities x, y, &q

corrections are
These are supposed to be so small that their squares can be

neglected.
If required,
afterwards introduced
for the errors
thus caused.
form the equations of motion either by resolving and taking moments or by Lagrange's method. By neglecting the squares of the displacements these equations are made linear in
x,.y,z,SQi.
We
They
are also linear in regard to the reactions be-
tween the several particles. Eliminating the latter we obtain linear equations which can in general be completely solved. The solution when obtained will enable us to determine whether the
178
system
from
it
SMALL OSCILLATIONS.
oscillates
[CHAP. V.
about
its
undisturbed state or departs widely
on the slightest disturbance.

principle of vis viva supplies an equation which has the
The
advantage of being free from the unknown reactions, but it has the disadvantage that its terms contain the squares of the veloBeing cities, that is, the terms may be of the order we neglect.
an accurate equation, it may sometimes be restored to the first order by differentiating it with regard to t and dividing by some small quantity. Generally the solution is more easily arrived at by using the equations of motion which contain the second
differential coefficients
with regard to
1.
t.
286.
Examples.
Ex.
Two
particles
whose masses are m, m' are con-
nected by a string which passes through a small hole in a smooth horizontal table. The particle w! hangs vertically, while m is projected on the table perpendicularly
to the string with such a velocity that m' is stationary.
If
a small disturbance
is
is
given to the system so that m! makes vertical oscillations, prove that the period
2ir ^
/
r,
where c
T the
tension.
is
the
mean
radius vector of the path of m.

I
Let
string
d be the polar coordinates of m, z the depth of mf,
the length of the
and
The equations
\dtj
of motion after the disturbance are
^_fdey__T_
dt^
idfde\
r
m'
dt\
dtj
'
dh
The second equation gives lepends on the disturbance.
T
r^ddldt
= h,
,,
where ^
is
a constant whose magnitude
Eliminating T, z and dOjdt we find

,
<fr
mh?
Let
r=e+^
where
c is
its
a constant which
is
as yet arbitrary except that the variable
^ is so small that
square can be neglected.
then mh^=m'c^g.
Let us now choose c to be such that the right-hand side of the equation Substituting for h we find
is
zero
P=A8in(nt + a),
bince I
that
is
is
..
n^=
3m'
,
m + m'.c
-.
when taken
r=c
is
wholly periodic and has no constant term, its mean value is zero, any long time or for the period of oscillation. It follows the mean radius vector of the path of m after the disturbance. This
either for
not necessarily the same as the radius of the circle described before disturbance whether it is so or not depends on the nature of the disturbance given to the
system.
Let the particle

velocity V, then
before disturbance be describing a circle of radius a with

string;
mV^la=m'g, each being the tension of the
and the angular
ART. 286.]
ONE DEGREE OF FREEDOM.

of
179
vertical
momentnm
m
O
is
mVa.
If the disturbance be given
by a
blow
ap-
plied to the particle m', this reacts
on
m by an impulsive
momentum
of
If-
tension, and, the
moment
In this
of this about
being zero, the angular

find c
is unaltered.
case
we have h Va and we
= a.
the disturbance be given by a transverse
this case
B applied at m, the velocity of m is changed to V where V - V=Bfm. In A= V'a and c is not equal to a. Ex. 2. A particle of mass m is attached to two points A, B hy two elastic strings each having the same modulus E and natural length If the particle be
blow
I.
displaced parallel to this line, prove that the time of oscillation
is
2ir^J{mll2E),
[Coll.
Ex. 1895.]
Ex. 3. A heavy particle hangs in equilibrium suspended by an elastic string whose modulus is three times the weight of the particle. The particle is slightly displaced in a direction making an angle cot~^4 with the horizontal and is then released. Prove that the particle will oscillate in an arc of a small parabola
tenninated by the ends of the latus rectum.
is
Ex. 4. lower end
A
A
straight rod
AB
without weight
in a vertical position, with its
hinged to a fixed point, and a weight attached to the upper end B.
To
are attached three similar elastic strings equally stretched to a length k times
their natural length
and equally inclined
to one another, their other ends being
attached to three fixed points in the horizontal plane through B.
Show
that,
is
when
the strings obey Hooke's law, the condition for stabUity of equilibrium
that the
weight must not exceed that which,
when suspended by one
of the strings, would
cause an increase of length equal to #(2 - 1/A;) AB. Show that, when this condition is fulfilled, the system can perform small vibrations parallel to any vertical plane.
Ex. 5. A smooth ring P can slide freely on a string which is suspended from two fixed points A and B not in the same horizontal line. If P be disturbed, find
the time of a small oscillation in the vertical plane passing through
A and
B.
If
T be
AP,
the time, (r/2?r)25=4(rr')^/(r+r'){(r + r')2-4c"''}5, where
r, r'
are the distances
Ex.
BP in equilibrium and AB = 2c. A rod of mass M hangs in 6.
a horizontal position supported by two equal

a.
"vertical elastic strings,
modulus X and natural length
Prove that
if
the rod
receive a small displacement parallel to itself, the period of a horizontal oscillation

is 2ir
(-%f)*.
[00...
E.
1897.]
Ex. 7. A particle of mass m is attached to an elastic string stretched between two points fixed in a smooth board of mass 31, and the board is free to slide on a smooth table. Prove that the period in which the particle oscillates is less than it would be if the board were fixed in the ratio 1 [Coll. Ex. 1895.] ^{1 + mjM). Reduce the board to rest.
:
Ex.
8.
ring of mass
it
nm
is free
to slide
on a smooth horizontal wire, and a
string tied to
passes through a small ring vertically below the wire at a depth h,
and supports a particle of mass m. Prove that if the first mass be released when the upper part of the string makes an angle a with the vertical, and if d be the inclination after a time t, the equation of motion is
h{n + sin2 d) (ddjdtf - 2g
cos'' ^ (sec
o - sec 6).
Prove hence that the small oscillations about the position of equilibrium will be synchronous with a simple pendulum of length nh. [Coll. Ex. 1896.]
180
Ex. 9. A crane aniform velocity V.
determined by
is
SMALL OSCILLATIONS.
[CHAP. V.
lowering a heavy body and the chain is paid out with a Prove that the small lateral oscillations of the body are
d^0
dr^
(W
dr
gd
V^
d its inclination to the vertical,
where r
Also
is
the length of the chaip at
any time and

that
the weight of the chain being neglected.

if
6^r=y, 2^gr=xV, prove
This equation can be solved by the use of Bessel's functions. See Gray and Mathews' [Coll. Ex. 1895.] Treatise on Bessel's Functiom.
Ex.
10.
the axis.
A gravitating solid of revolution is cut by A particle is fastened by a fine string of length

when
the string
is
a plane perpendicular to
I
to a point in the prolon-
gation of the axis, so that
perpendicular to the plane section

centre 0.
the particle just does not touch the plane at
its
Assuming the conditions
such that when the particle
is slightly
disturbed the motion is that of a simple
pendulum, prove that the time T of a small oscillation is given by l(2irlT)^=R + ÎR*^ where R is the force exerted by the solid on a unit mass at O and R' is the space variation of the force at 0, taken outside the solid, along the axis. [Coll. Ex. 1892.J
Small
287.
oscillations with
two or more degrees of freedom.
Oscillations about equilibrium.
particle is in
equilibrium under the action of forces X, Y which are given funcslight disturbance being given, it is tions of the coordinates.
required
to
determine whether the particle oscillates and the nature
of the motion. Let a, b be the coordinates of the position of equilibrium, a + oc, b + y, the coordinates at any time t. We shall assume as
the standard case that x and y are small throughout the motion. Solving the equations of motion we shall express c, y in terms
of
t.
By examining
shall
the results
we
shall
determine whether and
how
nearly the subsequent motion follows the standard form.
We
suppose that the forces X^

x, y, viz.
can be expanded in
integer powers of
X = Ax-^By, Y = B'x + Gy
where we have rejected the higher powers in our There are no constant terms because X, tion. Taking the mass of the position of equilibrium. the equations of motion are
first
(1),
approxima-
vanish in the
particle as unity^
^^Âx^By,
^, = B'x + Cy
(2).
ART. 287.]
TWO DEGREES OF FREEDOM.

we
let S
181
To
solve these
.'.
represent d/dt,
0,
{B^~A)a;-By =
y,
- B'x + {B'-C)y =
...(S),
Eliminating
we have the two forms
B'-A,
-B',
-B
h^-C
is
a!
0,
By = {h''-A)x
(4).
The
first
of these
a differential equation with constant co-
efficients.
Its solution can be written
given in treatises on differential equations.
down by the usual rules The solution contains
four arbitrary constants, and the value of y follows from that of x, without the introduction of any new constants.
Substituting
The usual method we arrive

m'
is
to
assume as a
trial solution
x = Le''^*.
at the biquadratic
.'.
+ C)m^ + AC - BB' = m^ = ^[A + C s/{(A - Cy + 455'}].

(A
(5);
Assuming that no two

be
roots are equal, let the four values of
m
m
m, n;
then
X
where
= Lie""* + Zse-"** + ifie"* + Mo,e-''*.
.(6),
Zj, Z, &c. are four arbitrary constants

real or imaginary.
and the values of
may be
where r
of time.
It is at once obvious, if
is positive,
m be positive
or of the form r
p^/
-^1,
that the value of x will become large by efflux
It is therefore necessary for an oscillatory motion that
all the real roots
and
the real parts
of the imaginary roots of the

7iegative.
determinantal equation (5) should be
sum of the four roots of (5) is zero, some of the real must be positive unless the four roots are of the form p\/ ~1. It is therefore necessary for an oscillatory motion that both the roots of the quadratic (5) should be real and negative. The algebraical conditions for this are, that both (A Cy + 455' and AG BB' should be positive and A + G negative.
Since the
parts
As our
solution represents the motion

it is
only
when x and y
remain small,
unnecessary for us here to consider any case
except that in which the roots of (5) take the forms m^ = p^, The motion is then given by n^ = q^.
x = L sm(pt + a) + sin{qt + ^)] = y L'sm(pt + a) + M'sm{qt + ^)\
^^^'
182
SMALL OSCILLATIONS.
[CHAP. V.
where BL'= -{p^ + A)L and
BM' = -{q- + A) M.
The
quantities
p\
q^
are the roots of

{p''
+ A){p^ + C)-BB'=0
(8).
288. If B, B' have the same sign, the roots of the quadratic (8) are separated by each of the values p^= -A, i)^ - C. To prove this, it is sufficient to notice that the left-hand side of that equation is positive when p'^= cd and is negative when p^ has
It is also
either of the separating values.
two separating values
p^=
-A
sometimes useful to notice that the roots cannot be equal unless the A and C are equal and that the equal roots are then -C. If AG -BB' = the biquadratic (5) has two equal zero roots,
though the roots of the same equation regarded as a quadratic are unequal.
289.
ioith
To find
the four arbitrary constants L,
M,
a,
/S,
ice solve the
equations (7)
regard
to the trigonometrical terms.
We thus
find
By + (q^- + A) x= - (p^ - q^) L sin (pt + a)\ By + {p^- + A)x= {p^~q^) ilf sin(gt+/3)\
Putting *=0, we at once have the values of Lsina,
initial values of the coordinates.
^^''
M sin/3 in
t
terms of the
Differentiating with regard to
and again putting
t=0, we find
L cos a,
ilf
eosjS in terms of the initial velocities.
which the equation (5) has equal roots has (A-C)^ + 4:BB' = or AC -BB'=0. When B, B' have the same sign the first alternative requires A C and either B or B' equal to zero. In the second alternative the equation has two zero roots.
290.
Equal
roots.
The
case in
been
excepted.
This
occurs
when
either
Excepting when both

(2) is
and B' are
zero, the solution of the dynamical equations
known
to contain terms of the
form {Lt + L')
e'.
If
is positive
or zero
t.
(or
If
has
its real
part positive or zero), this term will increase indefinitely with
however the
real part of Hi is negative
and not
zero, say equal to
- r, the maxiis small.
mum value
this
of Lte-'^ is Ljre.
will
Since
is
so small that its square can be neglected,
term in the solution
always remain small except when r also
The
existence of equal roots in the deterviinantal equation (5) does not therefore
necessarily imply that the oscillation becomes large.
291.
equations
Before disturbance the particle
P was
(1)
in equilibrium at the origin under

Art. 287.
the influence ~ of the forces X,
given by
When AC=BB',
These
the
lie
X=0, r=0
line
are satisfied by values of x, y other than zero.
on the straight
Ax + By = 0.
The dynamical
significance of the condition
AC=BB'
is therefm-e that there are other positions of equilibrium in the immediate neighbourhood of the origin. The roots of equation (8) being p- = Q, q^= -A-Gy the values of x, y take the form
x=Lit + L2 + Msm{qt + ^),
By= -A
The
first
(L^t + L^)-
CM sin (qt + P).
terms represent a uniform motion along the line of equilibrium, while the trigonometrical terms represent an oscillation in the direction By= - Cx.
Whether the particle will travel far or not along the on the nature of the forces when x, y become large.
line of equilibrium will
depend
ART. 293.]
292.
PRINCIPAL OSCILLATIONS.
183
Principal oscillations.
it
Let the type of motion be

(7).
that represented by such equations as
the proper initial conditions

of the ways defined
a?
may
be
By giving the partide made to move in either

(10),
by the following
partial solutions
cc
= Z sm(pt-\'a), y = L' sin (pi + a) = Msia(qt-\-^), y = M' sin (qt + 13)
(H).
Each
of these is called a principal oscillation
of oscillation included in (7) are
and all the modes compounded of these two. The

is the
dynamical peculiarity of a principal oscillation

of the period. The solution
(10)
is
singleness
sometimes taken as the

(5).
trial
solution instead of the
exponential used in obtaining
Practically
finding the principal oscillations
and
finally
the solution by combine these into the general
we then begin
solution
(7).
The paths
lations are the
of the particle
when
describing the principal oscil-
two straight
lines
Ly^L'x,
In each
My = M'x
...(12).
oscillation the ratio of the coordinates,
being equal to
L'fL or M'/M, is constant throughout the motion. We have, by (7), using the values of p^ + q^, p^q^, given by the coefficients of
the quadratic
(8),
UM' _ {p'^ + A){q^ + A) _
LM~
R
;
R
B
oscillation,
^
'*^'
It follows that
when B, B' have the same

signs.
sign, the ratios L'\L,
M'jM
have opposite
In one principal
in the other,
the co-
ordinates X,
increase together
when one
increases
the other decreases.
We
The
also notice that
when B' = B, the two

may
straight lines (12)
ire at right angles.

directions of these rectilinear oscillations
be obtained without invesif
tigating the motion.
The
lines
must be
so placed that
the particle be displaced
along either, the perpendicular force must be zero.

given by
The
lines are therefore
Xy-Yx = 0;
:.
By^ +{A-C)xy- B'x^=0.
These lines are real when {A-C)^+iBB' is positive. This condition is satisfied when the roots of the determinantal equation (5) are real or of the form
293.
When the coordinates are such that

oscillation,
only one varies along
each principal
they are called principal coordinates.
184
SMALL OSCILLATIONS.
(9),
[CHAP. V.
Keferring to the equations
we
see that if
we put
f,
17
will
coordinates
be the principal coordinates. This transformation of is always possible, so long as p^ and q^ are real and
discover the principal coordinates without previously finding the
unequal.
We may also
values of p^,
q^.
We
deduce from the equations
(2)
dt^
(.+
X,)
= (^ + XB')(. + |^,).
by using an indeterminate multiplier X. If now we write {B+\C)I{A+XB')=\ we see that x + \y will be a trigonometrical function with one period. We have a
quadratic to find X; representing the roots by Xj, Xg, the principal coordinates are
i=x+\jy, ti=x + '\^,

294.
or any multiples of these.
Conservative forces.
When
the particle are conservative, the solution

tions.
tJte forces which act on admits of some simplifica-
vanish in the position of equilibrium,
Let TJhe the force function, then, since dUjdx and dUjdy we have by Taylor's theorem,
U=
f7o
+ i(â;2 + 25;2/+CyO+
(1).
It follows that the equations of motion are
^^=X = Aa^ + By, ^=Y=Ba^ + Cy

Comparing these with the former values of X,
Y,
(2).
we
see
that
B'^B.
If
we turn the
axes round the origin
we know by
conies that
the equation (1) can be always cleared of the term containing the product xy. Representing the new coordinates by |, 97, let the
expression for
U become U=Uo + kU'^' + G'v') + 0' = A + G, A'C = AG-B^. The where A' +
=^'f- s^^^'"
The motion
is
(3),
equations of motion
are then
wIf -4'
is
oscillatory
for
all
displacements or for none

oscillatory for a displace-
according as A',
are both negative or both positive.

is
negative and C' positive, the motion
ment along the

displacements.
axis of ^
and not wholly
oscillatory for
other
ART. 296.]
TEST or STABILITY.
185
The
level curves of the field of force are obtained

;
by equating
to a constant
in the neighbourhood of the position of equili-
brium, these become the conies
Aa^
+ 2Bxy +
Gy-"
= N,
or
^'f +
Crj^
= N.
and the periods
The
lines of the principal oscillations are the directions of the
principal diameters of the limiting level conic,
of the principal oscillations are proportional to the lengths of the
diameters along which the particle moves.

295.
Tlie representative partide.
The
investigation of the small oscilla-
tions of a particle in a given field of force has a
more extended application
to
dynamical problems than appears at
first sight.
Suppose, for example, that a
system, consisting of several particles connected together by geometrical relations, has two degrees of freedom. Let the position of this system be defined by the two coordinates x, y- The equations giving the small oscillations, after the elimi-
nation of the reactions, take the form
because the squares of x and y are neglected. If B=B' these are the equations of motion of a single particle moving in the field of force defined by
U - Uo=i (Ax^ + 2Bxy + Cy^).

The
investigations given in Art. 292 exhibit the motion of
and
Art. 294 apply therefore to both problems.
To
an
oscillating system to the eye,
we take
its coordi-
nates X, y to be also the Cartesian coordinates of an imaginary particle which moves freely in the field of force TJ. We represent by a figure the level conies, the
path of this representative

oscillations.
particle,
The
special peculiarities of the
and sketch the positions of the principal motion will then become apparent in
the figure.
296.
Test of
stability*.
Let the
field
of force in which
the particle moves be given by the function U.
Since dU/dx and
dU/dy vanish
point a
in the position of equilibrium,

or a
maximum
minimum.
a
must be at that In the neighbourhood we have

Cy')
UIf
Uo
= h{^^ + ^Bxy +
CT is
...
maximum or a minimum for all displacements according as the common sign of A and G is negative or positive, and ii AG - B' is negative, f/" is a maximum for
is positive, *
AC B^
The energy
test of the stability of
a position of equilibrium
is
given by
He gives both this proof and that in Lagrange in the Micanique Analytique. Art. 297. The demonstration for the general case of a system of bodies has been much simplified by Lejeune-Dirichlet in Crelle's Journal, 1846, and Liouville's Journal, 1847. See the author's Bigid Dynamics, vol. i. the corresponding test for the stability of a state of motion is in vol. ii.
;
186
SMALL OSCILLATIONS.
for other displacements.
[CHAP. V.
It follows from
some and a minimum
Art. 294 that the motion of the particle,

position of equilibrium, will be
when disturbed from its wholly oscillatory if U is a real
maximum at that point. The particle will oscillate for some displacements and not for others if has a stationary value, and will not oscillate for any displacement if U is a real minimwm.
all the coefficients A, B, G are happens the cubic terms in the expression for U govern the series. The equations of motion (2) of Art. 295 will then have terms of the second order of small quantities on
We
have here assumed that
not zero.
When
this
their right-hand sides.
Besides this
pression for
if AG B^ = 0, the quadratic terms of the exU take the form of a perfect square, viz. (Ax + ByY/A.
In this case the forces
X dTJjdx
so
and
Y=dU/dy
contain the
common
factor
Ax + By
that there are
other positions of
equilibrium in the neighbourhood of the origin, see Art. 291.
To
account of the powers of
determine the motion, even approximately, it is x, y of the higher orders.
necessary to take
The geometrical theory

responding peculiarity, for
of
it is
maxima and minima has a corshown in the Differential Calculus
that further conditions, involving the higher powers, are necessary

for
maximum
or
minimum.
The
extends.
following investigation shows
how
far this correspondence
Let a particle be in equilibrium at a point Po whose coordinates are aô, 2/0, and let U=f{x,y) be the work function. Let the particle be projected with a small velocity Vi from a point Pi, whose coordinates are Xj, y-^, very near to Pq. The equation of
297.
vis viva gives (Art.
246)
where
Let
?7
= v,'+2{U-U,) ==v^ + 2iU-Uo) v^' = v,' + 2 (Uo - U,)

v'
(1),
(2),
"
(3).
be a
displacement, then
maximum at the point Po for all directions of C/j < Uq and Vq^ is a small positive quantity.
As the
(2)
particle recedes from Po, Uo
U increases, but
so far that
the equation
shows that the particle cannot go
U^
becomes
ART. 299.]
BARRIER CURVES.
^Vq".
187
is
greater than the small quantity
The equilibrium
therefore
stable for displacements in all directions.
Let
Z7
be a
minimum
at
Pq
for all directions of displacement,
then as the particle moves from Pq the difference
Uq increases.
is-
So
far as the principle of vis viva is concerned, there
nothing
to prevent the particle from receding indefinitely from Pq.
Let C be a maximum for some directions of displacement and a minimum for others. The particle cannot recede far from Pq in the directions for which U is a, maximum, but there is
nothing to restrict the motion in the other directions.
208.
Ex.
particle
is
in equilibrium under the action of a system of
fixed attracting bodies situated in
inverse xth power of the distance.
Prove that,
If k
one plane, the law of attraction being the if /c> 1, the equilibrium of P cannot
it
be stable for
all
displacements in that plane, though
may
be stable for some and
unstable for other displacements.

for all displacements in that plane.
< 1,
the equilibrium cannot be unstable

^
To prove
let X,
U-i_=
particle of the attracting mass, coordinates /, g ; be the coordinates of P. The potential of v\ at is by definition
this let
m^ be any
where
i\ is
the distance of
m-,
from P.
We then find by a partial
differentiation
^3
dx"^
Û^ _ dy^ ~
(k
- 1) m^ K+x
'
Sunmiing
find
this for all the particles of the attracting
mass and writing ?7=Sf7j, we
d?U The right-hand
dÛ _
m
k<1.
side is positive or negative according as fc>l or
Taking the equilibrium position of P for the origin and the principal directions of motions for the axes, Art. 294, we see by Taylor's Theorem
where A' = dWldx^, C'=dÛldy^.
all
It is evident that U cannot be a maximum for displacements in the plane of xy if .4' + is positive and cannot be a minimum for all displacements in the plane if this sum is negative. The result also follows
from Art. 296.
Barrier curves. It is clear that this line of argument be extended to apply to cases in which there is no given position of equilibrium in the neighbourhood of the point of projection. Let the particle be projected from any point Pi with
299.
may
any velocity
v^
in
any
direction.
Throughout the subsequent
motion we have
188
where
Z7 is
SMALL OSCILLATIONS.
a given function of
x,
[CHAP. V.
is its
y and Ui
value at the
point of projection.
If
we equate the right-hand
side of this equation to zero,
we
obtain the equation of a curve traced on the field of force at
which the velocity of the

This curve
is therefore
particle, if it
arrive
there, is
zero.
a harrier
to the motion,
which the particle
cannot pass.
If the barrier curve be closed as in Art. 297, the particle
is,
as
it
were, imprisoned, and cannot recede fi'om its initial position
will
beyond the limits of the curve. Some applications of this theorem be given in the chapter on ceijtral forces.
The right-hand
side
of the
equation will in general have
opposite signs on the two sides of the barrier.
When
this
is
the case the particle,
if it
reach the barrier in any finite time,
must
necessarily return, because the left-hand side of the equation
cannot be negative.
same sign on U must be a minimum at all points of the barrier. The particle is therefore approaching a position of equilibrium and arrives there with velocity equal to zero. The particle therefore will remain
If the right-hand side of the equation have the
both sides of the barrier, that sign must be positive, and
on the
barrier, see Art. 99.
The
barrier
is
evidently a level curve of the field of force

it,
and, as the particle approaches
the resultant force must be

its
normal to the
barrier.
Just before the particle arrives at
component of the velocity must be zero, for this component cannot be destroyed by the force. The path cannot therefore touch the barrier, but must meet it perpendicularly or at a cusp.
position of zero velocity, the tangential
300.
the string
Examples.
Ex.
1.
Two heavy
particles of
masses
vi, vi',
are attached
is
to the points A,
is
oi & light elastic string.
The upper extremity
fixed
and
in equilibrium in a vertical position.
small vertical disturbance
being given, find the oscillations.
Let X, y be the depths of m,
i'
below 0;
a, b the
uustretched lengths of OA,
AB,
the coefficient of elasticity.
The equations
of
motion reduce to
E ^ d'^x (E E\ "'w'[-^^T)''-by='^n E E ,dhi

,
I
...
^"
^
ART. 300.]
To
solve these
SEVERAL DEGREES OF FREEDOM.

we put
X-
189
h= L sin {pt + a),
-k = 3I sin{pt + a)
(2),
the constants h, k being introduced to cancel the right-hand sides of the equations of motion. Since x=h, y = k make cPxldt^=0, cPyjdt^=0, these constants are the
equilibrium values of x, y.
We then find
,
E E\/
E\
E^
m'b
,.
and the other by using instead of p\ one oscillation the two particles are always moving in the same directions, that is both are moving upwards or both downwards. In the other when one moves upwards the other moves downwards.
One
principal oscillation is given by (2)
the other root of the quadratic.
It follows that in
Ex.
2.
Two heavy particles,
of masses m,
M,
are attached to the points A,
of a light inextensible string, the upper extremity
being fixed.
Prove that the
periods of the small lateral oscillations are 2irlp and 2a-/g where
roots of
1
p and
q are the
a+h 1
p*
yp
M+m
^_n ~
g'^
'
and OA = a,
(g
AB = h.
Show
in the inclinations of the upper
Prove also that the magnitudes of the principal oscillations and lower strings to the vertical are in the ratio
- bp^)/ap^.
that in one principal oscillation the two particles are
on the
same
side of the vertical

3.
through
and in the other on opposite
sides.
Ex.
is
Two
particles
M, m,
are connected by a fine string, a second string
connects the particle
to a fixed point,
and the
strings,
hang
vertically
(1)
held slightly pulled aside a distance h from the position of equilibrium, and, is held slightly pulled being let go, the system performs small oscillations (2)
;
aside a distance
small oscillations.
case will
go the system performs Prove that the angular motion of the lower string in the first be the same as that of the upper string in the second if Mk = {M+m) h. [Math. Tripos, 1888.]
A;,
without disturbance of m, and being
let
Three beads, the masses of which are m, m', m", can slide along the smooth triangle ABC and attract each other with forces which vary as the distance. Find the positions of equilibrium and prove that if slightly disturbed the periods 2irlp of oscillation are given by
Ex.
4.
sides of a
(jp2
a) (2>2
- (3)
(2>2
- 7) - m'm" - mm'
(p^
[p'^
- a) cos^^ - m"m (p^ - /3) coa^B - 7) cos^ C - 2mm' m" cos A cos B cos C = 0,
m' + m respectively.
where
o,
j3,
7 represent m" + m',
m + m",
Ex.
5.
A particle P of
unit mass
is
placed at the centre of a smooth circular
horizontal table of radius a.
smooth pulleys A, B, C masses tjij, jjig, wig; the pulleys being so placed that the particle
Three strings, attached to the particle, pass over at the edge of the table and support three particles of
P is
in equilibrium.
small disturbance being given, prove that the periods of the oscillations are
2t/p, where
\p^ + glaj
p^+gla
im^m^nis
'
H=:{m^ + vi2-mg){m2+m.^-mj) (m^+m^-m^,
190
SMALL OSCILLATIONS.
[CHAP. V.
Ex. 6. A heavy particle P is suspended by a string of length i to a point A which describes a horizontal circle of radius a with a slow angular velocity n. Prove that the two periods of the oscillatory motion are 27r/ra and 2iri^ljg.
301. Partiele on a surface. Ex. 1. A heavy particle rests in equilibrium on the inside of a fixed smooth surface at a point 0, at which the surface has only one tangent plane. The particle being slightly disturbed, it is required to find the
oscillations.
Taking the point

-equation of the surface
as origin
and the tangent plane
as the plane of xy, the
may
be written
z
= i{ax^ + by^) + ...,
y are the tangents to the principal sections and 1/a, 1/6 are the radii of curvature of those sections. By the principles of solid geometry the direction cosines of the normal at any point P become (ax, by, 1) when the squares of X, y are neglected. The equations of motion are therefore
where the axes of
x,
r>^ji^,=
-Iiax,
m^,= -Rby,
m-,= -mg+R.
Since z
is of
the second order of small quantities the third equation shows that
iJ=m^, and the other two become

d^x
^.^-agx,
is if
dhi
J=-b9y.
oscillations are
it
a and b are positive, that

is oscillatory
both the principal sections are concave up-
wards, the motion
and the two periods of
Ivjâg
its
and
27rlJbg.
The
x = 0,
partiele,
by
definition, performs a principal oscillation
when
motion has but one period.

(1)
This occurs when

(2)
y=
Bin (Jbgt+p),
y=0, x=ABm{Jagt + a).
The
directions of these oscillations are the tangents to the principal sections.
Ex. 2. A particle rests on a smooth surface which is made to revolve with uniform angular velocity w about the vertical normal which passes through the
particle.
Show
that the equilibrium

lie
is
stable (1) if the curvature is synclastic

(2) if
upwards, and w does not

clastic
between certain limits, or
the curvature
is anti-
and the downward principal radius is greater than the upward principal Find the limits of w in each case. radius, and w exceeds a certain limit.
Taking as axes the tangents to the principal

(Art. 227) reduce to
sections, the equations of
motion
= -gax, ^^-o,^x-2./^
^
d^x
dy
d^y
J- u,^+2u,-= -gby.
then obtain a
dx
To
solve these
we put
x=L sin (pt + a), y=L' cob {pt + a). We
quadratic for p^ and the ratio L'jL.
The path
of the particle relatively to the
moving surface when performing the
principal oscillation defined by either value of p^ is the ellipse
(j) +
fj)
^^
The two
ellipses are coaxial.
aoa. The insufficiency of tbe first approzlmation. In forming the equations of motion in Arts. 287, 294, we have rejected the squares of x and y.
ART. 304.]
ABOUT STEADY MOTION.
191
But unless the extent of the oscillation is indefinitely small, the rejected terms have some values, and it may be, that they sensibly affect the resnlts of the first approximation. See Art. 141.
303. To find a second approximation we include in the equations 287 the terms of the second order. We write these in the form
(2)
of Art.
{S^-A)x-By=Ei3? + 2E^y + E^^\ -B'x+{S^-G)y=Fi0i^ + 2F2xy + Fsy^\

Taking as our
first
''
approximation
x=L sia{pt + a) + M sm{qt+p)\ y=L'Bm(pt + a) + M'Bm{qt+^)\

we
substitute these in the right-hand sides of
(1).
''
The equations take the form
{d\- A)
X- By = :2P Bin (\t+,i))

sin (\t
- B'x + {S^~C)y = S<3

where X
+ fi)f )l
^^''
may have any one

term
of the values 0, 2p, 2q,
p^q
and P, Q contain the
squares of the small quantities L,

sider only the specimen
of (3)
M,
L', M'.
To
solve these equations,
we con-
and assume
x=L
We find by
Bia{pt + a)+M Bin(qt + p)
y =L' Bin {pt + a) + M' sin {qt+p)
+ R Bin (Xt+fi)] ^+^^1 + R' sin (Kt-
(4).
an easy substitution
B{\^+A)+BR'=-P, -P(\^ + C) + QB (\^ + A){\^ + C)-BB"
B'R + R'{X2 + C)=-Q;
PB'-Q(\^ + A)
(\^+A)(\^+C)-BB''
It
appears that R, R' are very small quantities of the second order, except
when
X is such that the common denominator is small, and in this case R, R' may become very great. The roots of the denominator are X"=p^, \^=q\ and the denominator is small when X is nearly equal to either p or q. This requires either that one of the two frequencies p, q should be small or that one should be nearly
double the other.
If for
example p
is
nearly equal to 2g and the numerators of R, R', are not
and X=2g will considerably inno perceptible effect. If jp=2g' exactly the denominator is zero and both R, R' take infinite values. The dynamical meaning of the infinite term is that the expressions (2) do not represent the motion with
thereby
small, the terms defined
made
by
\=p-q
fluence the motion, the other terms producing
sufficient accuracy (except initially) to be
first
approximation.
The
corrections
to these expressions are found to
become
infinite
and
if
we
desire a solution
we
must seek some other
first
approximation.
304.
Oscillation about steady motion.
Ex.
1.
The
constituents of a
multiple star describe circles about their centre of gravity
with a uniform angular velocity n, the several bodies always keeping at the same distances from
ach other. A planet P, of insignificant mass, freely describes a circle of radius a, centre 0, with the same angular velocity, under the attraction of the other bodies. It is required to find the oscillations of P when disturbed from this state 'of
motion.
time
Let r=a(l + x), 6=:nt + y be the polar coordinates of the planet t. Let the work function in the revolving field of force be
at
any
U-Uo=AnX + Boy + ii(Ax^ + 2Bxy + Cy^)-h&c
(1),
192
SMALL OSCILLATIONS.
[CHAP. V.
Since that motion is
at all points in the neighbourhood of the circular motion.

possible only in that part of the field in
n'a,
it is
which the force tends to
and
is
equal to
clear that
Aq - ahfi and Bo=0.

r,
Substituting the values of
6 in the polar equations
dt^
^\dt) ~adx'
rdt\dt)~rdy
''
we
find the linear equations
{a?S^-ahi^-A)x-{2ahiS+B)y=Q\
{2aHB-B)x+{a^S^-C)y=(^
'*
A principal oscillation
is
therefore given
by
a;=Lcos2>* + I<'sinpt,
y=iM GO^pt+M' einpt
(4),
^= aV + C
The path
its
2ahipL'-BL
(a^p^+A +ahi^)
-2ahvpL-BL' aV + C (aV + C) --B2-4a*nV=0

'
^-
,>,
^')' (6).
of the particle
is
when
describing a principal oscillation relatively to
undisturbed path
the conic
(7).
{a?p^+A + aH^)x'+2Bxy + [aY+C)y^=^^^{L''-\-L'^)

the ratio and directions of the axes being independent of the disturbance.
limiting case in which
In the
n=0 the
conic reduces to two straight lines.
star has two constituents A, B, whose masses are M, M', the can describe a circular orbit only when Mp-* ain APO = M'p''" Bin BPO, where p=AP, p'=BP and the law of force is the inverse Kth power of the distance.
When the multiple
planet
Since
O is
the centre of gravity of Jf,
M'
this proves that either the angle
APO is
zero or p=p', except

straight line
when
*c=
1.
The planet
P niust
therefore be either in the
AB
or at the corner
C of
the equilateral triangle
ABC.
When
about
the planet
the attractions of
P is in the straight line AB &t a point C such that the sum of A and B on it is equal to n^ OC, the planet can describe a circle
.
with the same periodic time as

the planet
is
When
P is at
the third
^.^,, MM'
A and B. comer C of
This motion
is
unstable.
the equilateral triangle

) .
ABC,
the
circular motion
stable
when
>3
\B - kJ
distances of
These two results may be obtained in several ways. P from the two primaries the work function is
Putting
p, p'
for the
Expressing this in terms of r, 6, and expanding in powers of x, y, including the terms of the second order, the values of A, B,C in equation (1) become known.
The
periods are then given by
(6).
Instead of using the work function,
we may determine
the forces dXJjadx and
dXJjrdy by resolving the attractions of the primaries along and perpendicular to This method has the advantage that the task of calculating the radius vector of P.
the terms of the second order becomes unnecessary.
Lastly,
we may use the
Cartesian equations referred to moving axes which
rotate round
Art. 227.
with a uniform angular velocity n,
OC
being the axis of {;
ART. 305.]
In
all
FINITE DIFFERENCES.
mass of the planet
193
these methods, the assumption that the

It does not
P is
insignifi-
cant compared with that of either of the attracting bodies greatly simplifies the
analysis.
the results and the method of proceeding
seem necessary to examine these cases more fully here, as when this assumption is not made will be
considered further on.
example the attracting primaries either coincide or are is represented by U-UQÂf^ + iÂz^; prove that other circular orbits in the immediate neighbourhood of the given one are possible paths for the particle P, Art. 291. Prove also that after disturbance the oscillation of P about the mean circular path is given by
2.
Ex.
If in the last
so arranged that the field of force
x=Lcos(pt + a),
where p^^Ztfi-Aja^, the
Ex.
3.
py= -2nL Bin {pt + a),

having only one period.
S',
oscillation
Two
equal centres of force S,

is slightly
whose attraction
is up",
rotate round
the middle point
of the line of junction with a uniform angular velocity n.
particle in equilibrium at
disturbed, prove that the periods of the
small oscillation are given by (p^ + v?-^) {p^ + v?-Kp) = 4:n^p^ where /3=2/i6*~-'^ and SS'=2b. Thence deduce the conditions that the equilibrium should be stable.
Problems requiring Finite Differences.

305.
Ex.
1.
light elastic string of length nl
and
coefficient of elasticity
I
is
loaded with n particles each of mass m, ranged at intervals

If it be
its vertical oscillations
along
it
begin-
ning at one extremity.

periods of
hung up by the other extremity, prove that the will be given by the formula
i
/Im
""s/e'
above,
cosec
2^ -J
where
= 0,
1,
. . .
n-
1 *.

;
Let x^ be the distance of the xth particle from the fixed end
the tension
r^+i
that below, the particle.
We then have
(1),
mar;'=m^ + T^^j-r...
and by Hooka's law
for elastic strings
2'.=^(^^^^r^-i)
The equation
of
(2).
motion
is therefore
x;'-5=c2(^,+l-2x^-Hx^_l)
where c^Êjlm.
(3),
We assume
as the trial solution

^<c='^K + ^sin(2>t +
e)
(4),
t,
where h^ and X^ are two functions of k which are independent of

independent of both k and
t.
and p,
are
Substituting
we
find
'^
(5).
The
solution is given at greater length than is necessary for this example, in
order to illustrate the various cases which
may
arise.
194
To
FINITE DIFFERENCES.
we
[CHAP. V.
follow the usual rules.
solve the first of these linear equations of differences
Taking
X Âa"
as a trial solution, where
A and
1
a are two constants, we get after
substitution
and reduction
-2 + -=-S
2
(6).
V--y^(l-g)+|v/-l
/3.
(7)-
Let these values of a be called a and
Then
(8).
X^
= Ja" + BjS"
(6)
We
or
notice that
1.
has equal roots, viz. a=l The theory of linear equations shows that the terms depending on these
when
either
p=0
or 2c the equation
values of p take a different form, viz.
X^={A+BK){îr
The complete
a;^=
(9).
value of x
/i^
may
be written in the form

(-l)''sin(2c< +
e2(,)
+ .4o+J5oK + (^2c + ^2cf)

summation
+ 2 (^ptt" + BpP")
where
sin {pt + ep) ...... (10)
implies
for all existing values of p.
formula
that Xq
"We have yet to examine the conditions at the extremities of the string. The (2) does not express the tension of the highest string unless we suppose
= 0.
requires that Tn+i

particle
Again the tension below the lowest particle must be zero and this =0. The equation (3) will therefore express the motion of every
from k =1 to
K=n
only
if
we make
^n+l-^n = ^
(11)-
^0 = 0.
Since
Xf,
for all values of
t, it
follows from (10) that

(12).
Since a;+i-a;=?,
ho+A^=0, ^2,=0, Ap + Bp=0 we see in the same way that

l,
K+i-K + Bo =
-620=0,
^pa+i + Bpi3+i = ^pa + Pp;8
(13).
Eliminating the ratio ApjBp we have a"+i-/3+'=a~-/3

If
,.
(14).
by (7) that both a and /3 are real negative quantities. The equation (14) has then one side positive and the other negative, since the integers n, n + 1 cannot be both even or both odd. Hence p must be less than 2c, let 2> = 2c sin ^, (15). hence a = cos2& + sin2^^-l, ;3 = cos2(?- sin20^- 1
^>2c we
see
The equation
(14)
now
gives sin(2w + 2) e = sm2n6, excluding

^
j)
= we
have
2i
+l
IT
'=2nTi2'
where ihas any integer value.
t
+1 TT 2^ = '^^2 + 12
p
.
2t
^^^^'
to
i=n-l.
The values
is
while the values of sin d

signs.
The value i = n
of.
however only necessary to include the values i i' and 2n-i' are supplementary, indicated by i=i' and i' + 2n + l are equal with opposite excluded because the value p = 2c has been already taken
It is
of
indicated by
account
The
oscillations of the /cth particle are therefore given
by
(17),
X^= H^ + '2Cp
where
sin 2Ke sin (pt + ep)
=h +Aq + BqK,
and Cp=2^p,^-1.
ART. 305.]
The value
it is
EXAMPLES.
of
195
might be determined by solving the second equation of
differences (5), using the rules of linear equations adapted to that equation.
evident that in the position of equilibrium of the system,
when
there
is
But no
oscillation, every
Cp = 0, and therefore that position
is
determined by
x^=H^,
This enables us to deduce
H^ from
the elementary rules of Statics.
"We notice that in equilibrium,
T^mg, T^_^=2mg,
&c.,
T^ = {n+1-K)mg.
Hence by Hooke's law
H^-H^_-^ = l+{n + l-K)glc\

Adding these for by (12), we find
all
values of k from
k=1
to
k=k, and remembering that
Hq=Q
(')
.=f^'f^-|.'
The equation
(17)
principal or simple
shows that the motion of every particle is compounded of n harmonic oscillations. The periods of these are unequal and are represented by 2-irlp where p has the values given in (16).
value of 6=irl2y.
particle, those
Suppose the system to be performing the principal oscillation defined by the By considering the signs of sin2K0 in (17) we see that all the particles determined hj K<.y are moving in the same direction as the highest
those given hj so on.
determined by /c> 7 but < 27 are moving in the opposite direction, K>2y but <37 are moving at any time in the same direction, and
Ex. 2. A smooth circular cylinder is fixed with its axis horizontal at a height h above the edge of a table. A light string has a series of particles attached to it over a part of its length, the particles being each of mass m and distant a apart. The portion of the string to which the particles are attached is coiled up on the
table,
and the
rest is carried over the cylinder,

it.
and a mass
attached to the
just in contact
is
further end of
The system
prove that
is
held so that the
fixst particle is
with the
to
table, the fiee portions of the string
being vertical, and
then allowed
move from
rest
is
if
v be the velocity of the system immediately after
the nth particle
dragged into motion {na < h), then

.^_
{n-l)ga
3
'
&M^ - n (2n - 1) m? {M+nm)^
the above result the velocity of the system after a length
Supposing the string of particles to be replaced by a uniform chain deduce from x of the chain has been dragged into motion. If I be the length of the chain and fi the mass, then, if I he, less than h, the amount of energy that will have been dissipated by the time the
chain leaves the table will be

If
^ -^
o
[Coll.
M+/JI,
Ex. 1887.1 '
v represent the velocity required,

at the next
we deduce from
vis viva
and
linear
momentum
impact the equation
{M+{n + l)m}^v\+j^-{M+nm}^v\=2ga{M^-rfim^).
^ (n + 1) - (n) we find ^ (ra + 1) - (1) by summing from n=lto n. Remembering that Vi=0, this gives v. The energy dissipated is found by subtracting the semi vis viva, viz. 4 {M+iJi)v^, from the work done by
Writing the left-hand side
,
gravity, viz. (3/ -J a*)
l9-
196
FINITE DIFFERENCES.
[CHAP. V.
Ex. 3. A train of an engine and n carriages running with a velocity u, is brought to rest by applying the brakes to the engine alone, the steam being cut off. There is a succession of impacts between the buffers of each carriage and the next
following.
is
Prove that the velocity v of the engine immediately after the

(il/+m)2(v-M)2=iJ/a/r
rth.
impact
given by
{2M+m (r-l)},
engine, a the distance between
whei-e
m is the mass of
any
carriage,
M that of the
the successive buffers
when the coupling chains
are tight,
the retardation the

[Coll.
brake would produce in the engine alone.
Ex.]
Ex. 4. A heavy particle falls from rest at a given altitude h in a medium whose resistance varies as the square of the velocity. On arriving at the ground Show that it is immediately reflected upwards with a coefficient of elasticity ^. the whole space described from the initial position to the ground at the nth impact
is^log\l + \-f-^Je^'-l)]-h.
If M be the height described just after the nth rebound,
we show
To
solve this equation of differences
nK+i-l)=^Mn-l)we put ?f= 1 + l/w.
The equation then

is
takes
a standard form with constant coefficients. The whole space described taking the logarithm of the product WoWiM2...m_i.
found by
This problem was

the case in which
first
solved by Euler in his Mcchanica, vol.
i.
prop. 58, for
^=1.
An
extension by Dordoni, Memorie della Societa Italiana,

ii.
1816, page 162, is mentioned in Walton's Mechanical Problems, chap.
page 247.
CHAPTER
VI.
CENTRAL FORCES.
Elementary Theorems.
306.
describing
To jind the polar equations of motion of a an orbit about a centre of force.
particle
the origin be at the centre of force.

force at
Let the plane of the motion be the plane of reference and let Let F be the accelerating
any point measured
positively towards the origin.
Then
by
Art. 35,
dt'
[dtj
'
rdt\ dtj
^^
The
latter equation gives
by integration
t^de/dt
=h
(2),
where h
is
an arbitrary constant whose value depends on the
initial conditions.
This important equation can be put into other forms of which
much
use
is
made.
Let v be the velocity of the

it
particle, J9 the
perpendicular drawn from the origin on the tangent.

the area described by the polar radius as
initial position to that
Let A be moves from some

t.
which
it
has at the time
Then
(Art. 7)
Remembering that
r^dd = 2dA =pds. = v ds/dt, we see that the
equation (2)
may be
written in either of the forms

v
= -,
p\
^=
dt
P... ^
(3). ^
^
The
first
of these shows that the velocity at any point of the orbit
is inversely
proportional
to the
perpendicular drawn from the centre
on the tangent.
t
The
second,
the
by integration between the
limits
= toto
t,
shows that
polar area traced out by the radius vector
198
is
CENTRAL FORCES.
to the
[CHAP. VI.
proportional
time of describing
it.
We
also see that the
constant h represents twice the polar area described in a unit of

time.
Both these are Newtonian theorems.

central orbit, the angular velocity dO/dt
finite distance
We also infer that in a

the origin.
always keeps one sign and never vanishes at a
from
The
radius vector therefore continually turns round
the origin in the same direction.

307.
Conversely,
we may show
that
if
a particle so
move that
the radius vector drawn from the origin describes areas proportional to the time the resultant force always tends to the origin
and
is
therefore a central force.
To prove
this let
and
be
the components of the accelerating force along and perpendicular

to the radius vector.
Taking the transversal
resolution,
we have
rdt\
As
ratio to the time, say
dt)
if
already explained r^dO = 2dA, and
the area
A bear a constant
= 2a
and
A = at,
we have
at once r^dd/dt
therefore
G = 0.
is
If m is the mass of the particle, its linear momentum 308. mv and this being directed along the tangent to the path, the moment of the momentum about the centre of force is mv.p. The moment of the momentum is called the angular momentum
(Art, 79)
and we see that
in
is
a central
constant
orbit the
angular momentum
about the centre of force

to be unity,
are concerned only with a single particle
and equal to mh. When we its mass is usually taken
and h then represents the angular momentum.

the
polar equation of the orbit we must eliminate from the equations (1), Let r=lju, then, as in Art, 268,
309.
To find
dr
dt~'
ART. 310.]
ELEMENTARY THEOREMS.
the polar equation of the path
is
199
given in the form
When
u=f(6)
in terms of u and 0. the equation (4) determines Since the attractive forces of the bodies which form the solar
eliminate 6
system are in general functions of the distance only we should by using the known polar equation of the path. We
thus find
F as
a,
function of u only.
Strictly this expression for
F only holds for
points situated on
the given path, but if the initial conditions are arbitrary, the path may be varied and the law of force may be extended to hold for
other parts of space.
When
the force
is
is
given as a function of r or 1/w, the

CbUL
equation (4)
a differential equation of the form jjmfi^)'
This differential equation has been already solved in Art. 97.

It is evident
from dynamical considerations that when the

i.e.
central force is attractive,
when
is positive,
the orbit must
force, and when F is negative the must be convex. By looking at equation (4) we immediately verify the theorem in the differential calculus that a curve is
be concave to the centre of

orbit
concave or convex to the origin according as ^^^

negative.
+w
is
positive or
310.
To apply
the tangential
and normal
resolutions
to
central orbit.
Referring to Art. 36
we have the two

(f>,
equations
v-^ = F cos
as
= Fsin6
p
(5),
where <^ is the angle behind the radius vector when the particle moves in the direction in which s is measured. Writing dr/ds for cos <^ and integrating we have
v^^C-2JFdr
where
ditions.
(7 is
(6),
a constant whose value depends on the

is
initial con-
This equation
obviously the equation of vis viva,
integral has a minus sign because the central force measured positively towards the origin, while the radius vector is measured positively from the origin. Art. 246.
is,
The
as usual,
200
If
CENTRAL FORCES.
[CHAP. VI.
we
substitute for v its value h/p given
by
(3)
and
differentiate
we deduce
^=-**^l
This expression for the central force
orbit is given in the form
(')
is
very useful
when
the
p =f{r).
(5),
311.
Considering the normal resolution

is
we have an
ex-
pression for V which
useful
when both the law
of force and the
path are known.

constants
It has the
advantage of giving the velocity
without requiring the previous determination of either of the
or
h.
If
is
one-quarter of the chord of curvature of
the path drawn in the direction of the centre of force we

write the equation in either of the forms
v^
may
= Fp sin = 2Fx
<f>
(8). is that
This
is
usually read
the velocity at
any point
due
to one-
quarter of the chord of curvature.
When
the particle describes a circle about a centre of force
^ = 1 and p is the radius r. The velocity given by the normal resolution, viz. v'^/r = F, is often called the velocity in a circle at a distance rfrom the centre of force,
in the centre sin
312.
rest at
The
an
velocity acquired
infinite distance
by a particle which travels from from the centre of force to any given
position
is called the velocity
from
infinity.
Referring to the
equation of vis viva
(6), let
Now
have
(7
= when r = oo hence, = 0. The velocity from

;
if
is
greater than unity,
we
is
infinity to the distance r

.
=R
therefore given *
If
by
-^
v^
= n1
2xt
~ R^-^
1
t^
,
See Art. 181.
is
less
than unity the value of
is infinite.
Instead
of the velocity from infinity

particle in travelling
we use
the velocity acquired by the
from
rest at the given point

force.
to the
;
origin
under the attraction of the central

r
In this case
.
when
= R;
hence (since
n<V)
is
(7
2it
..
R^~^
The
velocity to the
origin (where r
= 0)
then given by
v^
2u.
.,
R^~^\
ART. 314.]
ELEMENTARY THEOREMS.
201
When
i.e.
the force varies as the inverse cube of the distance,
F=fifr^,
we
notice that the velocity in a circle
and the velocity
from infinity are equal.

i.e.
When
the force varies as the distance,

is
jP=/z.r,
the velocity in a circle
equal to that to the origin.

i.e.
When
the force varies inversely as the distance,
F=
fj,/r,
both
the velocity from infinity and the velocity to the origin are infinite.
313.
The
constants.
initial
determined from the
The two constants h and C may be conditions when these are known.
Let the particle be projected from a point P at an initial distance from the origin with a velocity V, let /S be the angle the
direction of projection
makes with the
initial radius vector.
The
tangent at
P makes two angles with

^
and
y3
ir
the radius vector OP, respeca distinction has to be
tively equal to
it is
^. When
made
the
usual to take
equal to the angle behind the radius vector
when
angle
P travels along the

^
is
curve in the positive direction
(i.e.
direction
which makes the independent

called the angle
/3.
variable increase).
The
of projection.
Wê evidently have
h = vp=
VR sin
if
If
P= /i/r", we
w>l
=
F=^
have
v'^
= G-\
-^_^
It follows that, if
C=V''-V-,^;
origin.
w<
1, (7
and the velocity from infinity is V^, + Fo= where V^ is the velocity to the
constant G.
We may
distance r
is
obtain another interpretation for the
Selecting any standard distance r = a, the potential energy at a
J r
'^
n
(n-l)a''-^
2
v^
w-lW-i
r"-V
^
2'
See Art. 250.
It follows that i(7 plus
n-1
..
---r is
a"-^
equal to the ^
whole energy of the motion.
at infinity or the origin according as
Hence by taking the standard position n is greater or less than unity,
we may make
314.
^G equal
to the
whole energy.
is
When
is
a point
on the orbit
such that the radius
vector
OP
perpendicular to the tangent, the point
is
called
an
apse.
When OP
apocentre,
is
maximum
the apse
is
sometimes called an
and when a minimum a
pericentre.
202
315.
CENTRAL FORCES.
[CHAP.
VI.
Summary.
a short
As the
formulaB
we have
arrived at are
it is
the fundamental ones in the theory of central forces,

to
useful
make
summary
before proceeding further.

:
There are
the
three elements to be considered
(1) the law of force, (2)
equations of the path, (3) the velocity and time of describing an arc. Any one of these elements being given, the other two
can be deduced by dynamical considerations.

three sets of equations;
firstly,
There are therefore
equations (4) and (7) connect the force and path, so that either being known the other can be
;
deduced
secondly, equation (6) connects the force
and velocity
thirdly, equations (2)
and
(3) connect the
path with the motion
in that path.
The equations
be found from
it
of one of these sets are mere algebraic trans-
formations of each other, any one being given the others can
by reasoning which
is
purely mathematical.
But an equation
dynamical
316.
facts.
of one set cannot be deduced from an equation
of another set in this manner, because each set depends on different
Dimensions.
i.e.
It is important to notice the dimensions
of the various symbols used. of gravity,

g, is
The
accelerating force F, like that
one dimension in space and 2 in time. We or g, say see this by examining any formula which contains s = ^gf^ or Fcos^ = dPs/dt-. The force F will in general vary
as
some power
of the
ytt
distance
from the centre of
force,
say
F=/j,/r^ where
is
a constant which measures the strength of

fi
the central force.

sions in space
The quantity
= Fr'^
The
is
therefore n-;{-l dimen-
and
in time.
velocity v
= ds/dt
is
one
is
dimension in space and

dimensions in space and
317.
1 in time. 1 in time.
orbit.
The constant h = ?;^

See Art. 151.
The
force being
Force given, find the
Ex.
1.
a particle
45.
is
projected from an initial distance a, with a velocity which
is
to the
velocity in a circle at the
same distance as
,^2 to ^d, the angle of projection being
Find the path described.

is,
Putting a = l/c the differential equation of motion
by Ar'
09,
ART. 318.]
VARIOUS ORBITS.
the conditions of the question give v'^=^FIc and
203 h=v Bin ^jc

where
When u=c,
reduces to
sin2j3=i, see Arts. 311, 313.
We
therefore have
C=0,
h^=ii.
The equation now
\de) ~c2'
''
Jv^~
Replacing u by 1/r and measuring d from the

that r and 6 increase together, this leads to
initial radius
OA
in such a direction
r=a (1 + ^).
from a distance a to r
is
From
Ex.
the equation r^d6ldt=h,
we
infer that the time
2,
particle
moves under the action of a

is
central force fi{u^-\a'û''), the

.
velocity of projection being (25/t/8a^)^,
that the polar equation of the path
Prove and the angle of projection sin~^f [Coll. Ex. 1892.] 3a2= (4r2 - a?) (0 + Cf.
Ex.
3.
When
the central acceleration is ii('vfi+aû^) and the velocity at the
apsidal distance a is equal to VW<*> pro'ê that the orbit is
r=a en ^ (mod ,J\).

[Coll.
Ex. 1897.]
projected
Ex. 4. The central force being F2iJM^{].-ahi?), the particle from an apse at a distance a with a velocity sliija. Prove that it
distance r after a time
is
will be at a
^+'^<^~"^)
-ja^
log
+ ^^(r^ ~aP)\
[Math. Tripos.]
Ex.
5.
A particle,
respectively
F= mm'
velocity equal to
acted on by two centres of force both situated at the origin and F'=jj,'u^, is projected from an initial distance a with a that from infinity, the angle of projection being tan~^^2. If
is
the forces are equal at the point of projection, the path
ad = {r-
a) iJ2.
Ex. 6. A particle, acted on by the central force F=u^f {6), is initially projected in any manner. Prove that the radius vector can be expressed as a function of d if the integrals of cos 6/ (6) and sin 0f (6) can be found. [Use the method of
Art. 122,]
Orbit given, find the force. Ex. 1. A particle describes a given a centre of force on the circumference. It is required to find the law of force and the motion. Newton's problem.
318.
circle about
be the centre of force, G the centre of the circle, P the particle at the Let a be the radius of the circle, OP=r. li p = OT he the perpendicular on the tangent, we have (since the angles OPY, OAP are equal) p=r^j2a. Hence using (7) of Art. 310, we have
Let
t.
time
^=-1''!}.=^'
If
we suppose
the magnitude of the force to be given at a unit of distance from
the centre of force
we
write this in the form
F=^,
where ^
is
known constant
is
sometimes called the magnitude or strength of the determined by the equation
force.
The constant h
then
8ftV=M
The
velocity at
(2).
any point
P is found by the normal resolution. Art.

.-.
310,
(3). ^
-=F Bin OPY=l^.~; a r' 2a

By
v=
./^.\ \
2
r^
Art. 312 this velocity is equal to that from infinity.
204
To
CENTRAL FORCES.
find the time of describing
[CHAP. VI
is
any arc AP, where A
the extremity of the
diameter opposite to the centre of force, we use the equation

Since the area A OP
is
A = ^ht,
Art. 306.
made up
of the triangle
OCP and the
sector
ACP, we have
^ht=A = â^{2e + Bin2e),

where 5 = the angle
4 OP.
Substituting for
ft
=2a3
It
^-(2e + Biti2d)
(4).
finite
appears from this that the particle will arrive at the centre of force after time obtained by writing d=\ir. The particle arrives with an infinite
points of space act towards the point
velocity due to the infinite force at that point.
Let the force at
all
and vary
as the
inverse fifth power of the distance from 0.

sufficient condition that
It is required to find the necessary
and
a particle projected from a given point P in a given direction PT toith a given velocity V may describe a circle passing through 0. It is obvious from (3) that it is necessary that F2 = J/t/r* where r:=OP; we shall now prove that
this is also sufficient.
Describe the circle which passes through
and touches
PT
at P.
The
particle
which describes
projected from
this circle freely satisfies the given conditions at P.
If then the
given particle does not also describe the circle
we should have two
particles
P in the
same
direction, with equal velocities, acted
on by the same
forces, describing different paths;
which
is
impossible; Art. 243.
We
Ex.
the
notice that a change in the direction of projection

is
PT
affects the size of
the circle described, but not the fact that the path
2.
a circle.
particle
moves
in a circle about a centre of force in the circum-
ference, the force being attractive
medium
Ex.
in which the particle
and equal to /*". Prove that the resistance moves is J/u (w + 5) r"sin 6, where cos ^=r/2a.
resolutions.
circle
of
Use the normal and tangential

3.
[Coll.
Ex.]
A particle
^
of unit
mass describes a
situated on the circumference.
If the particle at
about a given centre of force any point P is acted on by an
impulse 2v cos
Pl',
in a direction
is is
show that the new orbit cos 2^ + sin 2<f> cot d, where
Ex.
4.
making an angle ir -4> with the direction of motion also a circle and prove that the ratio of the radii is
the angle
OPT.
The
force being
F=/m^, a
particle
when
îrojected
from a
prînt
>
P with
;
an
its
initial velocity V,
equal to that from infinity, describes the circle

initial velocity is
2a cos $
investigate the path
when the
Ai-t.
F(l + 7), where y
is so
small that
square can be neglected.
Proceeding as in
317,
we
find
'duy J M ..h-^[('^\+u^\='lu^+C.
The conditions
of the question give
where
= l/2a
ij
squares of
and e = a initially. and y, we arrive at

cos2 e
di)
Putting u = c sec
+ cr] and
7
cos^g
neglecting
the
cos" g
- 2 cos
^
-*>
sing d0
sin^
" sin^
cos'*
a sin^
'
ART. 320.]
Each
VARIOUS ORBITS.
we
find
205
side being a perfect differential,
sin
Ti^K + ycoie '
~
cos* o
(cote
+ isin^cos^), +f ^
tf
-!
and K
is
determined from the condition that

..
7;
= when 6= a;
K= -vcotaH
'
CDS'*
acoso). v-(cota + #a + i8m . i

o
6 {l-tj cos
B),
Putting
u=Hr, we have r=2a cos
:. rr-
la
It
= cosd-Ksia.d-ycose+-'''x
is
cos* a
(cos^ + ftf sintf + i sin^^cos^).
has been assumed that cos a
not small, the point

that
P must
therefore not be
close to the centre of force.
It easily follows
when
the distance of the particle from the centre of force

quantities neglected above.
is
of the order of small
Ex.
point
5.
Any number
of particles are projected in all directions

infinity, the central force
P each with the velocity from

(j"
being F=/jlu^.
from a given Prove
that their locus at any instant is (6 being measured from
OP)
+ c2-2crcos^)^
sin* d
is
(r2
r'^
+ c2)cos0-2cr + c^- 2cr cos 6 }=..
where
OP=c and ^
Ex.
1.
a constant depending on the time elapsed.

particle describes
319.
an equiangular spiral of angle a under
the
action of a centre of force in the pole, prove that
P=4,
J""
h=sinajfi,
= --?
2 cos at y/iJ.=r^^-rQ^,
r^, 7\.
where
is
the time of describing the arc bounded by the radii vectores
Con-
from any point in any direction will describe aa equiangular spiral about a centre of force whose law is F=fili^, provided the velocity of projection is Jfifr, i.e. is equal to that from infinity.
versely, a particle being projected
Assuming p = r8ina we follow the same

Art. 318.
line
of reasoning as in Ex.
1 of
Ex.
2.
A particle
is
acted on by a central force moves in a
medium
in which the
resistance
^(vel.)^,
and describes an equiangular
spiral,
the pole being the
centre of force.
Prove that the central force varies as
e-2<'*seca^
where a
is
the
angle of the spiral.

particle describes
the
320.
Ex.
curve
i-"*
= a cos 0 + &
^
sin n^, under the
action of a centre of force in the origin.

~"
"*"
'
Prove that
J.2TO+3
1^
fll
+1
J'*"*+2
,.2
We notice
(1)
that the exponents of r are independent of n,
(2) that,
when
m+1
is
positive, the velocity at
any point
is
that due to infinity.
Art. 312.
formulffi, let the particle
Supposing the law of force and the velocity of projection to be given by these be projected from any point P in any direction PT. The
206
four constants
h^, n, a, b
CENTRAL FORCES.
are determined by
[CHAP. VI.
joined to the conditions that the curve must pass through
and touch PT.

where
We
4>
find that n^
and
- u'E^ cot^ m+1

When
^
is
<*
have the same
sign,
E = OP and
is
the angle of projection.
the sign of n^ thus determined becomes
negative or zero the curve obviously changes into

r"=a'e'** + &'e-'*^ or r">'=a + b"0,
where
4a'&'
= a"-b^
and b"
the limit of bn
when
b is infinite
and n
zero.
It is useful to notice
the following geometrical properties of the curve.

<p
If
be the perpendicular on the tangent,

tangent
the angle the radius vector

1 ~2
11^
makes with the
tan0=
m cot
^
71^,
a^
+ b^
"I
m^-n^
2
1
2-
2t4-2
This example includes
many
interesting cases.
Putting i=2, n2, we see
that the lemniscate of Bernoulli could be described about a centre of force in the
node varying as the inverse seventh power of the distance. Putting j?i=, we have the path when the force varies as the inverse (2m + 3)th power and the velocity Writing m=\, n=\, we find the path is a cardioid when is that from infinity. the central force varies as the inverse fourth power and the velocity is that from Writing m1, n=l, the path is a circle described about a centre of force infinity.
on the circumference.
321.
its
Ex.
I.
particle describes a circle about a centre of force situated in
plane.
It is required to find the law of force
and
the motion.
Let
be the centre of force,
G
v^
the centre of the circle, a its radius and
CO = c.
Taking the equations of Art. 310, we have
v=-,
par
h
^
=F-,
.:
^= F
h^ r
:..
a p^
Since in a circle 2ap=r'^ + a^-c'^, we can, by substitution, express
and v
in
terms of r alone.
We have
-(i)' r2 + B'
F=[r^
'''*
+ Bf
where 8a^h^=fi and B = a^-c'^. When B = 0, the law of force reduces to the inverse fifth power, and the velocity becomes the same as that found in Art. 318.
law of force be supposed to hold throughout the plane of the circle, the and B are given. In order that the orbit may be a circle it is necessary that the velocity of projection should satisfy the above value of v, i.e. should be equal to the velocity from infinity. The direction of projection being also given, the angular momentum h (Art. 313) is also known. The values of a and c follow at once from the equations given above and must be real.
If this
values of
fi
inside the circle.
Newton, when discussing this problem, supposes that the centre of force lies It follows that B is positive, and at no point of space can either
outside the circle, one portion of the orbit
is
the force or velocity be infinite.
When
the centre of force
is
concave and the other convex to the centre of force.
We
must
therefore suppose
ART. 322.]
that the force
is attractive
VARIOUS ORBITS.
in the
first
207
part.
and repulsive in the other

is
Writing
B= -b^,
infinity
we have b'^c^-a^, and
therefore b
the length of either of the tangents

force changes sign through
is b.
drawn from the centre of
force to the circle,
and the
when
the particle passes the circle whose radius
Sylvester, in the Phil.

circular plate,
Mag. 1865, points out that the resultant

to the
is
,
attraction of a
fifth
whose elements attract according
law of the inverse

is
power, at an external point

of the plate, b its radius
situated in its plane,

r the distance of
.,,., where a
[r^
the
mass
circle
b^^'^
and
described by
under the attraction of this
from the centre. The plate cuts the rim orthogonally.
Let the particle
be constrained to
move on a smooth plane under
the action
of a centre of force situated at a point

force being the inverse fifth power.
from the plane, the law of The component of force in the plane is
b'
C distant
where TTTVT, (H + b -y force on the plane.
F=r-s
r is the distance of
from the projection
of the centre of
Putting
B = b'^,
velocity of projection is equal to that
plane is a circle.
all
the circles
The length of and equal to 2b'.

particle
it appears from what precedes that, if the from infinity, the path of the particle on the the chord bisected by the point is constant for
Ex.
2.
of a centre of force
F=im^.
Prove
that all the circles which can be described either pass through a fixed point or have
a fixed point for centre.
322.
Ex.
1.
A
fir
particle moves under the action of a centre

^^^ velocity at
of force whose
attraction is
P=-p2
r\2 ^^^
any point
is
equal to that from infinity.
It is required to find the path.
The equation
of vis viva (Art. 310) gives
v^-=C-2lFdr =
Since this formula
is infinite is
C^^^
it is
(1).
independent of the path and
given that v
is
zero
when
we
see that
C=0.
Substituting for v its value hfp, the equation of the

r'^
path becomes
+ B = ip\
ih^=fi.
(2).
p'^
r-.
and There are several species of curves which possess this property distinguished from each other by the values of B and i.
is
The curve required
therefore such that a linear relation exists between
One such curve is known to be an epicycloid. Supposing the radii of the fixed and rolling circles to be a and b, we have at the cusp r=a, p = and at the vertex p and r are each equal to a + 2b. We thus find
'
f.
(a
h^-'-
(a
+ 2bf-a^ + 26)2
^^^
The law of force and the conditions of projection being given both B and h'^ are known. If the force is attractive, B negative, and fijh^ less than unity, the path is an epicycloid, the values of a and b being given by (3).
we
Changing the sign of b the epicycloid becomes a hypocycloid and in this case When therefore the force is repulsive, (3) that i and fi are negative. and B negative, the path is a hypocycloid.
learn from
208
The remaining
CENTRAL FORCES.
species are
[chap. VI.
by putting the equation
(2)
more
easily separated
into the form p = ip, a result which follows at once from the identity p=rdrjdp.
Remembering that p=p + cPpld\f/^ the

'
differential equation
becomes
.(4).
d2p
dy{/'
.-{i-l)p=0.
When
above.
i is
less
than unity or
find
is
negative
we
easily
deduce the cycloidal species given
li
^=l-i, we
J)
= L sin /3^ + ilf cos /3^.
If the axis of
when
= Jtt. When i is greater than

/3t^
x pass through the cusp, we have Hence L = a + 2b and M= 0.

unity
p=0
when
^=0
and
p=a+2b
'
we have the forms
i?=Le"''' + ilfe"'"'',
p=Lyl,+M
i
(5),
where 0^^=1-1 and the second form occurs when projection of the radius vector on the tangent is geometry
= l.
Since in any curve the
dpjdxf/s
we
find
by elementary
-^'-(1)'
where
<(>
tan0 ~
_pd\lf
dp
.(6),
is
the angle behind the radius vector.
Since
<p=^-0, we can
and
in this
way
express the polar coordinates r

(2)
and 6 in terms of the subsidiary angle
^.
Substituting in
we
find that
4a^LM=B,
by
(6),
so that
M have the same or

or negative.
opposite signs according as the given quantity
is positive
tf>
When
is
JS=0, either
or
is zero,
and
since,
tan
is
then constant the curve
an equiangular
spiral.
it is
To
trace the forms of the exponential spirals
convenient to turn the axis
of
X round the origin so that the equation
(5)
may assume
a symmetrical form.
We then have
^=4c(c'"^c-*)
where the upper or lower sign
is to
(7),
be taken according as
B is
When B is positive there is an apse whose position is found by putting jj=r in (2), whence {i -l)r^=B. When B is negative there is a cusp at the point determined by p = 0, i.e. at r^= -B. These spirals were first discussed by Puisseux (with a
different object in view) in Liouville's Journal, 1844.
By
of
using a proposition in the theory of attractions
we may put some
of the
preceding problems in another light. It
may
be shown that the resultant attraction

îxr
is
,
&
thin circular ring, whose elements attract according to the law of the inverse
cube, at
any point
its
in the plane of the ring
where
fi
is
the mass of
(r2-c2)2'
the ring, c
radius and r the distance of
from the centre.
The
plus or minus
ART. 323.]
PARALLEL FORCES.
209
sign is to be taken according as

iu the Quarterly Journal, 1879).
attraction of the ring has
is
without or within the ring, (see Townsend

of the particle
The path
moving under the
now been found
provided the velocity of projection is
Again,
when a particle
is
constrained to
move on a smooth plane under the
action of a centre of force
situated at a distance c from the plane, the law of
force being the inverse cube, the
component of
attraction in the plane is
(r^+cy
where r
plane.
is
the distance of
from the projection
of the centre of force on the
that s(i-
P
i
AP of any path measured from a fixed point A, show from the projection of the radius vector OP on the tangent at by a constant quantity which is zero when A is an apse.
x.
2.
If 8 be the arc
l)/i differs
Ex.
3.
Show
any arc
that the polar area traced out by a radius vector
OP is
equal to
times the corresponding polar area of the pedal.

is
Thence show that the time of
describing
given by ht=i\p^dyj/.
323.
Parallel forces.
Ex.
1.
particle describes
direction.
a central conic under
the
action of a force
F tending always in a fixed
It is required to find F.
Let the conic be referred to conjugate diameters OA, OB; the force acting
parallel to
BO.
Let the angle
AOB = u, OA = a', OB = b'.

= 0,
A
is
Let
ON=x, PN=y
be
the coordinates of P.
Then
d2a;/dt2
d^ldt^ =-F.
the oblique
The
to X.
first
equation gives x = At, where

is
component of
velocity parallel
Hence A
the resultant velocity at B.

b'
,
We then have
b'*A^ 1
dh)
The component of
this
velocity at right angles to the force is constant.
Representing
component by V, and remembering that the resultant
velocity at
is
^,
we
find
V=Aamu.
the semi-axes of the conic the expression for the force becomes
If a, b are
~ a'^ sin^ u
It follows that the force tending in
y'^
a%'^ y^'
a given direction by which a conic can be described varies inversely as the cube of the chord along which the force acts. This result may also be obtained without difficulty by taking the normal resolution of
force.
Ex. 2. If the tangent to the conic at P intersect the conjugate diameters in and U, prove that the velocity at P is v=Ax. TUfa'^.
210
Ex.
force
3.
LAW OF THE DIRECT

A
particle describes the curve
DISTANCE.
freely
[CHAP. VI.
y=f{x)
ij;
under the action of a
F whose direction is
4.
parallel to the axis of
piowe F=A^cPy IdxK
Ex.
Show
that a particle can describe a complete cycloid freely under the
action of a force tending towards the straight line joining the cusps inversely as the square of the distance.
varies inversely as the distance.
and varying
Prove also that the square of the velocity
324.
Ex.
Two masses M,
m are connected
a hole in a smooth horizontal plane, the mass
by a string which passes through hanging vertically. Prove that

is
M describes on the plane a curve whose differential equation

m\
dû
(-S) d2 + "-iif ftau2 (g + hû^). Prove also that the tension of the string
is
mg
[Coll.
Exam.]
Law
325.
the
of the direct distance.
particle is acted on by
centre of force situated in
origin whose acceleration is
F = fir
where r
is the
radius
vector.
It is required to find the possible orbits.
Taking any Cartesian axes, we notice that the resolved parts and fxy. The equations of motion are therefore
of the force in these directions are fix
dâ;/dt^
= - fix,
d^'y/dt^
= - fiy
(1).
We
observe that though the axes of coordinates are arbitrary,
the equations (1) are independent; one containing only x, the other only y. We infer that the general principle enunciated for
parabolic motion
may
of the motion parallel

those in other directions
The circumstances any fixed, direction are independent of and may be deduced from the corresponding
also
to
be applied here.
formulae for rectilinear motion.
Supposing that the force

fi is
is
attractive in the standard case,

(1) are
positive
and the solutions of

i^fit,
x=
A cos \/fit + A' sin

is
y=
B cos \Jiit + B' sin \/fit.

let
As
of
there
nothing to prevent us from using oblique axes,

If
0,
us take the
initial radius vector as
the axis of x and let the axis
y be
parallel to the direction of initial motion.
and
be the
initial distance
and
velocity,
0',
we have when t=
x = R,
These give
dx/dt =
R = A,
= A',
y = 0, dy/dt=V. = B, V=B's/fi.
ART. 326.]
THE PATH AND MOTION.

is
211
The motion
therefore determined
by
x=
where V=R'\/fi.
R cos
\/iJbt,
y
t,
= R' sin \J^t,

we obviously
arrive at
Eliminating
its
the
equation of a conic having
centre at the centre of force and
R, R' for semi-conjugate diameters.
If fi is positive, the centre of force is attractive and the orbit must be at every point concave to the origin. The orbit is thereis negative, the central force repels, and the fore an ellipse. If orbit, being convex to the origin, is a hyperbola. Since the centre
/j,
of the conic
is
always at the centre of force the orbit can be a

centre of force
is infinitely distant.
fi
parabola only
when the
is
If the
zero.
force at the particle
then
finite,
the coefficient
must be
The
changes of r as the particle moves about do not affect the value of fir. The force on the particle is then constant in
finite
magnitude and fixed in
direction.
When
fi
is
negative,
we put
fi
= fi.
The
solution of the
differential equations
then becomes
where
F= iR! slyJ and %= \j
\.
It
is
evident that iR!
is real.
326.
Since any point of the orbit
may
be taken as the point

V=\/iJbR', that the
of projection,
velocity v at
we deduce from the equation
any point
of the
ellipse is
given by v
\JfiR'
where
R'
is
semi-conjugate of OP.
If r be the radius vector

v^
of the
moving particle this equation may also be written where a and b are the semi-axes.
Since vp
= fjL{a^-\-b^ r^)
= h and pR'= ab, we see that the

cos
It
<f),
constant h is h=>^fiab.
If the principal diameters are taken as the axes of coordinates,
we have x = a
the
that
particle.
<f>
y = b sin
<ji
^,
where ^
is
the eccentric angle of
immediately follows that the particle so moves

has increased by 27r the particle has
its
y//j,t.
When
circuit
made
The
a complete
and returned to
2-71 //^/m.
former position.
periodic time is therefore
It appears
from this that the
periodic time
is
and
fi
is the
same for
independent of all the conditions of projection all ellipses. It depends solely on the strength
of the central force.
In general the time of describing any arc PP"

of the eccentric angles at
is
the difference
P and P' divided
by
\/fi.
212
LAW OF THE DIRECT
DISTANCE.
[CHAP. VI.
When
where
^'
the orbit
is
a hyperbola
we have
<^'
= \/fit
327.
is an auxiliary angle. It immediately follows that where /a' is positive and equal to fi.
When
the velocity
as the initial distance
V and angle ^ of projection as well R are given, the semi-axes a, h of the conic
the equations
a2
described
may be deduced from
a%^= =
These give
axis
real values to a^
^,
and b\
+ &2 = i22+_.
which the major
The angle
given by
makes with the

cos^^
initial distance is
sin2^_
2/i_^'
a^-R^
Since
particular conic described
V= '^fiR', it is evident that the problem of finding the when R and V are given is the same
is
as the geometrical problem of constructing a conic
conjugate diameters R, R' are given in position
This useful construction

conies.
given in
when two semiand magnitude. most books on geometrical
328.
ellipse
Beferring to the equations
(1)
of Art. 325
we
see that the
motion in an
about a centre of force F= fir is the resultant of two rectilinear harmonic oscillations along two arbitrary directions Ox, Oy represented by
Z= The
resultant of any
fJi^,
Y=
-fiy-
number
of rectilinear harmonic oscillations (performed in
equal times) along arbitrary straight lines OA, OB, &c.

the components.
centre.
may
be found by resolving
the displacements of each along two arbitrary axes and compounding the
sums of
The
resulting
motion
is
therefore an elliptic motion with
O for
Ex,
Investigate the conditions that the resultant of two rectihnear harmonic
oscillations, of equal periods,
whose directions make an angle
0,
should be
(1)
a circular motion. Prove that in the first case their angles or phases must be equal; in the second their amplitudes must be equal and their
rectilinear,
(2)
phases differ by
tt
0.
The radius
OP,
is
a sin
$.
329.
time from
Ex.
1. is
If
OQ
are conjugate diameters of
an
ellipse,
prove that the
P to Q
one-quarter of the whole periodic time.
This follows at once
from the
fact that the area
POQ
is
one-quarter of the area of the ellipse.
Ex. 2. Prove that in a hyperbolic orbit the time from the extremity of the major axis to a point whose distance from that axis is equal to the minor axis is
the same for all hyperbolas.
ART. 330.]
Ex.
3.
POINT TO POINT.
any point
213
If the circle of curvature at
of
an
ellipse cut the curve
again in Q, and A is the extremity of the major axis nearest to P, prove that the time from Q to A is three times the time from A to P.
Since <p=,Jfit, Art. 326, the theorems in conies which, like this one, are conmay at once be translated into dynamics.
cerned with eccentric angles
at
Ex. 4. Two tangents TP, TQ are drawn to an ellipse, prove that the velocities and Q are proportional to the lengths of the tangents. [For these tangents
are
known
330.
to be proportional to the parallel diameters.]
projected
Point to Point. from a given point
P icith
To find the directions in which a particle must be a given velocity V, so as to pass through another
given point Q.
Let rj, r^ be the distances of P, Q from the centre of force 0. Let OP be produced to D where D is such that the velocity V of projection at P is equal to
that acquired by a particle starting from rest at

action of the centre of force.
Let
D and moving to P under OD = k. Then since F^=M(a^ + 6'^- V)'

is k^.
the ^^^
sum
of the squares of
any two semi-conjugates of the trajectory
Bisect
ellipse,
PQ
in
and
let
ON=x, NP = NQ = y.
X--
From
the equation of the
-.=1;
fe2-a'
(1).
.-.
a^-a^ (x'^-y"+k-) + k^x'^=0

two values
of a",
Since
x,
y, k are given, ^this quadratic gives
showing that
there are two directions of projection which satisfy the given conditions.
Let these directions of projection from
then since have
OT
P intersect ON produced in OT, the quadratic gives the positions of 1' and I". OT'=k\ and NT NT' = tf.
a^=ON
.
.
T and
2",
We also
Produce PO to P' if x + y>k. where OP'=OP, the roots of the quadratic are imaginary unless Q lie within the ellipse whose foci are P, P' and semi-major axis a'=k. This ellipse is tlie boundary of all the positions of Q lohich can be reached by a particle projected from P loith the
The
roots of the quadratic (1) are imaginary
given velocity.
It is also the envelope of all the trajectories.
two circles be described having their centres at and and their and y respectively, prove (1) that their radical axis will intersect radii equal to ON produced in the middle point R of TT' (2) that RT- is equal to the product of the segments of any chord drawn from R to either circle. Ex.
1.
If
/<;
214
Ex.
2.
LAW OF THE DIRECT

Show
that the greatest range
DISTANCE.
[CHAP. VI.
r=PQ
(k^
given angle d with
OP=ri
is
determined by
on any straight line - r-^)lr=:k- r^ cos 6.
PQ making
Show
the
also that in this case
OT=k, and
common
is
tangent at
Q to
the trajectory
of projection from
P at
k.
right angles in
NT=NP = NQ. Thence deduce that and the envelope intersects the direction a point T which lies on the circle whose
ellipse
centre
and radius
The first part follows from the focal polar equation of the from known geometrical properties of the ellipse.
331. Examples. Ex. 1. number of fragments, uniformly
If
and the second
the sun were broken up into an indefinite the sphere of which the earth's orbit
[Coll.
is
filling
great circle, prove that each would revolve in a year.
Ex.]
it
The
attractions of a
homogeneous
solid sphere
on the
particles
composing
are proportional to their distances from the centre.
Ex.
2.
A particle
moves in a conic so that the resolved part of the

is
velocity
perpendicular to the focal distance

centre of the conic.
constant, prove that the force tends to the
[Math. Tripos.]
;
an ellipse, the force tending to the centre prove any point P cut the ellipse in Q, the times of transit from Q to P through A and P to Q through B are in the same ratio as the titles of transit from ^ to P and P to B,. where A and B are the extremities of the major and minor axes and P lies between A and B.
3.
Ex.
if
particle describes
that
the circle of curvature
a,t
Ex. i. A particle is attracted to a fixed point with a force fi times its distance from the point and moves in a medium in which the resistance is k times the velocity prove that, if the particle is projected with velocity v at a distance a from the fixed point, the equation of the path when referred to axes along the initial radius and parallel to the direction of projection is
;
k tan~i 2anyl(2vx - aky) + n log
{x'^ja^
+ it.y"lv- - kxyjav) = 0,
[Coll.
where it?=h-
fc2/4.
Ex. 1887.]
Ex.
5.
Three centres of force of equal intensity are situated one at each
corner of a triangle
ABC
and
attract according to the direct distance.

ellipse
particle
moving under
their
combined influence describes an
which touches the sides
of the triangle
ABC.
Prove that the points of contact are the middle points of

the sides, and that the velocities at these points are proportional to the sides.
Ex.
centre,
If any number of particles be moving in an 6. and the force suddenly cease to act, show that
all
ellipse
about a force in the
after the lapse of (l/2ir)th
part of the period of a complete revolution

concentric and similAsly situated ellipse.
the particles will be in a similar
[Math, Tripos, 1850.]
Ex.
7.
particle
moves in an
ellipse
under a centre of force in the centre.
When
it
the particle arrives at the extremity of the major axis the force ceases to
act until the particle has
moved through a distance equal to the semi-minor axis then acts for a quarter of the periodic time in the ellipse. Prove that if it again ceases to act for the same time as before, the particle will have arrived at the other [Math. Tripos, I860.] end of the major axis. [Art. 325.]
ART. 331.]
Ex.
is
EXAMPLES.
string passes through a
It is
its
215
8.
An elastic
smooth straight tube whose length
the natural length of the string.
then pulled out equally at both ends

original length.
until its length is increased
by J2 times
Two
equal perfectly
and projected with equal velocities at right angles to the string, and so as to impinge on each other. Prove that the time of impact is independent of the velocity of projection, and that after impact each ball will move in a straight line, assuming that the tension of the string is
elastic balls are attached to the extremities
proportional to the extension throughout the motion.

its
Ex.
9.
point
is
moving in an equiangular
;
spiral,
acceleration always
is
tending to the pole
when
it
arrives at a point
the law of acceleration
changed to that of the direct distance, the actual acceleration being unaltered. Prove that the point P will now move in an ellipse whose axes make equal angles with SP and the tangent to the spiral at P, and that the ratio of these axes
is
tan I a
where a
is
the angle of the spiral.
Ex.
10.
directly as the
which attract one another with forces varying masses and distance are under the attraction of a fixed centre of
series of particles
force also varying directly as the distance;

parallel directions
prove that
if
they are projected in
from points lying on a radius vector passing through the centre of force with velocities inversely proportional to their distances from the centre of [Math. Tripos, 1888.] force, they will at any subsequent time lie on a hyperbola.
Ex.
11.
particle starting
from
rest at a point
A moves
to
is
fi
.
centre of force situated at

arrives at
to
after
S whose magnitude is equal an interval T and the centre of force

S'
under the action of a from S). It then suddenly transferred

(distance
some other point
without altering
its
magnitude.
If the particle be at a point
at the termination of a second interval
equal to the former, prove that the

If at this instant the centre of force
straight lines SS'
and
AB bisect
each other.
its S'.
be suddenly transferred back to

third interval
original position S, prove that at the

If at
end of a
the particle will be at
that instant the centre of force

its original
ceased to act, the particle will describe a path which passes through
position A.
Ex.
12.
If the central force is attractive

is
prove that the orbit
and proportional to uÎ(cu + cob0)^, one of the conies given by the equation [Coll. Ex. 1896.] (cu + cos e)^=a + b cos2 {0 + a).
Putting cti+coa0=U, the differential equation of the path becomes the same
as that for a central force varying as the distance 1/ U.
The
solution is therefore
known
Ex.
Ex.
to be the
Id.
form given above.
particle
moves under a central
force
jF=M^(l + &*sin2tf)~5.
Find
the orbit
and
interpret the result geometrically.
[Math. Tripos.]
vertical axis
smooth horizontal plane revolves with angular velocity ta about a a point of which is attached the end of a weightless string, extensible according to Hooke's law and of natural length d just sufficient to reach the plane. The string is stretched and after passing through a small ring at the point where the axis meets the plane is attached to a particle of mass m which moves on the plane. Show that, if the mass be initially at rest relative to the plane, it wiU describe on the plane a hypocycloid generated by the rolling of a
14.
to
circle of radius
â {1- w(mdX-i)*} on a
circle of radius a,
where a
is
the initial
extension and X the coefficient of elasticity of the string.
216
The
an
THE INVERSE SQUARE.
[CHAP. VI.
accelerating tension is \rlmd=f).r (say).
ellipse
having a and h = waUfi for semi-axes.
The path in space is therefore To find the path relative to the

If
rotating plane
we apply
to the particle a velocity <ar transverse to r backwards.
p' be the perpendicular
from the centre on the resultant of v and

centre
ur,
we have by
taking
moments about the
{t)2
- 2vwp + wV) p'^ = {vp - m-Y-
Substituting for v^ and vp their values in elliptic motion
we
find
52(a2-r2) = p'2(a2-62).
This
if
is
a linear relation between r^
and
p'^
and the curve
will be
an epicycloid
the radii of the corresponding circles are real (Art. 322).

circle,
the fixed
c of
the rolling circle,
we put ^' = 0; this gives the radius we put p'=r, and r=a + 2c; this
curve
is
To find the radius of r=a. To find the radius

gives the required value
of
c.
If c is negative the
a hypocycloid.
Law
332.
of the inverse square of the distance.
particle is acted on by
centre
of force situated
is the
in the
origin whose acceleration is
F=
fjju?
where u
reciprocal of the
radius vector.
It is required to find the possible orbits.

diflferential
We
have the
equation (Art. 309)
de^'^'^'hû^'h^
'
^^'
'^)'
~ p + -^
^^^ (^
where
and a are the constants of integration.
Comparing
this
with the equation of a conic
lu=
where
I
+ ecos(^-a)
is
(2),
is
the semi-latus
ectum, we see that the orbit
conic
having one focus at the centre offorce.

Conversely, if the orbit
is
We
also have h^
= fd.
To prove
a conic with the centre of force in
one
this,
focus, the
law of force must be the inverse square.
be the given equation of the orbit; substituting in the left-hand side of equation (1) we find F=/j,u% where fi has been written for the constant h^/l.
let (2)
we
333.
The
velocity.
easily
The
relations
between the conic and
the force are more
deduced from the equation
dr p'
r^
ART. 333.]
THE PATH AND MOTION.
217
the force being attractive in the standard case,
where
an
G is
the constant of integration.
The p and r equation
of
ellipse
having a focus
at the origin is
p^
a'
where I = Jfja is the semi-latus rectum. Comparing these equations, we have the standard formulae
2
1
\r
...(A).
change from the ellipse to the hyperbola by making the centre C pass through infinity to the other side of the origin 8, we therefore put a' for a also b^ becomes 6'^, the semi-latus rectum remaining positive and equal to b'^ja'. We now have
;
We
"^
\r
.(B).
J
is
In passing from that branch of the hyperbola which
concave
Before
to the centre of force to the convex branch, the radius vector r
changes sign through infinity from positive to negative.
comparing the equation of the orbit with that of the hyperbola

for r in the latter. Also since this branch convex to the origin the force is repulsive and fi is negative, let us put fjL = fi'. Comparing the formulae
we should
write
r'
is
have
.(C).
218
THE INVERSE SQUARE.

All these formulae
[CHAP.
VI.
may
of the ellipse if
we understand
be included in the standard form (A) that on the concave branch of the
hyperbola the major axis is by interpretation negative; on the convex branch, the radius vector being made positive, the major
axis
is
positive while the semi-latus
rectum
and the strength
fi
are negative.
334. Construction of the orbit. When the and the distance R are known at any point P of the
velocity
orbit (say,
the
initial position),
manner.
Let the force he attractive.
we may determine the curve The orbit
in the following
is
now concave
and /x is positive. Comparing the formulae (A), (B) and (D) and remembering that the velocity Fj from infinity to the initial position is given by V^ = 2fjijR^ (Art. 312), we see that the orbit is an ellipse, parabola or the concave branch of a hyperbola according as the velocity is less than, equal to, or
to the centre of force
greater than that
from
infinity.
We
notice that this criterion
is
independent of the angle of projection at P.

repulsive.
Let the force be
Since the path
is
convex to the centre of force the
orbit is the convex
branch of a hyperbola.
orbit
335.
Having ascertained the nature of the

ellipse to
we have
next to determine the lengths of the major axis and latus rectum.
Supposing the
be the standard case, we have by (A),

is
=P
F^
.
We
notice that the length a
independent of the
angle of projection.
If
then particles are projected from the
same
point with equal velocities the major axes of the orbits described are
equal.
If
y8
and
h=
be th6 angle of projection (Art. 313) we have p = Rsin^ Vp. The constant h and the semi-latus rectum I are
h
therefore found from 336.
= VR sin ^,
h^
= fil.
various ways.
and
A We may find
is
The position in space of the major axis may be found in Let S be the focus occupied by the centre of force the extremity of the major axis nearest to S.
6 from the analytical equation of the curve
_l/r=l+e cos
where
6,
the angle the initial radius vector
SP
makes with SA.
ART. 337.]
CONSTRUCTION OF THE ORBIT.

also use a geometrical construction.
219
We may
The
focus
and the tangent PT at P being known, we can draw a straight make equal angles with PT, the direction line PiTsothat SP, of depending on whether the curve is an ellipse or hyperbola. is then determined so that SP + PH=2a, where If theôint is the empty focus. a has been already found, it is clear that
PH
PH
If the curve is a 'hyperbola, these lengths (as already explained)
must have
is
The position of the major, axis then found by joining S and H, and a being known the
their proper signs.
eccentricity e is equal to
SHjâ.
337.
being
r,
Ex. 1. and the
The
initial distance of a
initial radial
that the latus rectum 21
particle from the centre of force and transverse velocities being F^ and V^, prove and the angle d which the radius vector r makes
I
with the major axis are given by
-s
2 Y ----
tan
YY = ^^^ ^,
Ex. 2. Prove that there are two directions in which a particle can be projected from a given point P with a given velocity V, so that the line of apses may have a given direction Sx in space, and find a geometrical construction for these
directions.
Since
is given,
circle cutting
Sx
in
a is known. With centre P and radius 2a -r describe a H, H'. The required directions bisect externally the angles
SPH, SPH'.
Let
jS
be either of the angles the direction of projection at
P makes
with SP,
Art. 313.
The quadratic
giving the two values of tan
/3
is
cot2
^+ ^2 - -") cot e cot /3+'- - 1 = 0,

This follows from Ex. 1 by writing Fi = FcoS|8, also be written in the form
(^
where 6
is
the angle PSx.
F2= F sin /S.
The quadratic may

tan
+ /3) = [ - - 1
tan
/3.
Ex. 3. Three focal radii SP, SQ, SR of an elliptic orbit and the angles between them are given. Show that the elliptieity may be found from the equation 6A=aA', where A is the area PQR, A' the area of a triangle whose sides are
2SQ-
SR^ sin J QSR and two

P', Q',
similar expressions.
Let
We first
R' be the points on the auxiliary circle which correspond to P, Q, R. find by elementary conies the length of the side Q'R' in terms of SQ, SR
angle.
and the contained

of the triangles
The
result
shows that the side Q'R'
is
equal to the
corresponding side of the triangle A' after multiplication by ajb.
Since the areas
PQR,
P'Q'R' are
known
to be in the ratio 6/a, the result follows
at once.
Ex.
4.
Two
particles P,
describe the
same
orbit about a centre of force O.
Prove that throughout the motion the area contained by the radii vectores OP,
is constant.
OQ
-220
Thence deduce that
if
THE INVERSE SQUARE.
[CHAP. VI.
i
a ring of meteors (not attracting each other) describe
closed orbit, the angular distance between consecutive meteors varies inversely &i
the square of their distance from 0.
Ex,
5.
Two
particles P,
Q describe
adjacent elliptic orbits of small eccentricity
in equal times, the centre of force being in the focus
in direction.
and the major axes coincident Supposing the particles to be simultaneously at corresponding apses, prove that the angle xp which PQ makes with the line of apses is given by is a maximum. cot ^= - 3 cosec 2nt + cot2nt, and find when
i/-
338.
Elements of an
orbit.
To
fix
the position in space
of an elliptic orbit described about a focus
we must know
the
values of six constants, called the elements of the orbit.
These are (1) the angle which the radius vector from the
given focus to the nearer extremity of the major axis makes with
some determinate line in the plane of the orbit, the angle being measured in the positive direction; (2) the length of the major
axis
;
(3) the eccentricity
(4)
a constant usually called the epoch
to fix the longitude of the particle at the
time
= 0.
This con-
stant will be considered later on.
To determine the plane

constants.
of the orbit
we
Taking the focus as
origin, let
require two more some rectangular axes
be given in position.
line of nodes,
Let the plane of the orbit intersect the
plane of xy in the straight line
N'8N.
This line
is
called the
and that node at which the particle passes to the We positive side of the plane of xy is called the ascending node. require (5) the angle the radius vector to the ascending node
makes with the
axis of x,
and
(6) the inclination of the plane of
the orbit to the plane of xy.

339.
velocity
Point to Point. To project a V from a given point P so that
particle with
it
a given
shall pass through
another given point Q.
Let
7\, To
be the distances 8P, SQ. The velocity at P being given,

is
the major axis 2a
also
known from the formula F- =
/u.
ART, 341.]
POINT TO POINT.
221
With
centres
P and Q,
describe two circles of radii 2a
r,,
2a rg;
the
these intersect in two points
H, H'.
Either of these
may be
The three are therefore known.

focus.
empty
sides of the equal triangles
PQH, PQH'
There are two directions of projection which

conditions.
satisfy the given
These directions are the bisectors of the supplements
of the angles at
/3
SPH, SPH'.
Let
/3, /S'
be the angles of projection
P
+
(measured behind the radius vector SP, see Art. 313), then /8' is equal to the supplement of SPQ, and /3 /3' is equal to
the
known angle HPQ.

The range
PQ
on a given straight line

lie
is the
greatest possible
when H, H'
have
coincide and
on the straight line PQ.
We
then
PQ = PH+QH=4<a-n-r,.
This equation requires that the semi-major axis should be onequarter of the perimeter of the triangle
SPQ.
Since two consecutive trajectories whose foci are in the neigli-
bourhood of
turns round
PQ
intersect in Q, the locus of
as the range
PQ
P is
the envelope of all trajectories from
a given point
P
P
with a given velocity.

its
Since
foci at
another ellipse having
PQ + QS = 4a r^ this locus is P and S. Each trajectory touches

-
the enveloping ellipse in the point where the straight line joining
to the
empty
Ex.
1.
I'
focus of the trajectory cuts either curve.

Prove that the semi-major axis
a',
340.
the eccentricity
e'
and the
semi-latus rectum
of the enveloping ellipse are given
by
2a'
= 4a-i\,
e'=-Ji
is
r^=2a{2a-r.).
Ex.
2.
If
the variation of gravity
taken account of and the resistance of

is
the air neglected, prove that the least velocity with which a shot could be projected
from the pole so as to meet the earth's surface at the equator second, and that the angle of elevation is 22J.
Ex.
3.
about 4i miles per

[Coll.
Ex. 1892.]
If a particle
when
projected from Pj passes through two other points

Z
Pg, P3, prove that the semi-latus rectum

I
is
given by either of the equalities

sin Oj sin Oj
A = r-Â-^ + rn,A<2,
-\-
f.Â^
= 2rj7-2r^ sin Oj
where
r^, r^, r^, are
the distances SP^, SP^, SP.^;
A^^,
A^, A^ are the areas of the
triangles P^SP^, P-^SP^, P^.SP,; Oj, a^, 03 the angles at the focus
S and A
is
the
area of the triangle P^P^P.^
Prove also that the eccentricity

.
is
given by
2(2^)2=2 [A
341.
seca)--2S(î/J2 secttisecagcosaj).
Time
of describing any arc.
The time
of describing
the whole
ellipse,
usually called the periodic time, can be deduced
222
THE INVERSE SQUARE.
[CHAP. VI.
at once from the formula
A = ^ht,
(Art. 306).
Putting
A = m-ah
.--
and
h^
= fib^ja,
(Art. 332),
we
find that the periodic time

is
a*.
It appears
from this that the period
independent of the
/t
minor axis and depends only on the strength force and on the length of the major axis.
If
of the centre of
n be the mean angular velocity
in the orbit, the

is
mean being
taken with regard to time, the period

a?
27r/w.
It follows that
342.
orbit.
To find
the time
of describing any arc
AP of an elliptic
AQA'
the
Let
S be
the focus occupied by the centre of force,
auxiliary circle
and
QPN
an ordinate.
If
the major axis nearest to S, the angle
A is the extremity of ASP is called the true

letter
v,
i.e.
anomaly and
angle
is
sometimes represented by the
the
ASP = v.
u,
i.e.
The angle
the angle
ACQ
is

;
P and
in astronomy is called the eccentric
sented by
ACQ =
force,
measured at the centre of

centre of the orbit.
anomaly it is usually repreu. Thus the true anomaly v is thq eccentric anomaly u at the
When
is
the particle
is
a planet the extremities A, A' of the
major axis are called

the
the perihelion
and aphelion; when the
particle
moon
the same points are called perigee and apogee.
They
are also called the apses, Art. 314.
Representing the time of describing the arc
AP by
we
let
t,
and the
is
i.e.
mean angular velocity of the called the mean anomaly, and
particle
is
by
n,
the product nt
generally represented
by m,
m = nt.
ellipse.
n.
To represent
this angle geometrically
a second
particle describe a circle, having its centre at S, with a uniform
motion in the same period as the given particle describes the
The
and
actual angular velocity of this pai'ticle

Q' are its positions at the times
t =
is
therefore
If
and t=t, the

angles in the
is
angle
ASQ' = nt. The true and mean anomalies are the important The eccentric anomaly theory of elliptic motion.
as
introduced
an auxiliary angle because, by its help, very simple expressions can be found for the other two anomalies and for the radius vector.
ART. 343.]
TIME OF DESCRIBING AN ARC.
223
The difference between the true and the mean anomaly, or m, IS called the equation of the centre, and is positive from the
nearer apse to the farther and negative from the farther to the
nearer.
Using the geometrical theorem that the

of the ellipse to the
ratio of the area
ASP
is
corresponding area
ASQ
of the circle
b/a,
constant for
all
positions of
and equal to
we have,
if
A = area ASP,
A = - (area A CQ area SCQ)

= ^ - (aû aH sin u).
2 a
Since
A = ^ht,
h^
= fib^ja,
v?
= /i/<i^,
this gives
nt = u e sin u
(A). Taking
We may obtain this relation

the focus
between u and
without using any figure.
for origin,
we have
x'= -ae+acosu,
y'
= bsiiiu,
u by an easy
integration.
hdt = 2dA =x'dy' - y'dx'.
Substituting for x' and y'
we obtain
in terms of
To anomalies we
343.
.'.
find the relation
between the true and eccentric
notice that OS = ae, ON = x, SP = r= a ex. ae X (1 + e) (a x) ^ -=^ 1 - cos V = 1 + ^, a ex r _ ae x + x) = = (1 e)(a 1
cos w
^^
a ex
r
at once
Remembering that x = a cos u, these give
y^%in| = V(l + e)sin|,. y^^

,
.
cos
V(l
) cos 2,
/l + e. V u *^^2=\/rê*^^2
.^, ^^)-
Eliminating u between (A) and (B)

nt
we have
''
= 2 tan-^ L /^tan |l - eV(l - e^ r-^^-^^. ^^ 1 + e cos [y l- e 2J

for the
The expression
integration.
time in terms of the longitude d
may
also be
found by
Since r^deidt = h,
we have
t=-r
l^
-, where /=l/e.
But
it
2 24
THE INVERSE SQUARE.

that
[CHAP. VI.
is
known
J^_^^
du
==^_2_^^ tan-i
(
(^^-^ tan^)
By
differentiating
this with regard to /, the value of
follows at once.
-^
Ex.
Prove that r -^=J{al), and r ~-=an.

at
344. Ex. 1. Prove that the mean distance of a planet from the sun is a oi a(l + ê2) according as the mean is taken with reference to the longitude or the time. [These means are respectively jrd6j2ir and ^rdtjT, where T is the periodic
time.]
Ex.
2.
Prove that the
mean
value of r" with regard to time for a planet
is
ZkJO)
Ex.
3.
-(rf{n^^-dfî(f'-^^~"''
where/=l/eandL(n) = 1.2.3....
circle,
The
earth's
orhit
being regarded as a
prove that a comet,

[Coll. Ex.]
describing a parabolic orbit in the same plane, cannot remain within the circumference of the earth's orbit longer than the (2/37r)th part of a year.
Ex.
4.
from the
earth's surface so as to describe a
portion of an ellipse whose major axis

direction of projection
of flight is I
(3a/fir)-
make an
is 1^ times the earth's radius. If the angle of 30 with the vertical, prove that the time
{tan~\/6 + ;^|} where a
is
the earth's radius.

[Coll.
Ex. 1895.]
345. Orbits of small eccentricity. The equations (A) and (B) of Arts. 342, 343 determine the time of describing any given angle v in an elliptic orbit of any
eccentricity, the equation (B) giving
determines
u when v is known while the equation (A) then The converse problem of finding the polar coordinates r and v when t is given is usually called Kepler's problem. One solution by which u and v are expressed in terms of t by series arranged in ascending powers ofc will be
t.
presently considered.
e is small,
the value of
of
tion.
The value
To
enough here to notice that in a planetary orbit, where u when t is given can be found by successive approximav then follows from (B) by using the trigonometrical tables.
It is
i^
346.
given.
solve
(m)
= w- e sin w~m=0
by Newton's
rule,
when m,
i.e. nt, is
Supposing
rule gives
Mj
M, to be
two successive approximations to the value of
u, that
M, ^
.
, = -
0(zfi) ^
,
m-m-, i
(u^)
1-e cos Ui
To find a first approximation we notice that u lies where wii = Mj - e sin m^ between m and me, the upper or lower sign being taken according as m is <7r or >. We choose some value of u, lying between these limits, which is an integer number of minutes so that its trigonometrical functions can be foimd from the tables without interpolation. By Fourier's addition to Newton's rule this first approximation should be such that <p {u) and <p" {u) have the same sign.
Substituting this
first
approximation for
first
u^
the formula gives a second approxi,
mation.
Substituting again this second approximation for v^
we obtain a
third,
is
and so on. sometimes

C.
When
e is
very small the
computed value of the denominator

approximations required.
p. 289.
sufficiently accurate for all the
See Encke,
Berliner Astronomisches Jahrbuch, 1838.
Gauss, Theoria Motus &c., translated by

vol.
i.
H. Davis.
Adams's Collected Works,
ART. 347.]
Ex.
Prove that
is
1.
TIME OF DESCRIBING AN ARC.

if
226
we choose Uj^=m+e
e^.
as the first approximation, the error of
the value of u^
of the order
847.
prove
Ex.
Leverrier's rule.
If
terms of the order

1 /
c sin
e*
can be neglected,
1-e cos m
Glaisher remarks that if
the formula
series for
is
\1- coos TO/
correct
we replace the third term by - J (e sin m)^ (1-e cos m)~ when terms of the order e are neglected. He also gives a
to
e^.
correct
T.
up
.,
.
Monthly Notices of
,
the Astronomical Society, 1877.

,
Ex.
2.
Prove that cot=cot m--r7
ecosecTO
f(u-m)
-t^r
where
sin^ a; + 55^ sin6 X + &c. X sin* X + / (x) = sin X = 1 + o 40 aao

.
Putting u=m + e on the right-hand side of the first equation we obtain an approximation for cot u whose error is of the order e*. This is Zenger's solution
of Kepler's problem.
planets.
He
Some improvements
to be
has tabulated the values of /(e) for the eight principal of the method have been suggested by J. G; Adams.
Both papers are

Ex.
found in the Monthly Notices of the Astronomical Society,
1882, vol. xLn. p. 446, vol. XLin. p. 47.

3.
the curve of sines y = smx, measure a distance draw making the angle PMx equal to cot~^ e.
Prove the following graphical solution of Kepler's problem. Construct along the axis of x and
MP
OM=m If MP out the curve
in P, the
abscissa of
P is the value of
u.
in 1849.
This method was described by J. G. Adams at the meeting of the B. Association It is also given by See in the Astronomical Notices, 1895, who also refers to Klinkerfues and Dubois. Another graphical solution, using a trochoid, is given by Plummer, Astronomical Notices, 1895, 1896.
Ex.
4.
The equation u-esinu=m has only one
real value of
u when
is given.
This follows from the graphical construction.

the curve in a second point Q,
If the ordinate
MP could
cut
move
the straight line
PQ
parallel to itself until
should then have a tangent to the curve making an angle tan~^ 1/e with the axis of x. But if e < 1 this is impossible, for in the curve of
and
coincide.
We
sines the greatest value of the angle is
45*^.
Ex.
5.
By
using Lagrange's theorem
we may expand /(u)
in
a series of
ascending powers of the eccentricity, the coefficients being functions of m. that if the form of the function / (u) be so chosen that the coefficient of e*
Prove
is zero,
we
obtain the series
cot u = cot m - e cosec m + J e^ sin m + &c. which takes a very simple form, when the cubes of e can be neglected. equation is due to Bob. Bryant, Astronomical Notices, 1886.
This
Ex.
6.
Prove that when

sin J (u - m)
e*
can be neglected
= ^ e sin
m + i e^ sin 2m + ê^ sin 3m + &c.
[R. Bryant.]
Ex. 7. If 6' be the longitude of a planet seen from the empty focus and measured from an apse, prove that
0'
= nt + ê^ sin 2nt + &G.,

It follows that the
the error being of the order
e*.
angular velocity round the
empty focus
is
very nearly constant.
226
THE INVERSE SQUARE.
[CHAP. VI.
348. We may apply the method of Art. 342 to find the time of describing an arc of the concave branch of the hyperbola. Taking the focus as origin the
equation of a hyperbola
may
be written
x'=ae-^(r+f--),
y'=|(/"-r").
where u is an auxiliary quantity and / a constant which will be immediately chosen to be the base of the Napierian logarithms
.-.
hdt=2dA=x'dy'-y'dx'=ab
]|
(/"+/-")- l[
du.
Since h^=nh^la we have, putting iila?='n?,
nt= -M + csinh
Again, as in Art. 343,
(A).
we have a;=C2^= 5 (/"+/"");

2
ae-x C08tJ=ex -a
where
**I=\/^-^**'Î
u,
^^^'
v= l ASP.
If
we eliminate
we have
...
.,. + l)-x/(g-l)*anî> ,_w '^^' "*-^^^/(c + l)^-^/(e-l)tanJ +

N/(
sing
^'l + ecost;-
To
find a geometrical interpretation for
the auxiliary quantity u, let us
describe a rectangular hyperbola having the same major axis and produce the Then tan QCN =tanh. u. ordinate to cut the rectangular hyperbola in Q.
NP
Ex.
negative.
A particle
Prove
describes the convex branch of the hyperbola,
and
n= -/*' is
nt=+sinh,
where
tan5 = ^/-^tanh^,
v=ASP,
fi^la?=v!'
349.
The time
Z/r
in a parabolic orbit
may be more
easily found
by
using the equation r^d6
= hdt
where
I
Putting
h^ = fil, we
= 1 + cos v
^'
is
the semi-latus rectum, and
have
+ tan^|Vtan| a/^= j(l L + cost;)2 =^ffl 2/2 2JV V

i'
=Ktan K + q
This formula gives the time
t
tan^
of describing the true anomaly
v=-ASP.
If c be the radius of the earth's orbit,
and
the perihelion
distance of the particle expressed as a fraction of c, we have To eliminate fi, let T = 27rVc^/A* be the length of a year. I = 2pc.
Then
-|-.=/|tan2+3tan3^j
If
we
write
T= 365-256 this gives
in days.
ART. 350.]
euler's theorem.
a formula like this has to be frequently used
227
When
we
construct a table to save the continual repetition of the

arithmetical work.
calculated for values of v from
same
Let the values of {tan ^v + ^ tan^l^v} be to 180", with differences for When p is known for any comet moving in a interpolation. parabolic orbit, the table can be used with equal ease to find the time when the true anomaly is given or the true anomaly when
the time
350.
is
known.
Euler's theorem.
particle
describes
a parabola
under the action of a centre of force in the focus S. It is required to prove that the time of describing an arc PP' is given by
6 V/A^
= (r + r' + kf - (r + r' - kf,

of P,P' and k
is the
where
P, P'.
r^r' are the focal distances
chord joining
Let
X, y\ x', y'
be the coordinates of P, P', then since y^ = âx,
k^
= {x- xj + (2/ - yj = (y- yj |l +

to
(^)]
As we wish
make the right-hand

y + y' = 4ia tan 6,
side a perfect square,
we put
(1).
y y=â tan <^
suppose that in the standard case y is positive and y' numerically less than y then 6 and ^ are positive,
shall
;
We
.'.
=
A;
4a tan ^ sec ^
a;'
(2).
Also
+ r' = 2a + a; + = 2a (sec^ B + tan<^) r + r' 4- = 2a (sec 6 + tan ^J r \-r k = â (sec 6 tan ^y]
.-.
.-.
{r-^r'^-kf-{r^-r'-kf
= (2a)* {(sec + tan <^)3 - (sec 6 - tan <^)} = 2 (2a)* {3 + 3 tan"^ + tan<^} tan
<^.
Drawing the ordinates

area
Pi^T,
P'N',
we
see that
PBP' = APN- AFN' + SP'N' - SPN
= H^y- y) + i('- a)2/' - i(- a)y
= fa* tan
Since the area
follows at once.
<f>
{3 tan"^
+ tan<^ + 3}.
the result to be proved
PSP'=^ht = îs/{2afi)t
228
THE INVERSE SQUARE. The

arc
[CHAP. VI.
when To determine whether the radical changes sign we notic^ that this can happen only when it We can therefore without loss of generality so move vanishes. the points P, P\ that, when the chord crosses the focus, PP' is a
the apse.
decreases and vanishes
PP' gradually increases The quantity r + r' k
as P'
moves towards and past
the chord passes through the focus.
double ordinate.
6
\/fit
We then
have
{(2a
= (2r + 2yf - (2r - 2yf =
+ yf (2a - yfWaf.
Comparing this with the ordinary parabolic expression for twice
ASP it is evident that the last term should change sign where y increases past 2a and that the double sign should be a minus. The second radical in Eulers equation must he taken positively when the angle PSP' is greater than 180.
the area
351.
d, <p
Ex.
1.
If the ordinate
P'N'
Q\xt
the parabola again in Q'; prove that

the axis of y.
are the acute angles

2.
made by the chords PP', PQ' with

same
focus.
Ex.
Show
that there are two parabolas which can pass through the given
points P, P', and have the

to find the time
Show
also that in using Euler's
theorem
P to P',
the second radical has opposite signs in the two paths.
To find the parabolas we describe two circles, centres P, P' and radii SP, SP'. These circles intersect in S and the two real common tangents are the directrices. These tangents intersect on PP' and make equal angles with it on opposite sides. The concavities of the parabolas are in opposite directions, and the angles described are PSP' and 360 -PSP'. If then one angle is greater than 180, the
other
must be
3.
less.
Ex.
parabolic path
is
described about the focus.
Show
that the squares
of the times of describing arcs cut off
by focal chords are proportional to the
cubes of the chords.
ellipse,
352. Xiambert's Tbeorem*. If t is and k is the chord of the arc, then
the time of describing
any arc P'P of an
nt = {(p- Bin <j))-{<f>'-sin(p'),
where
-1^1 sini(t>=h
u, u'
/s^
/r+r' + k a
'
/r + r'-k ,,, , î"^'^=4/y/

.
^^"
Let
be the eccentric anomalies of P, P',

.-.
fc2
a^ (cos
u - cos
m')2
+ a^(l-e^)
(sin
u - sin u')^
(1),
=4a^sin^li{u-u'){l-e^cos^^{u + u')}
* This proof of Lambert's theorem
is
due to
J. C.
Adams, British Association
Report, 1877, or Collected Works, p. 410.

for the hyperbola, using hyperbolic sines.
He
also gives the corresponding theorem
1869, Cayley gives a discussion of the signs of the angles
In the Astronomical Notices, vol. xxix., The theorem for <f>, <f>'.
t. vii.),
the parabola was discovered by Euler {Miscell. Berolin.

to the other conic sections is due to Lambert.
but the extension
ART. 354.]
Lambert's theorem.
r + r'=2a-ae
229
GOsu-aeeoBu'
(2),
= 2a {1 - e COB ^{u+u') COB ^{u-u')}

nt=u-u' -e (sin u - sin ') =-'-2eco8i (M+tt')8in J(u-')
Hence we
see that if a,
(3).
and
therefore also n, are given, then r + r', k,
and
are
fanctions of the two quantities
u - u', and
e cos
\ (u+u')*
^^^
(4). (5),
(6), (7),
u-u'=2a,
.".
ecos^(u+u')=cos/3
A;
= 2a sin a sin
j8
r+r' + ife=2a{l-cos(/3 + a)}
r+r'-A:=2a{l-cos03-o)}
nt=2a-28inacosj9
If
(8).
we put
j3
+ a=0, j8-a=0',
p'
the equations
(8)
(6)
and
(7)
lead to the expressions
for sin ^ 0, sin \
given above, while
when put
{/S
into the
(/3
form
nt= {j8 + a - sin (/3 + a)} gives at once the required value of nt,
- a - sin
- a)}
353.
from
Let us trace the values of
4j>,
^' as the point
in the positive direction beginning at a fixed point P".

u' to 2ir
P travels round the ellipse We suppose that u increases
+ u'.
The positive sign has been given to the square root k. Since k can vanish only when P coincides with P', and a begins positively, we see that both a and /3 lie between and t for all positions of P. The latter is also restricted to lie between cos-^ e and ir - cos~^ e.
We have by differentiating
d'
and d^' always negative.
be the least value of

/Sq
which
satisfies
cos/3 = eco8u',
^
Tr,
continually increases from
to 2ir-Pg
and
decreases from
Po to -/3o.
When
focus H.
=
Let
+ r' + k = ia, and
the chord
P'F passes through the empty
it
cut the ellipse in Q.
It follows that
is less
or greater than
ir
according as
P lies in the arc T'Q or QP'. When ^' = 0, r+r' -k=0, and the chord
Let
it
P'F passes through the centre of

is positive or
force S.
cut the ellipse in B.
Then
<p'
negative according as
P lies in
the arc P'R or EP'.
The values of ^, (p' are determined by the radicals (A). Each of these gives more than one value of the angle, thus ^ may be greater or less than ir and <f>' may be positive or negative. This ambiguity disappears (as explained above) when the position of P on the ellipse is known. Thus sin ^ and sin ^' have the same sign when the two foci are on the same side of the chord PP' and opposite signs when the chord passes between the foci.
354.
given by
t
Ex.
1.
Prove that the time
of describing an arc
P'P of a hyperbola
is
v/4= -'P +
<P'
+ sinh
<f>
sinh <p',
230
where
,
.
THE INVERSE
sinh J
is ,<f>
n*'^
POWER.
a /
[CHAP. VI.
/r + r' + k
.
. ,
sinn
.<f>'
^=
/r+r'-k
-.
and k
the chord of the arc.
[Adams.]
Ex. 2. The length of the major axis being given, two ellipses can be drawn through the given points P, P' and having one focus at the centre of force. Prove that the times of describing these arcs, as given by Lambert's theorem, ar&
in general unequal.
To
of
find the ellipses
radii equal to
which may
we describe two circles with the centres at P, P* and the 2a - SP, and 2a - SP". These intersect ia two points H, H', either be the empty focus, and these lie on opposite sides of the chord PP'^
centres of force.
355.
Two
Ex.
1.
An
I^
ellipse
is
described under the
action of two centres of force, one in each focus.
If these forces are F^(rj)
and
^2
(^2)'
prove that -^
^ (rj^Fi)=^
-r-
('2^^2)'
^^^ force follow the Newtonian
law, prove that the other
must do These results follow from the normal and tangential resolutions.
so also.
2. A particle describes an elliptic orbit under the influence of two equal one directed to each focus. Show that the force varies inversely as the [Coll. Ex.}; product of the distances of the particle from the foci.
Ex.
forces,
Ex. 3. A which are one
an ellipse under two forces tending to the foci, any point inversely as the focal distances ; prove that the velocity varies as the perpendicular from the centre on the tangent, and that the periodic time is ir (a^ + W)jkab, ka, kb being the velocities at the extremities of
particle describes to another at
the axes.
[Coll. Ex.],
Ex.
4.
particle describes
an
ellipse
and each varying as (distance)"^. that the relation between the time and the Eccentric anomaly is
centres of force situated in the two foci
3 \dtj ~a^
under the simultaneous action of twa Prove
(1
- e cos m)2
a^ (1
+ e cos u)^
[Cayley, Math. Messenger, 1871.1
The inverse cube and

356.
in
the inverse w*^
powers of
the distance.
The law
any given manner

find the motion*.
describes
of the inverse cube. A particle projected an orbit about a centre offeree whose
of the distance.
It is required
attraction varies as the inverse cube

to
* The orbits when the force F=nU^ were first completely discussed by Cotes in the Harmonia Mensurarum (1722) and the curves have consequently been called Cotes' spirals. The motion for F=ixu^ when the velocity is equal to that from
infinity is generally given in treatises
on
this subject.
The paths
for several other
laws of force are considered by Legendre (Theorie des Fonctions Elliptiqties, 1825), and by Stader {Crelle, 1852) see also Cayley's Report to the British Associatioriy
;
F=fjLu", for integer values of n from n=4 to=9, are discussed by Greenhill (Proceedings of the Mathematical Society, 1888),. one case when 71= 5, being given in Tait and Steele's Dynamics.
1863.
Some
special paths
when
rn
ART. 357.]
THE INVERSE CUBE.

let
231
the
Let attraction be taken as the standard case and We have accelerating force be i''=/xw'.
The solution depends on the sign of the coefficient of u. Let V be the velocity of the particle at any point of its path (say the point of projection), /3 the angle and R the distance of projection, then h = VRsm^; (Art. 313). Let Fj be the velocity from inIt follows that k" is > or <fji, according anity, then Y^ = ij.lR\ as Fsin/3 is > or <Fi; i.e. the coefficient of u is positive or negative according as the transverse velocity at any point is
greater or less than the velocity from infinity.
repulsive the coefficient
is
If the force
is
always positive.
Case
the path
1.
Let ^^>/i, we put l~filh^ = n^, then

is
n<l
or
>1
of
according as the force

is
attractive or repulsive.
The equation
(Art. 119)
u = a cos n(d a).
The curve
consists of a series of branches tending to asymptotes,
each of which makes an angle tt/w with the next.
When
the curve
is
given the motion
may be deduced from
the
following relations (Art. 306),

1
w^
"^
\ln^
^, i.e.
J
1/6,
Also by integrating d6/dt = hu^, and putting a =

the time of describing the angle ^ = a to
we
r, is
find that
r = 6 to
given by
tanw(^-a) = -^,
Case
r^-h^ =
-^ fi/h^ = n\
The
values
be positive and > h^, we put 1 The equation of the path is then u = Ae'^ + Be-^^.
357.
2.
Let
fi
of the constants
A,
B are to be
deduced from the
initial
values of
u and du/dd.
Two
cases therefore arise, according as

signs.
and
In the former case, u cannot vanish and therefore the orbit has no branches which go to inIf we write finity; in the latter case there is an asymptote. = 6i + a and choose a so that J.e"" = + Be~^, we may reduce
have the same or opposite
232
THE INVERSE
W*^
POWER.
[CHAP. VI.
the equation to one of the three standard forms
where 2wa = log(+ BjA), a= 2\/( AB), the upper or lower signs being taken according a& A, B have the same or opposite signs.
The
third case occurs
when
B = 0;
the orbit
is
then the equi-
angular spiral already considered in Art. 319.
When
the curve
is
given the motion
may be deduced from
the
following relations
where
is
determined by making
vanish
when r has
its initial
value and
at
in
h = 1/a. When A and B have the same sign the two branches beginning the point î = 0, i.e. d = a, wind symmetrically round the origin opposite directions. When A and B have opposite signs the
two branches begin at opposite ends of an asymptote, whose distance from the origin is y= 1/an, and then wind round the
origin.
As the
particle approaches the centre of force, the convo-
become more and more nearly those of an equiangular spiral whose angle is given by cot <f)= n, the The upper or lower sign being taken according as ^ = 00. particle arrives at the pole with an infinite velocity at the end
lutions of either branch
of a finite time. 358.
Case
3.
Let
fi
be positive and
= h\ The
orbit is
u = a{0 a).
When
where
h
the path
is
known the motion
is
given by
t^Jii.
h^
t is
fi,
v^=iJb{u' + a%
= hr,
constant.
the time from a distance r to the centre of force and

notice that the radial velocity
is
= 1/a. We
ART. 360.]
A VELOCITY FROM INFINITY.
233
Beginning at the opposite extremities of an asymptote the two branches wind round the origin and ultimately when ^ = + ao cut the radius vector at right angles. If OZ is drawn perpendicular to the radius vector
OP
to
meet the tangent
at
in Z,
we may show
359.
Ex.
that
OZ is
constant and equal to Ija.

force
that for a force
The motion for a Fz=f {u) + fiu^ and
F=/(u)
being known, show
how
to deduce
give a geometrical intarpretation.
[Newton.]
The
differential equations are
These
may
be reduced to the forms used

fifK'.
when F=f(u) by
is
writing c6 =
d',
ch = h', where c^ = 1 -
To
construct the path u = <p
(c6),
when u=(p {$)
known, we make the axis of x
together with the latter curve revolve round the centre of force with an angular
velocity dwjdt,
according as c
is less
where c$ = d-u. The axis of x therefore advances or regredes or greater than unity.
find the path of a
particle
360. Xaw of tlie inverse ntb. power. It when the central force F=fiu'^. See Art.
dû
is
required
to
320.
^_^
We have
_ F
_fi
-^=î(S^4=î"-^+^
except
^'y
when n=l,
for then the right-hand side takes
a logarithmic form.
The
integration of this equation can be reduced to elementary forms
C=0;
this requires that
n>l
for otherwise r^
would be negative.
is
when The equation
then shows that at every point of the orbit the velocity

Art. 312.
If
be the velocity,
JR
and
/S
the distance and angle of projection,
we have
(2).
^^=,^^1""
Representmg ^,7 '^
2u
^,
^=y^^-^
we have
-^^dS..
W^n-l)
iJ^-s
, ^ sm^/S
by
-
c^-s,
^"^
wV{M-3-l}'
where the upper or lower sign
or positive,
i.e.
(3),
is
to be taken according as dujdd is initially negative

/3
according as the angle
is
acute or obtuse.
To
integrate this put cu^x*^ where k is to be chosen to suit our convenience.

differential
Taking the logarithmic (3) becomes
we
Kdx
find
duju=Kdxlx, and the integral equation
^dd.
xJ{oi^^'^-^'l-l)
'
234
"We
THE INVERSE
now
see that if
is
W*^
POWER.
[CHAP. VI.
effected at once,
we put
/c
(n
but this supposition
impossible
if
- 3) = - 2 the integration can be n = 3. We find
3-ix=(^-a),
Conversely,
.-.
'
=eos^(-a).
when
the path
is
given,
we have
-1
n-1
c"~^
r**"!
It appears that the orbit takes different forms according as n> or <3. In the former case the curve has a series of loops with the origin for the common node and r=c for the maximum radius vector. In the latter case the curve has infinite
branches, and
r=c
for the
minimum
radius vector.
361.
If the force is repulsive,
we
write F=:
- /*'m".
We
then have
If
C=0, we must have n<l.
The
velocity at every point is equal to that
from
rest at the centre of force.
Proceeding as before, we have
362.
Ex.
c\
3-7l,
The law
is
of attraction being
F=fm^, show that the time
of
describing a loop
where the limits are
9=0
to 7r/(n-3)
integrations can be effected
and 2(-3)2)=n + l, (ra - 3) g = (-!). The when n - 3= 4/i and q -p= i where i is any integer.
1.
363.
Bxamples.
Ex.
Prove the following geometrical properties of the
curve (r/c)"= cos m^ (Art. 320),

<f>=^+rne,
p=
m
,
(^-j
=cos^^^.
r', 9'
where
</>
is
the angle the radius vector makes with the tangent, and
are the
coordinates of a point on the pedal curve.
Since equation
(1)
of Art.
360 becomes p^=-
(n
-
5-^
1) h^
r"-^
when C=0,
the
second of these geometrical results enables us to write down the equation of the
required path and thus to avoid the integration of
(3).
Ex.
2.
perpendicular
07
is
to the lemniscate
r^=a^ cob
99.
If the locus of
drawn from the origin O on the tangent at P Y be described by a particle under
the action of a central force tending to 0, prove that this force varies inversely as [Coll. Ex.] OY'3/3.
Ex.
3.
particle is describing the curve (77c)"*
= cos m^
if
under the action of

the velocity at the
the central force F^fiW^, where
m=i(n-3).
Prove that,
ART. 365.]
point
INVERSE FIFTH AND FOURTH.
235
small, the
$=a
is suddenly increased in the ratio 1 to

is
{rjc)"*
1+7 where 7 is very
sabseqnent path
cos
witf {
- wjf (cos m^)"*}
1+ (cosm^)
iBiamd)
"*
cotwtg
^""^
to a.
"^
(cos ;na) "
^/
*
fjcosmd)
2+ "*de
'
(sinm^)^
where the limits are
^=0
Substitute r/c = (cos m0)"+|, in the differential equation of the path, Art. 309,
and neglect the squares
of ^.
fiftb
364.
Tbe inverse
power.
The equation
(1),
Art. 360, has the
form
<"
(S)'=5s'-'4.
This can be reduced to
elliptic integrals
as explained in Cayley's Elliptic
Functions, Art. 400, or Greenhill, The Elliptic Functions, Art. 70.
The
integration can be effected in two cases

(2)
(1)
when
velocity of projection is
equal to that from infinity, and
when the
initial conditions are

(1) is
such that
A*=2/aC.
In the latter case the right-hand side of

1.
a perfect square.
leads
to
Ex.
c=ijfilh.
Prove that the integration

cjr,
when
h*=2fjLC
the
curves
tanh(^/,^2) =r/c or
which have a common asymptotic
circle
r=c where
Prove also that the velocity
V of
projection
is
given (Art. 313) by
Fs sin*)3=2F'2 {1 V(l where
sin*j8)},
is to
is
the velocity from rest at infinity, and the upper or lower sign
is
be
taken according as the path
outside or inside the asymptotic circle.
regard to the origin
the central force F=fiu^, the inverse of any path with another possible path provided the total energy of the motion exceed the potential energy at infinity by a positive constant E reckoned
Ex.
2.
Prove that,
if
is
per unit mass and also that for the two paths Eh'*=E'h\
Prove that when 7t*>4/iE>0 the path
is
of the
form r = asn (K-~jrz
p-
modulus k or the inverse form.

According to the notation of Art. 313,
[Math. Tripos, 1894.}
2E = C.
The equation
(1)
369.
Tbe
inverse Conrth power.
of Art. 360 is
(sr=i=(-f'-s)
This cubic can always be written in the form
<
(y =<"+> <'+^"+''
and the integration can be reduced to forms similar to those in
Art. 364
by writing
u+a-f.
The
integration can be effected
when
the initial conditions are such that
W=ÎJ?C.
Ex.
In this case the right-hand side has the factor (u - ^Vm)^that the integration leads to the curves
Show
m=
fj.
cosn
^r
^ 9^1
the upper
signs being taken together and the lower together. These curves have a asymptotic circle r=ulh^, one curve being within and the other outside.
common
236
360.
THE INVERSE
Otber powers.
Ex.
n}^
POWER.
F=fiv7, and the
[CHAP. VI.
initial conditions
If the force
are snch that 2h?=ZCsJn, prove that the equation (1) of Art. 360 takes the form
(S)' =
where b^=zhju,. ^
'
^^<"'-^^)^^"^-^2^^)'
.
,, X 1 Thence deduce the integrals
,,
asymptotic
circle.
t-tt^ s liaving a common cosh 2a : 2 The Lemniscate can also be described under this law of force, if
=.
tt
rs
0'*
cosh2^Tl
,.
the velocity is equal to that from infinity ; Arts. 320, 360.
367.
mately,
Nearly circular
when
orbits.
the central force
F = fiiC^
To find the motion approsciand the orbit is nearly
circular.
Beginning as in Art. 360 with the equation

dû
dS5+
we put u = c{\-\-x) where
chosen but subject to
fraction.
d-'x
F = S"^
II
,-.
(1).
some constant the condition that x is

c is
to be presently to
be a small
We thus find
^
,
(n-2)(n-3) )iiC-M-V + &c.|(2). ^+^=-H-^-jl + (ri-2); +

_.
,
..
'-^
We
see
now
tha,t
the right-hand side of the equation will be

is zero, i.e.
we choose c so that the constant term = put h^ fic^~^ The equation th^n becomes
simplified if
we
^+x = (n-2)x+Un-2)(n-S)x^+&}c.
As a
where
first
......(3).
approximation,
we assume
(4),
a; = Jlf cos (pd + a)
ilf
is
a small quantity.
Substituting and rejecting the
squares of
M we find
{1 -p'')
Mcos(p0 + a) = (n-2) M cos{p0 + a)......(5).
The difierential equation is therefore satisfied to the first order, In this case we have as the equation of the if we put p^ = S n.
path
u = c{l+Mcos(pd + a)]
(6).
If n<S, the equation (6) represents a real first approximate We notice that the solution of the differential equation (1).
particle
between the two circles u = c(l+M) and w = c (1 M). The meaning of the constant c is now apparent geometrically, 1/c is the harmonic mean of the radii of the bounding circles; dynamically, 1/c is the radius of that circle which
oscillates
ART. 369.]
NEARLY CIRCULAR
ORBITS.
force
237
with the given
would be described about the centre of

angular
momentum
h.
The
zero.
positions of the apses are found
by equating dujdd to
This gives
p6 + a vjr,
is
the angle at the centre of force

therefore
7r/p.
between two successive apses

If w
> 3,
the value of
is
imaginary, and the trigonometrical
expression takes a real exponential form, Art. 120.
The quantity
X therefore becomes large when 6 increases, and the particle, instead of remaining in the immediate neighbourhood of the
circumference of the
or the other.
circle,
deviates widely from of
it
on one side
x has been neglected the exponential form of (6) only gives the initial stage of the motion and ceases to be correct when x has become so large that its square
cannot be neglected.
particle in
It follows from this that the motion of
is
As the square
circle
about a centre of force in the centre
unstable
ifn>3.
368.
Ex.
If the
law of force
is
F=u^f{u), and the

is
orbit is nearly circular,
prove that a
first
approximation to the path
M=c{l+ifcos(^^ + a)},
Thence
radius, viz.
distance.
it c,
P^=l-^^. f(c)
is
follows that the apsidal angle
independent of the mean reciprocal
only
when F=im^,
i.e.,
when
the law of force is some
power of
the
first
second approsimation. The solution (6) is in any case only a approximation to the motion, and it may happen that, when we proceed to a second or third approximation, the value of p is altered by terms which contain
369.
have x expressed in a metrical terms whose general form is ^cos {qO-\-^), where
as a factor.
Besides this,
we
shall
series of several trigono-
N contains the square or
cube of
M as
a factor together with
some
divisor k introduced by the integration,
Arts. 139, 303.
increases
of^ by p + A, the error xa.pd-'ra, i.e. Â, by 27rA after each successive revolution of the particle round the centre of force. The expression (6) will therefore cease to be even a first approximation as soon as Â has become too large to be neglected. On the other hand the additional term to the value of u may be comparatively unimportant. The magnitude of the specimen term is never greater than N and, unless k is also
Representing the corrected .value
small,
we can
generally neglect such terms.
In proceeding to a higher approximation we should first seek for those terms in the differential equation which contain cos {pd+a.) ; these being added to the terms of the same form in equation (5) will modify the first approximate value of p.
We
should also enquire
integration a small divisor k
if any term in the differential equation acquires by and thus becomes comparatively large in the solution.
238
370.
(6)
DISTURBED ELLIPTIC MOTION.

To obtain a second approximation we
[OHAP. VI
substitute the first approximation

(3).
in the small terms of the differential equation
Writing
(3),
for brevity,
in the form
g=(n-3) {x + px^ + yx^+ ...}

where
(7),
=^ (n - 2), y=i
(n
-2){n- 4),
&c.,
we
find after rejecting the cubes of
^=(n-3){x + ii3M2(l + cos2i,tf)}

where pB has been written
(Art. 303) that the
(8),
for
pO + a
for the sake of brevity.
This equation shows
second approximate value of x has the form
x=M(iospd + M^(G-\-A(ios2pe)
where G and A p has the same value as before.
are two constants whose values
(9),
may
be found by substitution, and
To obtain a
third approximation,
we
retain the term 72^ in (7)
and assume
(10).
x=
M cospB + W^ {G + A(io%2pe) + M^BGOBZpe

A and B we
substitute in
(7),
To
find the values of p, G,
express all the powers
of the trigonometrical functions in multiple angles
order M*.
Equating the
coefficients of Qo^pB, cos 2^^,
and neglect all terms of the cos3p5 and the constants
on each
side,
we
find
- Jlfjj2= (n - 3)
+ 2ilf 3G/3 + il/3^/3 + 1 ilf 37 {MU + iilf 2/3}, - 9 Jf ys = (n - 3) {M 35 + M3JI/3 + i M37 }

{ilf
- iMY^ = (n - 3)
Q=M^G-\-\M^p.
Solving these equations, and remembering that p^ differs from 3 - n by terms
of the order
M^, we find
G=-J(n-2),
The
three
first
A=^{n-2),
B=^\{n-2)(n-^),
when
2j3=(3-n){l-^(7i-2)(n + l)Jlf2}
are correct
to
(11).
when
^ is
neglected and the last
* is
neglected.
We notice that up
small enough
very nearly by
all
and including the third order of approximation the terms

if
G, A,Bva. equation (10) do not contain any small denominators, so that

these terms
M. be
may
be neglected.
The motion
is
then represented'
u=c{l + Mcos(i?e + o)}

2,=V(3-n){l-^\(n-2)(n + l)iJf2}
and
this approximation holds until B gets so large that M'^B
(12),
(13),
cannot be neglected.
We notice also that

of force
fhe additional term in the value of p vanishes only
when
the law
is either the inverse
square or the direct distance.
Disturbed Elliptic Motion,

371.
an orbit
Impulsive disturbance. When a particle is describing about a centre of force it may happen that at some
particle
particular point of that orbit the
receives
and begins to describe another
orbit.
We
an impulse have to determine
ART. 372.]
IMPULSIVE DISTURBANCE.
orbit differs from the old, for
239
how the new
example how the
major axis has been changed in position and magnitude, and in general to express the elements of the new orbit in terms of those of the undisturbed orbit.
Let the unaccented
letters a,
e, I,
&c. represent the elements

a', e',
of the undisturbed orbit, while the accented letters
V &c.
,
represent corresponding quantities for the new.
We
first
express
the velocity v and the angle yS at the given point of the orbit in terms of the undisturbed elements. Thus v and /9 are given by
"(^-s)'
when the undisturbed
orbit
is
sm p = =
r
-^^-^
vr
(1),
an
ellipse described
about the
focus.
next consider the circumstances of the blow. Let be the mass of the particle, mB the blow. The particle, afber the impulse is concluded, is animated with the velocity B in the
given direction of the blow, together with the velocity v along the tangent to the original path. Compounding these the particle
has a resultant velocity
v'
We
and
is
moving
is
in a
known
direction.
Since the position of the radius vector
not changed by the
blow we
line.
If P,
may Q
conveniently refer the changes of motion to that are the components of along and perpendicular
to the radius vector
and
is
the angle the direction of motion
makes with the radius

'
vector,
we have
cos ^'
t>
cos ^
v',
+ P,
y8',
v'sin^-vsin^ + Q
(1),
(2).
Having now obtained
the formulas
writing accented
a'
letters for the old elements,
determine the new semi-major axis

V.
and the new semi-latus rectum
The
position in space of the
major axis follows from Art. 336.

372.
We may
of the
sometimes advantageously replace the second
of the equations (1)
by another formula.
We
notice that
mh is
is
the
moment
momentum
of the particle about the centre

?;'
offeree.
Since just after the impulse the velocity
the
resultant of v
with the
and B, the moment of moment of B. Hence

h'
v' is
equal to that of v together
= h + Bq
.-.
(3),
where q
is
the perpendicular on the line of action of the blow.
Since h' fil,
when the law
of force follows the
Newtonian
law.

240
[CHAP. VI.
this equation leads to
^V = ^l + Bq/^pL
Thus the change
in the latus
.'
(4).
rectum
is
very easily found.
As a
corollary,
we may
notice that
when
the blow acts along
the radius vector, the
angular momentum
mh and
therefore the
latus rectum of the orbit are unchanged.
We
its
also observe that if
the magnitude of the attracting force or

abruptly changed, the value of h
is
law of action were
unaltered.
force,
373. Ex. 1. Two particles, describing orbits about the same centre of impinge on each other. Prove
where
rnrji^, vi^2'i
îV>
^^2^2'
^^^ their angular
momenta
before
and
after impact.
mass is describing an ellipse about the focus S. 2. A circle is described to touch the normal to the conic at P whose radius PC represents the velocity at P in direction and magnitude. Prove that if the particle is acted on by an impulse represented in direction and magnitude by any chord MP of the circle, the length of the major axis is unaltered by the blow.
Ex.
particle
P of
unit
Since
P=2vco8
6,
the velocity in the direction of the blow

Art. 335.
is
simply reversed.
Hence v'=v and a'=a by
374.
If the direction of the

is also
plane of the new orbit

radius vector
orbit
;
changed.
blow does not lie in the plane of motion, the For the sake of the perspective, let the
let
SP be
/3,
the axis of x and

v sin
/3
the plane of xy be the plane of the old
then v cos
are the components of velocity parallel to the axes of
X and y. Let the components of the blow be mX, mY, mZ ; then just after the blow is concluded the components of velocity parallel to the axes are vcos/S+Z, vsin/S+r, and Z. The inclination i of the planes of the two orbits, is therefore
given by "
tant=
vsm/3+r
ttl
11.
The
particle begins to
/3'
move
in its
new
orbit with
velocity v' in -a direction
making an angle
(v'
with the radius vector

/S')^
/3
SP given by
v'cos/3'=t;cos/3 + X,
sin
= (v sin + 7)^ + Z^.

orbit, its
The problem
is
now reduced to
0,
the case already considered.

in the
i.
If rnh' is the angular
momentum
i,
new
h' sin
components about the
axes of X, y, z are
- mh' sin
h'
mh' cos
Hence
i=Zr^
C06i=h+YT,
where r=SP.
Ex. 1. A particle is describing a given ellipse about a and when at the farther apse A', its velocity is suddenly increased in the ratio 1 n. Find the changes in the elements.
375.
Sxamples.
centre of force in the focus,

:
The
direction of motion is unaltered
right angles to the radius vector
by the blow and since this direction is at from the centre of force, the point A' is one of the
orbits.
apses of the
;
new
orbit.
Let a, e a', e' be the semi-major axes and eccentricities of the since SA' is unaltered in length r=a'(l + e') = a{l + e)
Then
(1).
ART. 375.]
EXAMPLES.
241
We have here chosen as the standard figure for the new orbit an ellipse having A' for the further apse. A negative value of the eccentricity e' therefore means that
A'
is
the nearer apse.
Also since v'=nv, we have
"(^-i^-K?-^)
where
<^).
must be regarded as negative From these equations we find

a'
if
the
new
orbit is a hyperbola, Art. 333.
2-rv'{l-e)
'
The point A'

is
is
therefore the farther or nearer apse according as n^ (1
- e)
<
or
>1
2.
if
equal to unity the
new
orbit is a circle, if equal to
1,
a parabola.
The new
Ex.
orbit is
an
ellipse or
hyperbola according as n^ (1 - e)< or
> 2.
an ellipse under a force tending to a focus. On arriving at the extremity of the minor axis, the force has its law changed, so that it varies as the distance, the magnitude at that point remaining the same. Prove that the periodic time is unaltered and that the sum of the new axes is to their
describes
difference as the
A particle
sum
of the old axes to the distance between the
foci.
centre.
new orbit is an ellipse having the centre of force S in the Let the new law of force be ix,'r. Then when r=a, the forces are equal, hence
Art. 325 the
fifa^fija?
(1).
By
Measure a length SD parallel to the direction of motion at B, such that the Then SD is velocity v at 5 is ^/ SD.
.
the semi-conjugate of
SB
in the
new
orbit.
Equating the
velocities at
new
orbits,
we have
B in when r=a
the old and
^(?-i)='.5Z.=,
SD=a
(2).
therefore the internal
The conjugates SB, SD are equal diameters, the major and minor axes are and external bisectors of the angle BSD. Representing the semi-axes by a', b', we have
a'2-t-6'2=SJ52-fSD2=2a2,
a'b'
= SB SD sin BSD = ab
.
(3).
The
internal bisector of the angle
BSD
is clearly
the major axis.
change in the velocity had been made at any point of the ellipse, we By drawing SD parallel to the direction of motion we arrive at the known problem in conies, given two conjugate diameters in position and magnitude, construct the ellipse.
If the
proceed in the same way.
The periodic times in the two orbits are respectively 2irlsjfjf and îrâ^jii. The equality of these follows from the equation (1). The rest of the question
follows from
(3).
Ex.
3.
A particle
is at
is
describing an ellipse under a force
iifr^
to a focus
when
the particle
of force is
the extremity of the latus rectum through the focus this centre
is
removed and
if
replaced by a force /uV at the centre of the ellipse.
Prove that
the particle continue to describe the same ellipse fi'b*=fjM.

[Coll.
Exam.
1895,]
242
Ex.
4.
[CHAP. VI.
its
planet moviog round the sun in an ellipse receives at a point of the
orbit a sudden velocity in. the direction of the
normal outwards which transforms

is
the orbit into a parabola, prove that this added velocity

of the orbit,
same
for all points
and
if it
be added at the end of the minor axis, the axis of the

the major axis of the ellipse
parabola will
make with
an angle whose
[Coll.
sine is equal
to the eccentricity.
Exam.
1892.]
Ex.
5.
particle describes a given ellipse about a centre of force of given
intensity in the focus S.
Supposing the particle to start from the further extremity
of the major axis, find the time
of arriving at the extremity of the minor axis.
At the end of this time the centre of force is transferred without altering its intensity from S to the other focus H, and the particle moves for a second interval T equal to the former under the influence of the central force in H. Find the position of the particle, and show that, if the centre of force were then transferred back to its original position, the particle would begin to describe an ellipse whose [Math. Tripos, 1893.] eccentricity is (3e - e^)l(l + e).
Ex.
6.
body
is
describing
an
ellipse
round a force in
its
focus S, and
HZ is
Ex,]
the perpendicular on the tangent to the path from the other focus H. When the body is at its mean distance the intensity of the force is doubled, show that SZ is
the
new
Ex.
line of apses.
7.
[Coll.
a centre of force situated on the circumference. When P is at the distance of a quadrant from at a point 0, the force without altering its instantaneous magnitude begins to vary as the
inverse square.
particle describes a circle of radius c about
Prove that the semi-axes of the new orbit are ^Cy/2 and ic^3.
inelastic particles of
Ex.
Oj,
Zj;
8.
Two
masses
Tn^, tBj,
describing ellipses in the

force.
same plane impinge on each other

a^fli',
at a distance r
from the centre of
If
are the semi-major axes
and semi-latera recta
before impact, prove
that in the ellipse described after impact
(mi+TO2)(^2r-Z--j =wii(^2r-Z,--J
+m^\^r-\--^
directions of
Ex. 9. A planet, mass M, revolving in a circular by a comet, mass m, approaching its perihelion the comet and planet being inchned at an angle of 60.
; .
.
orbit of radius a, is struck
The
bodies coalesce
..
motion of the and
proceed to describe an ellipse whose semi-major axis

that the original orbit of the comet was
small,
a-
is
..._
if
{M+m)â
r.
Prove
to
ilf
parabola; and
orbit is (7^
the ratio of
is
show that the
eccentricity of the
new
- 4;^2)* (m/M).
[Coll.
Ex. 1895.]
376.
irt.
Continuous forces.
We may
apply the method of
371 to find the effects of continuous forces on the particle. Let/, g be the tangential and normal accelerating components of
any disturbing
force,
the
first
being taken positively when in-
creasing the velocity and the second
when acting
inwards.
We divide
the time into intervals each equal to Bt and consider
ART. 378.]
VARIATION OF THE ELEMENTS.
243
the effect of the forces on the elements of the ellipse at the end
of each interval.
We
treat the forces, in
Newton's manner, as
is
small impulses generating velocities /Si and gSt along the tangent
and normal
respectively.
The
effect of
the tangential force
any point P from v to v + 8v, where Bv =fBt, the direction of motion not being altered. To find the effect of the normal force we observe that after the interval St
to increase the velocity at
the particle has a velocity gBt along the normal, while the velocity
V along the tangent is not alteted.
The
direction of motion has
therefore been turned round through an angle S/3
= gBt/v.
If the disturbing force were now to cease to act, the particle would move in a conic whose elements could be deduced from these two facts, (1) the velocity at P is changed to -y + Bv, (2) the
angle of projection
describe if at
is
is ;8+ B^. The conic which the particle would any instant the disturbing forces were to cease to act
called the instantaneous conic at that instant.
377.
To find
the effect
on the major
axis,
we
use the formula
""=''('-5)
Since v
is
differentiation
increased to v
+ Bv, we
see
by simple
2vBv
= f^^Ba,
.-.
Ba = ^"''~fBt
(2).
In differentiating the formula for v^ we are not to suppose that 5v represents the whole change of the velocity in the time 5^ The particle moves along the ellipse and experiences a change of velocity dv in the time dt given by
vdv= -^^dr
(3).
Taking dt=5t, the change of velocity in the time dt is dv + dv, the part dv being due to the disturbing forces and the part dv to the action of the central force.
378.
To find
the changes in the eccentricity
and
line
of apses.
We may
effect this
by
differentiating the formulas

h^
l=a(l-e%
Since
= fil,
-=l + ecos^
(4).
mh
is
the angular
mBh,
is
equal to the
momentum, the increase of mh, moment of the disturbing forces about
viz.
the
origin (Art. 372).
Let
^
Bl
be the angle the direction of motion at
P makes with the radius vector,

.'.
^\/fi-Tj=Bh=fr sin ^ + gr
cos ^.
244
[CHAP. VI.
We deduce from equations (4) U = {l e^)Ba 2aeBe, = cos 6Be e sin 6 B6,
and the values of
379.
Be
and B6 follow at once.
Herschel has suggested a geometrical method of finding the changes of
the eccentricity and the line of apses in his Outlines of Astronomy *. He considers the effect of the disturbing forces/, g on the position of the empty focus.
The
alter a.
St,
effect of
the tangential force

the
is to alter
the velocity v and therefore to

is
Since
SP + PH=2a,
empty focus
along the straight line
PH a distance HH'=2da,
moved, during each interval where 5a is given by (2).
The effect of the normal force g is to turn the tangent at P through an angle make equal angles with the tangent, the empty focus Sp=gdtlv. Since SP, .S^. is moved perpendicularly to PH, a distance
HP
HH"=2PH
_x
Consider
projecting
first
the tangential force/,
we have
SH= 2ae,
x + ae
SH' = 2 (ae + dae). Hence
on the major axis

25
(ae)
= HH'
is
cos
PHS = 25a
where r'=:HP=a+ex, and x

.-.
measured from the centre

-e^x Sa
5e
2a{l-e'^) xv
z=
fi
...
i-tot.
Let be the longitude of the apse line through S,

.:
HS
measured from some
fixed line
2aed'nT=HH' Bin PHS = 2Sa^,,

r
y Sa r a Consider secondly the normal force

g.
2a yv
fi
..^
We have
SH=2ae,
.:
SH" = 2(ae + dae), 5a-0;

r
25 (ae) =
- HH" sin PHS = - 2r'<
2ac5Br=
.:
HH" COB PHS =

-,
x + ae
2r'5|3
r 1 V de= -- -gdt,
a V
c5cr=
x + ae
V
gSt.
* See also some remarks by the author in the Quarterly Journal, 1861, vol. iv. should be noticed that Herschel measures the eccentricity by half the distance between the foci, a change from the ordinary definition which has not been followed
It
ART. 382.] 380.

to the use
VARIATION OF THE ELEMENTS.
245
The expressions for Se, 5nr should be put into different forms according we intend to make of them. Let ^ be the angle the tangent at P makes
.
with the major axis, then tan ^=-2-
We easily find by elementary conies

cos\p=--jf^
b X smil'=- ,,7,, ^ a J{rr')
.ay
b ^{rr')
Also
\ v^=ul - - ] =
1
/2
\r
aJ
2&
ar
ur'
.
It

26
TtV
8e=
J-,
-ocosvt'St,
eS-s:=-
0/7* 7-
CC \- Ci&
gsm^pdt.
These formulae give the changes of

force.
and
produced by any tangential or normal
381.
Draw two
shown
straight lines
OX,
OY
parallel to the principal diameters

xf/,
situated as
in the figure.
Since /cos
/sin
\f/
are the
components of the
see that lohen the
tangential disturbing force parallel to the principal diameters,
we
force acts towards

line is
lines.
OX
the eccentricity is increased,
and when towards
OY
the apse
advanced
the contrary effects taking place
when the
force tends
from these
The same
is
concerned.
lies
normal disturbing force so far as the eccentricity motion of the apse except when the particle between the minor axis and the latus rectum through the empty focus, and the
rule applies to the
It applies also to the
is
rule
then reversed.
When
the eccentricity
is
smaU,
= -^
very nearly
when the
particle is near the
force in this part of the orbit
may
1.
minor axis; so that the effects of the tangential be neglected and the rule applied generally.
382.
Examples.
it
Ex.
is
The path of a comet
is
within the orbit of
Jupiter, approaching
at the aphelion.
Show
that each time the comet comes

is
near Jupiter the apse line
advanced.
This theorem
due to Callandreau, 1892.
The comet being near the aphelion and Jupiter just beyond, both the normal and tangential disturbing forces act towards OY; the apse therefore advances.
Ex.
2.
particle is describing
is
an
elliptic
certain point the velocity
increased by 1/nth,
direction of the major axis be unaltered, change in the eccentricity is 2 (le)/?i.
orbit about the focus and at a n being large. Prove that, if the the point must be at an apse, and the
[Coll.
Ex. 1897.]
Ex.
3.
An
ellipse
of eccentricity e
and latus rectum
is
described freely
about the focus by a particle of mass m, the angular momentum being nih. A small impulse mu is given to the particle, when at P, in the direction of its motion; prove that the apsidal Jine is turned through an angle which is proportional to the intercept made by the auxiliary circle of the ellipse on the tangent at P, and which
cannot exceed
Zw/e/i.

ellipse
Ex.
4.
body describes an
about a centre of force
in the focus.
If
A be the nearer apse, P the body, and a small impulse T act on the body at right angles to SP, prove that the
which generates a velocity change of direction of the
246
apse line
is

given approximately by -r
[CHAP. VI.
where
the
/2
(
- + cos
4SP) iSPsin^SP,
e is
eccentricity of the orbit
and h twice the
rate of description of area about S.
[Math. Tripos.]
Ex.
5.
particle describes
an
ellipse
about a centre of force in the focus S.

centre of force is suddenly
When the particle has reached any position P the

parallel to the tangent at
moved
P through
a short distance x, prove that the major axis

--=,
of the orbit is turned through the angle
sin
sin (^
^)
where
is
the point at
which the normal
at
P meets
the original major axis, 6 the angle
SGP
and
4>
the
angle the tangent makes with SP.
[Coll.
Ex. 1895.]
Ex.
6.
particle describes
an
ellipse
/cr"

r,
jn/r^
besides acted on by a disturbing force
tending to the same point.

the major axis
and is Prove that
as the particle moves from a distance r^ to
and
eccentricity
change according to the law
Thence deduce the changes in a and
when
k is very small.
383.
resisting
medium.
We may also
use the formulae
of Art. 380 to find the quantitative effect of a resisting
medium
on the motion of a particle describing an

of force in the focus.
ellipse
about a centre
The velocity of the particle being v, let the resistance be kv. Then g = and/= Kcls/dt, and the equations of motion become
de
dt
2bK
dy
'
dnr
dt
26/c
^/i/J-a)
dx
'
VCf-^) dt
dt
Now
and
Usually /and g are so small that their squares can be neglected. the changes of the elements a, e, &c. are of the order of /
g,
being produced by these
forces.
Hence
ellipse,
in using
these
equations we
may regard the elements of the
when multiplied
by the
coefficient
k of resistance, as constants.
reject the squares of k,
Supposing then that we an easy integration

2bK
,
we have by
2bK
J.
where A,
B are
two undetermined constants.
Since after a com-
plete revolution, the coordinates x,
return to their original values,
both the eccentricity and the position of the line of, apses must There can therefore be no permanent also be the same as before. change in either. The greatest change of the eccentricity from
ART. 385.]
its
encke's comet.
247
mean value is 2K/na^, while the apse oscillates about its mean position through an angle 2Kb/nea, where /m = 7^â^ Art. 341.
384.
Ex.
(
comet
moves in a
resisting
medium whose
resistance
is
/=
kVp
where
is
the velocity, r the distance from the sun and p, q are
positive quantities.
When
t
the true anomaly $
is
taken as
the
independent
variable (instead of
as in Art. 380), prove that

e2) 2
-^ = ^r^,(l + 2ecos +
de
(l
+ eco8e)5-2,
S=l
-^
^=-2A{cose + e){l + 2eooBe + e^)

dd
dizr
(1
+ e cos
61)9-2,
where
A = kuP-^ a^-i
(1
e2)
"
and
/*
nâ?.
When
it is
the right-hand sides of these equations are expanded in series of the form
^ + cos^ + Ccos2^+...
obvious that the only permanent changes are derived from the non-periodical
terms.
(2)
is
Prove
(1)
that the longitude of the apse has

t
no permanent changes,
that the eccentricity at the time
a - 2Aant.
the semi-major axis These results are given by Tisserand, Mec. Celeste, 1896.
is 1), (3)
e- Aent (p-\-q-
When
p and
the law of resistance
is
such that
p + q = l,
it
follows that neither the
eccentricity nor the line of apses have
any permanent change.
For any values of
q not satisfying this relation the eccentricity will gradually change and continue to change in the same direction. When the changes of any of the
elements have become so great that their products by the coefficient k of resistance
can no longer be neglected, the equations given above must be integrated in a different way.
of a resisting medium on the and therefore also the major axis of its orbit, Art. 377. The ellipse which the comet describes is therefore continually growing smaller and the periodic time, which varies as a"2, continually decreases.
386.
Encke's Comet.
is
The general
effect
motion of a comet
to diminish its velocity
investigated the effect of a resisting This comet has since then been called after his name. After making allowance for the disturbance due to the attraction of the sun and the planets, he found by observation that its period, viz. 1200 days, was diminished by about two hours and a half in each revolution. This he ascribed to the presence of a medium whose resistance varied as (vjr)^ where v is the velocity
first
Encke was the
who thoroughly
medium on
the motion of a comet.
of the
comet and r
its
distance from the sun.
The importance and interest of Encke's result caused much attention to be given to this comet. The astronomers Yon Asten of Pulkowa and afterwards Backlund* studied its motions at each successive appearance with the greatest
* In the Bulletin Astronomique, 1894, page 473, there is a short account of the
work
of
tion, the
Backlund by himself. He speaks of the continued decrease of the acceleralaw of resistance, and gives references to his memoirs and particularly to
248
attention.
DISTUEBED ELLIPTIC MOTION.

The
acceleration of the comet's
first
[CHAP, VI.
appears to have been
mean motion
took up the subject, to 1858. It then began 1871 when its to decrease and continufed to decrease until the revolution of 1868 magnitude was about half its former value. From 1871 to 1891 the acceleration
uniform from 1819, when Encke
was again nearly constant.
Assuming the law

that n
is
of resistance to, be represented by KV^/r",
Backlund found
This would make the density of the resisting medium increase according to a positive power of the distance from the sun; a result which he considered very improbable. He afterwards arrived at the conclusion that we must replace 1/r" by some function / () having maxima and
essentially negative.
minima
at
definite distances
from the sun.
planets are formed by condensations from rings of the solar nebula.
In Laplace's nebular theory the In this

it
formation
all
the substance of each ring would not be used up and some of
might
they
travel along the orbit as a cloud of light material.
It is suggested that
iBncke's comet passes through nebulous clouds of this kind

offer causes the
and that the
resistance
observed acceleration.
that comets contract on approaching the sun, sometimes to a very Tisserand remarks that when the size of the comet decreases the resistance should also decrease, and that this may help us to understand how the resistance to any comet might vary as a positive power of the distance from the
It is
known
great extent.
sun.
The
size of Encke's
effect
again
may have an
comet also is not the same at every appearance and on the law of resistance.
this
It is clear that if
Encke's comet does meet with a resistance, every comet of
short period which approaches closely to the sun must show the effect of the same In 1880 Oppolzer thought he had discovered an acceleration in the influence.
motion of another comet. This was the comet Winnecke having a period of 2052 days. Further investigation showed that this was illusory, so that at present the evidence for the existence of a resisting medium rests on Encke's comet alone.
Does the evidence afforded by Encke's comet prove a resisting medium? on the luminiferous medium says he asked the highest
Prof.
386.
Sir G. Stokes in a lecture *
astronomical authority in the country this question.
Adams
replied that
there might be attracting matter within the orbit of Mercury which would account Sir G. Stokes then goes on to say that the comet throws for it in a different way.
out a
tail
near the sun and that this
is
equivalent to a reaction on the head towards
the eighth volume of his Calculs et Becherches sur la comete d'Encke. In the Comptes Eendus, 1894, page 545, Callandreau gives a summary of the resultsôf
Backlund. In the Trait4 de Mecanique Celeste, vol. iv. 1896, Tisserand discusses the influence of a resisting medium. In the History of Astronomy by A. M. Gierke, M. Valz in 1885, examples of the contraction of comets near the sun are given. a letter to M. Arago quoted in the Comptes Rendus, vol. viii. 1838, speaks of the
He remarks that as it was it approached the sun. approaching the earth at that time, it should have appeared larger. See also Newcombe's Popular Astronomy, 1883. * Presidential address at the anniversary meeting of the Victoria Institute,
great contraction of a comet as
June
29, 1893
reported in Nature, JiSly 27, page 307.
ART. 388.]
the sun.
this
Kepler's laws.
249
There is therefore an additional force towards the sun. The effect of would be to shorten the period even if there were no resisting medium. In the course of his lecture he discusses the question, " mttst the ether retard a cornet," and decides that we cannot with safety infer that the motion of a solid through it
necessarily implies resistance.
,
Kepler's
387.
Laws and
the
law of gravitation.
following
Kepler's laws.
The
theorems were dis-
covered by the astronomer Kepler after thirty years of study.

(1)
The
orbits of the planets are ellipses, the sun being in
one
focus.
(2)
As a
planet moves in
its orbit,
the radius vector from
the sun describes equal areas in equal times.

(3)
The squares
of the periodic times of the several planets
are proportional to the cubes of their major axes.
The last of these laws was published in 1619 in his Harmonice Mundi and the first two in 1609 in his work on the motions of
Mars.
388.
From
the
the second of these laws,
it
follows
that the
resultant force on each planet tends towards the sun; Aii. 307.
From
first
we deduce
/Jb/r^,
that the accelerating force on each
planet is equal to
where r is the instantaneous distance of that planet from the sun, and fi is a, constant Art. 332.
;
It is
proved in Art. 341 that when the central force

is
is /mu^, is
the periodic time in an ellipse
T= 27ra^l^fjL,
follows that
where a
is
the the
semi-major axis.
planets T^
is
Now
Kepler's third law asserts that for

it
fj,
all
proportional to a^;
the
same for
all the planets.
Laws corresponding to those

for
of Kepler have
satellites.
been found to hold
the systems of planets and their
Each
satellite is
therefore acted on
force follows the
It has
by a
force tending to the
primary and that
law of the inverse square.
comets and
been possible to trace out the paths of some of the all these have been found to be conies having the sun in one focus. These bodies therefore move under the same
law of force as the planets.
250
389.
LAW OF GRAVITATION.
[CHAP. VI.
not to be regarded as strictly true.
The laws of Kepler, being founded on observations, are They are approximations,
though small, are still perceptible. We learn from sun, planets and satellites are so constituted that the sun may be regarded as attracting the planets, and the planets the satellites, according to the law of the inverse square. We now extend this law and make the hypothesis that the planets and satellites also attract the sun and attract each other according to the same law. Let us consider how this hypothesis
whose
errors,
them that the
may be
Let
tested.
w-i,
ma, &c. be certain constants, called the masses of the
bodies, such that the accelerating attraction of the first
on any
is
other body distant

m^jr^,
sun.
r^
is mijrj^,
fi
the attraction of the second
and
so on.
Let
be the corresponding constant for the
Assuming these
tial
accelerations,
we can
write
down the
differen-
equations of motion of the several bodies, regarded as particles.
For example, the equations of motion of the particle mi may be obtained by equating dôc/dt^, &c., to the resolved accelerating attractions of the other bodies. The equations thus formed can only be solved by the method of continued approximation. Kepler's
laws give us the
first
approximation
as a second approximation
we
take account of the attractions of the planets, but suppose

/j.
that mi, mg, &c. are so small that the squares of their ratio to
may be
neglected.
This problem
is
usually discussed in treatises
on the Planetary theory.

given time and the results
positions at that time.
The
solution of the problem enables
us to calculate the positions of the planets and satellites at any
may be compared
with their actual

its
in so
The comparison extraordinary a way that we may

is
confirms the hypothesis

consider
truth to be
established as far as the solar system

390.
concerned.
Extension to other systems.
The law
its
of gravitation
being established for the solar system,
extension to other
systems of stars
may be
only a fair inference.

is
But we should
notice that this extension
not founded on observation in the
same sense that the truth of the law for the solar system is The constituents of some double stars move round established*.
* Villarceau, Connaissance des temps for the year 1852 published in 1849: A.
Hall, Gould's Astronomical Journal, Boston, 1888.
ART. 393.]
EXTENSION TO OTHER SYSTEMS.
251
each other in a periodic time sufficiently short to enable us to

trace the changes in their distance
and angular
position.
We
may thus, partially at least, hope What we see, however, is not the
but
its
to verify the real
law of gravitation.
path of either constituent,
projection on the sphere of the heavens.
We
can deter-
mine
if the relative path is a conic

;
and can
verify approximately
the equable description of areas but since the focus of the true path does not in general project into the focus of the visible
path, an element of uncertainty as to the actual position of the
centre of force
is
introduced.
first
We
square.
cannot therefore use Kepler's
these observations alone that the law of force

^
law to deduce from is the inverse
391.
Besides this, there are two practical
difficulties.
First, there
is
the
delicacy of the observations, because the errors of observations bear a larger ratio
Secondly, a considerable than in the solar system. on each double star is necessary. Five conditions are required to fix the position of a conic, and the mean motion and epoch of the particle are also unknown. Unless therefore more than seven distinct observations have been made, we cannot verify that the path is a conic. These difficulties are gradually disappearing as observations accumulate and instruments are improved.
to the quantities observed
number
of observations
392.
Besides the motions of the double stars we can only look to the proper
motions of the stars in space for information on the law of gravitation. Some of these velocities are comparable to that of a comet in close proximity to the sun
and
wait
yet there is
no
visible object in their
the necessary attracting forces.

till
neighbourhood to which we could ascribe At present no deductions can be made, we mnst
future observations have
made
clear the causes of the moiions.
gravitation is generally deduced from and partly because the proof is at once simple and complete. It is however useful and interesting to enquire what we may learn about the law of gravitation by considering other observed facts.
Kepler's lawe, partly for historical reasons
393.
Otber reasons.
The law of
Ex.
1.
It is given that for all initial conditions the

:
path of a particle
is
plane curve
deduce that the force
is central.
Consider an orbit in a plane P, then at every point of that orbit the resultant
force
must
lie
in the plane.
Taking any point

tangent at
A on
the orbit project particles in
all directions in
that plane with arbitrary velocities, then since the plane of motion
initial
of each
must contain the
A and
the direction of the force at A,
each particle moves in the plane P. It follows that at every point of the plane P traversed by these orbits the resultant force lies in the plane. If these orbits do
not cover the whole plane we take a new point
covered,
on the boundary
of the area
and again project
particles in all directions in that plane with arbitrary
velocities.
By
continually repeating this process
we can
traverse every point of
the plane, provided no points are separated from
^ by
a line along which the
252
force is infinite.
THE HODOGRAPH.
It follows that at every point of the
[CHAP. VI.
plane
the force
lies in
that plane.
Next
direction
let ITS
pass planes through any point

force at A.
of one of these orbits
and the
^C
of the
direction of the force at points in

therefore intersect
Then by the same reasoning as before the each plane must lie in that plane and must
force
AC.
Thus the
at every point intersects the force at

is
every other point.
It follovrs
that the force
central.
all
An
observer placed at the sun,
circles in the heavens,
who noticed that would know from that one
the planets described great
fact that the force acting

vol. 84,
on
each was directed to the sun. to Despeyrous' Mecanique.
Halphen, Comptes Rendus,
Darboux's Notes
Ex.
central.
2.
If all the orbits in a given plane are conies, prove that the force is
If a particle
be projected from any point

is infinite
in the direction of the force at A,
the radius of curvature of the path

the radius of curvature
straight line
at A.
Since the only conic in which
is infinite is
a straight line, the path of the particle
P is
the straight
and therefore the force at every point of this line. The lines of force are therefore straight
straight line acts along

lines.
These straight lines could not have an

point of that curve
is infinite)
envelope, for (unless the force at every
we could
project the particles along the tangents to
the envelope past the point of contact so as to intersect other lines of force.
directions of the force
The
would not then be the same at the same point
for all paths.
Bertrand, Comptes Eendus, vol. 84.
Ex. 3. If the orbits of all the double stars which have been observed are found to be closed curves, show that the Newtonian law of attraction may be extended to such bodies.
Bertrand has proved that
all initial
is
all
the orbits described about a centre of force (for
conditions within certain limits) cannot be closed unless the law of force
either the inverse square or the direct distance.
By examining many
and
if
cases of
double stars
we may
include
all varieties of
initial conditions,
all
these
orbits are closed the

Arts. 370, 426.
law of the inverse square
may
be rendered very probable.
See
Bertrand when giving this theorem in Comptes Rendus,
vol. 77,
1873, quotes Tchebychef.
The Hodograph.
parallel drawn from the origin motion and its length is proporThe locus of tional to the velocity of a particle P, say OQ = kv. of the hodograph the Hamilton called Sir by W. R. been has Q
394.
straight line
OQ
is
to the instantaneous direction of
path of P.
Its use is to exhibit to the eye the varying velocity

particle.
and direction of motion of the
See Art. 29.
By
giving k different values
similar curves,
we have an infinite number of any one of which may be used as a hodograph.
ART. 396.]
It follows
EXAMPLES.
from Art. 29 that, if
s'
253
of the hodograph,
he the arc
ds'/dt represents in direction
and ma^gnitude
the acceleration of P.
395.
If the force on the particle

is
the origin 0, it
and tends to sometimes more convenient to draw OQ per-N

is
central
pendicularly instead of parallel to the tangent.
If
is
OF
be a
perpendicular to the tangent, the velocity v of

if
h/OY; hence
OQ = kv, we see that the hodograph is then the polar reciprocal of the path with regard to the centre offorce, the radius of the auxiliary circle being \/{hk). If F be the central force at P, the
point
travels along the
hodograph with a
velocity kF.
306.
Examples.
centre C, and
OQ
Ex. 1. The path being an ellipse described about the being drawn parallel to the tangent, prove that the hodographs
are similar ellipses.
Let
velocity
CQ
.Jfi
k = ljijfi, the hodograph

.
be the semi-conjugate of CP, then v=îi CQ, Art. 326. Hence if is the ellipse itself. The point Q then travels with a
CP.
Ex. 2. The path being an ellipse described about the focus S, prove that a hodograph is the auxiliary circle, the other focus being the origin and HQ drawn perpendicularly to the tangent at P.
Let SY,
also
HZ
be the two perpendiculars on the tangent, then v = hlSY=HQIk,

:.
SY.HZ=zh\
3.
HQ=HZ
if
k=b^lh.
Since the locus of
is
the auxiliary
circle the result follows at once.
Ex.
that a hodograph
and SQ
Ex.
is
The path being a parabola described about the near focus S, prove is the circle described on AS as diameter, where A is the vertex drawn perpendicularly to the tangent.
4.
The hodograph
of the path of a projectile
is
a vertical straight
line,
the radius vector
OQ
being di'awn parallel to the tangent.
If the tangent at
make an angle
xp
with the horizon, the abscissa of
is
kv cos ^. This is constant because the horizontal velocity of P is constant. point Q travels along this straight line with a uniform velocity kg.
The
Ex.
graph
5.
is
An equiangular spiral is described about the pole, show that a hodoan equiangular spiral having the same pole and a supplementary angle.
See Art. 30.
Ex.
6.
circle starting
equation of
bead moves under the action of gravity along a smooth vertical from rest indefinitely near to the highest point. Show that a polar a hodograph is r' = b sin^d', the origin being at the centre.
Ex. 7. The hodograph of the path of a particle P is given, show that if the path of P is a central orbit, the auxiliary point Q must travel along the hodograph with a velocity v' = \p'^p', where p' is the perpendicular from the centre of force on
the tangent to the hodograph and
p' is
the radius of curvature.
Show
also that
the central force F=v'lk and the angular
momentum
h^ljXk^.
The condition that the path is a central and r=c^lp', we find F and thence v'.
orbit is v^lp
= Fplr.
Writing 27=0^//
254
Ex.
8.
THE HODOGRAPH.
The hodograph
of the path of
rotates with
is
[CHAP. VI.
the radius vector
OQ = r'
Prove that the path of

of force situated at 0.
a circle
P is a parabola with its focus at 0, and an angular velocity proportional to r'. passing, through 0, described about a centre
OQ is nr', we find by resolving v' perpendicularly = nr'^lp'. In a parabola lr'=2p'\ and since p'=r'dr'ldp' we see that The path is therefore a central orbit. But the polar v' \p'^p' where \ = n/J. reciprocal of lr' 2p'^ (obtained by vfiiting p' = c^lr, and r'=c^lp) is r^=p (2c^ll),
Since the angular velocity of
v'
to 0<3 that
and
this is a circle passing through 0.

9.
Ex.
particle describes a curve
under a constant acceleration which makes

;
a constant angle with the tangent to the path the motion takes place in a medium Show that the hodograph of the curve resisting as the nth power of the velocity. ""* ^* "^ = r"" - a-\ [Coll. Ex. is of the form 6-"e
described
Ex. 10. A particle, moving freely under the action of a force whose direction always parallel to a fixed plane, describes a curve which lies on a right circular cone and crosses the generating lines at a constant angle. Prove that the hodois
graph
is
a conic section.
[Coll.
Ex.]
397,
Elliptic velocity.
Since the velocity
is
represented
in direction
and magnitude by the radius vector of the hodograph

triangle of velocities to resolve the velocity into
we may use the
convenient directions.
Thus when the path

S, the
is
an
ellipse described
about the focus
velocity is represented perpendicularly
by HZjk, where
be the centre this may be resolved into the constant lengths HC, GZ, the former being a part of the major axis and the latter being parallel to the radius
h^fh
k=
and
is
the other focus.
If
vector SP.
Hence
the velocity in
an
ellipse described about the
focus
can be resolved into two constant velocities one equal to ae/k in a fixed direction, viz. perpendicular to the major axis, and the other equal to a/k in a direction perpendicidar to the radius vector
SP
of the particle, where k
= /h.
We have
[Frost's
seen that
Newton, 1854.]
the force
is
398.
The hodograpb an
orbit.
when
central
a hodograph of the path of P is a polar reciprocal. It follows that if the hodograph is the path of a second particle P', each curve is one hodograph of the other.
Ex.
1.
Let
its
r, r'
be the radii veetores of any two corresponding points P,

c.
of
a curve and
polar reciprocal, the radius of the auxiliary circle being
If these
curves be described by two particles P, P' with angular

the central forces at the two points P,
momenta
h, h',
prove that
are connected by
FF'= r/.
Ex. 2. Prove that the two particles will not continue to be at points which correspond geometrically in taking the polar reciprocal, unless the orbit of each is an ellipse described about the centre. [The necessary condition is that the velocity
v'
= kF
in the hodograph should be equal to the velocity v'^h'lp' in the orbit.
Since p'=c^lr, this proves that
varies as r.]
ART. 401.]
TWO ATTRACTING
PARTICLES.
255
Motion of two or more attracting

399.
Particles.
Motion of two attracting
particles.
This
is
the
problem of finding the motion of the sun and a single planet which mutually attract each other. To include the case of two
suns revolving round each other, as some double stars are seen to
do,
we
shall
two
particles.
cording as
make no restriction as to the relative masses of the The problem can be discussed in two ways acwe require the relative motion of the two particles or
the motion of each in space.
Let M,
instantaneous distance.
be the masses of the sun and the planet, r their The accelerating attraction of the sun
Mjr^, that of the planet
on the planet
is
on the sun
mfr^.
sun and the planet have definite velocities. Let us apply to each an initial velocity (in addition to its own) equal and opposite to that of the sun let us also continually apply to each an acceleration equal and opposite to that produced in the The sun will then be placed sun by the planet's attraction. initially at rest, and will remain at rest, while the relative motion
Initially the
;
of the planet will he unaltered.
See Art. 39.

forces
is
The planet being now acted on by the two

mjr^, both tending towards the sun, the
Mjr^ and
ellipse
whole force
is
(M + m)/r^.
The planet
therefore, as seen
from the sun, moves in an
having the sun in one focus.
The period
27r
^/{M
4-
m\
4 a'.
where a
is
the semi-major axis of the relative orbit.

planet, appears
way the
ellipse of
sun, as seen from the
to
In the same describe an
the same size in the same time.
400.
We
notice that the periodic time of a double star does
not depend on the
masses.
total
mass of either constituent, but on the sum. of the The time in the same orbit is the same for the same
is
mass however that mass
distributed over the two bodies.
401.
particles.
Consider next the actual motion in space of the two We know by Art. 92 that the centre of gravity of the
is
two bodies
either
at
rest or
moves in a straight
line with
256
TWO OR MORE ATTRACTING PARTICLES.

It
is
[CHAP. VI.
uniform velocity.
actual motion
sufficient
to
investigate
the
relatively to the centre of gravity, for,
when
and
this is
motion known, the
may be
constructed by imposing on each
member
of the system an additional velocity equal
parallel to that of
the centre of gravity.
Let
then
planet
S and P be the sun M.SP = {M + m)GP.

is
and planet,
the centre of gravity,
The
attraction of the sun
on the
M ^ M^ 1 _ M' SP^'iM+myGP^'GI^'
and follows the law of the inverse square.
therefore describes an ellipse in space with the centre
is
The
point
attraction of the sun on the planet therefore tends- to a

fixed in space
The planet
of gravity in one focus, and the period
nrT?
where a
is
the
semi-major axis of
its
actual orbit in space.
The
actual orbits described
by the sun and planet in space

be the semi-major axes of the
are obviously similar to each other and to the relative orbit of
each about the other.
If
a,
a'
actual orbits of the planet and sun, a that of the relative orbit,
we have by
obvious properties of the centre of gravity,
a/M =
402.
the
a'/m
= a/{M +m).
satellite.
To find
the
mass of a planet which has a

is
Since
mean
accelerating attractions of the sun on the two bodies

also nearly the
are nearly equal, their relative motion

if
same as
ellipse,
the sun were away.
Taking the
axis.
relative orbit to
be an
let a'
be
its
semi-major
If
m, m' are the masses of the

T'^
and satellite, T' the period, planet r ^

T' and
a'
we have
4.JJ-2
'
m+m
>
a'^
When
sum
of the masses.
have been found by observation, this formula gives the The masses in this equation are measured
i.e.
in astronomical units,
they are measured by the attractions of
the bodies on a given supposititious particle placed at a given It is therefore necessary to discover this unit by finding distance. the attraction of some
known
body.
Consider the orbit described by the planet round the sun. Since we can neglect the disturbing attraction of the satellite.
ART. 404.]
MASS OF A PLANET.
if
257
we
have,
is
the semi-major axis of the relative orbit and
the period, r=-^^:-^ a".
Dividing one of these equations by the other, we find
M
This formula contains only a ratio of masses, a ratio of times and
Whatever units these quantities are respec^ of lengths. measured in, the equation remains unaltered. Since m is of the suti, and m' small comsmall compared with the mass pared with the mass m of the primary, we may take as a near
a
riatio
tively
approximation -Tj=\7p}]
[}
^^
*-^^^
"^*y *^ ^**^^ ^^ ^^^
Tapis.s
of any planet with a satellite to that of the sun can be found.

403.
The determination
of the mass of a planet without a
satellite is very difficult, as it
must be deduced from the perturBefore the discovery of the
bations of the neighbouring planets.

satellites of
Mars, Leverrier had been making the perturbations
due to that planet his study for many years. It was only after a laborious and intricate calculation that he arrived at a determination of the mass. After Asaph Hall had discovered Deimos and Phobos the calculation could be shortly and eflfectively made. According to Asaph Hall the mass of Mars is 1/3,093,5.00 of the
made it about one three-millionth. This agreement between two such different lines of investigation The minuteness of either satellite is very remarkable; see Art. 57. ratio nn'jm in A.rt. 402 and unknown enables us to neglect the
sun, while Leverrier
close
thus to determine the mass of Mars with great accuracy.

404. Bacamples. Ex. 1. Supposing the period of the earth round the sun and that of the moon round the earth to be roughly 365J and 27J days and the
ratio of the
the earth and
mean distances to be 385, find the ratio of the sum of the masses of moon to that of the sun. The actual ratio given in the Nautical
constituents of a double star describe circles about each other in a were deprived of velocity and allowed to drop into each other,
Almanac
Ex.
time T.
for 1899 is 1/328129.
2:
The
If they
prove that they will meet after a time TliJ2.
Ex.
radius
3.
b.
The
relative
if is
path of two mutually attracting particles

the velocity of each
is
is
circle of
Prove that
halved, the eccentricity of the subis 46/7.
sequent relative path
3/4
and the semi-major axis
258
Ex.
axis 2a
4.

Two
particles of
[CHAP. VI.
masses m,
ni',
which attract each other according to

is e'
the Newtonian law, are describing relatively to each other elliptic orbits of major
and
eccentricity
suddenly
fixed.
e, and are at a distance r when one of them, viz. m, Prove that the other will describe a conic of eccentricity
such that
(?
am(l-e^)
\>-
aJ
It is
supposed that the centre of gravity had no velocity at the instant before the
particle
m became fixed.
5.
[Coll.
Ex. 1895.]
Ex.
Two
particles
move under the
influence of gravity
and
of their
attractions: prove that their centre of gravity will describe a parabola
mutual and that
each particle will describe relatively to that point areas proportional to the time.
Ex.
6.
The
coordinates of the simultaneous positions of two equal particles
are given
by the equations
x = aB - 2a sin
d,
y = a~a cos 0;
their
x^=: ad,
y-^=
~a + a cos 6.
[Math. Tripos.]
Prove that
if
they
move under
mutual attractions, the law of force wiU be
that of the inverse fifth power of the distance.
Ex. 7. Two homogeneous imperfectly elastic smooth spheres, which attract one another with a force in the line of their centres inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their centres, move under their mutual attraction, and a succession of oblique impacts takes place between them; prove that the
tangents of the halves of the angles through which the line of centres turns between successive impacts diminish in geometrical progression. [Math. T. 1895.]
Consider the relative motion.

successive impacts are equal.
coefiScient of elasticity at
The blow
at each
impact acts along the line
joining the centres, hence the latera recta of all the ellipses described between
the
same
at
The normal relative velocity is multiplied by the The radius vector of the relative ellipse is each impact, being the sum of the radii of the spheres. The result
each impact.
follows immediately from Ex. 1, Art. 337.
405.
Ex.
1.
Herschel says that the star Algol
is
usually visible as a star of
the second magnitude
and continues such
for the space of 2
then suddenly begins to diminish in splendour and in 3^ hours fourth magnitude, at which it continues for about 15 minutes.
increase again
days 13^ hours. It is reduced to the

It
then begins to
and in 3| hours more

changes in 2
it
is
restored to its usual brightness, going

sec.
through
all its
d.
20 hr. 48 min. 54-7
This
is
supposed to be due
to the revolution round
of
some opaque body which, when interposed between
off a portion of the light. Supposing the brilliancy of a star of the second magnitude to be to that of the fourth as 40 to 6-3 and that the relative
us and Algol, cuts
orbit of the bodies is nearly circular radii of the
two constituents of Algol are as 100

its
radii to that of their relative orbit
and has the earth in its plane, prove that the 92 and that the ratios of their are equal to '171 and -160. If the radius of
:
the sun be 430000 miles and
density be 1-444, taking water as the unit, prove
that the density of either constituent of Algol (taking

is
them
to be of equal densities)
one-fourth that of water.
The numbers
are only approximate.
[Maxwell Hall, Observatory, 1886.]
ART. 407.]
Ex.
2.
THREE ATTRACTING PARTICLES.

T
it
259
The brightness
years.
of a variable star undergoes a periodic series of changes
in a period of
gradually diminishes to
The brightness remains constant for mT years, then a minimum value, equal to 1 k^ of the maximum, at
remains constant for nT years and then gradually rises to the Show that these changes can be explained on the hypothesis that a dark satellite revolves round the star. Prove also that, if the relative orbit is circular, and the two stars are spherical, the ratio of the mean density of the double star to that of the sun is
which minimum
original
maximum.
T2
(1
+ k^) L
cos^ nir ^cos^ mir
T
distance.
where
D is the apparent diameter of the
sun at
its
mean
[Math. T. 1893.]
406.
Three attracting Particles.
mining the relative motions of three or particles has not been generally solved. The various solutions in series which have as yet been obtained usually form the subjects of separate treatises, and are called the Lunar and Planetary theories. Laplace has however shown that there are some cases in which the problem can be accurately solved in finite terms*.
407.
The problem more attracting
of deter-
Let the several particles be so arranged in a plane that

of the system
the resultant accelerating force on each passes through the com-
mon
centre of gravity
and that each resultant
is
proportional to the distance of the particle from that centre.
It is
if the proper common angular velocity be given system about 0, the centrifugal force on each particle may be made to balance the attraction on that particle. The particles
then evident that

to the
of the system will then

velocities,
move
in circles round
with equal angular

a circle
the lines joining them forming a figure always equal

also will describe
and similar to itself. Each particle relatively to any other particle.
particles
Let us next enquire what conditions are necessary that the may so move that the figure formed by them is always similar to its original shape, but of varying size. Let the distances
* Laplace's discussion
may
be found in the sixth chapter of the tenth book of
The proposition that the motion' when the particles are in a straight line is unstable was first established by Liouville, Academie des Sciences, 1842, and Connaissance des Temps for 1845 published in 1842. His proof is different from that given in the text. The motion when the particles are at the corners of an equilateral triangle is discussed in the Proceedings of the London
the Micanique Celeste.
Mathematical Society, Feb. 1875.

Art. 286,
See also the author's Rigid Dynamics, vol.
i.
and vol. ii. Art. 108. There is also a paper by A. G. Wythoff, On Dynamical stability of a system of particles, Amsterdam Math. Soc. 1896.
the
260

be
[CHAP. VI.
&c.
of the particles from the centre of gravity
r^, r^,
We
then have
for
each particle the equations
df
Since the figure
is
\dtj
'
rdt\! dtJ
always similar, these equations are to be satisfied

7\, r^,
when
d6/dt
is
the same for every particle, and
&c. have the
ratios '!, a^, &c.,
where
a^, 2, &c.,
are
some
positive finite constant
quantities.
It
immediately follows that the arrangement must be

(x's.
such that the ^'s are in the same positive ratios and also the
Since the mutual attractions of the
particles form a system
of forces in equilibrium, the equivalent system 7i\F^, mJF^, &c.
and
lyhG-i, mjjr^,
&c.
is
also in equilibrium.
The sum
of the
mo-
ments, of the G's about
must
&c.)
is
therefore be zero, which (since
they are
in
the ratios
oli,
impossible unless each
is zero.
If also the initial conditions are such that

velocities dr-i/dt, &c.
both the radial

r^dOjdt, &c.,
and the transverse

&c., all
velocities
have the ratios
Wi,
the
equations will be satisfied by
assuming ri, r^, &c. to have the constant ratios a^, a^, &c. The motion of some one particle, say mj is determined by the two polar
,
equations of that particle.
The
result
is,
that
if
the particles,
move
so as to be always
at the corners of a similar figure, that figure
must be such that
the resultant accelerating forces on the particles act towards the
common
from 0.
and are proportional to the distances the particles must be projected in directions making equal angles in the same sense with their
centre of gravity
This being true
initially,
distances from 0, with velocities proportional to those distances.
408.
particles
The two arrangements.

must
he
To determine how
the
three
arranged so that thejforce on any one

centre of gravity ;
distance.
is
may pass
the
through the
inverse
icth
common
law of force being
power of the
It is evident that the condition

particles
satisfied
line.
are
if
arranged in a straight
is
We
when the three have now to

particles
enquire
It is
any other arrangement
possible.
of masses
known theorem M, tn attract a
in attraction that if
two given
third m', placed at distances p, r from
them, with accelerating forces Mp, mr, the resultant passes through
ART. 409.]
THREE PARTICLES IN A LINE.
261
m and therefore through that of all In order that the resultant of Mfp*^ and w/r* may also pass through the centre of gravity of M, m, it is. evident that the ratio of Mjp" to w/r" must be equal to the ratio Mp to mr.
the centre of gravity of M,
three.
It immediately follows (except
/c
= 1)
that p
;
= r.
The three
particles
must therefore be
result
is
at equal distances
see also Art. 304.
The
that
for
three attracting particles there are

;
only two possible arrangements
(1) that in
which the
particles,
however unequal their masses

equilateral triangle, (2) that in
line.
an which they are in the same straight

be, are at the corners of
is
may
It
may
also
be shown that when the law of attraction
the
inverse
/eth,
the
arrangement at the corners of an equilateral
tHangle
is stable
when
^
lîiim
>
'
\3
-^
409.
The
line
particles whose masses are
Three mutually attracting arrangement. M, m', m are placed in a straight line.

in a straight
line.
It is required to determine the conditions that throughout their sub-
sequent motion they
may remain
Let the law of attraction be the inverse /cth power of the Let M, m, be the two extreme particles, m' being between the other two. Let a, b, c be the distances Mm, Mm',
distance.
m'm then a b + c.
;
A
on
necessary condition
is
that the resultant accelerating forces

to their distances from the
the, particles
must be proportional
(Art. 407).
centre of gravity
We
therefore have
.^.
Mja"
Ma-^m'c
particles
+ m'/c" _ Mjb" - m/C _ m/a" + m'/b" ma + m'b Mb mc
where the numerators express the accelerating forces on the
and the denominators are proportional
to the distances
from 0.
The equalities (1) are equivalent to only one equation, for if we multiply the numerators and denominators of the three fracrespectively, the sum of the numerators and tions by m, m',
also that of the

c
denominators are
zero.
Putting a = b
{l->rp),
= bp, we
arrive at
The
left-hand side
is
negative
when p =
and positive when
is
262
[CHAP. VI.
infinitely "large, the equation therefore has one real positive root,
whatever positive values

left side
M,
m',
may
;
have.
Putting
p = l,
the
becomes (M m) (2"+^ 1) since we may take as the greater of the two extreme particles we see that the real positive
p is less than unity, provided k + 1 is positive. were negative the root would be gi-eater than unity.
value of
If
/c
+1
Whatever the masses

if
of the particles
may be
it
follows that
they are so placed that their distances have the ratios given by
this value of p,
and their
parallel velocities are proportional to
their distances from 0, they will throughout
their subsequent
motion remain in a straight
line.
When
(2)
the attraction follows the Newtonian law, the equation
becomes the quihtic
(M+m')p^ + {SM + 2m') p-^ + {SM+m')p'' - (m' + Sm)p''

-(2m' + Sm)p-{m + m') = 0...(2).
The terms
there
It
case,
is
of this equation exhibit but one variation of sign,
and
therefore but one positive root.

in exactly the
may be shown
same way that
in the general
when k has any
only one positive root;

positive, while those
positive integral value, the equation (2) has ^^k+i ^q pK+i being all the terms from
p'*
from p" to
are negative.
410.
When
the positions of two of the masses are given,

;
there are three possible cases
according as the third
is
between
the other two or on either side.

for the
Since the ajialytical expression
law of the inverse square does not represent the attraction

these three
when
the attracted particle passes through the centre of force,

;
Art. 135
cases
cannot be included in the same

(3),
equation.
for each
We
thus have three equations of the form
one
arrangement.
411.
In the case of the sun, earth, and moon,

Since
vanishes
is
very
much
nt
greater than either 7n or m'.

are zero,
p we infer that p is very small when m/M and m'jM small. The equation (3) therefore gives 3j9^ = (m + m')/M, using the numerical values of m, m and M, p = 1/100 nearly.
If the
when
and
are
or,
moon were
therefore placed at a distance from the
earth one hundredth part of that of the sun, the three bodies
might be projected
so that they
would always remain
in a straight
ART. 412.]
line.
THREE PARTICLES IN A
LINE.
263
its light
full, but at that distance would be much diminished. This configuration of the sun, earth and moon however could not occur in nature because this state of steady motion is unstable. On the slightest disturbance the whole system would change and the particles would widely deviate from their former paths.
The moon would then be always
413.
circles
Three mutually attracting particles whose masses are M, m',
describe
round their common centre of gravity and are always in a straight line. Prove that if the force vary as any inverse power of the distance this state of motion
is
unstable.
Reducing the particle

Let
(r, 0)
M to rest we take that point as the origin of coordinates.

$')
be the coordinates of m, (/,
those of m'.
The
particle
is
acted
on
by (lf+jn)/r* along the straight line mM, and The polar equations of the motion of m are
cPr
dt"^
m'lr'" in a direction parallel to
m'M.
fde\'^
M+m
jjc
\dtj
m' cos /K
m'
(i>
COS
22'
(1).
1 r
d6\
m'
m'
jjK
r' sir
dt\
dtj
/K
R
formed by joining the particles
"where w,
<p
are the angles at
M,
of the triangle
and
is
the side mm'.
In the same way the polar equations of the motion

^,\
of m' are
m d- .fdd'Y -r'l = M+m' m cos WH

dt^
1
r'
\dtj
-rr-
cos A')
\
r'"
}*
R*.
d f .dd'\
m
r^
m
E"
(2),
dt\
-it
'
where 0' is the external angle of the triangle at m'. the standard case is that in which 6'>6 and /</.
In forming these equations
We
shall
now
substitute in these equations
r=a (l + x),
d=nt-\-y',
r'
= b (l + y),
|,
77.
6'=nt + 7i, and
reject all
powers beyond the
first
of the small quantities x, y,
Remembering that
sin 0/r'
= sin <f>'lr=Bixi. wjR we find after some reduction (Si-tfi-KE)x-2ndy + m'KB^ + 0.7i = 0,
2nSx +
(5^
+ m'B)y + 0.l-m'Br)=0,
mKAx + 0.y + (S^-n^-KF)^-2ndv=0,

where for brevity
0.x- mAy + 2nS^ + (S^+mA) ij=0, we have written 8 for djdt, and c=a-b,
M+m
deduced from the
constants.
m'
Jtf+m'
m
Art. 409, but
(1)
it
The steady motion has been already found in first and third of the equations
may
also be
and
(2)
by equating the
We thus
find n2=;^_j,i'^^
n^=F-mA.
264

When
,
[CHAP. VI.
is positive, it
We notice that the constants E, F are positive. been shown in Art. 409 that a>b>c, and therefore A Lastly whatever k may he E + F n"^ is positive
To
solve the four equations,
stituting
+1
has
B and E + F- 2v? are
positive.
and eliminating the

is
ratios G,
we put x = Ge^\ y = He^\ ^=Ke^*, n=Le^^. SubH, K, L we obtain a determinantal equation

tj,
whose constituents are the

determinant
coefficients of x, y, ^,
with X written for
5.
This
before
of the eighth degree in X.
To
find its factors
we must
expansion make some necessary simplifications which we can only indicate here. We first add the | column to the x column and the ij column to the y column.
The second column may now be divided by X. Multiplying the second column by - (k - 3) n^ is another factor which 2n and subtracting from the first, we see that we divide out. Subtracting the first row from the third and the second from the The fourth, the first column acquires three zeros and the second column two. determinant is now easily expanded and we have
X''^
X2 {X2- (/c- 3) n^} {(X2+ C)
(\^-Ck -(k + 1)
n^)
+ 4)i2\2} =0,
where C=E + F-2it^. If k>S, this equation gives a real positive value of X and the motion is therefore unstable. If k have any positive value C is positive, and the third factor has the product of its roots negative one value of X'' is real and The motion is therefore unstable for all positive and the other real and negative.
;
positive values of k.
413.
Ex.
1.
straight line.
Show
Three mutually attracting particles are placed at rest in a that they will simultaneously impinge on each other if the
given by the value of
initial distances apart are
in the equation of the
(2/c
+ l)th
degree of Art. 409.
[This equation expresses the condition that the distances

ratio.]
between the particles are always in a constant
Ex.
Acth
2.
Three unequal mutually attracting particles are placed
at rest at the
corners of an equilateral triangle and attract each other according to the inverse
power of the distances.

centre of gravity.
is
common
If the
/t
Prove that they will arrive simultaneously at the law of attraction is the inverse square, the time
is
of transit
tt
{a^l2/jL)^
where
the
sum
of the masses
and a the
side of the
initial triangle. Art. 131.
swarm of particles. Let us suppose that a comet 414. an aggregation of particles whose centre of gravity describes an The question arises, what are the elliptic orbit round the sun. conditions that such a swarm could keep together*? Similar
is
conditions
*
must be
satisfied in the case of a
swarm consolidating
who proved
The
disintegration of comets
was
first
suggested by Schiaparelli
that the disturbing force of the sun on a particle might be greater than the He thus obtained as a necessary condition of stability attraction of the comet.
mlP>2Mla^.
The
subject
the supposition of a circular trajectory.
was dynamically treated by Charlier and Luc Picart on They arrived at the condition mlb'-' > BMja^ ;
Bulletin de VAcademie de S. Petersbourg, Annales de V Observatoire de Bordeaux, Tisserand, Mec. Celeste, iv. The condition of stability Avas extended to the case of
an
elliptic trajectory
brief solutions here given of these
by M. 0. Callandreau in the Bulletin Astronomique, 1896. The problems are simplifications of their methods.
ART. 414.]
A SWARM OF PARTICLES.
Nebular theory. method of proceeding.
265
into a platiet in obedience to the
The
following
example
will illustrate the
We shall suppose the sun A to be fixed in space, Art. 399. B be the centre of the swarm, C any particle. Let r, 6 b6 the coordinates the polar coordinates of B referred to A, and ^, of C referred to B as origin, the axis of ^ being the prolongation
Let
77
of
AB.
Let
M be
the mass of the sun.

is
Supposing, as a
first
homogeneous and spherical, its If m be attraction at an internal point C is fip, where p = BG. = the radius of the swarm, m/b\ the mass and b fib
approximation, that the swarm
The equations
of motion are,
by Art. 227,
...(1).
d^V
fde\"
d-^[di)^r-+^dt\^' + ^^di\=(r + ^f-f''^

These equations also apply to the motion of the particle at B, where ^=0, 77 = 0. Hence when we expand in powers of |, rj, all the terms independent of ^, rj must cancel out. We thus have
{,
^^dO)
-Mr)
df-
dt dt
'^
dt'
^ [dtj
r'
^^
.^.
W^
the sun,
dtTt^^diF-'^Kdrt) ^--i^-f"^
If the centre of gravity of the
we write
?'
= a,
ddjdt
= n.
swarm describe a circle about The equations then become
.(3).
Putting
1^
= J.
cos {pt
4- a),
7]=B sin (pt + a), we immediately
ob-
tain the determinantal equation
(p'-fi
+ Sn^)(p^-/x)-4!ifn^==0
(4).
The
is
condition that the particles of the
swarm should keep together

is
the same as the condition that the roots of this quadratic should
be real and positive.
The left-hand
fj,
side
positive
and negative when jj- =
and p^ =
fjL
Sn^.
when p^= 00 The required condition

,
266
is

fi
[CHAP. VI.
the
therefore
> Sw^,
Art. 288.
The condition that
swarm
is
stable is therefore ^^
>3
Unless therefore the density of the

quantity the
swarm
swarm cannot
he stable.
If the
exceed a certain mass of the sun were

is
distributed throughout the sphere whose radius
such that the

at
swarm
is
on the
surface, the density of the
swarm must be
least three times that of the sphere.
The path
values of
^,
17
of the particle
G when
describing either principal oscillation
is
(relatively to the axes B^, B-q)
an ellipse with its centre at B. Substituting the in the equations of motion and using the quadratic, we find
B~^^2np'
Since
^43/^2
/i
B'^~
2?2
'
^^B^"
is
\/
/j.-3n^'
lies
between the values of
p', the first
equation shows that

negative.
AJBi and p has
bave opposite signs, and accordingly the radical
It follows that
the oscillation which corresponds to the smaller value of
the major axis directed along B^, while in the other that axis is along 17. The particle also describes the ellipses in opposite directions, in the former case the
direction is the
same
as that of the
swarm round
the sun, in the latter, the
opposite.
If the centre of gravity of the swarm describe an ellipse of small eccentricity, we may obtain an approximate solution of the equations of motion. Assuming the expansions d=nt + 2e sin nt + 1 e^ sin 2nt,
--^1;
r^
it is
'
.-.
at
f-
\r J
Y = 1 + 3e cos ni + f e2 +
.9
e2
cos 2nt,
,
evident that
aU the
coefficients of the differential equations (2)
expressed in terms of
that the equations
t,
including all terms which contain
e^.
It
can be at once is however

easy to see
unnecessary for our present purpose to write these at length.
It is
become
^^-2n^ + {^l-n^^+5e^')}^ = ex]

(5),
eX=
ieti
cos nt-^ at
- 2eifi sin n 17 + lOen^ cos nt | + &c.,

nt |
eY= - 4en cos nt ~ + 2en^ sin

at
en^ cos
Jit 17
+ &c.
(5)
(3)
As a first approximation we neglect eX, eY. Comparing the equations we see at once that we shall have the quadratic
{p^-,ji + n'^{3
and
+ 5e^)}{p^-fi + inê^}-ip^n'^=0
stable is then fji>n^ (3
(6).
The condition that

It
the
swarm
is
+ 5e^);
is
'
T3
> "3 (3 + 5e^).
appears therefore that the gradual dissipation of a comet
more probable when
the trajectory is elliptical than
when
it is
circular.
ART. 415.]
tisserand's criterion.
267
As a second approximation, we substitute ^ = A cos (pt + a), rj B sin (pt + a) in X and Y. By Art. 303 the only important terms are those which become magnified by the process of solution. These terms are of the form Pcos{\t + L) where \;=pn or p=i^2n. Unless therefore the roots p, p' of the quadratic (6) or (4) are such that p^p' is nearly equal to n or 2n, the terms
the expressions
derived from X,
Y remain
respectively of the order e or

e is small.
e'^.
This relation between
the roots cannot occur
when
415.
Tisserand^s criterion*.
is
When
it
a comet describing a
conic round the sun passes very near to a planet, such as Jupiter,
its
course
much
disturbed.
When
of perceptible influence of the planet,

to describe a conic
it
emerges from the sphere may again be supposed

old.
round the sun, but the elements of the new
path
may be
very different from those of the
Since Jacobi's integral (Art. 255) holds throughout the motion,

the elements of both the conies must satisfy that equation.
Let
planet.
(tto, ô),
(i,
î)
be the semi-major axis and semi-latus rectum
before and after passing through the sphere of influence of the
Let %,
i^
be the inclinations of the planes of the comet's
orbit to the plane of the planet's motion.
Let the sun
be taken as the origin of coordinates, and
let
the axis of ^ pass through the planet P. Let r, p be the distances respectively and c = OP. Let M, of the comet Q from and
111
be the masses of the sun and planet, then, reducing the sun
to rest (Art. 399),
we
regard the comet as acted on by the resultant
attraction of the sun and planet together with a force

parallel to
mj&
by
acting
PO.
The held
of force
is
therefore defined
c
orbit relatively
n^
n,
We
to
suppose that the planet
P describes a circular
where
with a constant angular velocity

integral take^ the form
= (M + m)/c^.
The Jacobian
\V^--nA
r
* Tisserand's criterion
-Sr-T^=C,
c-
may
be found in his Note sur I'integrale de Jacobi, et
sur son application a la thôrie des com^j;es, Bulletin Astronomlque,

1889, also in his
is
Tome
vi.
Meeanique
Celeste,
Tome
iv.
1896.
,1a
M. 0. Callandreau's addition
given in the second chapter of his Etude sur
th6orie des cometes p^riodiques,
Annates de VObservatoire de Paris, Memoires, 1892,

investigations
Jupiter,
Tome xx. There are also some by H. A. Newton on the capture of comets by planets, especially American Journal of Science, vol. xlii. pages 183 and 482, 1891.
268
TWO OR MORE ATTRACTING
PARTICLES.
[CHAP. VI.
its
where
is
the space velocity of the comet and

referred to a unit of mass.
angular
momentum
Since (Art. 333)
V^ = m(^-^,
the integral becomes
a = cos i^{Ml),
where
tively entering
We
the values of ^, p when the comet is respecand leaving the sphere of influence of the planet. obviously have po = pi, and since the comet does not stay long
ô,pol î>Pi. are
within the sphere, we
may
neglect
very small quantity m/M.

approximation, Art, 341,
1
î when multiplied by the Writing then n^ = Mjc? as a close

ô
we
I'o
obtain the criterion
cos
\JIq
cos
I'l
\Jli
2ao
c\Jc
2^1
c\Jc
416.
Tisserand uses this criterion to determine whether two
comets both of which are known to have passed near Jupiter

could be the same body.
If the criterion is not satisfied
known elements
If
of the two comets, they cannot be the
by the same body.
it is satisfied it is
then worth while to examine^ more thoroughly

This must be done by using the method
how much
the elements of either body have been altered by the
attraction of Jupiter.
of the plapietary theory
and
is
generally a laborious process.

is
In Tisserand's criterion the orbit of Jupiter

is
considered to be circular, which
This defect has been corrected by M. 0. CaUandreau. Taking account only of the first power of the eccentricity he adds a small term containing that eccentricity as a factor. This term, unlike those in Tisserand's
not
strictly correct.
criterion,
depends on the manner in which the comet approaches Jupiter.
417.
StabiUty deduced from Vis Viva.
The Jacobian
integral has been
used by G. W. Hill* to determine whether the moon could be indefinitely pulled away from the earth by the disturbing attraction of the sun. In such a problem
as this,
it is
convenient to take the origin at the earth
P and
the
the moving axis of ^

is
directed towards the sun 0.
Reducing the earth to
rest,
moon Q
acted on by
for relative
{m + m')lp^ along motion, Art. 255
QP and
(3),
Mjc^ parallel to OP.
The Jacobian equation
takes the form
* G.
W.
Hill's researches in the

vol.
i.
Lunar theory may be found in the American
Journal of Mathematics,
1878.
ART. 418.]
where
STABILITY OF THE MOON.

c
269
p=PQ, r=OQ,
= OP and
is
the
sum
of the masses m, m' of the earth
and moon.
Mlc^=n^.
We
treat the sun's orbit as circular
Since p^=|2 + ij^ this
and put as a near approximation equation becomes
Since the left-hand side
is essentially positive it is clear
that
tJie
vioving particle
can never cross the surface defined by equating the right-hand side to zero, and can only move in those parts of space in ivhich the right-hand side is positive. Art. 299.
If the initial circumstances of the
motion make C" negative, the right-hand

limits to the position of Q.
side is always positive
and the equation supplies no
The form of the surface when
is
positive has been discussed
by
Hill.
When
a certain quantity the surface has in general three separate sheets. The inner of these is smaller than the other two and surrounds the earth. The
second
the
is
C exceeds
also closed but surrounds the sun, the third is not closed.
is
When
the
constants are adapted to the case of the moon, that satellite

first sheet.
found to be within
distance from the
It
must
therefore always remain there,
and
its
earth can never exceed 110 equatorial radii.

orbit being neglected, loe
I'adius vector
Thus
the eccentricity of the earth's

to the
have a rigorous demonstration of a superior limit
of the moon.
418.
if also
Ex.
1.
If the
moon Q move
in the plane of
motion of the earth
and
left-
the sun
is
so remote that
we may put
^/c
+ hr-=^c^ (l + ^\ when
the
hand
side is
expanded in powers of
and
rjjc,
the bounding surface degenerates
It is required to trace the forms of this curve for into the curve --\-^n^^'^=C". P different positive values of C".
The curve has two

C"
is
infinite
branches tending to the asymptotes ^n^^=C".
If
greater than the

If
the body S.
the
minimum value of m/I + f n-^ there is also an oval round particle Q is within the oval, it cannot escape thence and its
If the particle is
radius vector will have a superior limit.

infinite branches, it
beyond either of the
cannot cross them and the radius vector will have an inferior limit. The velocity at any point of the space between the oval and the infinite branches is imaginary. [Hill.]
A double star is formed by two equal constituents S, P whose orbits A third particle Q whose mass is infinitely small moves in the same plane and initially is at a distance from P on SP produced equal to half SP, starting with such velocity that it would have described a circular orbit about P if
Ex.
2.
are circles.
S had been
absent.
Show
P.
'
that the curve of no relative velocity is closed, and that
the particle being initially within that curve cannot recede indefinitely from the
attracting bodies
S and
is
This example
refers to a
discussed by Coculesco in the Comptes Rendus, 1892.

of
He
also
M. de Haerdtl, 1890, where the revolution of Q round P is traced during two revolutions and it is shown that at the end of the third the
memoir
particle is receding
from
A *.
has received Darwin's memoir on Periodic which the motion of a planet about a binary star
* Since writing the above the author
Orbits, Acta Mathematica, xxi. in
270
THEORY OF
APSES.
[CHAP. VI.
Theory of Apses.
Wheii the law of force is a one-valued function of the distance, every apsidal radius vector must divide the orbit sym419.
metrically.
be the centre of force, A an apse Let argument rests on two propositions.

(1)
(Art. 314).
The
both perpendicularly to
two particles are projected from A with equal velocities, OA but in opposite directions, it is clear that (the force being always the same at the same distance from 0) the paths described must be symmetrical about OA.
If
(2)
If at
any point of
its
path, the velocity of the particle
were reversed in direction (without changing its magnitude), the particle would describe the same path but in a reverse direction.
If then a particle describing an orbit arrive at
an apse A,
its
subsequent path when reversed must be the same as its previous Hence OA divides the whole orbit symmetrically. path.
We
first
may
notice that if the law of force were not one-valued,

\J{u^
is
say F=/jl{u
a-)|,
where the apsidal distance

it is
OA = a,
the
proposition
not true, unless
also given that the radical
keeps one sign.

420.
There can he only two apsidal distances though there
may
he
any numher of apses.
Let the particle after passing an apse

apse B.
arrive at another
Then
since
OB
divides the orbit
symmetrteally, there
must be a third apse C beyond B such that the angles AOB, BOG are equal and 00=0 A. Since 00 divides the orbit symmetrically, there is a fourth apse at D, where OD = OB and the
angles
BOG,
GOD
are equal.
The
apsidal distances are therefore
alternately equal, and the angle contained at
by any two con-
secutive apsidal distances
is
always the same.

TaJdng a variety of
initial conditions
has been more thoroughly studied.
he has
of the
traced the subsequent paths of a particle of insignificant mass.
Some
paths thus presented to the eye have such unexpected and remarkable forms that
the paper
is full of interest.
ART. 422.]
421.
one-valued
unless
that
TWO APSIDAL DISTANCES.

Ex. 1. Show that an whose attraction is a
of
is
271
Examples.
function
centre
ellipse
cannot be described about a
centre of force
the distance
situated on
is
principal diameter
evolute.
and
outside the
By drawing
arc
all
the tangents to one
EF of
the evolute
we
see that they
cover the whole area of the quadrant
ACB
of the ellipse.
It follows that
normal to the ellipse can be drawn through any point P situated in this quadrant, and this normal does not divide the between E and A or between F' and B.
Ex.
2.
ellipse symmetrically, unless
lies
If the
path
is
an equiangular
spiral
and the
central foi:ce a one-valued
function of the distance, prove that the centre of force
must be
situated in
the pole.
Ex.
fixed
3.
If
a particle of mass
lie
m
;
be attached to a
prove that,
if
fine elastic string of natural
length a and modulus \, and
with the string unstretched and one extremity

projected at right angles to the
on a smooth horizontal plane

if
string with velocity v, the string will just be doubled in length at its greatest
extension
2jnv^=Aa\.
[Coll.
Ex.]
Ex.
4.
from an apse with a velocity
v,
prove that the

is
apse will be an apocentre or a pericentre according as the velocity v

greater than that in a circle at the
less or
same
distance.
422.
The
apsidal distances.
is
To find
the apsidal distances
when F=fiu'^, andn
an
integer.
The equation
of vis viva, viz.
v^=
C2 JFdi',
gives
'=*i(IJ+i=^+,Tî"-'
Let
w/S
be the velocity at the
initial
distance R,
the angle of
projection, then
^''
=^+
are
^1 (^7"'
known
h=VRsm^
an apse w
is
(2).
Thus both h and C

given by
quantities, at
a-max-
min, and therefore du/dO
= 0.
The
apsidal distances are therefore
iy=Kr^j=î''"--*--=
If an equation is arranged in descending powers of the
(^>-
unknown
of
quantity,
we know by
Descartes' theorem that there cannot be
more
positive roots than variations of sign.
The arrangement
the terms of equation (A) will depend on whether n
is
greater
272
or less than 2
;
THEORY OF
APSES.
[CHAP.
is
VI.
but, since there are only three terms, it
clear
that in whatever order they are placed there cannot be more than
two variations of
sign.
roots.
The equation cannot

This
is
therefore have
more
than two positive
an analytical proof
that there
cannot he more than two real apsidal distances.

423.
indices of
values.
If
is
a fraction, say n = plq in
its
lowest terms,
we
write
u=w<;
the
are then integers
and
w and
therefore
u can have only two
positive
It is
assumed that
if
q is an even integer the sign of
other considerations, for otherwise
F is given by fiome F would not be a one-valued function of u.
424.
The
propositions proved in Arts. 420 and 422 are not
altogether the same.
The complete curve found by
integrating
(A)
may have
several branches separated from each other so that
the particle cannot pass from one to the other.
In 420
it
is
proved that the actual branch described cannot have more than
two unequal apsidal distances.
In 422
it is
proved that when
F=fiu^
all
the branches together
cannot have more than two
unequal apsidal distances.

If the force be
the complete curve

distances.
some other one-valued function of the distance may have more than two unequal apsidal
^\
an
=A{u-a) (u-b)
{u-c) be the
differential equation of
orbit, prove that the central force is a one- valued function of the distance. Prove also that the curve has two branches and three unequal apsidal distances, and that either branch may be described if the initial conditions are suitable. See
Arts. 309, 441.
Ex.
2.
If the central force is F=/m'^,

infinity,
where
n>3 and
lie
the velocity
is
greater
than that from
prove that the apsidal distances
between p and
q,
where
2fi=:h^(n-l)p"~^ and h^=Cq^. [This follows from a theorem in the theory of equations applied to equation (A) of Art. 422.]
426.
The
where
apsidal angle.
To find
the apsidal angle
when
F=
fivP-,
w< 3,
and
the orbit is nearly circular.
The equation
Taking
of the path with these conditions has been found
by continued approximation in Arts. 367 to 370.

the first approximation,
we
see
by
referring
to
the
equation (6) of those articles that dujdd is zero only when p6 + a = i'ir, where i is any integer. These values of therefore determine the apses and the reciprocals of the two corresponding
apsidal
distances are
c{lM).
is
The
apsidal angle described
between two consecutive apses
therefore ir/p, where
p^=2 n.
ART. 427.]
THE APSIDAL ANGLE,
273
Taking the higher approximations, we use the equations (12) and (13) in the same way. The apsidal angle is therefore 7r/p, where
= V(3-n){l-^(^-2)(n +
l)Jf=}.
The
on a
reciprocals of the apsidal distances are very nearly c (1

There
is
+ M).
founded
437.
another method of finding the apsidal angle which
is
direct integration of the equations of
motion*.
Beginning with
we have,
as in Art. 422,
\dej
let
n-l
Since
u=a, u=& be
the reciprocals of the inner and outer apsidal distances.
the right-hand side of the equation must vanish for each of these values of u,
we have
Eliminating h^ and
n-l C we
\du)
n-l
find
/dg\2_ a"-^-5-^
A=
'
n-i,
a-i,
u\
a\ 1 h^-\ h\ 1
d9 from
To
find the apsidal angle
we have
to integrate the value of
u=& to
a.
To
simplify the limits
limits of integration are
we suppose
M to be small quantity.
we put a = c (l+Jf), 6=ic [l-M) and u=e iX+Mx); the then a;= - 1 to + 1. Also since the orbit is nearly circular,
It now becomes necessary to expand A in powers of M. This may be effected by using some simple properties of determinants. If we subtract the upper row from each of the other two, the determinant is practically reduced to a determinant of two rows. Noticing that
+ DM-2 (a;2 x + 1) + EM 3 {a;3 a;2 + 35 1) + jfeo.}

=fc
where C=i(n-2),
D = J(n-2) (n-3),
;=T^(n-2) (n-3)(ra-4), we
see that the
new determinant
is
A=c+iJH2(n-l)(a;2-l)|l + Citf(ar-|-l) + &o.,

|l
2+M{x + l) + Cikf(a;-l) + &o., 2+M{x-l)
Subtracting one row from the other and performing some evident simplifications,
we
find
^=E'^(x^-l){l + k(nî)Mx + ^{ri-2)M^{{n-4)x^+n-^)},

where E^ = 2c'+i M
(n
- 1)
(n - 3).
We thence
deduce
The method
of finding the apsidal angle by a direct integration of the
apsidal equation was
first used by Bertrand, C'omptes Rendm, vol. 77, 1873. An improved version was afterwards given by Darboux in his notes to the Cours de MScanique by Despeyrous, 1886.
274
'
THEORY OF
APSES.
[CHAP. VI.
In the same way we find after some reductions

(a-i
- 6"-i)*= {2c-i M{ngive

(,
I
1)}* {1
+ tV (" - 2)
(n
- 3) M^}.
Eemembering that du=cMdx, these

de dx
1 1
/v/(l
-2,,
6
-2,
24
^
A
'J
V(3 - w)
- a;'*)
The
integrations
can be effected at sight by putting x=sin^.

the apses adjacent,
Taking the
limits to be
^= ^7r to make
we
find that the apsidal angle is
J{H-n) t
428.
24
Closed orbits.
An
orbit is described about
centre
of force whose attraction is Prove that if the orbit is closed, for all initial conditions within certain defined limits, the law of force must be the inverse square
or the direct distance.
If the path
is
a one-valued function of the distance.
[Bertrand, Gomptes Rendus, vol. 77, 1873.]
closed
and re-entering
maximum and
minimum
radius vector.
has two apsidal distances and must lie which have these for radii and their centres at the centre of force. By varying the initial conditions we may widen or diminish
the space between the
circles,
must admit of both The orbit therefore between the two circles
it
yet by the question the orbit

circles
is
always to be closed so long as the radii of the

finite.
remain
Representing the
radii
first
approximation to the reciprocals of the
p can be powers of M. The orbit expressed in some series of ascending cannot be closed unless the apsidal angle is such that, after some multiple of it has been described, the particle is again at the same point of space and moving in the same way. Hence p must
by
c (1
M)
the apsidal angle will be irfp, where
be
a rational fraction for
all values
The
coefficients of all the
of powers of
M whether rational or
must therefore be
not.
zero,
while the term independent of
M must be a rational fraction.

or
When F=fiu'^ the series hr p is (Art. 426) p = V(3 -n){l- ij (n - 2) (w + 1) M^ + &c.|. Since the coefficient of M^ must be zero we see that n = 2
1,
law of force must be the inverse square or the direct i.e. the In either case the condition that \/(S n) should be a distance.
rational fi:action is satisfied.
we take the most general form for the force, we have F=uy(u). We know by Art. 368 that the first term of the
If
ART, 430.]
series for
CLOSED ORBITS.
275
c, i.e.
is,
in general, a function of
of the reciprocal of
the
mean
radius.
Since this can be varied arbitrarily the apsidal

tt
angle cannot be commensurable with

viz.
unless this
first
term,
cf'{c)lf{c), is
independent of
case
c.
Putting this equal to a
constant
m we find by an
The general
easy integration that /(c)

is
= fxc'^. Hence
F=fjiu^'^^.
therefore reduced to the special
case already considered.
429.
classify
Classification of orbits.
the
The force being Fz^fiu^
it
is
required
to
various forms of the orbit according to the number of the apsidal
distances *.
We
suppose
fi
to be positive
and h not
to be zero.
Arranging the apsidal equation (A) (Art. 422) in descending powers of takes one or other of the three following forms
u,
it
(i:T=K^*T=^""-'-^'"^-''
n-l
'^'-
according as
n>3, n
lies
between 3 and
1,
and n<\.
The two constants \C and h determine the energy and angular momentum of the particle, Art. 313. When these are given, we arrive, by integrating (A), at an equation of the form d + a=^f{u). By varying the constant a we turn the curve round the origin without altering its form. It follows that when G and h are knoion, the orbit is detemined in fonn but not in position. The curve thus found
may have
on the
several branches
orbit
which are not connected with each other. One point must therefore also be given to determine the value of a and to distinguish
the branch actually descinbed by the particle.
Any
velocity
point on the curve being taken as the point of projection,
as the initial velocity.
We
thus have
G=v^-V-^
or
we may regard v G=v^+V^, where F^ is the
from
infinity,
and V^ the velocity to the
origin.
be used
when Fj
is finite, i.e.
when w>l;
the second
The first equation is to when Fq is finite, i.e. when
n<l.
See Art. 313.
430.
infinity.
Case
X.
Let the curve have but one apsidal distance.
The right-hand
side of the apsidal equation (A)
from zero to Hence, when n>3, G is negative or zero, i.e. the velocity v is less than or equal to that from infinity ; when n lies between 3 and 1, G must be positive or zero, i.e. the velocity v is greater than or equal to that from infinity. Lastly we see from the third form of the equation (A) that when n< 1 the curve cannot have only one apsidal distance.
sign once as
varies
must change
* Korteweg, Sur les trajectoires decrites sous Vinfiuence d'une force centrale,
Archives Neerlandaises, vol. xix. 1884, discusses the forms of the orbits, the conditions of stability
orbits, Proc.
and the asymptotic
circles.
Greenhill,
On
the stability of
Lond. Math. Soc.
vol. xxii. 1888, treats of
the asymptotic circles which
can be described when F^/jlu^ for various values of n.
276
These conditions being
distance, found
THEORY OF
satisfied, let
APSES.
[CHAP. VI.
of the apsidal
by solving the equation
(A).
u=a be the reciprocal We then have
(S)'=^'(3l)'=(-'')*()where (p (u) cannot change sign as u varies from the same sign as the highest power of u, its sign as n> or <3.
to oo
.
Since
<j>
(u)
must have
is positive
or negative according
We notice that if is a fraction, say n=plq, we replace the factor u -'o by w - & where tt=w3, a=6; Art. 423. As in most cases the force F varies as some integral power of the distance, it will be more convenientto retain the form given
above.
Since the left-hand side of
(2) is
necessarily positive, the whole of the curve

lie
must
lie inside
the circle
u=a
if
n>3, and must
outside that circle
if
n<3.
have arrived at the apse. It will then begin to recede from the circle and must always continue to recede because dujdd is not again zero. The orbit has therefore two branches extending from the apse to the centre of force or to infinity according as n> or < 3. The apse is an apocentre in the first case and a pericentre (as in a hyperbola described about the inner focus) in the second case.
Suppose the
particle, as it
moves round the centre of
force, to
The motion in the neighbourhood of the apse may be found by writing and retaining only the lowest powers of x. We then have
{dxldef=iAx;
where 4:AW=(i>{a).
angle
.:
u=a + x
u-a=Ad\
while
it
The path is therefore such that the particle describes a Unite moves from u=u to u=a. Since ddjdt=liv? is finite, the- time of
is
describing this finite angle
also finite.
431.
none.
Cases
II.
and
III.
To find
the conditions that there
may
be either two
apsidal distances or none.
The
apsidal equation
must have two
positive roots or
The condition for this is that the right-hand same sign when u=0 and u=co
First.
side of (A)
must have the
zero.
The
Let n>3, this condition requires that C should be positive and not velocity at every point must therefore be greater than that frcrni infinity.
To
distinguish the cases
we
find the
max-min value
M of
the right-hand side
by equating to zero
its differential coefficient.
We thus
find
--m^^'
Taking the second differential and a maximum when n<3.
coefficient
n-1
find that
we
is
minimum when n>3
We
notice that
when >3, the two terms
of
M have
G
opposite signs and that
we can make
have any sign
either predominate
if
by giving h ox
small values.
the initial conditions are suitably chosen.
Thus The path may
M may
there-
fore have either two apsidal distances or none; there will be two if
is
negative
and none
if
is positive.
If
M=0 the apsidal distances are equal.

side of (A) cannot have the
Secondly, let
3>n>l.
unless
The right-hand
same sign
when u=0 and u=qo

fore be
less
is negative.
The
velocity at every point must there-
than that from
infinity.
ART. 433.]
Writing as before
CLASSIFICATION OF ORBITS.
277
we
shall prove that
M
M
is
necessarily positive
is
and has zero
for its least value.

is
Then
since the right-hand side of (A)
negative
when u=0 and u=ao and

value, there
equal to
the positive quantity

distances
M for
some intermediate
must he two apsidal
which can be equal only when

is positive,
M=0.
Since
To prove that h=vr sin p
we
notice that
is least
i.e.
(Art. 313) this
occurs
when h=vr,
when h when the
is greatest.
particle is
projected perpendicularly to the radius vector.
Substituting this value of h

differentiation that
and
remembering that C=v^-Vi^, we can see by a simple

again least
is
when
v^=ixlr^~^, that
is,
when
the velocity
infinity
is
(ra
equal to that in a
circle.
This value of v
value of
the path
is less
than the velocity from

of
fore admissible here.
Substituting this value of v
we
being <3), and is therefind that the minimum
M
is
is zero.
The value
is
therefore positive
and
is
zero only
when
circle.
We, may
also prove that the orbit has two apsidal distances
since the velocity is insufficient to carry the particle to infinity, the orbit
by observing that must
have either an apocentre or must approach an asymptotic circle. In either case the apsidal equation has one positive root and therefore has another.
Thirdly, let 1>tc.
Since
C=v^+
F^^
we
notice that
C must
be positive.
We
now have
we may prove
in the
same way as before that

1
is least
when h=vr and

Thus
v^=iilr^~^
and that then
M=
^ri-"+Fo*=0 by
Art. 312.
is
always positive
circle.
and
the curve has two apsidal distances

result
which can be equal only in a
We verify this
by noticing that since an

circle.
infinite velocity is required to
carry the particle to infinity (n being <1, Art. 312),
the orbit must have an
apocentre or approach an asymptotic
The
apsidal equation
must
therefore
have two positive roots.
432.
It follows
equation (A) can be without an apse only

extends from the centre of force to infinity.
from what precedes that the curve defined by the apsidal when n>3. In that case the orbit
We arrive at
must be
satisfied (Art.
the same result by noticing that

carry the particle to infinity.
If
if
there is
no
apse, the velocity
sufficient to
312).
>1
this condition
l>n this condition cannot be requires C to be positive and it is

If
circle
evident that the second form of the apsidal equation has then a positive root.
It also follows that there
can be an asymptotic
only when n>3.

zero,
For
if
the orbit be ultimately circular the constant
must be
and
this cannot
happen when;i<3 unless the
orbit is circular throughout.
See also Art. 447.

If a, & be
433.
To find
the motion
when
the orbit has two apsidal distances.
the reciprocals of these distances, the apsidal equation (A) takes the form
h''(^^y={u-a)(u-b)^(u),
278
where
<f>(u)
THEORY OF
is
APSES.
[CHAP. VI.
n> or <3. Since the left-hand u cannot lie between the limits a and b if The whole curve 3, and must lie within that annulus if n < 3.
positive or negative according as
side is necessarily positive
we
see that
It appears that
when n>3
the full curve defined by the differential equation (A) These, being point of pro-
contains two distinct branches, either of which can be described by the particle
with the given energy
^C
and the given angular momentum

branch described by the particle
is
h.
separated by the empty annulus, do not intersect, so that

jection is given the particular
when the
determined.
We
notice also that this branch has only one apsidal distance though the complete
curve has two.
When n<3
the path of the particle undulates between the two circles

alternately
u=a,
u=b, touching each
and being always concave to the centre of
force.
434. Case ZV. To find the motion when The apsidal equation now takes the form
The motion as the particle approaches the u=a+x and retaining only the lowest powers
h^(dxldef=^{a)x%
where m^=<p{a)lh^. asymptotic path and arrives at the
ultimately equal to ha^) is
finite,
the apsidal distances are equal.
h^(duld0f={u-a)^^(u).
circle
u=a may be
found by putting
of x.
We then have
an
.:
u-a=Ae-^,
ff
The
particle therefore approaches the limiting circle in

circle
only when
= aa.
Since ddldt (being
the time of describing an infinite
nnmber
of revo-
lutions round the centre of force is infinite.
The conditions
that the right-hand side of the apsidal equation (A)
may
have-
a square factor and be positive are (1) the coefficients of the highest and lowest powers must be positive, and (2) we must have M=0, Art. 431. If >3, C must be positive, i.e. the velocity at every point must be greater than that from infinity.
If
n<3'the
coefficient of the highest
power of u
is
negative,
and
there can be no
asymptotic circle.
(See also Art. 432.)
it is known that the path has an apse, we may prove a pericentre or apocentre according as the velocity of projection is greater or less than the velocity in a circle at the same distance. Let v be the velocity of the particle, V^ the velocity in a circle at the same distance r, F^ the velocity from infinity ; then (Art. 313)
435.
When n>3 and

is
that that apse
î'=1-^. â'=^. i;2=Fi2-t-C v^-V^ -l(n-^)V^^+C

.-.
(1),
(2).
V^lri=F. At a pericentre the orbit lies outside the circle of radius r^, hence p>-ri and v^> V^. At an apocentre the orbit lies inside the circle and v^<. V^.
If at that apse v-jp=:F,
.-.
r=r^ represent any apsidal distance, we have
It follows
by inspection of
V-^
(2)
are positive, and, since
decreases
that at a pericentre both sides of that equation when r increases, both sides must continue to
be positive as the particle recedes from the origin.

at a second apse, for this requires the left side to
The
particle also cannot arrive
become negative. In the same way at an apocentre the two sides of (2) are negative and must continue to be The conclusion is that the velocity negative as the particle approaches the origin.
ART. 438.]
at
CLASSIFICATION OF ORBITS.
is greater or less
279
any point
than tKat in a circle at the same distance according as
the path has a pericentre or apocentre.

It follows also that the
path described cannot have both a pericentre and an
apocentre.
436. The following table sums up the possible orbits when F=:fiuV: >3, v^Fj {one apsidal distance, path inside the circle.
v>Vi
(two apsidal distances, path inside or outside both circles

\
M negative
according as
is
<
or
> V^-
M positive
v>Vi
v>Vi
(no apsidal distance, the path extends from the centre of force
\
to infinity.
(an asymptotic circle, approached from within or from without

\
M=0
3>7i>l, v>Vi
according as v
is
<
or
> Fj.
circles. circles.
{one apsidal distance, path outside the circle. {two apsidal distances, path between the
< Fj
l>ra,
v<Fi
{two apsidal distances, path between the
Here Fg
is
the velocity in a circle at the distance of the point of projection.

if
Ex. When the force F=:fm'^ is repulsive show that the path, has a pericentre with branches stretching to infinity.
not rectilinear,
437.
The motion in
the neighbourhood of the origin is found
by retaining the
highest powers only of u.
We thus have
by
(A), Art. 429,
(iy=Ksy=^'""-'
according as
"
-*^^first
n>S
or <3, where (n-l)B^=2/ji..
The
alternative gives after
integration, supposing the particle to be approaching the origin,
rP-roP=-^0,
describes a finite angle in a finite time
ri-roi=-Bqt,
where p=i{n-3), q=:^(n + l); showing that the particle (except when n=3) when the radial distance decreases from
to zero.
r=ro
The negative
sign in the second alternative shows that,

i.e.
when n<3,
the particle
cannot reach the origin unless h=0,
unless the path
is
a radius vector.
438.
The motion at an
infinite distance
from
the origin is
found by retaining
the lowest powers only of u.
We
then have
2/.
/dry
according as
,^(duy ^
n>
is
or <1.
The negative
sign in the second alternative shows that
when ra<l
from
the curve can have no branches which extend to infinity.

positive,
first
i.e.
When C
when
the velocity v of projection
is
greater than that
infinity,
the
alternative leads to
h(u-UQ)= ~e^G,
r-rQ=tJG,
showing that when the particle travels from r=rf) to infinity it describes a finite angle d round the origin, and that the time is infinite. The path therefore tends to a rectilinear asymptote whose distance from the origin is -d6ldu=hls/C.
If
however C=0,
i.e.
the velocity v of projection
is
equal to that from infinity,

(A) is u^ or m""^.
the lowest existing power of
u in the apsidal equation
We
280
then have
THEORY OF
(dry
^.
APSES,
[CHAP. VI.
2/*
/du^
>1.
according as
n>3
or n<:3 but
The
first
alternative
shows that (except when

alternative, i.e.
h=0)
there are no branches leading to infinity.
The second
origin,
n<3,
gives, supposing the particle to recede
from the
where (n-1) J52=2ju,

time.
origin.
p= -^ (3-n),
q=\{n+\).
it
These equations show that as
the particle proceeds from r=ro to infinity
describes a finite angle in an infinite
The path tends
to a rectilinear asymptote at
an
infinite distance
from the
439.
Stability of the orbits.
Referring to Art. 436
we
see that
is
when n>3
the orbit extends to the origin or to infinity except
when
the particle
approaching
an asymptotic
constants G, h
orbits
circle.
The
existence of such a circle depends on the equality of the
factors of the right-hand side of the apsidal equation,
and a
slight
may
render the factors unequal or imaginary.

'
change in the In either case the
new path will lead the particle may be called unstable.
either to the centre of force or to infinity.
Such
When
71
< 3 and
the velocity of projection less than that from infinity, the path
is restricted to lie
u = a, u = b, and the values of a and 6 wUl alter the values of these constants, but the orbit will still be restricted to lie between two circles though the radii will not be exactly the same as before. Such orbits may be called
between the two
circles
depend on the constants
C and
h.
Any
slight disturbance
stable.
440.
Ex.
is,
Prove that any small decrease of the angular
momentum
h or
increase of the energy
moves; that
central line.
will
widen the annulus within which the particle increase the oscillation of the particle on each side of the
JC
will
441.
several terms the
Apsidal boundaries wben F=f{u). When the law of force contains argument becomes more complicated. Let F='2Au^, then
Transposing the terms, the apsidal equation
is
(iy='"(i')'=^Â"""'-'"'+<^ = (w-ai)(M-a2) (M-aj0(w),

...
<^''
where
<p (m)
a^, a^,
all
...
are positive quantities arranged in descending order,
contains
the factors which do not vanish between
u=0
u.
and m=oo
and <p{ii) The factor
keeps one sign, viz. that of the highest power of
Let us divide the plane of motion into annular portions by circles whose
common
a^,
centre
is
at the centre of force
and whose
radii are the reciprocals of a^
&c.
Then
it is
since
{dujdOf changes sign when u
passes any one of
these
boundaries,
clear that the curve defined
by the
differential equation (B)
can
have branches only in the alternate annuli, the intervening ones being vacant. The space between u=aj and m = oo being occupied or vacant according as ^(w) is
ART. 444.]
APSIDAL BOUNDARIES.
between any two contiguous
circles
281
circles,
If the initial position of the particle lie
the subsequent path

alternately.
least, the
is
restricted to lie
between these
and touches each
If the initial position lie outside the greatest circle or inside the subsequent path must also lie outside or inside these circles and must
therefore extend to infinity or to the centre of force.
442.
Next,
let
some of the
factors of the apsidal equation be equal, say
(l)'='"(S)"=<"-'"'"-^<'*<"'where / (m) has been written for the remaining factors. To determine the motion in the neighbourhood of the circle u=a, we write u = a-\-x and retain only the lowest powers of x. We then have, supposing m>2,
where B^=f{a)
Art. 434.
(f>{a),
and K=4(m-2).
The case
in
which
m=2
is
discussed in
We
see that the circle
u=a
is
asymptotic.
The
particle arrives at the

force
circle after describing
an
infinite
number
of revolutions
round the centre of
and
at the
end of an
infinite time.
443. Let us trace the surface of revolution whose abscissa is r and ordinate z=Fr^, and let the ordinate z be perpendicular to the plane of motion of the particle. We notice that this surface is independent of the initial conditions and
that
its
form depends
solely
on the law of force.
easy to see that the ordinate z corresponding to any value of r represents the square of the angular momentum in a circular orbit described with radius r.
It is It will therefore be useful also to trace the plane
whose ordinate
is z
= h% where
is
the angular
momentum
of the path described.
By describing circles whose radii are the abscissae minimum ordinates of the surface, we may divide the
annular portions in which the function ing outwards from the centre of force.
scending portions of the surface.
z
of
the
maximum and
plane of motion into
= Fr^ is
alternately increasing or decreas-
These we
may
call the ascending or de-
444. If r represent any apsidal distance, we have at the corresponding apse vÎp=F and v^hjr; hence h^=Fpr^. At a pericentre the orbit lies outside the circle of radius r, hence p>r, and the angular momentum h of the path must be In the same way, at an apocentre the greater than that in a circle of radius 7'. orbit lies inside the circle, and the angular momentum h is less than that in a
circle of radius r.
Referring to the surface z=Fi^,
we
see that a pericentral distance
r=OA
must
have an ordinate
OB
than that of the plane z = h% and an apocentral distance must have an ordinate BB' greater than that of the plane. It immediately
A A'
less
follows that
i{
A,
are the pericentre and apocentre of the same path, both the
lie
points A', B', cannot
on the same descending portion of the surface.
This con-
clusion does not apply if A,
B are the
pericentre
and apocentre
of different branches
of the complete curve; (Art. 441).
We infer
from
this result that
an annular space on the plane
of
motion
(Art.
443) in which Fr^ decreases outwards has this element of instability, viz. that a
path having both a pericentre and an apocentre cannot he described within the space. If the path have a pericentre the particle will leave the space on its outer margin ;
282
if
THEORY OF
it
APSES.
on
its
it
[CHAP.
VI.
an apoceutre
will
move out
has
left
it
of the space
inner boundary.
We see also
that
when the
particle
the annular space

into
must proceed
to infinity or to
the centre of force, unless

Fi-^
come
has increased sufficiently to exceed the K^ of space in which Fr^ has become less than h\
some other external annular space in which its own path or into some internal
445.
Wa-have
'
We may also
deduce this result very simply from the radial resolution.
'^-^{Tf -^=^(^'-^^')and passes an apocentre r increases to a maximum and hence dridt changes sign from positive to negative and dh-fdt"^ is In the same way, when the particle passes a pericentre, dPrjdt^ is
immediately follows that at an apocentre Fr^>h^ and at a pericentre
As the
particle approaches
decreases,
negative.
positive.
It
446. If the orbit have an asymptotic circle r=:a, the angular momentum h must be equal to that in a circle of that radius. Hence the asymptotic circle must
he the projection of some one of the intersections of the surface z z
= Fi^ with
it
tlie
plane
= h^;
(Art. 443).
circle is itself
As the asymptotic
Art. 445, that
an apocentre or
is
pericentre,
follows, as in
when
the particle is approaching the circle from within h^ - Fr^ is

zero.
negative
and ultimately
Hence Fi^
decreasing outwards.
is positive
it
When
the
particle is approaching the circle
from without h^ - Fr^

In either case
and ultimately
zero, hence Fr^ is increasing inwards. intersections

to
follows that only those
which
lie
on a descending portion of the surface z=Ft^ can correspond

of the surface can have only one intersection with
asymptotic circles.
As each descending portion

There
exist
the plane z = h% there cannot be more asymptotic circles than descending branches.
may
be fewer asymptotic circles than descending branches because two
conditions are necessary that an asymptotic circle of given radius

;
r=a
and
should
(2)
(1)
the angular
momentum must
be equal to that in the
circle,
the
constant
circle, i.e.
C must
be such that the velocity at a distance
r=a is
equal to that in the
v^la=F.
As an example, consider the force Ftm^. If n>3, the surface z=Fr^ has only a descending portion, there can therefore be one and only one asymptotic circle. Also the path described cannot have both an apocentre and a pericentre, though different branches of the same curve may have one an apocentre and another a pericentre. See Arts. 444, 446, 436. If n<3, the surface z=Fr^ has only an ascending portion. Hence there cannot be an asymptotic circle, but the patlj can
447.
have both an apocentre and a pericentre.
448.
of its
Ex.
Discuss
the
properties
of
the
surface
Z=Fr-v\
where the
velocity v is a
known function of r given in Art. 441. Prove that (1) the abscissae max-min ordinates are the same as those of the surface z=Fr^, so that the
portions of each correspond (Art. 443); (2) each asymptotic circle must be one of the intersections of the surface with the plane of motion; (3) conversely, if at any intersection we also have z=-h^, that intersection
ascending and descending
is
an asymptotic
circle.
The
first
result follows
from
dr
,--,. dr
r^
To prove
the second and third
we
ART. 450.]
notice that
LAW OF FORCE
IN
CONIC.
in a circle;
283
and vrhenz = h^, the
angular
when Z=0, the velocity is equal to that momentum is equal to that in a circle.
449. Examples. Ex. 1. Find the law of force with the lowest index of u such that an orbit can be described having two given asymptotic circles whose Find also the conditions of radii are the reciprocals of a and b, and find the path. projection that the path may be described.
,
Referring to Art. 441 we see that the right-hand must be m (w - )^ (" - ^^- We then find
.
side of the ansidal equation (B)
F=nv?(u-a){u-b) {2u-a-b) + iJL'u^,

at projection
and the angular

Ex.
2.
momentum
must be
Jfjf.
Let F=/nfi {(u-a) {Su-a-b) + cu}, where F is the central force. If the conditions of projection are such that h^=nc and the velocity v when M=a is
v'^=na?,
show that the path
is
= (tanh^)2, ^^ u b
where c/c2=2 (a-h).
Show
also
that the curve has two infinite branches tending to the
same asymptotic
circle
u=a, with an apse

Ex.
3.
at a distance 1/&.
particle arrives at
an apse distant r from the centre of

r.
force with a
velocity v equal to that in a circle at the distance

direction, will the particle describe the
If the velocity be reversed in

will it
same path in a reverse order or
travel along the circle?
See Art. 419.

r.
At such an apse the radius of curvature p of the path 9iust be equal to

since
But
must a path with an asymptotic circle. an apse in anj finite time (Art. 442).
If the particle
du p (B) of Art. 441
-=u-\-^â.t any apse this requires that cPuldd^=0.

therefore have equal roots,
The
apsidal equation
and the apse is at the extremity of The particle therefore can never arrive at such
circle
be projected from a point on the asymptotic

it
with the
given values of v and k
may
be said to describe either orbit, for the deviation of

small at the end of any
finite time.
one from the other
is indefinitely
Boussinesq, Comptes Rendtis, vol. 84, 1877, considers the circular motion to be a singular integral of the differential equation. Korteweg and Greenhill have also
discussed this problem.
On
450,
the
law of force hy which a conic
is described.
Newton's theorem^.
particle about
required to
An orbit is described by a a centre of force G whose law is known : it is find the law of force by which the same orbit can be
described about another centre of force 0.

Newton's theorem is given in Prop. vn. Cor. 3 of the second section of the book of the Principia. The application to the motion of a particle in a circle acted on by a force parallel to a fixed direction follows in the next proposition. Sir W. R. Hamilton's paper, giving the law F=firlp^, is in the third volume of the
Villarceau in the Connaissana des
*
first
Proceedings of the Irish Academy, 1846.
Temps
=
,
284
FORCE IN A CONIC.
[chap. VI
Let F, F' be the forces of attraction tending respectively 0. Let OF, OZ be the perpendiculars on the tangents at any point P,GP = r,OP = r\
to
G and
Then
have
since sin
CF7=CY/r, we
v
-=F
p
= h
CY'
F= p.GY''
Similarly
If
AV
F'
p.OZ''
parallel to
F~
h^r [OZJ
we draw CG
OP, the triangles

.
OPZ
and
'
CGY
are similar, and
OZ^_GY
.
r_hf^CG^
If then to
OP~CG' F 'h'' r'^r' F is given as a function of r, the law of

'
any assumed point

as a function of r
is
also
r'
CG
and
force F' tending known, when we have deduced from the geometrical properties of
the curve.
Remembering that the area
A = ^ht, we
is
see that the periodic
times in which the whole curve
described about
respectively are inversely as the arbitrary constants h
and and
h'.
By
cho6sing these properly
we can make
the ratio
of the periodic
times have
any
ratio
we please.
time of describing any arc
tends
to G, the area
differs
We
known.
also notice that if the
known when the
central
force
PQ PGQ
is
is
Now
the area
POQ
from this by a rectilinear
for 1852, using Cartesian coordinates, arrived at two possible laws of force. Afterwards Darboux and Halphen investigated two laws equivalent to these, and
proved that there

the coordinates of
is
its
no other law in which the central

point of application.
force is a function only of
Their results
to
may
be found in voL 84
of the Comptes Rendus, 1877.
The
investigations of
him
at
somewhat greater length in his notes

There
is
Darboux were reproduced by the Cours de Mecanique by

vol.
Despeyrous, 1884.
a third paper by Glaisher in
39 of the Monthly
Notices of the Astronomical Society, 1878,

for
who
also gives the expression (2^lîn) ro*
the periodic time.

-tesian,
Darboux uses
chiefly polar coordinates, while
Halphen
employs f
Glaisher
beginning with the general differential equation of all conies simplifies the arguments by frequently using geometrical methods.
a paper by S. Hirayama of Tokyo in Gould's Astronomical Journal,
There
1889.
is also
ART. 453.]
figure
Hamilton's law of force.
285
whose area can therefore be found. Hence the area POQ and therefore the time of describing the same arc.PQ when the
central force tends to
can be found.
Suppose the orbit is a conic, then the force tending to the centre G is F=[ir, and h = \Jfi.ah. It immediately follows
451.
that the force tending to any point
is
F' =
-^
If,
for
example,
conic that
is
a focus,
it
is
known geometrical property
of a
We
on the auxiliary circle and that therefore then have F' = /jb'/r'^, where h'^ = /juV/a.
lies
CG = a.
452.
Parallel forces.
To find
the force parallel to
straight line by which
conic can be described.
a given See Art. 323.
Let the point be at an infinite distance, then in Newton's PO and GG remain parallel to the given straight line throughout the motion. Also the length r' = OP is constant. The required law of force is therefore F' = fx. GG^, where /t is some constant.
formula
If the direction
PO
of the force at
cut the diameter con-
jugate to
N, we have GG.PN=b'^, where b' is the semidiameter parallel to GG. The law of force may therefore also be written F' = AjPN\ where A = fxh'\
in
GG
To
find the constant
fi,
we
notice that in any central orbit,

velocity per-
the velocity being v
hjp,
the component of the

r' is hjr'.
pendicular to the radius vector
In our case when the force acts parallel to a given straight line this component is constant. Representing this transverse velocity by V, the Newtonian
formula of Art. 451 becomes F'
453.
= GG^. a^b^
r-
Hamilton's formula.
particle
describes
a conic
about a centre of force situated at any point 0.
It is required to
find the law of force. Taking the same notation as in Newton's theorem, we let F, F' be the forces tending respectively to the
ce^tre
>
G and the point 0. F' h'ÔPfGYV
Then
(Art. 450)
F = CP[0'Z)'
P
^ = /^-^^'
and the centre
, / h^^f^.ab.
,
It is a geometrical property of a conic that, if
p and
ay
are the
perpendiculars drawn from
on the polar line
'
'
286
of 0,
FORCE IN A CONIC.
OZ* ^ = Yrv
h"'
[CHAP. VI.
'
^^ follows that
tliie
law of force tending
to
is
f^-)
/, where
a, b
and
vary from point to
pomt
of the
curve and
If
h',
and
-bt
are constant.
we
write the Hamiltonian expression for the force in the form
F'=fir'lp^, we see that the angular
momentum h'=\/fji! .ahjur, where

line.
as before
-zb-
is
the perpendicular from the centre on the polar
orbit.
From this we easily deduce the periodic time in an elliptic Remembering that the whole area is Trah, the formula
as
A = \h't gives ^'^ ^^ T= 7 IS 1

.
the time of describing a
complete
ellipse
time of describing any portion of the ellipse with Hamilton's law of force. The coordinates of any point
454.
To
'find the
referred to
an origin at the centre of
force
with axes parallel
to the principal diameters are

a;
0.
cos
<^
/,
= bsin^ g,
and
/,
where
<j>
is
g the coordinates of
Then,
if
the centre of force referred to the centre of the curve.
h be the angular momentum,

hdt
= xdy ydx = {ab fbcos ^ ga sin <^) d<^, :. ht = ab<p fb sin ^+ga cos ^ ga,
where the time is measured from the passage through the apse from which <f) is measured. This, if required, can be expressed in terms of so and y,
ht
= ab(}} fy + gx ga.
This result can be deduced at once from the formula equating A to the excess of the area of the sector AGP
A = ^ht, by
(viz.
âb^)
over the
*
let /,
sum
of the triangles
AGO, OGP.
The
following is a short analytical proof: Let the conic be Ax^-irBy^=l and and the tangent at P are g be the coordinates of 0. The polar line of
respectively
AM+Bgr) = l,
Ax^+By7i=l.
The perpendiculars from
P and
0, viz.
p and OZ,
are therefore
_1-Afx-Bgy ^ - vPV^+Wl
The perpendiculars from the
numerators by unity.
centre, viz.
ztf
1-Afx-Bgy ~ V(^^' + ^y")

and CY, are found by replacing the
It follows that
plOZ=i3lCY.
ART. 457.]
THE TWO LAWS OF FORCE.

or parabola
287
The time of describing an arc of a hyperbola be found by proceeding as in Arts. 348, 349.
465.
may
Sxamples.
Ex.
1.
central force to the focus of a conic,
Deduce from Hamilton's expression (1) the and (2) that to the centre. [In the latter
case nj and
are both infinite but their ratio is unity.]
A particle describes an ellipse whose centre is C under the action of a F situated at a point R in the major axis. If the tangent at P cut the major axis in T, prove that the force F varies as RP {CTIRT)K
Ex.
2.
centre of force
456.
into
The Hamiltonian
different forms.
expression for the force
may be put
two
First,
we have
the form F=fir/p^ (Art. 453).
Secondly.
Let OA,
OB
be two tangents drawn to the conic
from the centre of force 0, and let PL = a, PM=^, PN=y; on these being the three perpendiculars drawn from any point
the sides of the triangle
OAB.
By
a property of conies we have
a^ = K^f, where
force
is
a constant for the same conic.
The
central
may
therefore be expressed in either of the forms

ET
OP
OP
^=^pm=\PL.PMr
position of
at
It ^'^^"'^
r
Each of these expressions is a one-valued function of the P though their values are not necessarily equal except on the orbit. points
suppose either of these laws to be extended to all points of the plane of motion and enquire what would be the path for any given conditions of projection. These problems will be considered in turn.
467.
the
We may
axes, viz.,
The conic being given in its general form referred to any rectangular Ax^ + 2Cxy + By^ + 2Dx + 2Ey + G=0, ^ two HamUtonian expressions for the force to the origin may be put into
-^=7^;
the forms
{ax'' + 2yxy+py^)^' a=D^-AG, y=DE-CG, p=E^-BG, and A is the discriminant. To prove this we notice that the polar line of the origin is Dx+Ey + G=0, that the ratio of the perpendiculars from the centre x, y and &om the point P is
(Dx + Ey + Q)-^'
r,
tttj.
P=
so
where
'p~ Dx+Ey + G'

If
_ Dx-Êy-it-G
we
refer the equation of the conic to the centre as origin, it
becomes
Aa^ + 2Cxy+Byz=
-D3!-Ey-G= - j^^Tci'
288
FORCE IN A CONIC.
let this
[CHAP. VI.
Turning the axes round the origin

A'x^ +
become
BY=-Dx-Ey-G,
A'B'=AB-C^ and
A' + B'=A
where by the theory of invariants

conic
It
is
+ B.
jf^,
Since the
.
now
referred to its principal diameters,
we have a^b^=
immediately follows by substituting in Art. 453 that
Since the equation of the conic
the expression
{Dx + Ey + Gf may be written in the form G(Ax^ + 2Cxy+Bif) + {Dx+Ey + Gf=(Dx + Ey)^ just obtained for the force F may be put by a simple
a%^\p)^~
substitution
into the second form.
The straight lines ax^ + 2yxy+py^=0, when real, pass through the origin and make Dx+Ey + G=0. They therefore meet the curve at the points where the polar
line of the origin cuts
it, i.e.
these straight lines are the tangents
dravm from
the
centre of force to the conic.
X,
458. In the same way we may express F as a function of the coordinates y in a variety of different forms each of which gives the same magnitude for the force when the particle lies on the given conic. When these expressions for
the force are generalized and supposed to hold at
all
points of space, they are not
always one-valued functions of the

different values for the force at the
coordinates.
law which gives several

set aside as altogether
same point may be
improbable.
For example, we might deduce from Hamilton's law an expression for F in To do this we find the distance p of any point P'on the orbit from the polar line of the origin O in terms of the distance r of P from 0. But there are four points on the conic at the same distance r from the origin and each The expression of these is, in general, at a different distance from the polar line. for the central force F as a function of r only will therefore have four values for
terms of r alone.
each value of
r.
459.
The
First law of force.

all
Supposing the
first
form of the Hainiltonian

is
law of force to be extended to

distance of any point
points of the plane,
we put F^, where r

and p
is the
the
P from
a fixed
centre of force 0,
perpendicular
is positive
from Pon an arbitrary straight line fixed in space. It is supposed that p when P and the origin are on the same side of the given straight line.
We
straight
shall
now prove
that, if
direction
PT, with any velocity V, line, for pole and polar.
a particle be projected from any point P in any the path is a conic having O, and the given
This follows from the results of Art. 453.

conic to satisfy
(1)
It is
obvious that
we can
describe a
the three conditions that
it
shall pass through P, touch
PT and
have such a radius of curvature that V^lp is equal to the normal force at P, (2) the two conditions that the polar line of shall be the given straight line. We may. also prove that this conic is a real conic. This being so, the conic mast be the
path.
'
ART. 461.]
THE FIRST LAW.
289
however obtain a proof independent of Art. 453 by integrating the Let the origin be at the centre of force, and the given straight line be parallel to the axis of a; at a distance c, then p = c-rBiad.
equation of motion.
We may
We have
To
-s
+ u=
hhfi
ft2
(p)3
;j2
(cu - sin
Of
integrate this, put cm
= sin + cu';
dht'
,
n
7i2c%'3*
This
is
the differential equation of the path of a particle acted on by a central
force F=firl<^.
Thi? path
.'.
is
known
to be a conic having its centre at the origin.
Art. 325;
chi'^
= A' cos^ 9 +2C' COB esiad+B'Btnê

cos^ 6 + 2C' cos 6 sin
(1).
The polar equation
of the required orbit is therefore
{cu
- sin ef=zA'
e+B' sin^ 6,
which when written in Cartesian coordinates becomes
(c-y)^=A'aP+2C'xy+BY
Writing this equation in the form kj^ôl^ where
a, /3
(2).
are the factors of the rightis
hand
side, it is
obvious that the polar line of the origin
the given straight line
When
To prove
the conic
is
given in the form
(2), the
constant h
is
given by
^=A'B' - C'^.
We
this we notice that h represents the angular momentum of both orbits. have therefore by Art. 326 h^c^l/i=a'"b'^, where a', b' are the semi-axes of the conic (1). We know by the theory of conies that A'B' - C'^=(^ja'^b'^, the result
therefore follows at once.
When
the conic
is
given in the general form of Art. 457,

is
we
find
-^= A {
h^
\GJ
and the
Since the central force
not a function of r only,
it is
not conservative
velocity cannot be found without a
knowledge of the path.
Li such oases we use
the formula v = hl{OZ), see the figure of Art. 450.
460.
F=iirlp^.
To
classify the
paths according
to the sign
of
/i,
the
lam of force being

at
Let
II
be positive
the force
is attractive
and the
orbit concave to
aU points
on the side of the given straight line nearest to the centre of force and the contrary at all points on the far side. When a conic cuts the polar line of a point 0, the part of the curve nearest to is convex hence the orbit does not cut the polar line. It also follows that the orbit may be an ellipse or hyperbola on the side near 0, but must be a hyperbola on the far side.
;
Let n be negative ; the force
side of the polar line while the contrary holds
an
ellipse or
a hyperbola.
and the orbit convex to on the near on the far side. The conic may be By drawing a figure we see that the polar line must cut
is
repulsive
the conic though, in the case of a hyperbola, the path
may
be the other branch.

is
461.
Examples.
Ex.
1.
The conic Ax^+2Cxy + By^+2cy-c^=0
de-
scribed by a particle under the action of a central force

origin^
F=^ p*
tending to the
straight
where
p=c-yis
the distance of the particle from
the^ven
Une
290
y = c.
2/=c.
(1)
FORCE IN A CONIC.
The conic must have the form given
Prove that
if
[CHAP. VI.
is
the polar line of the origin
to be
{A{B + l)-C-}h^=t.c,
(2)
{4B-Cn^'=M^"-(y,
(5)
-Ch^=f,.y^{cpk)
when
the path
is
From
these equations,
h and the two components
of velocity
known, we can find the angular momentum conversely we can deduce the path when
;
the circumstances of projection are given.
proof
These equations follow from the preceding propositions. An independent may be obtained by differentiating the equation of the conic twice and
d^xldt"^, d'h/jdt^ their
writing for
values -fixfp^, -/xylp^.
We
thus obtain three
equations which
may
be transformed into those given above by simple processes.
Ex.
2.
according as
Prove that the conic described is an ellipse, parabola or hyperbola /i {2p - c) I p^ - p'^ is positive, zero or negative, where p is the distance
of the point of projection
from the polar
line
and
p' the resolved initial velocity.

is
Ex.
3.
If
Ax^ + 2Cxy + By'' + 2Dx + 2Ey + G =

27r
(
the conic described,

)
show
that the periodic time in an ellipse
is
T=-j- )rjw^c^\c\
Ac
5
'
j.n
Ex.
4.
particle is acted
on by a central force F=iJ.
tending to the
and p the distance from a fixed straight line. Prove that the equation of the path is c/r=sin^+/(^), where clr=f{6) is the polar equation of the path when the force tending to the origin is F=/j.r^~^lc^, both orbits being described with the same angular momentum h.
origin where r is the radius vector
462.
\
The second law of

ly
force. Supposing the second form of the Hamiltonian law of force to be extended to all
y^ P_^^
y^
lohere
points of the plane of motion,
we put
F=vî,
{PL PM)^
.
^\
PL,
Plil are the perpendiculars

lines
yw ^
459lines
pomt
on two fixed straight
from any OA, OB, drawn
through the centre of force 0; Art. 456. The form of the path may be obtained by
following either of the methods described in Art.
The
result is that the path is always a conic touching the given straight
OA,OB.
any point
it
If the force at
given by this formula
is to
be a function of the
(supposed to be
position of
P only,
should be supposed to keep one sign throughout each of the
triangular spaces formed by the given straight lines OA,
OB
real),
though that sign

the sign
is
be different in different triangles. In any triangle in which negative only the convex portions of the conic can be described, while
may
the concave portions are alone possible

infinite
when
the sign
is positive.
The
force is
when the
particle arrives at either of the straight lines
OA,
OB and
the
path becomes discontinuous.

If
we suppose the magnitude alone
of the force to be given by the formula, the
ART. 464.]
THE SECOND LAW.
291
sign being taken at pleasure, arcs of both parts of each conic could be described
by giving
F the proper sign.

Examples.
Ex.
1.
463.
If the trilinear
equation of the conic

is
is
a^ = Ky^,
prove that h^= - ivCK^ cosec^ $ v?here vhk^, triangle occupied by the central force, and c
of force
the angle at the corner of the
is
the perpendicular from the centre
O on
the polar line
AB.
from the
Ex.
tangent
figure) that the force is

i.e. /m is
The negative sign shows (what is indeed obvious repulsive on the side of the polar line nearest to
from the point P with a velocity V and the OA, OB in G and H. Prove that
the centre of force,

2.
negative.
GPH
intersects the given straight lines
the areal equation of the path, referred to the triangle
OGH,
is
^(lx)+^{my)+^(^^z^ = 0,
where l=GP, m=^HP, A
of the path at
is
the area of the triangle,
and the radius of curvature p

It
is
given by V^lp='F sin
GPO.
follows that the conic is

i.e.
inscribed or escribed according as

force is attractive or repulsive.
is positive
or negative,
according as the
464.
There are no other laws of force besides
OP P^'
OP
(PL.pmf
initial conditions.
,
which, being a one-valued function of the coordinates (except as regards sign), are
such that a conic will be described with any
A B, C, D, from Hamilton's theorem that for points on any one conic the force to a given point O must be F=firlp^. Hence if the force is to be one-valued, i.e. the same at the same point of space for aU paths through that point, we must have at each of the four points A, B, C, D, ja^lfi = p'Î/m', where p, p' are the perpendiculars on the two polar lines of 0.
To prove
it is
this consider two conies intersecting in the four points

real.
which
convenient to take as
It follows
We now
require the following geometrical theorem*.
If
in four points A, B, C, coincident or two
and the
ratios of the perpendiculars
two conies intersect from each of these
points on the polar lines of a point
are equal, then either the polar lines are
common
tangents (real or imaginary) can be drawn from 0.
In the former case the

first
common law
of force for the two conies is given by the
fotm of F, in the
latter ease
by the second form.
* Let the conies be, see Art. 457,
ax^ + 2yxy+py'^--{Dx + Ey
a'x^ + 2y'xy
+ Gf, + ^Y =(D'x + E'y G')^.

-f-
Since
Dx + Ey + G=0,
D'x + E'y -{ G' =
are the "polar lines of the origin,
we
must have
at the points of intersection
ax^ + 2yxy
+fy^ = m
(a'x^
+ 2y'xy + j8'i/^)
This quadratic equation gives only two values of yjx for the same value of m. The equation cannot therefore be satisfied at four points unless either a, /3, y are respectively proportional to a', /3', y', or the four points lie on two straight lines
(say
OAB, OCD) passing through
0.
In the former case the two conies have a
pair of
conies.
common tangents, in the latter the polar line of is common to the two This common polar line can be constructed by dividing OAB, OCD har-
monically in E,
F and then
joining
EF.
292
SINGULAR POINTS.
[CHAP. VI.
Singular Points in Central Orbits.

465.
Singular Points.
It has already
been pointed out in
Art. 100 that cases present themselves in our mathematical pro-
which either the force, the velocity or both become Such infinite quantities do not occur in nature and if we limit ourselves to problems which have a direct application to natural phenomena these are only matters of curiosity. Nevercesses in
infinite.
theless
it is
useful to consider
them because they
call
our attention
which we might otherwise pass The utility of such a discussion is perhaps shown by the over. differences of opinion which exist regarding the subsequent path
to peculiarities in the analysis
of a particle on arriving at a singular point*.
particle
Points of infinite Force. Let us suppose that a P, describing an orbit about a centre of force 0, arrives at a point B where the tangent passes through the centre of force and therefore coincides with the radius vector. At first sight we
466.
might suppose that the particle would move along the straight But line BO and proceed in a direct line to the centre of force.
this is not necessarily the case.
Supposing
to
be
finite,
and the curvature be at a finite distance from (Art. equations we see from the 306)
to
p
that both V and
at
are infinite at the point B.
We
shall
also
its
suppose that when the particle passes on the force changes direction and reduces the velocity again to a finite quantity.
to
At the same time the component of the velocity perpendicular the radius vector OP, viz. rdO/dt, remains finite however near
Since there
is
the particle approaches B.
no force to destroy this
transverse velocity, the particle
must
cross the straight line

side.
OB
and proceed to describe an arc on the opposite

*
The
singularity of the
is
motion when the particle describes a
circle
external centre of force
discussed in Frost's Neicton, 1854 and 1863.
about an The same
result is independently arrived at
by Sylvester in the Phil. Mag. 1866.

in the Messenger of Mathematics, 1874.
cases are considered by
Asaph Hall
Other There
are several papers also in the Bulletin de la Societe Mathematique de France, such
as Gascheau in vol. x, 1881,
and Lecornu in
vol. xxii.
ART. 468.]
467.
POINTS OF INFINITE FORCE.
293
To
simplify
the argument, let us suppose that the
particle describes
circle
external to
the circumference.
are given
By
Art. 321, the circumstances of the motion
by
F=
where
to the circle.
^^
v'
= t^
h'=JL
OB, OB' drawn from
h is the length of each of the tangents
Describe a second circle having a radius equal to that of the
given circle and touching

at
OB
at
on the opposite
side.
If a
second particle, properly projected along the second
circle, arrive
simultaneously with the given particle P, but moving in
the opposite direction, both the velocity v and the transverse

velocity hjr of the
two particles
will
be equal and opposite each
to each. If the velocity of the second particle be reversed, Art. 419, it

will retrace its former
path in a reverse order and this must be
also the subsequent path of the particle P.
The
particle will therefore describe in succession a series of
arcs of equal circles.

particle changes
The
points of discontinuity at which the
centre is
the next lie on a circle whose and radius OB = h, and the successive arcs are alternately concave and convex to the centre of force. The particle the same will thus continually move round the centre of force direction in an undulating orbit, but the curve will not be re-
from one
circle to
entering after one circuit unless the angle

of four right angles.
BOB'
is
a submultiple
The same arguments

conic
is
will
apply to other orbits.
When
as
described about an external centre of force

of the
ex-
plained in Art. 462, the particle by a proper projection can be
made
it will
to
describe
either
arcs
contained
between the
tangents drawn from 0.

cross the tangent
On
arriving at the point of contact B,
and describe an arc of a conic equal to
the undescribed arc of the original conic.

468.
Tbe
particle axxiTes at tbe centre of force.
When
the particle
arrives at the centre of force in a finite time, the determination of the subsequent
path presents some other
peculiarities.
Taking
first
the Newtonian case in which the particle describes a circle about a
centre of force
on
its
circumference,
we
notice that the transverse velocity h\r (as
well as the velocity v) becomes infinite at 0.
To understand how the
particle
can
294
have an
infinite velocity in
SINGULAR POINTS.
a direction perpendicular to what
is
[CHAP. VI.
ultimately a
is
tangent to the path, we observe that, since

infinitely less
2ap=r% the
transverse velocity hlr
than the tangential velocity hjp.
When
its
the particle has passed through the origin, the central force, changing
direction,
reduces the velocity again
to
a finite quantity.
Meantime the
transverse velocity carries the particle across the tangent to the circle.
By
the
same reasoning as
before, the subsequent path is
an equal
circle
which touches the
original circle at the centre of force.
On
arriving a second time at the centre of
force, the particle returns to the original circle,
and so on continually.
469.
One
peculiarity of this case is that the radius vector of the particle
while describing the second circle moves round the centre of force in the opposite
direction to that in the
first circle.
Let P, P' be two positions of the particle,
equidistant from the centre of force, just before and just after passing through
that point.
at
The transverse velocity being unaltered the moments of the velocity and P' taken in the same direction round O are equal and opposite. Since
is r^dOjdt, it follows
this
moment
that at the point of discontinuity h changes
its sign.
470.
force
When
the particle moves in an equiangular spiral about a centre of

is
whose law
the inverse cube,
it
describes
an
infinite
number
of continually
decreasing circuits and arrives at the centre of force at the end of a finite time,
Art. 319.
the same angle.
The subsequent path is another equiangular spiral, Art. 357, having To determine its position we consider the conditions of motion
at the point of junction.
producing each radius vector
Let us construct a second equiangular spiral obtained from the first by to an equal PO backwards through the origin distance OP'. If two particles P, P' describe these spirals so as to arrive simultaneously at the centre of force 0, the particles are always in the same straight
line with 0,
and
at equal distances
from
it.
Their radial and transverse velocities

If the velocity of P' be reversed,
are also always equal

it
and opposite each
to each.
will retrace its
former path in a reverse order, and this must therefore be the
subsequent path of P.
On
passing the centre of force the particle will recede from the origin and
describe the spiral above constructed.
We
notice also that the radius vector of
the particle the
moves round the centre
of force in the opposite direction to that in
first spiral.
471. Umiting Problems. We may sometimes simplify the discussion of some singularities by replacing the dynamical problem by another more general one of which the given problem is a limiting case. But the use of the method requires some discrimination. For example the motion of a particle attracted by whose law of force is the inverse cube, may in some a centre of force at a point cases be regarded as a limit of the motion when the particle is constrained to move in a smooth fixed plane and is attracted by an equal centre of force situated at a point C outside the plane, where CO is perpendicular to the plane and is equal The method requires that the limiting motion should to some small quantity c. be the same whether Ave put the radius vector r=0 first and then c = 0,or c first and then r=0. We know by the principles of the differential calculus that the order in which the variables r and c assume their limiting values is not always a
matter of indifference.
"
ART. 473.]
The component when the centre of
the particle
is
KEPLER'S PROBLEM.
of force in the direction of the radius vector
295
PO is iirKr^ + c^)^
As long
as
force is at G,
and
is nji^
when the
centre is at 0.
components are substantially the same, but when the particle is in the immediate neighbourhood of 0, the former is nrfd^ and therefore zero when the particle passes through 0, while
at a finite distance
from the
origin, these
the latter
is infinite.
is very nearly an though the orbit at a distance from becomes elliptical in the neighbourhood of 0. The force is the path has a pericentre and riot sufficient to draw the particle into the centre the particle retires again to an infinite distance. See also Art. 322.
In the former
case,
it
equiangular spiral,
472.
Examples.
Ex.
1.
particle describes one
branch of the spiral
rd=a
under the action of a centre of force in the origin (Art. 358). Show that after passing through the centre of force it will describe another spiral of the same kind, obtained from the first by producing each radius vector backwards through
the origin to an equal distance.
Since the tangent to the curve

the two branches of the spiral
is
ultimately perpendicular to the radius vector,
may have
common
tangent, and
it
might therefore
be supposed that the particle would describe the second branch.
But
this argu-
ment
requires that the particle should not pass through the origin, so that the
radial velocity drjdt (which is
known
to be constant) has its direction altered with-
out any change in the direction of the force.
Ex.
2.
A particle describes
of the fixed circle (Art. 322).

particle enters that circle,
an epicycloid with the centre of force in the centre Supposing the force to become repulsive when the show that the path on passing the cusp is a hypocycloid.
Kepler's Problem.
473.
particle describes
one focus,
it is
required to
about a centre of force in express in series the two anomalies and

ellipse
an
the radius vector in terms of the time.
If
we
require
only the
first
few terms of the series
it
is
convenient to start from the equations
r'^ = '^{fiaO-e%
where v
is
^^fl-H^ =
r,
1 -f e cos v
(1),
the true anomaly.
Eliminating
we have
%%={l-e^fa+ecosvr^ ^\
= (1 - f 6= -f &c.) (1 - 2e cos V -f Se^ cos^ v - &c.) = 1 2e cos V + f e^ cos 2v + &c. Remembering that v = a, where a is the longitude of the
nearest to the centre of force,
nt
apse
we have
(2),
where
+ 6 = e - 2esm{0 - a) + ê"" sin2{e - a) + &c n^ = /x/aK
296
KEPLER'S PROBLEM.
[CHAP. VI.
We notice that
6 increases by
27r/?i.
27r
It follows
planet makes a complete revolution, and that the corresponding increment of t is immediately that n represents the mean angular
when the
velocity, the
mean being taken with
regard to the time
see
Art. 341.
The equation (2) may be extended to higher powers of e, and therefore when e is small it may be used to determine the time
of describing
any angle
find 6 in
6.
474
it
To
e
terms of
t,
we
a.)
reverse the series.
Writing
in the
form
= nt + e
first
-\-
2e
Bm{d -
- f e" sin
2 (^
- a),
we have
as a
approximation
d^nt +
a second approximation gives
^
e;
= ni + 6 + 2e sin (wi + e a). Writing Vo = nt-ê oi,a, third approximation gives ^ a = Vo + 2e sin {vq + 2e sin Vq) f e^ sin 2,Vq 6 = nt + e + 2e sin (nt + e - a) + fe^ gin 2(nt + - a).
;
.-.
.(3),
and
is
so on, the labour of effecting the successive approximations
increasing at each step.
As the
eccentricity of the earth's orbit
about l/60th
it
is
obvious however that the terms become
rapidly evanescent.
For the sake of clearness we recapitulate the meaning of the letters in the important equation we have just investigated; is the true longitude of the planet measured from any axis of
475.
CO
in the plane of the orbit
a
;
is
the longitude of the apse nearest

is
the centre of force or origin
the
mean angular
for
velocity, the
mean being taken with regard to time

6 is
one complete revolution; a constant whose magnitude depends on the instant from
t is
which the time
measured.
e.
centre of force in such a
Let a particle Pq move round the its longitude is given by the equation 0o = nt + . It follows that this planet moves with a uniform angular velocity n and has therefore the same periodic
To
define the epoch
manner that
time as the true planet P.
Po passes through an
When the radius vector of the particle apse ô and therefore nt + e a is an
ART. 477.]
THE SERIES FOR THE LONGITUDE.

tt.
297
integral multiple of
It
immediately follows from (2) that
d = nt + . Hence
the radii vectores of the two planets coincide
when the
of Pq
true planet passes through either apse.

shortly
The
definition
may be
summed up
thus.
Let an imaginary planet move round the centre of force with a uniform angular velocity in the same period as the true planet and let their radii vectores coincide at one apse and therefore at the
other.
This planet
is
t
called the
is the
longitude at the time

476.
constant e
Dynamical Mean Planet. Its and is called the epoch.

vector in terms
To express
the
mean anomaly and radius
of the time.
Since both the
mean and
e.
true planets cross the nearer apse at
the time given by nt sented by

Art. 342,
+ e = a,
If
m = nt +
mean anomaly may be repreu be the eccentric anomaly we have by

the
m + e sin u.
for
Proceeding as before we have
the three
first
approximations,
u = m + e sin m, u = m, = u m + e sin (m + e sin m) = m + e sin m + ê^ sin 2m
(4).
Again, as in Art. 343,

r=a
ex=a ae cos u = a ae cos (m + e sin m) = a{l ecosm + -|-e-(l cos 2m)}

and radius vector are given here only
to the
(5).
The
series for the longitude
second
power of the eccentricity. Laplace in the 2Iecanique Celeste (page 207) and Delaunay in his Theorie de la Lune (vol. i. pages 19 and 55) give the series up to the sixth power. Stone has continued the expansion up to the seventh power in the Astronomical Notices, 1896 (vol. lvi. page 110). Glaisher has given the expansion of the eccentric anomaly up to the eighth power in the Astronomical
Notices, 1877 (vol. xxxvii. page 445).
477. IVlieji the eccentricity e is very 7iearly equal to unity, as in the case of some comets, the formulse giving the relations between t and v must be modified.
Starting as before (Art. 473) from the equations
j2^=V{M(l-e2)},
we put the
perihelion distance
î^^^^ = l + ecos,
a{l-e) = p.
(\ + ef-dv \/p'~j'\(1 + e cos v)^

298
Let
(1
KEPLER'S PROBLEM.
- e)/(l + e) =f and put tan J v =a;
for the sake of brevity
[CHAP. VI.
V
When
If
P'^
J (l+fxY
is
given this formula determines the time
measured from perihelion.
small the term independent of f is the one requiring the most arithmetical calculation and this can be abbreviated by using the tables constructed for that purpose ; see Art. 349. Conversely when t is given and v is required the same
is
tables give a
first
approximate value of
x.
Representing this by tan^w,
it
is
usual to expand the correction

of /.
v-win
terms of w in a series ascending in powers
For these formulte we
refer the reader to
Watson's Astronomy and Gauss,
Theoria, &g.
478.
When
the eccentric anomaly
is given,
the true and
mean anomalies and

...
the radius vector are expressed by the equations
m=M-csm,
When any
tan-=
/1 + e, -
u tan-
(1),
r=a-ex = a(l-ecosu)
(2).
one of the other quantities is taken as the independent variable, the corresponding equations can be deduced from these in the form of series. Two methods are used to find the general term of these series. First we may have
recourse to Lagrange's theorem, viz.,
when
y=z+x<t>(y),
f(y)=f{z) + 2^.^^{{<f,{z)Yf'(z)},
.
where
I,i
=l
3...i,
second method the general term

a Bessel's function.
and the S implies summation from i=l to oo By the is expressed by a definite integral which is usually
To express
the eccentric
479.
Since
Ziagrange's tlieorein.
anomaly u and
the
radius vector r in teiTns of the time.
u=m + e sin u,
we have by Lagrange's theorem
The expansion of (sin m)* in cosines of multiple angles when i is even and in sines when i is odd is given in books on trigonometry (see Hobson's Trigonometry, Art. The (i - l)th differential is always a series of sines and is easily seen to be 52).
;
2'~i
-^(sinmY=i'~^smim - i(i - 2)'-isin(i - 2)m + -^^

dm^~^
^ ^
.
-{i
4)*-isin(i
- 4)m - &c.
'
2
i.e.
In the same way, expanding cos u by Lagrange's theorem,
writing /(?/)
= cos y,
we
find
--1= -ecosM= -ecosm + S-r-r tr

where as before
(smm)'+S
implies
summation from i=l
to oo
examine the second method by which we express the general term in a definite integral. We know by Fourier's theorem that we can expand any function ^ (m) in a series of the form {m) = AQ + Aj^ cosm+ ...+AiCosim+.,. + J5i sin m+...+.BiSin im+ ...,
480.
Bessel's functions.
We
shall
now
briefly
ART. 483.]
which holds
bessel's functions.
for all values of
2ir,
299
If also
(p {in)
from -tt
to +7r.
is
a periodic
the expansion will hold for all values of m. If (m) does not change sign with m we may omit the second line of the expansion, while if it does change sign with vi, we omit the first line. function having the period
To
from
find
.4;
we use
Fourier's rule; multiply both sides
bycosim and
integrate
7)1= -ir to +ir.
Remembering
im cos
i'm dvi
Jcos^ ivi
that
Jcos im sin i'm
Jcos
= 0,
dm = 0,
dm = Jsin^ im dm ~ tt,
,
we
find
j(p
(m) cos
im dm=irAi
j(p
(m)
dm = 2Tr Aq
Similarly multiplying by sin im and integrating between the
same
limits,
we
find
J^
(j?i)
sin
im dm = ttBi
481.
the limits
To expand u-vi=esinu in a series of sines of multiples of m. u-m='2,Bi sin im -irEi = ^(u - m) sin im dm, being 7n= - tt to t. Integrating by parts, triBi = - {u - m) cos im, + Jcos im [dii - dm).
.'.
We
put
The integrated part The second
is zero, for
TTiiSj
= Jcos
u and m are equal when w = im du Jcos im dm.
tt.
"We thus have
integral is zero
substituting for
Jcos
i
its
value in terms of u,
iriBi
(u-e sin w)
du.
This definite integral when taken between the limits
and
ir is
written
ttJj (/<?).
We
have
M = m + 25; sin im,
iBi
2 Jj
[ie)
482.
The
series thus obtained is convergent, for
vi^Bi =
[A>J'
I
- d sm
The
J integrated part vanishes at both the limits
dm
zt
= du - sin im .
.
fdû
I
dm
J dm^
3^ sm im dm.
Also
m= 7r.
=
,-^
u=m+e
dû
sin w, '
.".
-7;
dm^
- e sin u (1-e cos u)*
rr.
and since e<l, it is clear that dûfdm^ has a numerical maximum value; let this be k. Since sinm<l, it follows that iri^Bi is numerically <2ft7r. The series is
therefore at least as convergent as
2 1/ i-.
483.
To compare
the two expansions of
u-m.
e,
In the Lagrangian series the

c'
terms are collected according to the powers of

of the sines of multiple angles.
the coeSicient of
being a series
with Bessel's functions the terms are arranged according to the multiple angles, the coefficient of sintTJi being a
In the
series
series of
powers of
series for
e.
The
u-m
is really
terms of the form sin im and also powers of

arranged according to the multiple angles,
coefficient
it
a double series containing both trigonometrical If the terms are collected and e.
follows from
what precedes, that each

B-^, B.^,
Uj
is
a convergent series, and
tliat
the series of coefficients
&c.
also form a convergent series, provided the eccentricity e is less than unity.
But if the series is arranged according to the powers of c, the positive and negative terms are added together in a different way. It may then be that the series of coefficients of e, e-, &c. are only made convergent by more limited values
of
e.
The condition
of convergency is given in Art. 488.
keplee's problem.
[chap.
300
484.
If
vi.
iriBi
The expression for JBj may be written Jcos iu .{l-\ iH^ sin'^ it + &c. } du + Jsin iu
sin^M, sin*w,
<fec.
{ie sin
u - &c. } du.
we expand
in cosines of multiple angles and remember that
Jcos i cos i'dM=0,
we see that every term in the first integral will be zero in which the power of e is less than i. A similar remark applies to the second integral. Hence the lowest power of e which accompanies the term sin im is e*.
486.
To express
r/a
= l - e cos u
.".
in
series of cosines of multiples of

;
m, we put
- e cos M = ^0 + 2,Ai cos im

irAi
- cjcos u cos im dm,
where the limits of integration are
m= -ir to
tt.
Integrating by parts to change
dm into
The
du,
we have
'n-iAi=
- e cos u sin im -
ejsin
im sin udu.
Writing ni=tt-esinM, the
integrated part vanishes between the limits.
integral
becomes
iriAi
= - ejsin i(u-e sin u) sin udu = Jc Jcos {{i + l)u- ie sin } du - Jc Jcos {{i - 1) - ie sin u} du;
.:
iAi =e{Ji+-^ (ie)
- Ji-^
(ie)
Similarly
^ttAq
Integrating between
= - cjcos udm= - ejcos u.(l-e cos m) du. limits = -tt to we find A(,=ê^:
tt, .:
r/a=l + 4c2 + S^,costi.
486.
That
this series is converg, it
may
.
be proved in the same

fd^ cos s
way
as before.
We have
!nÂi=~e
by integrating by
IJil
..,
.
fd cos u
I
:;
J
parts.
dm
dGosim=e
m = wi +
u dm^ coaimdm, =
.
Since
c sin u,
.
we
find
,
by
,
differentiation
k.
d^coBu e-coau 2" n ~~ , \2 (X CLTih C COS
,,.,,., ^^^^ "*^ obviously a maximum value, say

27rA;e,
m,
Then
since
cosm<l,
iriÂi is
numerically less than
and the
series is at least as con-
vergent as Sl/i^.
487. Examples. Ex. 1. Prove cos ku =24, cos im, sin km = SB; sin im, where iAi=K {Ji-K {ie)-Ji+K (*)}> iBi=K {Jj-^ (ie) + Ji^^ (ie)} and k is not equal to
unity,
and the summations extend from

(x),
=1
1
to oo
Also J_^ (x) = ( - 1) J^
(a;)
Since </_ ( - a;)= /

1
these series
may
be written
.
- cos KU = XJi^K
_,^
.cosim
(*)
-
- sin KU = ^Ji-K
,.
sinim
:
(*e)
where S implies summation from i= -oo to +ao, and the term J,.^ (ic)/i, when i=0, is - ie or according as k is equal or unequal to unity (Art. 485).
Since the Cartesian coordinates, referred to the centre of the
ellipse,
are
j;=acosM, J/ = 6 sin M, we deduce the expansions of these in terms of the mean anomaly by putting k=1.
Ex.
2.
Prove that a/rr= 1
+ 22J^ (ie) cos im, where the summation

;
extends froir
i=l
to 00
This follows from alr=duldvi
see Arts. 343, 481.
'
ART. 489.]
Ex.
3.
VARIOUS EXPANSIONS.
301
Prove that
v=m + 2Ci sin m,

_ 2 y'(l
'
where
i
- e^)
l""
cos
(u
e sin
?t)
7ri
Jo
\
1-e cos w
cos im (dv
Proceeding as before we find iriCi=

the result follows.
series is at least as
- dm)
substituting for dvjdu,
Also by integrating again by parts,
we can prove
v.
that this
convergent as Sl/t-.
This integral
is
given by Poisson in the
Connaissance des Temps, 1825, 1836. See also Laplace, vol.

Journal, 1846.
and
Lefort, Liouville's
See also Art. 343.
Ex.
4.
Prove the expansions

\{v - w) =
1 (?{-?;)=
X sin 16 + ^ \2 sin 2m + J X* sin 3m + -Xsinr + ^X-sin2?;- JX^sinSu-
. .
...
where
X=__l__.
V-i ^^^
t^ke logarithms
7'
[Laplace.]
In ia,n\v=ixt&n\u, where n^={l + e)({l-e), substitute the exponential values of

the tangents, solve for e(^~")
;
the results follow easily.
Ex.
5.
Show
that
00
vi=v + 2'2,
.
r {1 +
x/(l
e^) }
sin iv where
implies sum-
mation from i=l to
We have
.-.
from the geometrical meaning of
w, r sin r
= & sin m (Art., 342),

'
am.u=^
1
+ ecosr
= -^(l-e-) T- log (1 + e cost;) ^

'
edv
= -^^^- '-^
Expand, substitute in
follows.
...
,,
d
Tdv
(l
+ Xe''^-l)(l + Xe-^^'-l)
iTx^
3,
''"-
m=u- e sin m,
remembering the theorem in Ex.
the result
This
is
Tisserand's proof of Laplace's theorem, Mec. Cileste, page 223.
488.
Convergency of the series for
and
6.
Laplace was the
first
to prove
that the expansions of the radius vector
and
true
anomaly
in terms of the time
and in powers
tricity less
of the eccentricity are not convergent for all values of the eccen(see Arts. 474, 476).
than unity
He showed by
Tome
v.
a difficult and long

is
process that the condition necessary for the convergence of both series
eccentricity should be less than -66195.
il/ec. Celeste,
that the
Supplement, p. 516.
&c.
This important result was afterwards confirmed by Cauchy, Exercises d' Analyse, An account is also given by Moigno in his Differential Calculus. The whole
argument was put on a better foundation by Eouche in a memoir on Lagrange's series in the Journal Foly technique. Tome xxii. The process was afterwards further simplified by Hermite in his Cours a la Faculte des Sciences, Paris 1886. In these investigations the test of convergency requires the use of the complex variable. The latter part of the method of Eouche may be found in Tisserand, Mec. Celeste, Art. 100, and is also given here.
equation
The theorem arrived at may be briefly stated. Having given the = m + X(p{z) we have (1) to distinguish which root we expand in powers of X, (2) to determine the test of convergency. It is shown that if a contour exist enclosing the complex point zm, such that at every point of the boundary the
489.
302
modulus
of ?ri?' is less
Kepler's problem.
[chap. vi.
z-vi
this
than unity, the given equation has but one root

is
-within
the area and the Lagrangian expansion for that root
convergent*.
(z)
To apply
theorem to Kepler's problem we put
= sin z
and
let
x repre-
sent the eccentricity of the ellipse, Art. 478.
We
OP by
centre describe a circle with

z,
measure a real length OA=m from an assumed origin 0, and with A for an arbitrary radius r. Representing the complex line
the Lagrangian series will be convergent
of
if
r can be so chosen that the
modulus
/>
gill
Z
is less
than unity for

(I
all positions of
P on
the circle.
Since
(mod)2 of
+ vi) = <l>{^ + vi)-<f>(^- vi),
z=m + re
where
e is
the base of Napier's logarithms,
we have
^
xainz /x\^sin(m + re^'')8in(m + re~^^) ,, (modPof zj 55 \rj z-m =1-) ' e*e~ *
^
1 /x\^ = -!-] {cos (2riBin^)-cos(2i-|-2'cos ^)}
= gy{j(/sin+e-'-inV-co82(m + rcos^)}.
* If /() be a continu6us one-valued function over the area of a circular contour whose centre is a;=a, then Cauchy's theorem asserts that f{x) can be expanded by Taylor's theorem in a convergent series of powers of x-.a for all points within the contour (see Forsyth's Theory of Functions, Art. 26).
;
(z), in powers of x is the Lagrangian expansion of z, or a transformation, term for term, of Taylor's, and we may use Cauchy's theorem, provided z, or ^ (2), is one-valued.
\f/
When z=m + X(l){z),
If z
have two values

is so,
(regarded as an equation to find z
whether this
same value of x, the equation F {z)=z -m- x<f> {z) = when x is given) has two roots. To determine we use another theorem of Cauchy's (see Burnside and Panton,
for the
Theory of Equations).
We
measure
if
OA=m
r.
a circle of radius
theorem
contour.
log
F (2)
is
and with A for centre describe from the assumed origin Let a point P describe this circle once, then by Cauchy's increased by 2mri, the equation F (z) has n roots within the
Hermite writes
log
F (z) = log (2 - m)
-f-
log ^1
^^)
(1)
The equation
z~m=Q
of
contour, hence as
(2) '
^
moves round, log (z - m)
has but one root and that root is increased by 2iri.

^ '
lies
within the
If the
modulus
a m z
is less
than unity at
all
points of the circle
the value of log(l-M), (being the same on departing from and arriving again at moves round the contour. any point of the contour) increases by zero when
It follows that log
F (z)
increases by 2iri
when
P makes
one
circuit, that is the
equation z = 'm + x<j>{z) has but one root within the contour if the modulus of
is less
xtp (z)
than unity at
all points
on the circumference.
ART. 489.]
CONVERGENCY OF THE
,
SERIES.
303
term of this ex-
Now, putting e''^+e~^^=u + -
we
l,
see that the first
pression continually increases from v =

greatest
is
or ^ =
to
v = oo
and
is
therefore
when 6=^^.
The
least value of the
second term
is zero.
The modulus
therefore less than
Ix --
{e^
+ e~^).
x
The Lagrangian
than
2/7(e''
series is therefore convergent
for all values of the eccentricity
less
e~'').
To
find the
maximum
value of this function of
r,
we equate
its differential
coefficient to zero.
This gives
F=e'-(r-l)-e-'"(r +
Since dVjdr
root,
is
l)
= 0.
e'*
positive for all values of r this equation has but one positive
and
this root lies
between 1 and
2.
Using the value of
given by the
is /^/{r^-l),
equation
V=0, we
find that the
maximum
value of the eccentricity
which reduces to
'66.
CHAPTER
YII.

The four elementary resolutions and moving
490.
axes.
The
Cartesian equations.
The equations
of motion
of a particle in three dimensions
may be
written in a variety of
forms
all
of which are
much
used.
The Cartesian forms
of these equations are

(^>'
t=^' S=^' S=^

equations are
where x, y, z are the coordinates of the particle and X, Y, Z the These components of the accelerating forces on the particle.
commonly used with rectangular

also,
axes, but it is
obvious that they hold for oblique axes
provided X, F,
Z are
obtained by oblique resolution.

491.
The
tlie
Cylindrical equations.
From
these
we may
Let
are the
deduce
cylindrical or semi-polar
forms of
p,
<^, z,
the equations.
the coordinates of the particle
be
soy
where
p,
polar coordinates in the plane of

particle
of the projection iV of the
we
on that plane, and z = PN. By referring to Art. 35 first two of the equations (A) change by resolu tion into the first two of the following equations (B), while th We have third remains unaltered.
see that the
d-'p
fd<j>y
dt^-P[W=^' -pdtVTt)=^'
f ^d\
d'z
d =
^'
"^^^'
where P, Q are the components of the accelerating forces respectively along and perpendicular to the radius vector p.
ART. 493.]
492.
ELEMENTARY RESOLUTIONS.
Principle
305
Since
the
of
angular
momentum.
moireiits of the components

zero,
and
about the axis of z are

is
the
moment
of the whole acceleration about the axis of z
equal to Qp. In the same way the moment of the velocity about Oz is equal to the moment of its component perpendicular to
the plane POz, and this
written in the form
is'
p^d<f>/dt.
Introducing the mass
m of
the particle as a factor, the second of the equations (B)
may be
d /moment
dt
of \
_ /moment
V
of
Vmomentum/
forces
The moments may be taken about any
straight line which
is
z.
fixed
in space, such a line being here represented
by the
axis of
The
moment
of the
momentum
is
also called the angular
momentum
of the particle (Arts. 79, 260).
When the forces have no moment about a fixed straight line the angular momentum about that straight line is constant throughout
the motion.
493.
The
polar equations.
We may
polar
immediately deduce
from
the
semi-polar
form
<f)
(B),
the
equations (C).
Let
r, 0,
be the polar co-
OP, 6 is the makes with the axis Oz, and the angle the plane POz makes with- the
ordinates
of P,
where r
angle
OP
<f}
plane
ccOz.
Since
OP = r
is
the radius vector cor-
responding to the coordinates

that the accelerations
d^p
,
ON=p,
NP =
z,
we
see
by
Art. 35
d^
^^^
d'^z
^'^ equal to
g-r(fy and ^|(r-f)

P is the resultant
i^ *^6
Hence the whole

^^^
acceleration of
of
^~^(^)
^^^^S
^P
direction in
which r
is
measured
(2)
~ T*y'Jf) perpendicular to OP, in the plane zOP, taken
positively in the direction in
which 6
is
measured
306

(3)
[CHAP. VII.
P\-^]
i.e.
ill
the direction of the perpendicular drawn from
P on Oz,
(4)
parallel to
NO
- jiip^-^) perpendicular
to the plane
zOP
in the direc-
tion in which If R, 8,
increases.
are the components of the acceleration of the
particle respectively in the directions of (1) the radius vector
OP,
(2) the perpendicular to
OP
in the plane of
zOP, and
(3) the per-
pendicular to the plane zOP, taken positively
the directions in which
r, 0,
are respectively increasing,
when they act in we have
i(
,de\
rdtVdt)
(d^\
P\dt)
cos0
=S> =T
(C).
p dt
dt
"We notice that p

404. Ex.
= r sin 0.
show that the
radial acceleration is
If w be the velocity,
495.
polar equations (B),
Reducing a plane to rest. Beferring to we notice that if we transfer
the semithe term
p (d<f)Jdty to the right-hand side of the first equation and include it among the impressed accelerating forces,, the first and third
equations become the same as the Cartesian equations of motion
of a particle
moving
in a fixed plane
zOP
(Art. 31), while the
second equation determines the motion perpendicular to that

plane.
We may
Art. 38.
therefore replace the first
and
third resolutions
to
by any of the other forms which have been proved

to
be equivalent
them.
For example,
if
polar forms (Art. 35)
we we
replace these two resolutions
by
their
obtain at once the equations (C).
(d(f>ldt)- as an impressed accelerating and tending from the axis of z is sometimes called reducing the plane zOP to rest. See Arts. 197, 257.
The
process of regarding p
force acting at
ART. 497.]
496.
tions
SOLUTION OF TE EQUATIONS.
307
the intrinsic equa-
The
intrinsic equations.
to the
of motion, due
To find tangential and normal
resolutions.
V,
Let P, P' be the positions of the particle at the times t,t + dt\ v + dv the velocities in those positions, d^fr the angle between
In the time
the component of velocity along the tangent
(w
the tangents.
dt,
at
cos
has increased from. to
+ dv) cos
d-ylr.
Writing unity
for
dyfr,
the acceleration along the tangent,

is dv/dt.
i.e.
the rate of increase
of the velocity,
The component
vd-slr.
of velocity along the radius of curvature at

to {v
P
is
has increased from zero
+ dv) sin dyjr,

v^/p.
which in the limit

is
The
acceleration along the radius of curvature

is
therefore
vd'^jr/dt,
or which
the same thing
The
is
tangents.
zero
by definition contains two consecutive The component of velocity perpendicular to that plane and remains zero. The acceleration along the perpendicular
osculating plane
i.e.
to the osculating plane, If
the binormal,
is
therefore zero.
posi-
and
are the
component accelerations measured

s,
tively in the directions of the arc
and
the radius of curvature p the component perpendicular to the osculating plane, the
v'^^F,
as
497.
Show
-=
p
G,
= ir
(D).
^ ^
that the solution of the equations of motion of a particle in polar
coordinates can be reduced to integrations
when
the
work function has
the form
where f^
(r),
f^ (6)
and
f^
((f>)
are arbitrary functions.
The
third of the equations (C) gives, with this form of U, the
mass being
unity,
r sine
dt\
dt J
rB\a.dd<t> r'^sia^d'
.'.\{r^smH^^^"=f,{<p)+A
The second
^ of the equations (C) gives
(1).
3^ rdt\
I
^ f 2^^\ ofd4>y = dfîe) -a '^^' ^ 37 - * sin ^ cos ^ -^ dtj \dtj rdd

1
1
-5
r^
- 2/3(0) V cos
-^
.
r^sin^d
Substituting for d<pldt,
we obtain
K'-'If-^.-fM-'
(^)-
308
The equation

of vis viva
is
[CHAP. VII.
(:i)Hf)*'''^^'m-^-*^<'
After substituting from
(1)
<')
and
(2) this
beconies
<*>
(ly-f.-/.--
These are the first integrals of the equations of motion. Since the variables are separable in all the equations, they can be reduced to integrations. Substituting for dt from (4) in (2), that equation gives 6 in terms of r. Substituting again
in
(1),
we
find
<j>
in termS of
r.
Lastly
(4)
determines
in terms of
r.
498.
Moving
axes.
To find
the equations
of motion of a
the origin
particle referred to rectangular axes which

in
move about
an arbitrary manner.
Let us suppose that the moving axes Ox, Oy, Oz are turning round some instantaneous axis 01 with an angular velocity which we --,^^ may call 6. Let 6i, 6^, 0s be the >^ ^2\ about the instantcomponents of
\
/ ,--'''
aneous positions of Ox, Oy, Oz.

\
Then
,--'*'0
'""---..
in the figure ^1 represents the rate at
"^^
3^^-
^-"^
zOx
is
which any point in the circular arc
circular arc
moving along that arc, 02 is which any point of the moving along the arc, and so on.
yOz
is
the rate at
Let us represent by the symbol

vector such as a
ôrce,
V any
directed quantity or
a velocity, or an acceleration.
Let Vx, Vy,
Vz be
its
components
Or],
with regard to the
moving
axes.
Of be three rectangular axes fixed in space and the components of the same vector along these be let Fi, Fa, Fs a, Let axes. /8, 7 be the angles the axis Of makes with Ox, Oy,
Let 0^,
Oz.
Then
Fg
= Fa, COS a + Fj, cos /3 + V^ cos 7,

dVx dVy
..^ = -^cosa + ^^cos^ + -^cos7
dVs
^dVz
Let the arbitrary axis of f coincide with Oz at the time t, i.e. let the moving axis be passing through the fixed axis. Then a = ^,
ART. 500.]
yg
MOVING AXES.
309
= -^TT,
= 0.
Hence
dVs _ dVz
~dr~
dt
-p
da ''di~
-.^
d^
""df
Now da/dt is the angular rate at which the axis One is separating from a fixed line 0^ momentarily coincident with Oz, hence
da/dt
= ^2-
Similarly d/3/di
= O^.
Substituting
dt
dt
^-^^+^y^^F.â
Similarly
^ = ^- _
+ VA,
When
axes, the
i.e.
the moving axes momentarily coincide with the fixed components of the vector V are equal, each to each, As the moving axes pass on, Fa;=Fi, Vy=V2, Vz=V3.
equality ceases to
exist.
this
The
rates
of increase
of
the
components relatively to the moving axes are dV^/dt, dVyjdt,

dVz/dt; while the rates of increase relative to the fixed axes
are dVJdt, dV^/dt, dVsfdt
The
relations
which exist between
these rates of increase are given by the equations just investigated.

499.
If the vector
V is
the radius vector of a moving point
P, the components Vx, Vy, Vz are the Cartesian coordinates of P, and the rates of increase are the component velocities. If the
vector
V is
the velocity of P, the rates of increase are the com-
ponent accelerations.
Let then x, y, z be the coordinates of a point P u, v,w the components of its velocity in space; X, Y, Z the components of
;
its accelerations.
Then
u = -^-y6s-\-zdc^,
^=-ji -vds + wd^,
^-
2^î
+ (xOs,.
^ = jT
-wdi + uda,
w = -Ti-;0^ + y6i,
500.
some
If the origin of
Z = -^-ud2 + vOi.
is
coordinates
also in motion these equations require
slight modification.
Let p,
q,
r be the resolved parts of the velocity of the
origin in the directions of the axes.
In order that u,
v,
w may
represent the
310
[CHAP.
an origin
VII.
resolved velocities of the particle

space),
in space
(i.e.
referred to
fixed in
499.
p, q, r respectively to the expressions given for u, v, w in Art. These additions having been made, u, v, w represent the component space
we must add
velocities of P,
and the expressions

of
for the space accelerations X, Y,
are the
same
on
as those given above.
See Art. 227.

is
The theory
moving axes
more
fully given in the author's treatise
Rigid Dynamics.
The demonstration here given
of the fundamental theorem is
founded on a method used by Prof. Slesser in the Quarterly Journal, 1858. Another simple proof is given in the chapter on moving axes at the beginning of
vol.
II.
of the treatise just referred to.
501.
aiovlng
field
of force.
axes moving about a fixed origin we

of vis viva.
If
When the field may obtain the
of force is fixed relatively to equation corresponding to that
T be the
moments
of the forces divided by dt.
semi vis viva, we know that dTJdt is equal to the sum of the virtual Hence, the mass being unity,
dT -^=iXu+Yv + Zw
at
=Xx' + Yy' + Zz' + es(xY-yX) +

If Ai, A2,
4s are the angular momenta about the axes
(Art. 492),
A^=zu-xw, Ag=xv-yu, Ai=yw-zv, taking moments about the axes, and, dAJdt=zX-xZ, dAJdt=xY-yX. dAJdt=yZ-zY,
The equation
of vis viva therefore becomes
dT
where
this,
dAi
di'^^lu'^'dt
^_H
dA3_dU dt ~ dt'
If 6^, Sg, ^g are constant,
is
a function of the coordinates x,
y, z only.
when
integrated, reduces to the equation of Art. 256.
502.
Ex.
1.
Show how
to deduce the polar forms (C), Art. 493,
from the
equations for moving axes.
Let the moving axes be represented by 0|,

as always to coincide with the radius vector
Oij,
;
Of.
OV
let Oij
Let the axis of % move so be always perpendicular to
the plane zO'P.
The angular
velocity d6\dt of the radius vector

0-t\.
may
therefore be
represented by B^=d9\dt about
The plane zO'P has an angular

j^
velocity d^\dt
about Oz, and this

the coordinates of
It
may
be resolved into 6
tj
= gob dd^jdt
and ds=andd<pldt.
Also
P are ^=r, = 0,
f=0.
w= -0^r.
Ex.
immediately follows from the equations of moving axes that u=drldt, v=d^r, Substituting these in the expressions for X, Y, Z we obtain the com-
ponents of acceleration already written at length in Art. 493.

2.
If (ai/3i7i), (02^272)'
(t^sTs)
^.re
"the direction cosines of a
system of
orthogonal axes moving about the origin, prove that
^^di'^^-^-dT^'^'di^''
where
6^ is positive
when the
rotation
is
from the
first
axis to the second.
To prove
this
we
notice that 0g measures the rate at which the axis of
is
separating from the position of the axis of

sosine of the angle the
at the time
t.
Hence -
S^dt is the
new
axis of y
makes with the
old axis of x.
ART. 504.]
Ex.
3.
particle is describing
311
as any function of the distance, and
an orbit about a centre of force which varies is acted on by a disturbing force which is
is
always perpendicular to the plane of the instantaneous orbit and

portional to the distance of the particle from the centre of force.
inversely pro-
Prove that the
plane of the instantaneous orbit revolves uniformly round
its
instantaneous axis.
Lagrange's Equations.
503.
form the equations of motion of a

particles,
Lagrange has given a general theorem by which we can particle, or of a system of in any kind of coordinates*.
is
The expression "coordinate"

sense.
here used in a generalized
Any
quantities are called the coordinates
of a particle,
or of a system of particles, which determine the position of that

particle or system in space.
In using Lagrange's equations,

to represent
differential
it
will
be found convenient
thus x"
by some
coefficients
special symbols, such as accents, all total
with regard to the time;

d'^x\dt^.
x',
represent respectively dx\dt and

504.
Iiemina.
Let
he
a function of any variables x,y,&G.,

the time
t.
their velocities x' , y' , &c.,
and
If we
6,
(f>,
express x, y, &c.
<&c.
as functions of some independent variables

t,
and
the time
say
x=f{t,d,4>,Sc.),
= F{t,d,<j>,&c.),
= &c
o
(1),
then will
d dL dL _ fd dL dL\ dx fd dL _ dL\ dy dtW~dd~\dtd^'~d^)d'^[dtdy''~dy)dd'^

Representing partial differential coefficients by have by differentiating (1),
^'=/,+/,(9'+/^<^'
Since
enters into the expression
y',
^'
suffixes,
we
+ &c
(2).
through both
x, y, &c.
x', y' ,
and
&c.,
their velocities x\
&c. while
d'
enters only through
* The Lagrangian equations are of the greatest importance in the higher dynamics and are usually studied as a part of BigiA Dynamics. We give here only such theorems as may be of use in the rest of this treatise. The application of the method to impulses, to the cases in which the geometrical equations contain
the differential coefficients of the coordinates, the use of indeterminate multipliers, the Hamiltonian function, &c., are regarded as a part of the higher dynamics.
312
LAGRANGE'S EQUATIONS.
partial differential coefficients
[CHAP. VII.
we have the
dL _ dL dx dL dx' dO'dcoTe'^d^'de'^^'' dL dL dx'

-
^^^'
aff=dSdF +
2/,
W'
for
/A\
where in each case the &c. represents the corresponding terms

z,
&c.
{io(j
By
differentiating (2)
we
see that j^/ =/<
dsj
j^-
Hence
d dL
dL _/d dL dL (d
dL\ dx
daf\
dtW~W~\did^'~dx)de^
J,
.
,,
._v
;
^dii'W'-dgr^
By
differentiating yi totally with regard to
t,
<'>
we have
(6).
^/.=/.*+/a^'
+ &c
by
The right-hand
side of this equation is seen

.
differentiating (2)
dx'
to be equal to -5^
It therefore follows that all the terms in the
second line of (5) vanish.

505.
The lemma has
therefore been proved.
By using this lemma we may deduce Lagrange's equations
from the Cartesian equations of motion. For the sake of generality, let there be any number of particles, of any masses m^, Wg, &c., Let T be and let their coordinates be {x^,yi,z-^, ix^,y^,z^, &c. the semi vis viva of the system, then
2T = 2m (a;'2 +
Let
2/''
+ Z'^)
(7).
CT"
is a Let jRa;> -Rj/> ^z be the components of any forces of constraint which act on the tjîcal We have as many Cartesian equations of motion of particle m. the form dJJ dU dJJ T3 J.
V be
the work function of the impressed forces, then
function of the coordinates only.
,/
as there are particles.

free or connected together, or constrained but after using all the given geometrical relations, the position of the system may be made to depend on some independent auxiliary quantities or coordinates. Let these
The
particles
may be
by curves and
surfaces,
ART. 506.]
THE LAGRANGIAN FUNCTION.

then writing
313
the particle m,
be
0,
<f>,
,&c.;
L=T+U,vfe have for _ dU^ _ _dL_d_ ^^ dec dtdx'dx~dt

d dL
,
with similar forms for y and
z.
Hence using the lemma,

dy
r>
d dL
where
dL
^(-pdx
dz\
dtde'-dd^^r-Te^^'de^^'dd)
2
implies
^^^'
summation
for all the particles.
The right-hand
by B6)
work
is
is
side of this
equation (after multiplication

for a
the virtual
moment
of the forces of constraint
geometrical displacement B6.
This by the principle of virtual
known
to be zero.
deduced from the partial
Since the variations of the coordinates x, y, &c. due to the displacement Sd are differential coefficients dxjdd, dyjdO, &c., t not varying,
is
the displacement given to the system

as they exist at the instant of time
one consistent with the geometrical relations
t.
that the virtual
Taking the various kinds of forces of constraint it has been proved in Art. 248 moment of each for such a displacement is zero. Consider the case of a particle constrained to rest on a curve or surface, the virtual moment is zero for any displacement tangential to the instantaneous position of the curve or surface. The restriction that the geometrical equations must not contain the time
explicitly is not necessary in Lagrange's equations.
If some of the particles are connected together so as to form a rigid body, the mutual actions and reactions of the molecules are equal. Their virtual moments destroy each other because each pair of particles remain at a constant distance from each other. The Lagrangian equations may therefore be applied to rigid
bodies.
506.
The Lagrangian equations of motion are therefore
d dL dL _ dtdd'de-^'
dL _ . _ ^ d dL *^-~" dtd4'~dj>-^'
is
,.
^^^
The function L=T-\-U and

energy and the work function.
sent the potential energy,
therefore the
sum of
the kinetic
If
we use the
function
we have, by
definition,
V to repreU-\- V equal to
a constant.
We
then put
L=TV,
so that
is the difference
Substituting these and potential energies. values for L, and remembering that U and V are functions of the coordinates and not of their velocities, we may also write the Lagrangian equations in the two typical forms
between the kinetic
dt dff
d0~dd
for
'
dt dff
dd
"^
dO
^'
where 6 stands
any one of the coordinates.
It should be
314
all
[chap.
vii.
noticed that in these equations,

partial, except those
the
t.
dififerential coefficients are
with regard to
The function L is sometimes called the Lagrangian function. We see that when once it has been found, all the dynamical equations, free from all unknown reactions, can he deduced by
simple differentiation.
507. Virtual moment of the effective lemma of Art, 604 the value of T given by
forces.
(7)
If
we
substitute for
in
the
we have
,,dy
d^dT T
dt dd'
dT
,,dx
,.
The right-hand
side (after multiplication
by 36)
is
the
sum of
the virtual
moments
the
of the effective forces mx", my", &c.
It follows therefore that the
Lagrangian
expression on the left-hand side {after multiplication by 59) represents the

virtual moments of the effective forces,
sum of
when expressed in terms of
the generalized
coordinates
0, <p, c&c.
In the same way writing
T for the
arbitrary function
in
(4),
we have by
(7)
dT
The left-hand
ment
50.
^\
,dx
,dy
side {after multiplication by 50) therefore represents the
sum of
the
virtual moments of the
momenta of the
several particles of the system for the displace-
It is often called the generalized 6
component of the
momentum.
the
508. mxeaning of the lemma. The fundamental equation represented by lemma has been deduced from the principles of the differential calculus without
Analytically,
reference to any mechanical theorem.

it
expresses the fact that the Lagrangian operator symbolized
by
d
follows the
^'^d0~Ttd0'
same law as the
differential coefficient dld0, i.e.
which may also be written
AgL
where
5^,
50 = A^L.5x + AyL .5y
dx,
5y,
&c. are any small arbitrary variations consistent with the

t.
gecmetrical relations which hold at the time

If
lemma dynamically (Art. 506), the equation asserts that the sum- of the virtual moments of the effective and impressed forces for a displacement 5^ has the same value whatever changes are made in the coordinates.
we
interpret the
writing
It
509. vrorking rule. When we solve a dynamical problem we begin by down the equation of vis viva, viz. T=U+C.
appears that
all
when we have done
this,
Lagrange's method enables us to write

(Art, 506).
down
the equations of motion of the second order by performing certain
differentiations
on the quantities on each side of the equation
ART. 511.]
THE FUNCTION
factors
t
;
T.
315
We
shall presently
remove certain
show that before performing these differentiations, we may from one side to the other by making a change in the
Art. 524.
510.
The
function T.
We
have assumed that the Cartesian
coordinates x, y, z 6i every particle of the system can be expressed in terms of the generalized coordinates B, <f), &c. by means of
equations of the form
x=f(t,d,<j>,&c.)
these equations
(1);
but not d', (j>', &c. (Art. 504). In choosing therefore the Lagrangian coordinates, we see that they must be such that the Cartesian coordinates of every particle could be eaypressed if required in terms of them by means of equations
contain
t,
may
which
may
contain the time, but do not contain differential coto the time.
efficients
with regard
Differentiating the geometrical equations (1) as in Art. 504
^'=/t+/fl^'+'/f
and substituting in the expression
+ &C.,
for
/ = &c
(2),
the vis viva
2T=Sm(a;'2+2/'^
given in Art. 505,
+ /2)
..,
(7),
we
observe that 22' takes the form

2A,,e'<j>'
2T =
where the
t,
A^^ff^
. . .
+ BÔ' + B,<f>' +
B2, &c.,
G,
coefficients
An,
&c.,
Bt^,
and
are functions of
e,
(f>,
&c.
In most dynamical problems, the geometrical equations do not

contain the time explicitly,
i.e. t
does not enter into the equations

<f>,
(1) except implicitly through be absent from the equation
0,
&c.
(2), Art. 504.

(f>',
The term f will therefore Hence a?', y\ z are

first
homogeneous functions of &,

substituted in (7),
&c. of the
is
order.
When
we
find that
viz.
2T
a homogeneous function of
&
<f)',
<&c.
of the second order,
2T = An0'^ + 2A^ê'(f>'+...,
where J-u, A12, &c. are functions
not of t
SIX.
of the Coordinates 6,
<}>,
&c. but
Examples of Iiagraage's equations.

by a
light rod, of length
I.
Ex.
first
Two
particles, of
masses
M, m,
are connected
The
is
constrained to
the motion.
move
along a smooth fixed horizontal wire, while the other

vertical plane
B is
free to oscillate in the
under the action of gravity.
It is required to find
To
fix
the positions of both the particles in space,
say, the distance | of the point
from some origin
we require two coordinates, and the inclination d of AB
316
to the vertical.
[chap.
vii.
The Cartesian coordinates of B are then x=^+l sin d and y=l cos 6.
and work functions are then
The semi
vis viva
=l{M+m)^'^+mlcoa e^'e' + imm'-^
(1), (2).
U=mgl cos d
Substituting in the Lagrangian equations,
ddT_dT_dU
dt d^'
ddT_dT_dU
dtde'~dd~dd'
'd^~d^'
we have
J {{M+m)^'+mlcoBee'\ =
^ {ml cos e^' + mPd'

These give
+ ml sin d^'ff = - mgl sin

cosd^" + 16" =
^,
(M+m)^' + mlcosee'=A,
where
-g sin 6
(3),
is
a constant of integration.
Eliminating
we have
{M+msmê)e'e''+msm.ecosed' .e'^=-j{M+m)sva.ed'.
This gives by integration
(M+msin2&)d'2=C+^(M+m)cos0
In this way the velocities
I, e.
(4).
^'
and
d'
have been found in terms of the coordinates
the second by the equation of vis viva, viz.

of the first of equations
(3),
We have here used both the Lagrangian equations, but we might have replaced T=U+C. Eliminating ^' by the help
we should then have
arrived at the result (4) without
integrations.
any further
512., Ex.
at once
1. The four elementary forms for the acceleration of a point follow from Lagrange^s equations. For example, let us deduce the polar form
given in Art. 493.
We
plane
notice that the components of velocity of

it,
along the radius vector and
perpendicular to
are respectively
r'
and
rd',
while that perpendicular to the
zOP is
rsin
d<l>'.
Since these three directions are orthogonal, we have
2T=vi (r'2+r20'2+r2sin2
Substituting in the Lagrangian equation
^^'2).
d^dT_dT_dU
dt di'
d|
obtain
d|
'
where ? in turn stands
for
r, 6,
<f>,
we
/7
(mr')
- VI (rd'^ + r - mr^
sin
sin^ e^'^)
/ITT
,
j: (mr^d')
cos
H'^=-TS
>
|(mr2sin2^^')=^.
which evidently reduce to the forms given in Art. 493.
"
ART. 512.]
VARIOUS EXAMPLES.
317
Ex. 2. To deduce the accelerations for moving axes from Lagrange^s equations when the component velocities are known.
We have given by Art.

Also
499,
u=x' -y$^+z6^,
vy'-z6^ + xd^,-
w=:z' -xd^-Vyd-^.
T=\(u^ + v^ + w'),
Since x' enters into the expression for
the mass of the particle being unity.
only through , while x enters through both v and w,
we have
^
^
dT^_dTdu_ ~ du dx' dx'

* mu Lagrangian equation The T
dT_dTd^
'
dx
<^
dTdw_
dw dx~
dv dx
dT dU -_-_ =_
'^T
-r-
becomes
dt
- vd., + wd^ X.
Ex.
3.
To deduce
the equation of vis viva from Lagrange's equations.
Multiplying the Lagrangian equations
di de'
de~
dd
"'
'
dt
d(p'
d<j>~ d<p'
by
6', 0',
&c. respectively and adding the results,
we have
^\dty
where S implies summation
If
dd')-^
m~
de-^^dd'
T is
a homo-
for all the coordinates.
the geometrical equations do not contain the time explicitly,

0',
<t>',
geneous function of
since
&c.. Art. 510,

t,
and byEuler's theorem S^' -r-7=2T. Also

dd'
dT
T and V are not
functions of
-(*' dd
'
de'J'
dt
dd
Substituting in the expression given above,
we have
2^T_dT^dU
dt dt dt
,^^^â,
vis viva.
1/f, I/17, is
it
where
is
an arbitrary constant, usually called the constant of
Ex.
4.
The
position of a
moving point
determined by the radii
1/f
and touch three fixed rectangular coordinate planes at the origin. Find the component velocities u, v, w of the point in the directions of the outward normals of the spheres, and prove that the component accelerations in the same directions are dujdt+v {rju -^v)-w {îc - fw), and [Coll. Ex. 1896.] two similar expressions.
of the three spheres which pass through
Writing
D = ^+Tf + ^^
y', z'
we deduce from
the equations
of the
spheres that
x=2ÎD, &c.
velocities x',
Noticing that the spheres are orthogonal, we find, by resolving the
along them,
m=
-x^'f^,
v=
-yv'lvy '= -^f'/f-
Hence
Also the acceleration along the ? axis

the Lagrangian formula -sp
also be deduced
is
dUjudt or -^DdUjd^.
Substituting in
It
= j-
-j^r
~'lt'^^
obtain the required result.

2.
may
from the formulae of Arts. 499, 502, Ex.
318
513.
Lagrange's equations. To apply

the
a.
[chap.
to
vii.
Lagrangian equations
determine the
small oscillations of
explicitly.
system of particles about a position of equilibrium, when the geometrical equations do not contain the time
Let the system have n coordinates and
let
these be
a,
6, 0,
&c.
Let their values in the position of equilibrium be
^, &c.,
and at
any time
t,
let
= a-\-x,
(f>
= ^ + y,
&c.
function of
0',
<f>,
The vis viva being a homogeneous 510), we have
&c. (Art.
2T = PO'^ +
where P,
2Qe'j>'
Q, &c. are functions of 6,
+ R4>'^ + &c., &c. When we

<}>,
substitute
= a + x,
&c.
and
reject all
powers of
2A^^'y'
the small quantities above
the second, this reduces to
an expression of the form
2T = A^y^ +
where the
a,
+ A^^y'^ + &c
(1),
coefficients are constant,
and are known functions of and when
^, &c.
is
The work function CT expanded takes the form
a function of
0,
(p,
&c.
2U=2Uo + 2B^x +
2B,y
+ &c. + BuX^ + 2B^y + &c..

possible.
.(2).
We
iT
assume that these expansions are

Since the system
is
in equilibrium in the position defined

principle of virtual work,
.-.
by
= 0,
3/
= 0,
&c.,
we have by the
^=0,
of
a, /5,
^=
0,&c.;
is
5i = 0, 5^
= 0,
&c.
(3).
'
If the position of equilibrium
not
known
beforehand, the values

(3).
&c.
may be
obtained by solving the n equations
To find the equations of motion we substitute in the n Lagrangian equations typified by
dT_dT^dU
dt dx'
dx
dx
"^
x,
Since the expansion for

y, &c.,
T does
not contain the coordinates

&c.
we have dTjdx = 0, dTjdy = 0,
The equation
(4) there-
fore
becomes
A^^x"
+ A^^y" + A^sz" + &'c. = B^^x + B^^y + B^^z + &c. A^^" + A.^y" + A^^z" + &c. = B^^ + B^y + B^z + &c.
&c.
. .
J-
.(5)..
= &c.
ART. 516.]
SMALL OSCILLATIONS.
319
To
292.
solve the equations (5)
we
follow the rules given in Art.
Let any principal
oscillation
be represented by
Szc
...(6),
a;=GsiD.(pt + a),
y = R sin (pt + a),
where G, H, &c. are constants.

{A,,p'
We find by an
. . .
easy substitution
+ Ai) G + {A^p' + B,,)H+ = 0] {A,,p^ + B,,)Q + {A^P' + B^)H^... = q\ &c. = oj Eliminating the ratios G H &c., the n values of p^
:
:
(7).
are given
by the Lagrangian equation

A,,p^
î2i>'
+ Bn, A,,p' + B,^ + 5i2, A^p^ + B^,

&c.
&c.
(8).
&c. &c.
that, because the
a/, y' ,
&c.
514.
vis viva
It is
shown in the higher dynamics
2T is
necessarily positive for all real values of
&c.,
real.
the values of p^ given by this determinantal equation are

If all the roots are positive the values of
are real, and the
system of particles then oscillates about the position of equilibrium.
If
any or
all
the values of p^ are negative, some or
all
the values of
does not
515.
take the form
+ q \j
1.
The corresponding
trigonometrical terms in (6) become exponential and the system

oscillate.
See Art. 120.

is
If a value of p^
zero
has two equal zero values, and
the corresponding term in (6) takes the form A + Bt. In such a case the coordinate may become large and the system will then
depart so far from the position of equilibrium that
it
will
be
necessary to take account of the small terms in (1) and (2) of higher orders than the second.
516.
Rule.
When
applying Lagrange's equations to any
a position of equilibrium we begin for the vis viva and work function for the system in its displaced position, and express these in the quadratic forms (1) and (2) (Art. 513). If the whole motion is
special case of oscillation ahmxt
by writing down the expressions
required
we
follow in each special case the process described in
the general investigation.

periods are required,
But if, as usually happens, only the we omit the intervening steps and deduce
(1), (2).
the determinant (8) immediately from the expansions
320
notice that, if
[CHAP. VII.
the accents in
To help the memory, we

the expression
we drop
for T, the determinant (8)

U.
is the
discriminant of the
quadric Tp^
517.
To apply Lagrange's equations
to
determine the initial
motion of a system.
The method has been already explained in Art. 282. Lagrangian equations give the values of 6" ^", &c. in the
,
The
initial
position without introducing the
unknown
reactions.
Differen6"', ^"',
tiating the Lagrangian equations of Art. 506

&c.,
we
obtain
and any higher
differential coefficients.
If X, y, z are the Cartesian coordinates of
any point
z = &c.,
of the
system,
we have by
X =/i {9,
Art. 510,
<f>,
&c.),
y =f, (6,
4>,
&c.),
and
y',
therefore
by
differentiation the initial values of
x', x", &e.,
y", &c., /, &c.
may
be found.
The
initial radius of
curvature
follows from the formulae of the differential calculus. Art. 280.
518.
Let,
for example, the

put, as in Art. 513,
rest,
initial
accelerations he required
when
(f>
the system starts from rest.
The
initial position
(f)
being 6
&c.
= a,
= 13, &c. we
6 = a + x,
x',
= ^ + y,
Since
the system starts from

initial position is
JS2
the velocities
(1)
y' ,
&c. are small and
we can make the expansions
and
(2) as before.
Since the
not one of equilibrium, we no longer have B^

x, y,
= 0,
= 0,
&c.
Retaining only the lowest powers of
&Ct which
occur in the equations of motion,
we have
&c.
= &c..
These determine the initial accelerations of the coordinates and therefore the component accelerations of every point of the system.
519. Bx.
1.
Let US apply the Lagrangian equations to find the small
oscilla-
tions of the two particles described in Art. 511.
The
quantities
^,
d represent the deviations of the rod from its position of
equilibrium.
The vis
viva and work function expressed in quadratic forms are
The determinant
ri)2
is
the discriminant of
.
+ U-= J (ilf + m) p2|2 + ^^^2^0 + J ml (Zi)2 _ g,) 02. =0. {M + m)'g^, mlf
.-.
I I
ART. 521.]
One
principal motion is given
EXAMPLES.
by
321
i>2=|^î^\
The other
is
^=G sin (pt + a),
e=:H sm
(pt
+ a).
A + Bt.
It is evident that the
determined by p-=0; this implies that one coordinate takes the form rod could be so projected along the horizontal wire
that I has this form while ^ = 0.
lations
The student should apply Lagrange's equations to the problems on small osciland initial motions already considered in the chapter on motion in two
dimensions.
He
will thus be able to
form a comparison of the advantages
of the
different methods.
m, m', m.
Three uniform rods AB, BC, CD have lengths 2a, 26, 2a and masses They are hinged together at B and C, and at ^, D are small smooth The rods hang in rings which are free to move along a fixed fine horizontal bar.
Ex.
2.
equilibrium, forming with the bar a vertical rectangle.
When
a slight symmetrical
vi')
displacement is given, the period of a small oscillation
is
given by imap^ = Sg (m
[Coll.
Find also the periods when the displacement
is
unsymmetrical.
Ex. 1897.]
the
3. Two equal strings AC, BC have their ends at the fixed points A, B, on same horizontal line, and at C a heavy particle is attached. From C a string CD hangs down with a second heavy particle at D. Find the periods of the three
Ex.
small oscillations.
cal plane
through
A and B
[The two periods of the oscillations perpendicular to the are given in Art. 300, Ex. 1.]
verti-
Our success Solution of Lagrange^s Equations. in obtaining the first integrals of the Lagrangian equations will When the position greatly depend on the choice of coordinates. of the system is determined by only one coordinate, the equation of vis viva is the first integral, and this is sufficient to determine
520.
the motion.
When
there are two or more coordinates, integrals can be
found only in special cases.

of the Lagrangian equations
here.
assist
The general problem

is
of the solution
too great a subject to be attempted
It is sufficient to state a few elementary rules
which may
the student.
521.
We
should, if possible, so choose the coordinates that some

is
if
one of them
absent
from
is
the expression for the
work function U.
For example,
there be any direction such that the component

zero throughout the motion,
of the impressed forces
we should
take the axis of z in that direction and let z be one of the coordinates.
Again
if
the
moment
of the forces about some straight
line fixed in space, say Oz, is
always zero, the angle
^ which
the
plane
case dU/d<f>
POz makes with xOz will be a suitable = and U is independent of
coordinate.
In that
(f).
These, or similar,
322
[chap,
vii.
mechanical considerations generally enable us to make a proper

choice.
if 6
Let 6 be the coordinate absent from the work function, then is also absent from the expression for T. though the differential coefficient 6' is present, the Lagrangian equation
d
where
dT
dt dO'
dT _dU " de - dd
^^^"^^'
dT ^' M' Thus a

first integral,
is

that
different from
of vis viva, has been found.

Liouville has given
522.
This
Xaiouville's integral.
an
integral' of Lagrange's
it
equations which has the advantage of great simplicity
when
may
be found in vol.
xi. of his
Journal, 1846
the following
is
can be applied. a slight modi-
fication of his
method.
Let us suppose that the vis viva has the form
2r=ilf (P^'2+(5^'2 + iJf2 + &c.) where the products

efficient
&'<}>,
tp'^p',
(1),
&c. are absent.
The method requires that
the co-
P should be a function of only, while Q, R, c&c, are not functions of 0. We notice that it/ may be a function of all or any of the coordinates, and Q, R,&c.
functions of any except
6.
It is also necessary that the impressed forces should be
such that the work function
U has the form M{U+C) = F^(0)+F(<f>,
^,
;fee.)
(2),
where C
is
the constant in the equation of vis viva,
T=U+C
We
We
take
^,
(3).
shall
now prove
that
when
these conditions are satisfied,
first integral is
(4).
i]\r-P0'-^=F^{e)+A
first
<f>,
\j/,
a function of &c. as the coordinates. We now have

put P0'^=z^'^, then ^
is
only and
we may temporarily
T='^M{^'^+Q<j>'-^ + &G.)=U+C,
and the Lagrangian equation

d ,,,_
for ^ is
ldM,^,
dU
Using the equation of vis
viva, this takes the
form
Substituting on the right-hand side from
(2)
and multiplying by
J',
we have
Since F^
(d)
is
a function of | and not of any of the other coordinates, this
gives by an easy integration
lHP^"'=F^{e) + A.
Eeturning to the coordinate
0,
we have
the integral
(4).
When
the initial conditions are given, the value of
C can
be found by introduc-
ing these conditions into the equation of vis viva.
If a solution is required for all
ART. 524.]
initial conditions
liouville's integral.
323
is
arbitrary
and
in that case the condition (2) requires that
both
MU and M should have the general form

If
.1/
(
indicated on the right-hand of that
equation.
t;
C)
= l\
(6)
+ .,(<}>)+ &c.,
<p,
and Q, R, &c. are respectively functions method supplies all the first integrals.
the
of
f, &c. only, it is evident that the
Ex. If T=M{Pe'- + Q4>"^), M=f^(e) +/{(/>), iHr7=Fi((?)+K Lagrangian equations by Liouvllle^s method. The integrals are
1 3PPd''- =
(</>),
integrate
F,
{e)
+ cj\ (d) +A
i 2r-Qi>'^ = F. (0)
vis viva
adding these and using the equation of

are then given by
we
see that ^^
+ c/; {<p) a^, + ^^2=0. The
paths
sJPd d
>J(F,
+
f.-,
Cf^
+ A,) - J(F, + Cf, + 1;) is
jQd<t)
_ sl^dt
'
Multiplying these by /j
and adding, the time

"^
found by
_S\jPde ^{F^ + Cf, + A,)

where
all
f,JQd<t> V(i^2+ Qo + â)
_ ~^
the variables have been separated.
523.
0,
(p,
Jacobi'B integral.
If
&c. of
(71
n dimensions and
Ua
be a homogeneous function of the coordinates homogeneous function of the same coordinates

is
of
+ 2)
dimensions, then one integral
ey^, + <l>-, + &c.=

atf
(l(p
(n
+ 2)Ct + A,
where C
is
the constant of vis viva and
A an
arbitrary constant.
To prove this, we multiply the Lagrangian equations by 0, <p,&c. and add products. Remembering Euler's theorem on homogeneous functions, we have
the
The
left-hand side is the
same
as
dt \
dd'
dd'
d', <p',
dt \
'
dd'
since
T is
&c. of two dimensions.
Remembering
that
T-U=C,
A
is
we have
|at
ldi^, + &c.\ =(n + 2) C. do [

)
Ex.
where r
free
system of particles moves under the influence of their mutual
attractions, the
law of force being the inverse cube: show that
i:,mr^
= A + Bt + Ct^
the distance of the particle
from the
origin.
[Voi'lesimgen iiber Dijnamik,]
Some developments
treatise
of these results are given in the
first
volume of the author's
on Rigid Dynamics.
524.
to
variable.
It is sometimes useful to he able

t
change the independent variable in Lagrange's equations from
to
some other
quantity r so'that dT = Pdt, wltere
is
any function of
form
Â..,<p'-^+
the coordinates.
We
so that
suppose that the geometrical equations do not contain the time explicitly,
T is
homogeneous function
of the
T=Â^ê'- + A^._e'<p' +
(1).
324
Let
lagkange's equations.
suffixes applied to the coordinates
[chap. vii.
mean
differentiations with regard to r

(.
just as accents denote differentiations with regard to
Then
Consider
how any one
of Lagrange's equations, say,
dt d(p'
is
d(t>~ d',
(3).
Supposing that
P is
a function of the coordinates only, not of
&c.,
we have
dT
dT
dT_ldA,
The Lagraugian equation
\p2_p,d(TA d^-2W ^-\2~d^^'^-)^ -^ d^\p),
_ndA,,
therefore becomes after a slight reduction
d_dT^_clT^_ _T^dP 1 dU dr d(f>^ d<p~ Pd(p'^P~d^

If
''
we use the equation
of vis viva, viz.
T=U+G,
.
and notice that T=PT2, the
right-hand side of this

therefore takes the form
equation becomes ^
The
typical Lagrangian
form
^dT2_dT^_d^ U+C
dr
d<p^
d(t>
~ d<f)
P
To
d',
<j>',
'
''
We
notice that though
TP2\,
T.,,
they are differently expressed.

the quantities
&c.
obtain the
partial differential coefficients of
must be replaced by
PO^, P(pi, &c. before differentiation.
Suppose
for
example that the equation of
vis viva (Art. 509) is
T=:M{Âd'- + &G.] = U+C,

before deducing the Lagrangian equations. and that we wish to remove the factor Changing the independent variable so that dr=Pdt, we deduce the Lagrangian equations by operating on
l\=3IP{Â9i' + &c.},
Choosing
U.= ^-~-.
MP=\, we
have
The factor
has thus been transferred from the expression for the vis viva to
the ivork function.
Here
is
a fuhction of the coordinates only.
We may now
importance
if
change the
suffixes into accents if
we remember that the

t.
differenis
tiations are to be taken with regard to r instead of
This difference
of
no
we
require only the paths of the particles
and not
their positions at
any time.
If
the time also be required,
we add the equation dt=MdT.

are
525.
plified
Orthogonal Coordinates. The Lagrangian equations when the expression for T can be put into the form
T=^(Pe'-'+Q<p'-' + &c.),
much
sim-
lohere the products
d'cp',
dx. are absent.
We
shall
now prove
that this will be the
case
when
the coordinates of the particle are the parameters of systems of curves
or surfaces at right angles.
ART. 526.]
ORTHOGONAL COORDINATES.
surfaces which
p.-,,
325
intersect
at
Let the equations of three systems of

angles be
/i(x, y,
2)
right
(1),
= /3i,
is
/a
(.r,
y,
z)
/^{x, y, z)=p^
where
/d^
p^, p^ are three
constants or parameters whose values determine which

taken.
surface of each system
These parameters
may
be regarded as the co-
ordinates of the point of intersection of the three surfaces.
Such coordinates are

curvilinear coordinates.
called
sometimes orthogonal coordinates and sometimes
Their theory was given by
coordonnees ciirvilignes, 1859.

possible.
Lame in his Lemons sur les In what follows we adopt his notation as far as
As an example of orthogonal coordinates we call to mind a system of confocal and hyperboloids of one and two sheets, the lengths of the major axes being usually taken as the parameters. These are called elliptic coordinates. We may also notice that all the coordinates in common use, whether Cartesian, cylindrical
ellipsoids
or polar, are ortJiogonal.
In the
first
the point
is
defined as the intersection of

cut by two planes,
three orthogonal planes, in the second
the third a sphere cut by a right
we use a cylinder cone and a plane.
and in
Let
(ttj,
bi,
Ci)
be the direction cosines of a normal to the surface whose
parameter
is p^,
then
i-/ii dx
'
'^^"/ii
dy'
^^~h^ dz
''
where
Let
dsj^
Hn^m<^)'
dsi
,
')
is also
we
travel
be an elementary arc of the intersection of the two surfaces p-2, Psi then As an elementary length measured along the normal to the surface p^ along this arc x, y, z and p^ vary, while p.2 p^ are constant. Hence
.
= dp,; '^dxAdy+'pdz dx dz dy ^
'^'^
'
:.
a-j^dx
+ b-idy + Cidz = dpilh-i^

It follows that the
Vj^
(4).
But the
left side is
the
sum
of the projections of dx, dy, dz
on the normal and

v-^
is
therefore ds^;
hence
dsi
= dpjh^.
component
of velocity
along the normal to the surface

of velocity
p^ is
-j^
In the same way the components

be found, and since these are at
normal
to the other
two surfaces
may
right angles,
^'=I^^f'^''-'h'^''^^^''^''
(^)'
where accents denote differential coefficients. In order to use this expression, it will be necessary to express. 7^^, h^, h^, in terms of the new coordinates p^, p^, p^. To effect this we solve the equations (1) and determine x, y, z as functions of Pi, p^, pi', finally substituting these values in the expressions (3) for h-^ h^ h^ This is sometimes a lengthy process.
, ,
Motion on a Curve.
526.
Fixed Curves.
To find
the motion
of a particle on a
smooth curve fiêd in space.
To
find the velocity,
we
resolve the forces along the tangent
to the curve.
If
be the component of the impressed forces
326
MOTION ON A CURVE.
this gives as in Art. 181,
[chap. VII.
X, Y, Z,
mv
If
dv
-,
as
+Z =F=^X-f~+Y-f ds ds ds
-,-
^rdx
^^dy
-^dz
.
Uhe
is
the work function,
F=dU/ds, and we have
which
two directions which may suit the problem under consideration. Supposing that we choose the radius of curvature and binomial, we have
To
find the pressure,
we
resolve in any
where G,
= + R,, p are the components of the impressed forces; Ri,
B.>
the corresponding components of the pressure on the particle.
curve
These equations show that the pressure of the particle on the is the resultant of two forces, (1) the statical pressure due
to the forces urging the particle against the curve, (2) the centri-
fugal force mv'^Jp acting in the direction opposite to that in which
is
measured, Art. 183.

Ex,
1.
527.
plane
is
drawn through the tangent
at
P making an
angle
with the osculating plane.
If p' be the radius of the circle of closest contact to
the curve in this plane, then
G' + E' where
G'
and R' are the components
of
the impressed accelerating force and of the pressure respectively.
This follows from the theorem on curves theorem on surfaces.
p'
cos
p,
corresponding to Meunier's
Ex.
2.
helix
is
placed with
its
axis vertical,
the action of gravity.

pressure.
and a bead slides on it under Find the motion and
inclination
Let a be the radius of the cylinder, a the of the tangent to the horizon.
Drawing
PL
perpendicular to the axis of

is
z,
the
radius of curvature
a length measured along

If
PL
equal to a sec^ a.
is
PT is
the tangent, the
osculating plane
LPT.
C,
If the helix is
smooth
we have
v^= -2gz +
v^ cos^ a
_Ri
'
gcosa-^
If
a
-
1)1
the particle start from rest at a height h,
we
see that
C=2gh.
Since
is
v=
-dsjdt and (hsina = dz, we find that the time of
descending that height
coseca^2hlg.
ART. 528.]
MOVING CURVES.
+ R^)
.
327
Supposing that the coefficient
If the helix is rough, the friction is fiJ{Ri^
of friction is
/*
= tan a,
the resolution along the tangent becomes
V -y-=
-g sin oH
we
find
v/{v* COS''
a + a^'')
writing v^ cos o = f for brevity,
df
sin 2a
+ c.
/; To integrate this we multiply the numerator and denominator of the fraction on the left-hand side by the denominator with the minus sign changed. We
then find
log {v^ cos a + v/(v* cos2 a + a^g^)
o
OS,
}
a9 + v/{'y*cos2a + a2fl2) ''
^\ COS
J)
^ = sin2o + ^
Q/
C.
CL
To
find
C we
3.
require the initial value of v.

/it
If this
were zero the particle would
remain at rest because
= tan o.
its
rough helical tube of pitch a and radius a is placed so as to have and the coefficient of friction is tan a cos e. An extended flexible string which just fits the tube is placed in it show that when the string has fallen
Ex.
axis vertical
through a vertical distance determined by the equation

cot \ e tanh
/i
ma
its
velocity
is
[ag sec a sinh 2^)^,
where
fi
is
tanh (/x sin e + ^ m cos a sin 2e).
Ex. 4. Two small rings of masses m, m' can slide freely on two wires each of which is a helix of pitch }}, the axes being coincident and the principal normals common ; the rings repel one another with a force equal to /xmm'r when they are at be the angle the plane through one a distance r from one another. Prove that if ring and the axis makes with the plane through the other ring and the axis, the time
in
which
<f>
increases from o to
/3
is
{A<p^ -
2B cos <p +
1
)
C]
"^
d(j),
where
,
/oil
^
and
a, b are the radii of
r,
&
p^
lm(a^ + p^)
m'(b^+p-))'
the cylinders on which the helices are drawn. [CoU. Ex, 1896.]
528.
line It
is
Moving
curves.
Ex.
1.
particle
is
constrained to move on the
plane curve z = f{x), lohich rotates about a straight
Oz
in its plane icith

to
an angular
velocity w.
required
Applying to
form the equations of viotion. P an acceleration u'^x tending
from the axis of rotation, we treat the curve as Taking the tangential if it were fixed. Art. 495. and normal resolutions, we have
V
dv =F m ds
is
u^x cos
4/,
v^' - -
=G m
, (i)\x
sin
u'
.R +
where v
the velocity of the particle relatively to the curve,
4/
the angle the tangent
makes with the axis of x, and p is the radius of curvature. Also the components of the impressed forces along the tangent and radius
at
F and G
are
of curvature
at P.
We may
replace the
first
of these equations by the integral of vis viva, viz.
1 mv- = ^{Fds
+ inu^x dx)

328
MOTION ON A CURVE.
[CHAP. VII.
curve.
is
The second eqaation then gives the component E of pressure in the plane of the The component R' of pressure perpendicular to the plane of the curve
given by
where
H
2.
is
the corresponding component of the impressed force, and
is
the
distance of the particle from the axis of rotation.
Ex.
circular wire is constrained to turn
round a
vertical tangent
a uniform angular velocity w.
Oz with heavy smooth
bead, starting from the highest point
without
any
velocity relative to the curve, descends
under
the action
pressure.
of
gravity.
Find the
velocity
and
the
re-
Let
be the centre,
particle, the angle
OC = a; let P be ACP=d, v = addjdt. We

a;
duce the plane to rest by applying to

rating force measured by u-x, where
P an =a
accele-
-t-
a sin
$,
and acting
viva then gives
parallel to
OC.
The equation
of vis
\v^=g{a-aco&d) + w^
.:
fx
\
xdx;
J a
v^=2g {a - a cos e) + uâ^ (2 aine + sin^ 6).

of the pressure on the particle respectively along
The components B, E'

v2
PC and
perpendicular to the plane are given by

. o , - urx sm 5 =g cos d + m
-B
^ X
6.
d
^j-
Ix^w)
E'
at
The
latter equation reduces to

3.
E' =2muv cos
Ex. smooth
Two
circular wire of radius a,
small rings of masses m, m', {m>m') are capable of sliding on a whose vertical diameter is fixed, the rings being
below the centre and connected by a light string of length a:j2: prove that if the wire is made to rotate round the vertical diameter with an angular velocity
J -, (a/v/3
; I m-m'
J
the rings can be in relative equilibrium on opposite sides of the
vertical diameter, the radius through the ring
being inclined at an angle 60 to

invi'
-,
the vertical.
Show
also that the tension of the string is
/3
1
g.
^^
[Coll.
Ex. 1897.]
its
Ex.
4.
smooth
circular cone of angle 2a has its axis vertical
and
vertex,
hangs at rest by a string which passes through the vertex and a mass vi attached to the upper extremity describes a horizontal circle on the inner surface of the cone. Find the time T of a complete revolution, and prove that small oscillations about the steady motion take place in
pierced with a small hole, downwards.
A mass M
the time
T cosec a { (M+ m)/3m}i
[Coll.
Ex. 1896.]
Ex.
at rest.
5.
smooth plane revolves with uniform angular velocity w about a fixed

intersects
it
vertical axis
which
in the point O, at which a heavy particle is placed

is
Show
that during the subsequent motion v'^=p-ui^-T2gz; where
the
depth of the particle below 0, p its distance from the axis and v the speed with [Coll. Ex. 1893.] which the path is traced on the plane.
ART. 529.]
529,
FREE MOTION, TWO CENTRES.

Ex.
1.
329
A particle P,
A case of firee motion witb two centres of force.

is
of unit mass,
constrained to move along an elliptic wire loitliout inertia ichich can

its
turn freely about
major axis.
The particle
is
is
acted on by two centres of force,
situated in the foci S,
H, which
attract according to the law of the inverse square.
Prove that the pressure on the curve
zero in certain cases.
We
take the major axis as the axis of z
and the
origin at the centre.
Let w be
the angular velocity of the wire.
Representing the distance of the particle
from
the major axis by y, the component R' of pressure on the particle perpendicular to the plane of the curve is gi\en by
-y dt^-'
'
But since the wire

the pressure
jR'
is
without inertia,
zero, Art. 267.
i.e.
without mass, the wire moves so that
on
it is
"We therefore have throughout the motion
2/2(0
= 5,
about the axis of rotation.
where
B is the
constant of angular
momentum
Let the distances of the particle from the

forces be
fiilr-^, /^/'"a^-
foci S,
H he
P
r^, r^;
and
let
the central
To
find the
motion in the plane zOP, we apply to
an acceleration
if it
o)hj=B^ly'^,
fixed.
tending from the major axis, and then treat the curve as
were
It
We
notice that the particle could freely describe the ellipse under any one of the forces
/îlh'i
M'zlî'i
^^ly^
if
properly projected; see Arts. 333, 323.
follows that if all the three forces act simultaneously, the pressure
will
immediately on the particle
be a constant multiple of the curvature, Art. 272.

will be zero,
if
The pressure
to the
the square of the velocity of projection
is
equal
be the
sum
of the squares of the velocities
when the
particle describes the curve

v-^
freely
under each force separately; Art. 273.

is
We
find therefore that if
velocity relatively to the curve, the pressure
zero, if
^(}r>'{k-l)-<'^~-f-y
If V be the resultant velocity of the particle in space,
2
we have
v^
= Vi^ + uihj^.
Hence
/2
IN
/2
1\
_a2-i
When
its
the pressure is zero, the wire
may
be removed and the particle describes
path freely in space under the action of the two given centres of force.
projected along the tangent to any ellipse having S,
The
If the
general path under all circumstances of projection has not been found.
particle
is
H for foci
lohose
loith
velocity whose component in the plane of the ellipse is Vj,
and
component
perpendicular to the plane
is
v'=-wy = Bly,
it ivill
continue to describe the ellipse

line
freely, while the ellipse itself
moves round the straight
SH
with a variable
angular velocity u = Bjy'^.
Ex.
centre
2.
If the particle is also acted
and attracting according

is
to the direct distance, prove that the pressure
on by a third centre of force situated at the on
the revolving wire
zero in certain cases.
330
MOTION ON A CURVE.
[CHAP.
VII.
530. Ex. A particle of unit mass moves on a smooth curve which is constrained to turn about a fixed axis with an angular velocity w. It is required to
find the relative motion.
Let the axis of rotation be the axis of z and let the axes of x, y be fixed to the curve and rotate round Oz with the angular velocity w. Let us refer the motion to these moving axes. Since (?i = 0, ^, = 0, 6*3 = 0;, the equations of Art. 499 become
^ Ty du A. + ii = -j~-vu},
,
at
dx u = -y--yu
dt
"^
Y+R^ = - + na,,
^
^'
= ^+^V
dt
}
(1),
dt
where
?(,
J^^,
B^, R^ are the components of the pressure on the particle. Eliminating
V,
w,
^=X+R, + .^x + ~y + 2.^^

= Y^.R, + .'^y---x~2.-\ -^ ^ dt^ dt
-r,
dhj
^^
du
dx
dt
(2).
df^
Z + R.,
The
directly
resultant of the two accelerating forces Xj = w-a;, Fi = w^ is a force tending from the axis of rotation and whose magnitude is iî = wV, where r is the
distance of the particle
P from the
axis.
X.,
The resultant F of the two and it acts perpendicularly, to

particle in the direction in
forces
= ydojldt,
Y.^=
-xdwjdt
is
is
F^
-rdujdt,
the plane containing the axis of rotation and the
which the angular velocity w

of the forces X^ = '2,ij}dyjdt,
measured.
-ûsdxjdt,
To
find the resultant
F.^
Y^=
we notice
is
that the
component along the tangent
to the curve, viz. X.^dxlds
+ Y.^dylds,
zero.
The resultant acts perpendicularly to the given curve, and may be compounded with and included in the reaction. When only the motion of the particle is required,
the force F^
may
be omitted.
Eeasoning as in Art. 197, we see that the equations of motion (2) become the same as if the particle were moving on a fixed curve, provided we impress on the particle (in addition to given forces X, Y, Z) two accelerating forces, viz. (1) a force Fi=u)h and (2) a force F.2= -rdcojdt.
The process
of including the two forces

the curve to rest.
F-^,
F, among the impressed forces
is
sometimes called reducing
The curve having been reduced

tangent.
to rest, the velocity of the particle relatively to
the curve is found either by the equation of vis viva or by resolving along the
We
find
^v^ =
C+ U+
\u3h-dr- jr
If
rd<l>,
where
represents the work function.
the angular velocity
is
uniform, this
reduces to
^v^=C+U+hu)^r^.
The velocity thus found
in space
is
is
the velocity relative to the curve.
The actual velocity
the resultant of velocity v
and the
velocity wr of the point of the curve
instantaneously occupied by the particle.
ART. 534.]
531.
A CHANGING CURVE.
331
actual pressure of the
The pressure of the fixed curve on the particle is not the same as the moving curve. Representing the first by R' and the second by R, we see that R' is the resultant of R and the two forces X^ = 2wdyldt, Y= -2wdxjdt. We may compound these two forces into a single force F^. We
project the
moving curve on a plane perpendicular

then evidently F^=2(dv' where
v' is
to the axis of rotation.
If
P'
be the projection of P, dxjdt and dyfdt are the component velocities of P.

resultant
is
The
the velocity of P' relatively both
to the curve
and
its
projection.
The
direction of F^ is perpendicular not only to
the given curve but also to its projection.

to the radius vector are
The components along and perpendicular
+ 2urddldt and - 2wdrldt.
is
532. Ex. A small bead slides on a smooth circular ring of radius a which made to revolve about a vertical axis passing through its centre with uniform
w,
angular velocity
the plane of the ring being inclined at a constant angle a to the
horizontal plane.
Show
that the law of angular motion of the bead on the ring
is
the same as that of a bead on the ring of radius a/sin a revolving round a vertical
diameter with angular velocity w sin
a.
[Coll.
Ex.]
533. A changing cuirve. A bead of unit mass moves on a smooth curve whose form is changing in any given manner. It is required to find the motion.
Let the equations of the curve be written in the form
where 6
z^f,(0, t) (1), y=f.2{9, t), ^=/i(^, t), an auxiliary variable. We may regard the position of the particle at any given time t as defined by some value of 6. Our object is to find 6 in terms of
is
the time.
Let us use Lagrange's equations.
We have
(2),
r=i2(/,9'+/^)2
where S implies summation for all the coordinates, and partial cients are indicated by suffixes. The Lagrangian equation is
differential coeffi-
ddT_dT_dU
:-^li(fe^'+ft)f9-^(fe0'+ft)ife9^'+fet)-'
This
is
Wbe found.
a differential equation of the second order from which

be found by differentiating the equations
R-^, jRg,
may
A',
The
axes
three components of the pressure on the particle in the directions of the

(1).
may
If
r, Z, be the
com-
ponents of the impressed forces;

R^ those
of the pressure, the Cartesian
^'^-^4-7?
'^'y-Y4.-R
^'^-7,1?
Since the pressure must be perpendicular to the tangent to the instantaneous

position of the curve,
we do not
necessarily require all these equations, though
it
may
be convenient to use them.
534. Ex. A helix is constrained to turn about its axis Oz, which is vertical, with a uniform angular velocity w. Find the motion of a particle of unit mass descending on it under the action of gravity.
Let the axes OA,
OB move
in
with the curve and
let
OA make an
angle ut with
figure
some
axis
of
fixed
space.
Let the angle
AON =6.
See the
of
Art. 527.
332
The equations
MOTION ON A SURFACE.
of the helix referred to axes fixed in space are
(d
[CHAP. VII.
x = acoR
.:
+ ut),
y=:asm{d + wt),
we
= a6tana;
2r=a;'2+?/'2 + 2'2=a2{(^'
+ w)2 + tan2ae'2}.
Substituting in Lagrange's equation,
find after a little reduction

a,
ad"=: -gain a cos
which admits of easy integration. It should be noticed that this result is independent of the angular velocity of the guiding curve, provided only it is constant. A similar result holds for any curve on a right circular cylinder turning uniformly
about
its axis.
To
'p=a,
find the pressure of the helix
on the
particle
we use
cylindrical coordinates,
Art. 491.
<j)=id
Let P, Q,
be the components of the pressure, then since in the helix
+ ut, we
find by substitution
P=-a{e' + u}f,
Q = ae",
is
Z-g=at&nae".
equivalent to a sustaining force
These show that the pressure on the particle

pressure P.
g cos a acting perpendicularly to the osculating plane together with the radial
Motion on a Surface.
535.
Any
Surface.
To find
the motion
of a particle on a
fixed surface.
Let
be the position of the particle at the time t, Ft) a tangent to the path, P^ a normal to
the surface, and
P|
is
that tangent to
the surface which

the path.
perpendicular to
Let
PC
be the radius of
curvature of the path,
PA
the bi-
/
Let X, Y,
normal, then
1^.
PA, PC
lie
in the plane
Let
be the angle GP^.
be the resolved impressed forces parallel to
any axes
x, y,
z fixed in space.
Let the equation of the surface
t)e/(,y, 2)
= 0.
directions
The
resolved accelerations of the particle in the
PA,
P-q,
PC
are
known
dv
as
to be zero, vdv/ds
and
v^/p respectively.
Art. 496.
Hence
resolving in the direction Prj,
^rdx as
^jrdu
dz
as
as
which
if
U be
the work function at once reduces to
hmv'==U + C
This
is
(1).
ART, 538.]
ELEMENTARY RESOLUTIONS.
333
Let
particle
be the pressure of the constraining surface on the

positively
measured
inwards.
Then
resolving
along
the normal,
cos
Y = n + K,
If p' be the
where
is
the component of the impressed forces.
radius of curvature
of the normal section 7;P^ of the surface

it
made by
a plane through the tangent to the path,
is
proved
in solid geometry that p
=p
P
cos x-
We
therefore have
(2).
"^
536.
at P,
<p
=H + R
a,
If a, h are the radii of curvature of the principal sections of the surface
the angle the tangent to the path makes with the section
we have by
Euler's theorem
pa
Let
I'l,
^2 be the resolved velocities of the particle along the tangents to the
principal sections, then v-^=v cos
^ and
Vo=:v sin
tf>.
The equation
(2)
then takes
the form
(?-)= H+B.
537.
is
If the forces are conservative, the velocity of the particle

its
given hy the equation (1) in terms of
coordinates at any
instant
and of
the initial conditions.
at any point
we do not
require to
To determine the velocity know the path by which the
particle arrived at that point (Art. 181).
The
pressure
is
given by (2) in terms of the velocity at
that point, the normal component of force and the radius of
curvature of the normal section of the surface through the

tangent.
The pressure
energy
is therefore also
independent of the path.

the
The
ivhole
G
(2)
being given, the pressure depends on
position of the particle
and
the direction
of motion.
The equation
shows that the acceleration of the particle

is v'^jp.
normal to the surface

motion.
538.
It is therefore independent of the
position of the osculating plane but depends on the direction of
To
find the path of the particle
we resolve
in
some
third direction.
Choosing the direction P^, we have
-sin;^ = P
(.3),
334 where
[CHAP.
VII.
is
the component of the impressed force along that

is
tangent to the surface which
perpendicular to the path.
This
may
also
be written in the forms
--rtanx = F,
P
r=F,
P
where p"
curvature.
539.
is
the radius of curvature of the projection of the path

It is also called the geodesic radius of
on the tangent plane.
G-eodesic path.
If the only impressed forces acting
on the particle are normal to the surface,

equation shows that either sin
line.
;^
^ = 0,
and the third

is
or that the path
a straight
The path
is
therefore necessarily a geodesic line.

is
If the
surface
rough, the friction acts opposite
to
the
direction of motion,
particle
and
would
still
be zero.
So
is
also if the
moves in a
resisting
medium
the resistance
opposite to
the direction of motion.
Generally we conclude that the path of a particle on a rough surface in a resisting medium when acted on hy forces normal to the surface is a geodesic.
Conversely, if the path
is a geodesic line we must have sin % = The component of the impressed force tansurface must then also be tangential to the path.
and therefore
gential to the
F=0.
540.
To find
the radius of curvature
of the path and the
position of the osculating plane
when
the position
and
direction of
motion of the particle are given.
To
effect this
rriv^
we use the two equations

.
cos^rf) cosy 1 sin^cf) = --^y + ^=^-^. -smx = F,
pa
op
is a,
The
particle being in a given position,

is
v-,
a and h are known.
Since
the angle the direction of motion makes with the
principal section
whose radius of curvature
we have
^= J.cos^ + 5sin^,
where
and
are the given components
of impressed
force
along the tangents to the principal sections.
Thus the values of
both sin xip ^^d cos xip follow at once.
ART. 541.]
541.
A SUEFACE OF REVOLUTION. a surface of revolution.

is
to
335
-Motion on
When
it
the
is
surface
on which the particle moves
one of revolution,
generally more convenient
use cylindrical coordinates.
Let the axis of figure be the axis of z and let | be the Let the equation of distance of the particle P from that axis.
the surface be z
=f (|).
Let
U be
the work function, and
let
the
mass be unity.
The equation
of motion obtained
is
by resolving
perpendicularly to the plane
zOP
\>^'^=m-We
have also the equation of
vis viva
r=Hr+^'^+rf^} =
the form
f^+c^
(2),
which, by using the equation of the surface,
may
be written in
ir|i + (|)] + ^rf^=c^+o

Here accents denote
(3).
differentiations with regard to the time.
By
solving (1) and (3)
we determine
the two coordinates
^,
(j>
in terms of the time.
In certain cases the solution can be effected.

(1) gives
The equation
Let the impressed forces be such that
r'U = F,(cl>) + F,{^,z)

where
Fj, F^ are arbitrary functions.
(4),
We
then have
Substituting this value of
(j>'
in (3)
we
find
irr{i + (|J}=i^.(i,^)+cr-^
Since ^
is
^^^-
are separable.
therefore
known function of ^, the variables in this equation The determination of | as a function of t has been reduced to integration. The differential equation
a
is
of the path
found by dividing (5) by
(6).
It is evident that
here also the variables are separable.
336
Since the expression for the vis viva, given in
[CHAP. VII.
(3),
can be
written in the form
where
is
a function of ^ only, this solution
is
an example of
;
Liouville's
method of solving Lagrange's equations
Art. 522.
542.
Motion on a sphere.
is
When
may
the surface on which
the particle moves

(3) of Art. 541 are
a sphere, we
use polar coordinates, the
centre being the origin.
The equations corresponding to (1) and found by putting ^= I sin 6, where I is the
radius
we then have
P
^^
(sin^^f )
1^2 10'2
+ sin^^c^'î =u+c.
These admit of integration when U, expressed in polar coordinates, has the form
The
resulting integrals are
^Psin-'e0'^=F,{l,e)
548.
+ Csin'0-Al
Sxamplea.
of a cone of revolution,
repulsive force m/xlr^
Ex. 1. A particle of mass m moves on the inner surface whose semi-vertical angle is a, under the action of a from the axis ; the angular momentum of the particle about
its
the axis being mij/itana; prove that

eccentricity is sec a.
path
is
an arc
of a hyperbola
whose
Eesolve along the generator and take

the reaction, Art. 541.
parallel to the axis.
moments about the
axis,
thus avoiding
These prove by integration that the path lies on a plane The angle between the asymptotes is therefore equal to the
angle of the cone.
Ex.
2.
particle
moves on a sphere of radius
under the action both of
gravity and a force X=p.lx^ tending directly from a vertical diametral plane taken
as the plane of yz.

to integration.
Show
that the determination of the motion can be reduced
If the particle is projected horizontally
from the extremity of the

in a lower position.
axis of X,
show that when next moving
horizontally,
it is
on by a force the direction of which meets an infinite straight line AB at right angles and the intensity of which is inversely proportional to the cube of the distance from AB. The particle is projected with the velocity from infinity from a point P at a distance a from the nearest point of the line in a direction perpendicular to OP and inclined at an angle a to the plane AOP. Prove that the particle is always on the sphere the centre of which is 0, that it meets every meridian line through AB at the angle o, and that it reaches the line AB in the time a- sec aj^n, where p. is the absolute force.
3.
Ex,
particle is acted
ART. 545.]
Ex.
4.
VARIOUS SURFACES.
particle
337
A
is
being determined by
acceleration
its
moves on a spherical surface of unit radius, its position polar distance 6 and its longitude <p. If the tangential always in the meridian, and sin- 0d<pldt = h, cotd=u, prove that
its
value
is h^ (l
+ u-)(u+
-^
Prove also that the law of force perpendicular
to the equatorial
is
plane under
which the sphero-conic

cube of the distance.
-r5
sin^
sin''
1 -^-7
sin''
can be described
that of the inverse
Ex.
force
fjt.7'
5.
particle
moves on a smooth
z.
helicoid, z
= a^,
under the action of a
per unit mass directed at each point along the generator inwards, r being
the distance from the axis of
The
particle is
projected along the surface
perpendicularly to the generator at a point where the tangent plane makes an
angle o with the plane of xy,
its
velocity of projection being a^fj..
Prove that the
equation of the projection of

1
its
path on the plane of xy

{cosh (0/cos a) }2.
is
+ a^jr^ = secâ
1.
[Math, Tripos, 1896.]

circular
544.
Cylinders.
Ex.
particle
moves on a rough
cylinder
t
under the action of no external

log
fi
{
forces.
Prove that the space^ described in time

initially a velocity
is
where the particle has
F in
a direc-
J
of the cylinder.
tion
making an angle a with the transverse plane
heavy particle moves on a rough vertical circular cylinder and is projected horizontally with a velocity V. Prove that at the point where the path cuts the generator at an angle 0, the velocity v is given by
Ex.
2.
ap/v"
sin'^ =îr to (p.
are agd=jv^d<f) and
The
cylindrical equations of
motion give
{v sin <p)=
CLZ
-.(Ji
1;2 sin'' <p,
Q/v
^ (v cos (p)=g
v^ sin^
first
<p
cos
(p.
First eliminating dt
and putting v lfw we obtain the
result.
Secondly
eliminating n we obtain the others.
Ex.
3.
A
its
smooth cylinder whose cross section

highest position,
is
a cardioid
is
placed with
its
generators inclined at an angle a to the vertical and having the generator through
the cusp in
velocity
and a
from the cusp line with
along the inner surface of the cylinder inclined at an angle to the

it
generator; show that
will leave the surface if
V^<-.
where 2a
is
the
breadth of any section through the cusp.
Ex. 1. A string, one end of which is fastened smooth circular cylinder whose axis is vertical, winds round the cylinder for part of its length, and terminates in a straight portion of length c at the end of which a particle is tied. Show that when the particle is projected in the direction horizontal and perpendicular to the string it begins to a being rise or fall according as the velocity is greater or less than sin a (gc sec ay the angle at which the string cuts the generators.
545.
String on a surface.
at a point of the surface of a
338
[CHAP. VII.
r being at
Prove also that during the ensuing motion -
{rû) + au^ =0
any
time the length of the projection of the straight portion of the string on a horizontal plane, w the angular velocity of the vertical plane drawn through the string and a the radius of the cylinder. [Coll. Ex. 1895.]
Ex. 2. A string is wound round a vertical cylinder of radius a in the form of a given helix, the inclination to the horizon being i. The upper end is attached to a fixed point on the cylinder, and the lower, a portion of the string of length I sec i having been unwound, has a material particle attached to it which is also in
contact with a
rou^
horizontal
plane,
the coefficient
of
friction
being
/a.
Supposing a horizontal velocity
perpendicular to the free portion of the string
to be applied to the particle so as to tend to
wind the string on the cyUnder,
determine the motion and prove that the particle will leave the plane after the
projection of the
unwound
portion of the string
upon the plane has described

[Math. T. I860.]
of a
an angle
-.ôg
2/ttani
,..,,,,,,Jl,,,^ 2fji,V^ta,nî-2/j,glt&ni + ga
I
Ex.
3.
fine string of length
is
fastened to a point
smooth cylinder
wound round the cylinder, has a particle of given mass attached to the free end. Show that, if the particle is projected in any direction, it will, so long as the string is tight and some portion of it remains wound on the
of radius a, and, being
cylinder, describe a geodesic line
on the surface
X cos-
(J V^ - z^ -
x'^
+ y^ - a^) + y sin- {J V^ - z^ ~ Jx^ + y^-aP)=a,

is
where the axis of the cylinder through A.
the axis of
z,
and the axis
of
is
the radius
Show
also that the particle cannot be so projected that the string shall ôt
lies in
sUp
on the cylinder, except when the path the cylinder drawn through A.
the plane of the circular section of

of a particle
546.
Gauss' coordinates.
The motion
on a surface may
also
be investigated by using the geodesic polar coordinates of Gauss. In this method every surface has a geometry of its own, in which all the lines under consideration
are drawn on the surfacfe.
lines
The geodesies on the surface correspond to straight on a plane, and the properties of the figures are discussed by reasoning analogous to that of two dimensions. to any moving be any origin, p the length of the geodesic drawn from Let point P. Let w be the angle OP makes with some fixed geodesic Ox. Let OP' be Then in the limit LP' = dp, a neighbouring geodesic, PL the perpendicular to OP'. PL = Pdu. The theorem that OP=OL is proved in Salmon's Solid Geovietry, The quantity P is a function of p and w, whose form Art. 394, edition of 1882. depends on the particular surface under consideration. On a plane P=p, and on a sphere of radius a, Pasiupja. On an ellipsoid when the origin O is at an umbilicus, P=y cosec w, where w is the angle the geodesic OP makes with the arc containing the four umbilici. The difficulty of finding the value of P for any
surface prevents this
method from coming
into general use.

is
The
vis viva
2T
of a particle of unit
mass
given by
T=4(/)'2 + PV^),
where accents as usual denote differential
coefficients with regard to the time.
ART. 549.]
Let
gauss' coordinates.
;
339
be the work function
F,
the accelerations at
to the geodesic radius vector
OP.
We have
dp
'
P along and perpendicular by Lagrange's theorems,

^
dtdp'
dt d(a'
,
dp
dp
>'
<lT_dT^dU
du)
,
da
^,. this reduces to
a='^d F dt^
dP^,,^
du
Since
dP dP dP ^- = -3- p + ^ w,
dt
dp
do)
G = Pw"-h~w'2 + 2^wy
du
dp
dP
dP
(2).
547.
Let
u,
We may
also arrive at these results loitlwut using Lagrange's equations.
V be the component velocities of

the geodesic
PT at P to
OP.
the tangent plane at P.
P along and perpendicular to the tangent Let P'T' be the projection of the tangent to OP' on Since the tangent planes at P, P' make an indefinitely
If
small angle with each other the component velocities at

to P'T' are
u+du and
v-^dv.
dd be the angle
P along and perpendicular PT makes with P'T', the acceledd

.
rations along
and perpendicular
to
PT are
dd
(as in Art. 225),
F=--v,, dt
dt
du
^ =^+ u G
dv
dt
dt
Now
u=p', v=Pu', and by a theorem proved in Salmon's Solid Geometry, Art.
Bd2,de=-^du).
dp
dP
We
therefore have
These reduce to the same forms as
before.
648. Ex. A particle P, constrained to move on an ellipsoid, is attached to an umbilicus by a string of given length, which also lies on the surface. Prove that the particle describes a geodesic circle with a uniform velocity V, and that the
angular velocity of the string about the umbilicus
the accelerating tension
string
is
is
V sin w/y.
Prove also that
V^ cos pjy, where
/3
is
the angle the tangent at
P to
the
makes with the
axis of y.
649.
is
developable,
Developable surfaces. we may sometimes

Let
s
When
fix
the surface on which the particle moves
the position of the particle by using the edge
as a curve of reference.
be the arc of the edge measured from some fixed
point
to a point
such that the tangent at

s.
passes through P.
Let
QP=u
measured positively in the same direction as
We
then have
v-=
^2
s'-
+ (u' + s')'^.
The form of the surface being given, the radius of curvature p of the edge at known as a function of s. When TJ is given as a function of u and s the Lagrangian method supplies two equations to find the coordinates u and s.
is
heavy particle moves on a developable surface whose edge is a helix Obtain two integrals by which s' and u' may always be found in terms of u and s. Show also that if the particle is projected along a Ex.
with
its
axis vertical.
tangent to the helix,
it
will continue to describe that tangent.
340
[CHAP. VII.
Motion of a heavy particle on a surface of revolution.

550.
To find
the
motion of a heavy particle on a surface of

let z
revolution the axis of which is vertical.
Let the axis of z be the axis of the surface and measured upwards. The velocity v is then given by
v^'
be
= 2g{h-z)...
initial conditions.
(1),
where A
is
a constant depending on the
Let
the plane z =
hhe
called the level of no velocity.

figure,
and
Let ^ be the distance of the particle P from the axis of the angle the plane zOP makes with the plane zOoc.
<f)
Then
(2)'
f'f=^
where
mA
is
the constant angular
momentum and
its
;
value
is
known when the initial values of ^ and d<f>/dt are given Art. 492. The velocity v at any point being given by (1), the angular momentum A must lie between zero and v^. It is the former when the particle is moving in the plane zOP and the latter when moving horizontally. The particle therefore can occupy only
those- points of the surface at which
v^>A,
i.e.
those points at
which
2g {h z)^^> A^.
If then
we
describe the cubic surface

(3),
(h-z)^^=A^f2g
the ^ of the particle for any value of z must be greater than the Corresponding ^ of the cubic surface.
separated by horizontal
This cubic divides the given surface of revolution into zones, circles, and the particle can move only in
those zones which are more remote from the axis of figure than
the corresponding portions of the cubic.

in is determined
The zone
actually
moved
by the point of projection. The particle moves round the axis of figure and must continue to ascend or to descend until it arrives at a point at which the vertical velocity can be
zero, that
is,
until
it
is
reaches one of the boundaries of the zone.

projected horizontally
it is
If the particle
on the boundary
is
of two zones.
It will
move on
that neighbouring zone which
the more remote from the axis than the corresponding portion of If the cubic touch the surface of revolution, the the cubic.
particle is situated
on an evanescent zone and
will
then describe
ART. 553.]
SURFACE OF REVOLUTION.
341
a horizontal circle. The path is stable or unstable according as the neighbouring zones are less or more remote from the axis of
figure than the cubic surface,
551.
Ex.
particle is projected horizontally icith

f, z.
a velocity
at a point
lohose coordinates are
Will
it rise
or fall?
i/-
the angle the radius of curvature If mR be the pressure on the particle, makes with the vertical, we see by resolving vertically, that the particle if inside and < 2"" ^îl^ ^^^^ ^^' ^^^^ according as R cos f is greater or less than g. To find R we resolve along the normal to the surface. Since the particle is moving along that principal section whose radius of curvatui-e is the normal n, Art. 536. Since n sin i/'=f, we see that the particle will we have V^ln = R- g cos rise, fall, or describe a horizontal circle according as V^ is greater, less, or equal to
'/'
i//,
g,
tan
\{/.
If
z=f(^) be the equation of the surface of revolution, tan
\j/
= dzld^.
surface
To
find the level to
which the
particle will rise or fall
we use the cubic
described in Art. 550, the constants
A and
h being
known from
the equations
V^=A, V'^=2g[h-z). The

(1), (2)
intermediate motion
may be deduced from the equations

any
position.
of the
same
article.
552.
Ex.
To find
the pressure on the particle lohen in
We
use the formula given in Art. 536.
The
v.,
principal radii of curvature of the
surface are the radius of curvature p of the meridian

velocity perpendicular to the meridian being
and the normal
n.
The
= ^d(f>jdt,
the velocity v^ along the
meridian
is
given by v- = v-^ + v^.
The formula
-\-
-^
p
-=-
n
,
= R- q cos
i/',
shows that
2g(h-z)
P
A"-
1\
\" p) This problem has a special interest because we can use it to represent experimentally the path of a particle under the action of a centre of force. If Q be the projection of the particle on a horizontal plane, the motion of Q is the same as that of a particle moving under the action of a central force whose magnitude is
s-
R sin
<3
\p.
If
then a surface
is
so constructed that the generating curve satisfies the

ixl^"^,
differential equation
R sinxp
where
has the value given above, the path of
should be a conic with a focus at the origin.
The experiment cannot be

then be very smooth.
is
properlj' tried with a particle, for the surface
must
to
It is better to replace
the particle by a small sphere which
made
553.
to roll
on a rough surface, but
in that case, the theory
must be modified
allow for the size of the particle.

Smsill oscillation.
Nature, 1897.
Ex.
heavy particle P, describing a horizontal

It is required to find the
circle on
a surface of revolution, is slightly disturbed. oscillations to a first approximation.
The plane zOP may be reduced

acceleration ^(d(pldt)", Art. 495.
J2/^*.
to rest if
we apply
to the particle a horizontal

this acceleration is equal to
Since
^d(f>ld.t
= A,
Resolving along the meridian, we have

d^s
A"
where
\{/
is
the angle
PGO
which the normal
to the surface
makes with the
axis.
342
[chap. VII.
at
Let the radius of the mean circle be N^Pi^c and let the normal to the surface any point of its circumference make an angle PiGiO = y with the vertical.
Since
may
be taken to be the arc of the meridian between the particle and the
mean
circle,
we have
^
= C+SC0S7,
ifi=:y
+ slp,
its
where p
is
the radius of curvature of the meridian at
intersection with the
mean
circle.
Substituting,
we
find by Taylor's theorem
-r^=F-p^s,
SA'^ cos^ y
F=-^cosy-gsmy,
The
p-=
^2 sin 7
g cos y p
cy
is
c*
position of the circle of reference
as yet arbitrary except that the
deviation s must be small. Let it be so chosen that the mean value of s (taken for any long time) is zero; we then have F=0. The mean circle and the angular momentum mA are so related that A^=c^gt&ny, while the oscillatory motion is given by s = I,sin (pt + M) where L, ill are the constants of integration.
To
find the
motion round the axis of
figure
we use the equation

\
^^d(pldt
= A;
d^
A[^
7
2s
" di
2 A cos
-cos(p + il/) + ^,
where
If
N is the constant
we
write
of integration.
for the
9
mean
value of
o o
d<}>jdt,
we have A = c^w.
We then find
9
cw'=<jrtan7,
/c sin 7 \ ' p' = w^[ + 3cos27)
<;cos7
'
The time
reverse
the particle takes to travel from the highest position to the lowest or the
is Trfp.
554.
vertical
The Paraboloid. Ex. 1. and vertex downwards, and
A
its
smooth paraboloid
equation
is ^^
is
placed with
its
axis
projected horizontally with velocity F, the initial

particle is again
= 4az. A heavy particle is altitude being z = h, show that the

Show
also that
is
moving horizontally
at
an altitude z=VÎ2g.
the pressure on the surface at any point of the path
inversely proportional to the
radius of curvature of the parabola.
ART. 555.]
CONICAL PENDULUM.
343
To prove the first, we notice that the angular momentum A = V^ where ^=4a6. The cubic ^{h-z) = AÎ2g becomes z--hz + V'bl2g=0, one root of the quadratic being z = 6, the other b' is given either hj b + b' = h or b' = V^j2g. The second part
follows from Art. 552.
If
the time
of passing
from one
limit to the other be required,
we
first
notice that
the limits being b
and
b'.
This integral can be reduced to
elliptic
forms by putting
a + = (&' + a)cos''^.
2
Ex. 2. whose axis
particle
is vertical,
vertex
moves under the action of gravity on a smooth paraboloid downwards and latus rectum 4a. If the particle be
projected along the surface in the horizontal plane through the focus with a
velocity ^(2nag), prove that the initial radius of curvature p of the path, and the angle d which the radius of curvature makes with the axis, are given by
J(n- + l)p = 2na^2,
(1
-n) tan^ = l + .
its
[Math. T. 1871.]
axis vertical, the
Ex.
3.
heavy particle moves on a paraboloid with

.r^/a
equation of the surface being

horizontally
1
+ ?/-7j3=4z.
Show that
the particle
when moving
must
2
,
lie
on the quartic surface and
x(~2~^)
1 /x'2
I
(9
1 .
2)"'
z{h-z)
r
also
where -s p^
that
= x^ + ^ + 4,
o}
B is
p^
+ ^ + 2a \ p'\apj
w'2
Show
when
the paraboloid
is.
a surface of revolution, the intersection reduces to two
horizontal planes and two coincident planes at the vertex.
555.
The Conical Pendulum.
To find
the motion of
heavy particle
It will
on a smooth sp.iere*.
coordinates at the centre

vertically doivmvards.
be convenient in this problem to take the origin of of the sphere and to measure O2
Let
I
be the length of the string
OP
and
makes with Oz. plane zOP makes with some

6 the angle
it
Let ^ be the angle the vertical fixed plane zOx. Let r be the
in
The problem
and
(3)
of the conical
pendulum has been considered by Lagrange
the second volume of his Mecanique Anahjtique.

to (1)
He
deduces equations equivalent
of Art. 555 from his generalized equations, and notices that the
<f>
He reduces the determination of t and to integrals, and makes approximations when the bounding planes are close together. He There is an elaborate memoir by refers also to a memoir of Clairaut in 1735. Tissot in Liouville's Journal, vol. xvii. 1852. He expresses t, z, <p and the arc s in elliptic integrals in terms of n. A long communication by Chailan may be found
cubic has three real roots.
in the Bulletin de Soc. Math, de France, 1889, vol. xvu.
There
is
a brief discussion
of this problem in Greenhill's Applications of Elliptic Functions, 1892, Art. 208.
344
distance of
[CHAP.
VII.
from Oz.
level of zero velocity.
We
Let h be the altitude above now proceed as in Art. 5.50.
of the
By
the principles of.angular
momentum and
vis viva,
Eliminating
d<f>/dt
and writing r = l sin
0,
Psinêi^j =2g(h + lcos6)sm^0-~

Putting z = l cos
6,
(2).
this
may
also
be written in the form

(3).
l'{^J=-^9(h + ^)(i'-^')-^'-
To
find the positions of the horizontal sections
particle oscillates (Art. 550),
we
put dz/dt =
between which the 0. We thus have

(4).
the cubic
(h
+ z)(l'-z')-A'l2g =
make
is
Since the
left-hand
initial
value of z must
(dz/dty positive, the
side of the cubic (4)
positive for
some value of z
is
lying between z=l. When z= 1
the left-hand side
negative,
by the
Lastly
hence the cubic has two real roots lying between + I and separated Let these roots be 2: = a and z = b. initial value of z.
when
is
very large and negative the left-hand side
is
positive, the third root of the cubic is therefore negative
and
numerically greater than
I.
Let this root he z =
c.
The
particle
oscillates between the two horizontal planes defined by z
= a, z = b.
Since the cubic can be written in the form

2^
+ hz^- Pz + (A'/2g - Ph) = 0,

(a
we have
the obvious relations
a + b-c
Conversely,
= -h,
+ b)c-ab = P,
abc
= A^j^g - Mi.
when the depths a and b of the two boundaries of given, the values of the other constants of the are motion the and A, follow at once. We have h, motion, viz. c,
^
a+b
'
2g
a+b
556. Ex. Prove (1) that one of the two horizontal planes bounding the motion lies below the centre (2) that the plane equidistant from the two bounding planes also lies below the centre; (3) that both the bounding planes lie below the centre if 2ghP<A-; (4) if a length OC = c be measured upwards from the centre 0,
;
ART. 558.]
the point
velocity.
CONICAL PENDULUM.
is
345
not only above the top of the sphere, but above the level of zero
if all the roots were negative, every coefficient of which is not the case. To prove (2) since both a and 6 are numerically less than I, it follows from the value of c that a + b is positive. (3) The two roots a and h will have the same or different signs according as the left-hand side of the cubic when z = and z = l has the same or different signs. The fourth result follows from the fact that c-h, i.e. a + h, is positive.
To prove
(4)
(1),
we
notice that
positive,
the cubic
would be
The
all
first
and
third results follow also
from Descartes' rule
of signs; for since
the roots of the cubic are real, there are as
many
positive roots as changes of
sign,
and as many negative roots as continuations.

Ex.
657.
depth of
To
find the tension of the string
we produce the radius
vector
z'
OP
outwards to a point
so that
PQ
is
half the length of the string.
Let
be the
given
crosses
Q below
the level of zero velocity.

the string
Prove that the tension
mR
is
by lR = 2gz'.
sphere
is
Thence show that

It
can become slack only when
the level of zero velocity.
may
be noticed that the tension or pressure on a
independent of the angular
momentum mA.
projected
horizontally with
558.
the motion.
Ex.
1.
particle
is
Determine whether
it loill rise
or fall,
and find
the position of the other
a velocity V. boundary to
Let the
initial radius
OP make
an angle a with the
vertical.
Resolving along
the normal, we find that the initial tension
mR
is
given by
R=g cos a+V^jl.
The particle will rise or fall according as R cos a is > or <g, that is, according as F^cosa is > or <lgeinâ. If these are equal the particle describes a horizontal
circle.
See Art. 551.

far
it
l
To determine how
Art. 555
is
will rise or fall,
we
notice that one root of the cubic in
known,
viz. z
to
cos a; the cubic
may therefore
But
it is
more easy
repeat the reasoning.
We
be reduced to a quadratic. have by the principles of angular
momentum and
vis viva
,-^g=Fisina,
r3(f)%,-^(fy.F^ + 2,^cos.-cos).
Eliminating dtpjdt and putting zero for ddjdt, the limiting values of 6 are found from
V-^-^-^=V^ + 2gl{<iose-cosa);
.:
V''{cos0 + cosa) = 2glsinê.
Putting V^j2gl=2n for brevity, we find

cos
6= -n + ^(1 - 2n cos a + n^),
where the positive sign is given to the radical because cos d must be less than unity. This value of cos d and cos ^ = cos a determine the positions of the bounding planes
of the motion.
Ex.
2.
heavy
is
particle, constrained to
move on
the surface of a smooth
sphere of radius a,
projected horizontally with a velocity

is x.
from a point on the
surface whose depth below the centre
Prove that, when next moving hori-
zontally, the depth x' of the particle below the

2g{x'-^-a^)
same point
is
given by
V^{x' + x) = 0.
346
Ex.
3.

In the centre of a hollow sphere resides a repulsive
[CHAP. VII.
force.
A heavy from a point distant 60 from the highest point with a velocity due to falling through the diameter by its weight only. Prove that it will be again moving horizontally at a point whose distance from the lowest point is tan~^ 4^|. [Coll. Ex.]
particle is projected horizontally along the surface of the sphere
Ex. 4. A particle is attached by a string to the top of a hemispherical dome, and is projected horizontally along the interior surface, which is rough, with a velocity just sufficient to prevent it from at once leaving the surface. Find the velocity after describing a given arc, and show that it will always remain in contact
with the surface. [Math. Tripos, 1853.]
Slioiv that the
550.
tion
Ex.
1.
radius of curvature of the path and the inclina-
X of
the osculating plane to the
normal
to the
sphere are given by
P
-5
= 1+fi-.
gÂ^
tanx =
,
^,
momentum.
gA
where v
is
the velocity
and niA
the constant angular
We
follow the
method given in Art. 540.

COS
Let
is
be the component of accele-
ration along that tangent to the sphere which

of motion.
perpendicular to the direction
Then
Y ^
=7
I
V
,
sin x=^. p
To
find F,
we
notice that the acCelera0.
tion perpendicular to the meridian plane is zero, while that tangential is g sin
Hence
if
the direction of motion
makes an angle
i/*
with the meridian,
F g sin 6 sin
ad'
\f/.
Since the components of velocity in and perpendicular to the meridian plane are
and asin^^', we have v coB\p = a6', u sin ^ = i sin ^^'. Choosing the latter component to find \p and remembering that l-siv?d<p' = A, the values of cos xfp and
sin xIp are evident.
Ex.
2.
particle is projected with velocity
the surface of a smooth sphere.
V horizontally from a point on Prove that the radius of curvature of its path is
;,ô- V where ,t-,va J{V^-\-Pg^sinâ.)
is
the radius of the sphere and a the inclination to the

[Coll.
vertical of the radius at the point.
Ex. 1881.]
Ex.
3.
A
is
particle is projected inside a
smooth sphere of radius I with a velocity

[Coll.
Mj2gl along a tangent to the horizontal equator, prove that at first the radius of
curvature
2?/^5.
Ex. 1897.]
560.
plane
is
Ex.
Prove that the projection of the path of the particle on a horizontal

22 sin
a central orbit described under a force

r=l.
6=
or
-m {2/i.
+ 3^(Z-
f^)}, ivhere
the radical changes sign luhen
Show
radii are
force.
circle,
also that if the
two roots a and

is
b-),
b of the cubic in Art. 555
have the same
signs, the central
path
a spiral curve touching alternately two circles whose

the curve being always concave to the centre of
the other bounding circle.
^{P and
a-)
and ^(P -
If a
b have opposite signs the central path after touching each
touches the circle
r=l and then touches

only
if
bounding There
will be a point of inflexion
vanishes and changes sign.
'
ART. 562.]
CONICAL PENDULUM.
347
561. Ex. If we vrrite ^h + l cos = k cos <p, a conical pendulum may be reduced to the form
the general equation of motion of
- aitfi
(^)' = Ifa (cos 3^ - cos 3o),

a.
by properly choosing the constants k and
Show
that these values are

K = y(h^ + 2P),
-,^C0s3a = '^ + ^h^-:^hP.

k
Find also the positions of the bounding planes when the constants motion are given.
and a of the
562.
travels
The motion of the particle as it passage. from one boundary to the other may be found by an elliptic
the equation (3) of Art. 555 in the form
Time of
integral.
We write
V(2)^_f
I
J\/{a-z){z-b){z h(a-.
+ c)
where the limits are z=â and z = b, and a>b. Putting z = a ^', the integral takes a standard form which is reduced to an elliptic
integral
by writing ^ = sin ^^
\/(a b), i.e. we z a cos^ i/r + 6 sin^ -v^
^yrite
V(25r)^^
I
2
\/{a
dir
where
+ c)J J:\/(l K^ sin^ '^) l^ + ab ab c= k^ = fa+c a+
If the time of passage from one boundary to the other
is
required,
the limits are
and
^tt.
If the two bounding planes are close together, k is small. By expanding in powers of k and effecting the integrations we find that the time from one boundary to the other is given by
V(25r)^^
I
TT
sjia
+ c)
|l
+ (|)^/.^+(]-^)\^ + &c.}
also close to the lowest point,
If the two bounding planes are we put
a=lcosa=l(l-â%
= lcos ^ = 1(1-1^').
We
then find that the time of passage from one boundary to the
is
other
"Wffi ^+
16
+
[CHAP.
VII.
348

/3
the fourth powers of a and
being neglected.
This result
is
given by Lagrange.
Let u
i/r
Jo V(l -"Sin- T|r)

t
rrz.
and
be the value of
ii
when
= |-7r.
Let
be the time of passage from the lower boundary
any value of i/r, and one boundary to the other, then tjT = w/iT.
to the depth z defined by
the time from
563.
Ex.
1.
upper boundary has elapsed, the particle

boundaries.
k'2=1-/c2.
Prove that when half the time of passing from the lower to the is above the mean level between the two
is
Prove also that the depth of the particle
then
{k'u
+ 6)/(k' + 1), where

[Tissot.]
Ex.
2.
Prove that when a quarter of the time has elapsed, the depth z of the
particle is
(l+V')x/(l +
564.
The
apsidal angle.
To find
the
change in the value

to the other.
of
<f>
as the particle moves from one hounding plane
Eliminating dt between (1) and (3) of Art. 555 we find
V(%)
Al
}^{a-z)^{z-h)^{z + c){l^-z''y
dl
where the limits of integration are z = h and z = a, and a >b. Putting a = 7n + z = m + ^ so that m is the middle b = value of z and /* the extreme deviation on each side of the middle, we have
fji,
fju,
Al
H
^
d^
J^/(fM'-^')^/{m
+ c + ^){l'-{m + ^y}'
where the limits are ^

565.
= i^ and
/i.
When
the hounding planes are close

is
to
each other, the
range
yu,
of the values of ^
small.
If also the planes are not
near the lowest point, the two last factors in the denominator
are not small for any value of
^.
We may
therefore expand
these in powers of | and thus put the integral into the form
(p+Q^+ i^r-) = TT (p
this gives
'
^Rfj,').
After calculating
P and R,
irl
f
V(^2 + 3m2)
S{Sl^ + lSni')mY' 4>{P- m^) (P + SmJ
ART. 567.]
566.
CONICAL PENDULUM.
349
z are nearly equal,
If both the bounding planes are near the lowest point of the sphere, I and and the last factor in the denonainator of <p (Art. 564), may be
itself.
so small that its changes in value are considerable fractions of
We
write
the integral in the form

dz 1 V(2.9)._/" ^" -/. Al Jj{(i-z)^{z-b)(l-z)'^(c + z)(l + z)'
The two
factors in the denominator of the second fraction are not small
and these
may
make
be expanded in powers of some small quantity properly chosen.

the expansion in powers of
of
We
shall
1-z = t].
c
Eemembering the values
A and
found in Art. 555, we have
all
these integrals are

/
common
dz
forms.
To
find the first

1
/"
we put l-z = Iju.
We have
i V( -
2) n/(^
_ _ du _ -^{l-^)~ kI{1 -a)J(l-b)J V(a -^ m)V(w-/3)'

calculate.
where a and ^ are two constants which we need not

limits of the first integral, viz. z
limits of the other
For since the

see at once
= a,
= b, make
q=l-z
the denominator vanish, the
must be u=a, m=jS.

is tt.
Putting M = ^(a + /3)
+ | we
that the value of that integral

integrals have just been found.
Since
the values of the remaining
Hence
where we have written
for c
+l
its
value given in Art. 555.
If p, q be the radii of the circles which
bound the
oscillation,
we have
l-a=t, 21'
a=:l,b = l; hence (see Art. 562)
l-b = t, 21'
a'
and in the small terms which contain the product pq as
factor,
we can
write
3p?)
/I L
1 p^ +
q^l
The first of these results was first made by M. Bravais

567.
Ex,
differs
from that given by Lagrange.
The
correction
in a note to the Mecanique Analytique.
simple spherical pendulum of length

is
is
drawn out to the

2pl.
horizontal position and
then projected horizontally with a velocity
Show
that, if d is the angle that the string
makes with the
vertical,
and ^ the azimuthal
angle of the vertical plane through the string, sin d sin
{<p
-pt) = -
^2 cos d,
where
is
equal to Jgll.
"
350
MOTION ON AN ELLIPSOID.
Motion on an Ellipsoid.
[CHAP. VII.
568.
particle of itnit
Cartesian coordinates. To find mass on an ellipsoid*.
the
motion
of a
be the components of the impressed forces in Let R be the pressure on Since the direction the particle measured positively inwards. cosines of the normal dtxe pxja^, &c., the equations of motion are
Let X, Y,
the directions of the principal axes.
^"
= X-i2i9|,
y"^Y-Rp^_,
z"
= Z-Rp^^...{l),
where accents denote differential coefficients with regard to the We also have from the equation of the surface time.
x^
z^ - + y^ = 1' + -2 ^ 0^ c?
^
XX
a^
a-
yy = + 1T+-T &
zz'
b^
y"^
z'^
^
(2), ^
xx"
a^
yy"
0^
zz"
c^
x'-
a^
h'
c^
Multiplying the dynamical equations (1) by

integrating,
x', y', z',
adding and
we have
^{x'-
+ y'^ + z'') = G+j{Xdx-\-Ydy + Zdz)

(7 is
(4);
where
is
the work function and
a constant.
This
is
of
course the equation of vis viva.
Substituting from (1) in

'
(3),
we
find
fx''
y-
z''\
ix'-
/-
z''\
(Xx
Yy
Zz\
,^-
* The motion of a particle constrained to remain on an ellipsoid is discussed by Liouville in his Journal, vol. xi. 1846. He uses elliptic coordinates and shows that the variables can be separated when U {fj? - v-) = i\ (/i) - F.^ (v). There iff also a paper on the same snhject by W. R. Westropp Roberts in the Proceedings of the MiitJicmatical Society, 1883. He also uses elliptic coordinates and especially treats of the case in which the path is a line of curvature. The case in which the particle is attracted to the centre by a force proportional to the distance is solved in Cartesian coordinates by Painleve, Lemiis sur V integration des equations differentielles de la Mecavique, 1895. He also treats separately the limiting case of a heavy particle moving on a paraboloid whose axis is vertical. There is a short paper by T. Craig in the American Journal of Mathematics, vol. i. 1878. He discusses the same problem as Painleve, beginning with Cartesian coordinates, but passing quickly to Elliptic coordinates. He shows that the iâth is a geodesic when the central force is zero and the particle is acted on by what is equivalent to a force tangential to the path and varying &s f(t) + F[s)v where s is the arc described. This result follows also from Art. 539.
'
ART. 569.]
CARTESIAN COORDINATES.
351
In an
ellipsoid
we have
f'a^^h^^d^'
where
D'~ a^^
h^'^
d"
^'
is
the semi-diameter of the ellipsoid whose direction

{I,
cosines are
m,
n).
Also the radius of curvature of the normal

is
section whose tangent
parallel to
is
= D'^jp.
be
parallel to the tangent to the path l^x'jv,
Taking D to m = y'jv, n = z'{v.
The equation
(5) is therefore the Cartesian equivalent of
R=^-^
p
(n
force.
where
is
the inward normal component of the impressed

certain cases
569.
In
entiating (5) and remembering (6),
we may find another we have
integral.
Differ-
dt
\pj
a'
b'
c^
J^
dtKa-"
b^
cy
Substituting for x", y", /' from (1)
and using
(6),
If then the forces acting on the particle are such that
-^(^^> + 6i^^5e<^^^> + ^J^(^^^> = --(^)'

we have
R = Ap^
(10).
Substituting in (5) or (7), we have the third integral which be written in either of the forms
^'2
*
may
y"i
/2
c^
Xx
a-
Yy
0-
Zz
c-*
^
(11).
0-
N=
P
If only the direction of
(4)
Ap^
motion is required, we eliminate v and (7). Remembering that p = D'-jp, we see that the direction of motion at any point of the path is parallel to that semi-diameter D whose length is given by
between the equations
2 ([^+(7)
iV
352
[CHAP. VII.
Supposing the condition (9) to be satisfied we notice that initial velocity and direction of motion are such that the equation (11) gives A = 0, it follows by (10) that the pressure R is zero throughout the motion. The particle is therefore free
when the
Conversely, if the and moves unconstrained by the ellipsoid. freely describe projected, can a curve on particle, when properly
the ellipsoid, the condition (9)
is satisfied.
If
it
can describe the
same curve when otherwise

If the
projected^ the pressure varies as p^.
components X, Y,
do not
satisfy the condition (9),
so by adding to them the components of an arbitrary normal force J'' and subtracting F from the reaction R. The condition (9) then becomes
we may sometimes make them do
where
X, y,
is
an arbitrary function of
oc,
y,
z and
is
a function of
z given
by
(6).
The equation
but as this
(10) then becomes
R = F + Ap^.
It is only necessary that the condition (9) should hold for the
path of the
particle,
is
generally unknown, the con-
dition should be true for every arc on the ellipsoid,
670.
Ex.
particle is acted
on by a centre of attractive
ki:
force situated at the
centre of the ellipsoid, the force being
If
D is
the semi-diameter parallel to
the tangent to the path, prove that
These reduce
Since
to the ordinarj' formulse of central forces
when ^=0.
first
X=
kx, &c. the condition (9) is satisfied.

(11), for
The
of the results to be
proved then follows from
N=Kp.
ellipsoid
always parallel to the axis of y, and is projected from any point P with a velocity v^ = Kly^ in a direction perpendicular to the geodesic joining P to an umbilicus. Prove that the path is a geodesic circle having the
is
r=
571. Ex. A particle - KJy^, whose direction
moves on the
under the action of a force
umbilicus for centre,
i.e.
the geo.desic distance of
P from
the umbilicus
is
constant*.
of force.
by substitution that the condition The path is therefore given by

see
D"^
^
We
(9) is satisfied
by
this
law
p'
y-
where, as before,
is
the semi-diameter parallel to the tangent to the path.
Since
the cosine of the angle the normal
makes with the
axis of y
is
pylb^,
we have
* This result is
due to
W.
E.
W.
Eoberts,
who
gives a proof
by
elliptic co-
ordinates in the Proceedings of the London Math. Soc. 1883.
'
ART. 572.]
CARTESIAN COORDINATES.
The
conditions of projection show that
353
.
N= KplhhiK
C= 0.
P
Hence
1
-=rx
1 p^y^ + =A
If p, a are the semi-axes of the diametral plane of
If also
D, D' are two semi-diameters at right angles of the same plane
2)2
+ _D'2'"p2'''o-2~
p^D'^
a262c2
P
^y2
^
'
_-L _ (i^ + b^ + c^-r^

a%\^
their Cartesian values
1
62p2
Substituting for
p and r
Using the equation to the surface, this becomes

1 _ J_ ^m~a^c^ *"
t
(a2-;)2)(52-c2)
_ A) y^
K
J
a2p32
the coeflScient of
pD'=ac, must be zero. It then follows that throughout the subsequent motion pD'=ac, and the path cuts all the geodesies from the umbilicus at right"
Since the particle
is
projected perpendicularly to the geodesic defined by
j/2
angles.
These geodesies are therefore
all of
constant length.
Let a be the angle which the geodesic joining the particle P to an umbilicus U makes with the arc joining the umbilici. If ds be an arc of the orthogonal trajectory
of the geodesies,
d8=Pduj where P=t//8in w
(Art. 546).
Since v^=Kly^,
it
follows
that the angular velocity w' of the geodesic radius vector is given by
w'=^ sin u.
its
k/k
When
at
the ellipsoid reduces to a disc lying in the plane xy^the geodesies become
straight lines
H (Art. 576).
and the geodesic The theorem
circle reduces to
is
a Euclidian circle having
centre
then identical with one given by Newton, viz. that
circle
can be described under the action of a force
Y=
- KJy^.
deduced from
The motion of a particle in a

along the geodesic radius
is
geodesic circle under the action of a force, or tension,

is
given in Art. 548, where the result
Gauss' coordinates.
A particle, moving on the ellipsoid, is acted on by a centre of any given point E. If the force F is such that the condition (9) is satisfied, prove that F=/irlP^, where r and P are the distances of the particle from E and from the polar plane of E respectively. Thence show that, if the initial conditions are such that the constant ^=0, the path is a conic and the velocity at any point is given by v^=pN.
672.
Ex.
1.
force situated at
To prove
and
(o,
/3,
this
7) are the coordinates of

(2)
remembering
we put X=G{x-a), Y=G(y-^), Z=G(z-y), where G=F/r E. Substituting in the equation (9) and When Art. 568, we have an easy differential equation to find G.
is
^=0,
the particle moves freely on the ellipsoid under the action of a central force.
is
The path
motion
is
a plane curve and
therefore a conic.
to give the velocity, but this is determined
by
(11) Art. 569,
The equation of vis viva fails when the direction of
known.
354
Ex.
2.
[CHAP.
VII.
A particle
moving on a prolate spheroid
is
acted on by a central force
tending to one focus and attracting according to the Newtonian law.

the integrals of the equations of motion are
Prove that
\dtj
ar^
a^
where p is the perpendicular from the centre on the tangent plane, r the distance from the focus, and A, B the constants of integration.
573. Ex. 1. A particle under the action of no external forces is projected from an umbilicus of an ellipsoid, prove that the path is one of the geodesies defined by 2?D =ac.
a velocity v along the surface of an bounded by similar ellipsoids. Prove that when it leaves the ellipsoid the perpendicular p from the centre on the tangent plane is given by MI^R^=v^^dbc, where R is the radius vector parallel to the initial the direction of motion, P the perpendicular on the initial tangent plane, [Math. Trip. I860.] attracting mass and a, h, c the semi-axes of the ellipsoid.
Ex.
2.
particle is projected with
indefinitely thin ellipsoidal shell
674.
Ex.
Let the forces be such that ^(Xd\+Ydfji.+Zdp)

all
is
a perfect
v are
differential,
say dS, for
displacements on the ellipsoid, where

i.e.
\,
fi,
the
direction cosines of the normal,
\=pxld^, &o.
,,2
Prove that
-'2\
R + N=2pHS + B),
where
-=p^-^ + y^ + -y2p^S + B),
/'2
",.'2
is

(8),
of
The integrals of the equations Art. 569, by p^ and integrate by parts. motion are then obtained by using (6) and (7), remembering that p=D^lp.
Divide
576. In order to include in one form all the different cases of paraboloids, cones, and cylinders, it may be useful to state the results when the quadric on which the particle moves is written in its most general form <p (x, y, z) = 0.
4 Writing -i= <Px^ + <Py^ + <pj^, where
let
sufiixes denote partial differential coefficients,
the forces satisfy the condition
for all displacements
on the quadric.
x', y', z'
We
then find that the pressure
R=Ap^.
(4),
The three components
of the velocity
(2),
may
be deduced from the equations
,p^+4,y'+<p^'=0
i(x'-^+y'^ + z'^)
= U+C. =^
2R
ip^'^ + &c. + 2<p^'y' + &c.
+ 4>^+<f>yY+(f>^Z
(5),
where the numbers appended to the equations correspond to those in Arts. 568, &c.
676.
particle
EUipUe coordinates.
Preliminary statement.
The
position
of
the
in space
is
defined by the intersection of three quadrics confocal to a
given quadric.
hyperboloid of one sheet and that of two sheets;
In the figure ABC, A'MM', A"NN' are respectively the ellipsoid, only that part of each being drawn which lies in the positive octant. Let theic major axes 0A = \, OA'=/ji,
ART. 577.]
ELLIPTIC COORDINATES.
a, b, c
353
If
OA"=v.
then
Let
be the three axes of any confocaL
a?-b^=h^, a^-c^=k^,
0H= h, 0K= k are the major axes of

quantities
X,
/*,
the focal conies.

first X is always than k and greater than h; the
The
positive
are the elliptic coordinates of P; the

is less
and greater than k; the second >
is less than h, and changes sign when the particle crosses the plane of yz. The y axes of the quadrics are y/(\'^-h^), ^(/i^-h^), sl{v^-h^); two of these are real and the third is imaginary. These radicals are positive when the particle lies in the positive octant, but the second or third vanishes and changes sign when the
third V
particle crosses the plane of xz, according as
it
travels along
PN or PM.
Similar
remarks apply
to the z axes.
The major axes

given by the cubic
of the three confocals
which intersect in any point

^^
(x, y, z)
are
x^
y^
_1
where h and k are the constants of the system. Clearing of fractions and arranging the cubic in descending powers of a^, we see that the three roots X^, fj.^, v^ are
such that
\2 + ^2 + y2:â;2
+ y2 + 22 + ;j2+fc2
XV2 + MV + '2X2 = 7l2(.T2 + 22) + fc2(a.2 + j^2) + ;j2X;2[

\(u>
(1).
= yikx
_ 7^2) ^(7i2 _ ^2) = ft ^^^yp. _ ft2) y-y - y?) ^(fc2 -v1.) = k V{ A;2 - W) z\
From
the third equation we infer by symmetry
V(X2 X/(X2 -
fe2)
fc2)
^(;,2
^(fc2
.(2).
577.
To
{X2
'prove that the velocity/ v
of a particle in
_ X2) (^2 _ ^2) ^'2 _ ft2) (^2 _ fc2)
elliptio
coordinates is given by
- p.^)
(X2
- ;/2) X'2
(^2
X2)
(/a2
_ ^2) ^'2
(^2
(X2-/l2)(X2-fc2)
(;*2_ft2)(^2_^2)
'
(^2
(3).
We
notice that the three quadrics confocal to a given quadric cut
each other at right angles at P, so that the square of the velocity
856
is
[CHAP. VII.
components of velocity. first term is the square of the component normal to the ellipsoid, the other terms following by symmetry. If p is the perpendicular on the tangent plane Let {I, m, n) be the to the ellipsoid, the normal component is p'.
the
It is therefore sufficient to
sum
of the squares of the normal
prove that the
direction cosines of p, then
= X^ h^m^
k'^ri'^
.".
pp'
= XXf.
two
hjrperboloids,
If Di, 2)2 are the semi-diameters of the ellipsoid respectively
normal to the tangent planes at
to the
we
know
that
See also Salmon's Solid Geometry, Art. 410.

578.
To find
the
coordinates.
Let the
is
motion of a particle on an ellipsoid in elliptic ellipsoid on which the particle moves be
defined by a given value of X.
The mass being taken
as unity
the vis viva
determined by
This
we write
we
for brevity in the
form
2T =
If
{Pfi""
Qu'']
(5).
fi,
express the work function

is
in terms of (X,
v),
we
have (since X
constant) the Lagrangian function

/*, v.
T+ U expressed
in terms of two independent coordinates
Comparing (5) with
Liouville's form. Art. 522,
we may obviously
solve the Lagrangian equations by proceeding as in that article. The results are that when the forces are such that the work
function takes the form
{î^-v^)U
the integrals are
= F,if,) + F,(v)
(A),
..(B).
ART. 581.]
357
There
is
also the equation of vis viva
Ly2Û + C
that
(C).
Dividing one of the equations (B) by the other, and remembering
is
constant, the equation of the path takes the forms
in which the variables are separated.

679.
Ex.
1.
Let
v-^
and
v^ be the
components of the velocity

/a
of the particle
!/= constant
in the directions of the lines of curvature defined by

respectively.
= constant
and
Prove that
Prove also that the pressure
on the
particle is given
by
where p
force.
is
the perpendicular on the tangent plane and

of
N the
is
normal impressed
See Art. 568.
The value
2.
in elliptic coordinates
is
given in Art. 577.
Ex.
Supposing that the equation (D) of Art. 578

in which the variables are separated,
written in the form
Pdii=Qdv
show that the time

[Liouville,
s.!.]
t=jPfj?dfi- ^Qv^dv,
The equations
(B)
become {^2 _ ^2) p^^ ^ cit,

v^ respectively
Multiplying these by
p.^,
{iJ? - v"^) Qdv = dt. and subtracting we obtain the
result.
580.
equations
To
(1)
translate the elliptic expressions into Cartesian geometry
we
use the
and (2) of Art. 576. Let the normals at the four umbilici U^, U^, &c. intersect the major axis in the two points E-^, E^, which of course are equally distant from the centre 0. We easily find that
0E, = ^4,
A
,l7,=^=î^^!^^M^!^)
ft
(1).
The equations
(1)
Art. 576 give
(M')2=f a;y
y+
?/2
+ 22_
(\2-;i2)(\2_fc2)
'
\2
let
be the distances of the particle from the points Ei, E^, and be the distance of Ei from the umbilicus ?7j ; then
Let
r^, rg
(At-')2=ri2-m2,
{,j.
+ vf = r^^-ni'
(2).
From
d?
these
/j.,
may
be found in terms of x, y, z and the constant X.

that the equation
Pi
581.
Ex.
d^
Show
V {iv--v^)=F-^(^tj)-\-F^(y)
p.2=sl{ri-mP).
is
equivalent to
^"2 {^PiP2)=-^ziUPiP-:^, where
= s/0\'^-m^),
(2) Art.
We have ^-^ U (p? - v-)^0, d _ d

djj.
and by
d
'
580
d
dp
d
dp2
d
dp-y
dp^
dpi
The
result follows at once.
858
582.
The condition
(A) of Art. 578, viz.
[CHAP. VII.
(^fi-p^)U=F,{^) + F,{p)
can he
1.
(A),
satisfied
by several laws of force.
Bepresenting the force by Hr,
Let the force tend to the centre of the ellipsoid and vary as the distance. we have, by (1) Art. 576,
Substituting these in the equations (B), the motion is known.

2.
Let the direction of the force be parallel to the axis of
x,
and
1)
X= - 2Hlx^.
Then
Hh^k-^
^^
H/l2fc2
3.
Let the work function U=-rr-n , ^{r-^-m?)
where
r-,
is
the distance of the
particle
from the point E^ Art. 580.

,
We
then have
0-=^,
To
find the force
.:{ix'-v')U=H(iJ. + v).
since
we notice that
Also
dUjdXÔ, the
direction of the force is tan-
gential to the ellipsoid.

(m
- J*)^ = a;2 + 2/2 + ^2 _ 2a;M/X - \2 + fe2 + fc2

dU'_
H
Y and
Z.
hk
fhkx
,\d\)
^-d^-~{j:^r~\'^\'W~^)dx]'
Now
the equation to the ellipsoid being
with similar expressions for
X= constant,
the last term of each of the three expressions represents the compo-
nent of a normal force.

only the remaining terms
This normal force has no
effect
we
see that X, Y,
Z are
the components of
5
.
on the motion. Taking a central force

reduced
tending to the point

to a disc,
E whose magnitude is
and
Hr
When the ellipsoid is
(ri2-m2)^
\=k
Ex.
(Art. 576),
m=0 (Art. 580).
The
point Ej^ becomes a foous and
the law of force is the inverse square.
583.
hj
/ji=fjiQ
1.
Show
that a particle can describe the line of curvature defined
under the action of the central force
Hr
^
{r^ -
mY
j tending to the point

\
E-^.
Show
also that the velocity at
any point
is
then given by i;2=if
2
j-
1)
J-
<
\{r-^
We
notice that
when
the ellipsoid reduces to a plane,
m=0, and
this
- m^Y '**>' becomes the
common
expression for the velocity under the action of a central force varying as
the inverse square.

Beferring to the general expressions
the particle will describe the line of curvature
This will be the case
if
and (B) in Art. 578, we see that ^' = and n" = Q when fi=(iQ. we choose the constants G and A so that
marked
(A)
if
both
Fj^ (fi)
+ C,jL^ + A = (^L- Mo)"

fj..
(m),
iji,=imq,
where
<p(fi) is
some function
of
Supposing this done, we have, when

.
(Art. 579)
^v^=U+C= ^'^''>Z^'^~^
ART. 584.]
In
C/ji?
SPHEROIDS.
special
359
the
case
proposed
U=HI(n-v).
We
have therefore to make

Also F2(v)=Hv.
+ HiJ.+A = (iJ,-HQ)'^C.
This gives -2CiJ.o=H,
A = Cno^.
....=ffJ^-LUHJ_J_^.il. K-" Mo) Mo) I(ri2-m2)*

Ex.
2.
particle is constrained to
712,
move on the
surface
y=xt&nnz.
By
putting x=;it cos W2, 2/=^ sin
we have
Hence show that when the
forces are such that

(^hi^
+ l)U=F^{^) + F^{z),
The path
is
the Lagrangian equations can be integrated.

,,'2
given by
,'2
If the particle is acted
on by a force tending
directly
from the axis of
and
varying as the distance from that axis, find the components of velocity along the
lines of curvature.
584.
Spheroids.
When
the ellipsoid on which the particle moves becomes a
spheroid either prolate or oblate, the formulae (A) and (B) of Art. 578 require some
slight modifications.
Let
(X, i, c),
(fi,
h', c'), {y,
b", c")
be the semi-axes of the three quadrics which
intersect in
P; then
also
a=\, a'=n, a"=v.

ft
In a prolate spheroid 6 = c,
A;,
and the
focal conies
become coincident with
CTJ
Prolate.
OH and HA.
minate.
The axes
of the hyperboloid of one shêt are
jit=ft, 6'
b'jc'
= 0,
c'=0;
it
therefore reduces to the two planes y^lb'^ + z^lc'^=0, the ratio

Art. 576.
being indeter-
In an oblate spheroid \=6, h=0; one focal conic becomes coincident with OC, while the other is a circle of radius k. The axes of the hyperboloid of two sheets are v=0, b"=0, c"^= -k^; it therefore reduces to the two planes x^lv^ + y^lb"^=:0,
the limiting ratio vjb" being indeterminate.
In the figure the positions of the focal conies just before they assume their
limiting positions are represented by the dotted lines, while
PM
or
PN represents
of
one of the planes assumed by the hyperboloid.

Before taking the limits of the equations (A) and (B)
variables.
we
shall
make a change
H^fi-
In the prolate spheroid we replace m by a new variable ^, such that

fc2
tan3^=-"
u?-W
sin^ <j>
M"
fc2
k^-h?'
-cp'2=
{ti?-W)((i^-k^
360
Thus tan
<f>
[ckAP. VIL
varies between the limits and oo as /* varies between k and h. Since b'^=pi?-h\ c'^=p?-lt^, andy^lb'^+z^lc'^=0, it is clear that is ultimately the angle the plane makes with the plane AB. Putting fi=h, the formulsB (A) and (B)
PM
become
_J
(fe2
_ ,2)2
tÎ^'^y^ (^) + C7,2 + ^,

v
In the oblate spheroid, we replace
by the variable ^ where

.-.
tanV=-;;2-.
thus tan
</>
.-.
i/=fecos0,
as
i'
-0'2=-2^,
h and
0.
varies between
<t>
and
oo
varies between
Also since
x''lv^+y^lb"^=0,
is
ultimately the angle the plane
PM makes with the plane AG.

(A), (B) are
Putting y=0, A=0, the limiting forms of the equations
CHAPTER
VIII.
SOME SPECIAL PROBLEMS.

Motion under two centres of force.
motion of a particle of unit mass in on plane under the action of two centres offorce*.
585.
To find
the
Let the position of a point
P be defined as the intersection of

let
two confocal
conies, the foci
being Hi, H^, and
OHi = h.
Let
the semi-major axes be

are therefore VC/*^
OA=fi, OA' = v:
the semi-minor axes
- h^
^/{v^
- A^).
Since
+ / ,, = 1, we have h^
fi^ fi^ ft*
- (x^ + y^ + h'') fi^ + h^x" =

elliptic coordinates
/j,,
(1).
The
relations
between the
v of
any point
P and the
Cartesian coordinates x, y are therefore

iiv
^ = T,'
y,
(u?-h^f(i^-h'^)^
AV-l
^ = l^' + ^'-'^'We also have r^^^fi-^rv, P from the foci.
where r
ri
is
the distance from the centre. where, r^

r^
= fi v,
are the distances of
* Euler was the first who attacked the problem of the motion of a particle in one plane about two fixed centres of force, M6moires de VAcademie de Berlin, 1760. Lagrange, in the Mecanique Analytique, page 93, begins by excusing himself for attempting a problem which has nothing corresponding to it in the system of the world, where all the centres of force are in motion. He supposes the motion to be in three dimensions and obtains a solution where the forces are ajr^+2yr and
^lr^ + 2yr.
Legendre in his Fonctions elliptiques pointed out that the variables used by Euler were really elliptic coordinates, and Serret remarks that this is the
first
time these coordinates were used.

gives two
Jacobi took this problem as an example
and xxix. Liouville in 1846 methods of solution, the first by Lagrange's equations and the second by the Hamiltonian equations. Serret extends Liouville's first method to three dimensions, Liouville's Journal, xiii. 1848, and gives a history of the problem. Liouville in the same volume gives a further communication on the subject.
of his principle of the least multiplier, Crelle, xxvii.
and 1847
362
TWO CENTRES OF FORCE.
[CHAP.
VIII.
Proceeding as in Art. 577, the velocity v of the particle expressed in elliptic coordinates
is
2r=.=(^.-^){^:_^,l
where the accent represents form
djdt.
(2),
Comparing
this with Liouville's
in Art. 522,
we may obviously
solve the Lagrangian equations
by
proceeding as in that Article.
The
results are that
when the
(3),
work function has the form

{fi^-v^)U=:F,(,.)
FM
we have the two
integrals
.(4).
There is also the equation of vis viva which from these by simple addition, viz.
^v' =
586.
may be deduced
(5).
U+ G
Let the central forces tending to the and We then have H^/rs^ î/n^
foci
be respectively
'1
'<!.
The
integrals (4) then
become
0),
where
K^^H^ + H^, K^^H^H^. To find the path we eliminate

{dfjif
t,
_
fi,
-{dvf
2(dtf
The
initial
values of
fx
v,
v being given, the equations (7)
determine the constants A,
C.
by the integration
values of
yt,,
of (8) which
is
Another constant is introduced also determined by the initial
v.
fourth constant
yu,
makes
or
v.
its
appearance when the
time
is
found in terms of either
ART. 588.]
587.
fi=f''o> ^^
1.
363
Ex.
Show
is
that the particle will describe the ellipse defined by
*^ particle
projected along the tangent at any point with a velocity v
given by
Vi
To prove
this
Mo/
V2
fi',
M-oJ
we
notice that
if
the particle describe the

fi"
ellipse,
/x
is
constant
throughout the motion, and the values of
given by
(7)
right-hand side of that equation must take the form

.at once.
must be zero. The (/u - yUo)^, and therefore

(5)
- 2C/Xq=Kj. Substituting for See also Art. 274.
C in
the equation of vis viva
the result follows
Ex.
2.
particle is projected so that both the constants

is
A and C
are zero.
Show
that the velocity
that due to an infinite distance
and
that the path is
given by
d<t>
_ /^\* B
is
dO
where ii=h,se(?
Ex.
3.
4>,
v=:heoa^0 and
a constant.
of
particle

an
two equal centres of
force,
one
attracting
and the other
repelling like the poles of a magnfet.

infinite distance.
The
if
particle is
projected with a velocity due to
Show
is
that
the direction
of projection be properly chosen the particle will oscillate in a semi-ellipse, the
two
poles being the foci.
If otherwise projected the
path
given by
^pog{^+^(^^-1fi)} + B =
where
v
d^
^{1 - k sin2 j^
'
4,)
= h cos^ + ^ svo?
<f>
<p,
2k = l- ^jh and
A = 2H^.
Ex. 4. Prove that the lemniscate, rr'=c^, can be described under the action of two centres of force each H/r^ tending to the foci, provided the velocity at the
node
2
is
a/ -3--
/2h /2ff
See Art. 190, Ex. 11.
To find the motion of a particle of unit mass in three 588. dimensions under the action of two centres of force attracting
according
to
the
Newtonian law.
Let the two centres of force Hi, H^, be situated in the axis
of z and let the origin
bisect the distance
HJH^.
let
Let
<j>
be the
angle the plane

of
zOP makes -with zOx and
p be the distance
P from
Oz.
Oz,
Since the impressed forces have no moment about by the principle of angular momentum (Art. 492),
we have
.(1).
py=5
We now
adopt the method explained in Art. 495.
We
treat the
particle as if it
influence of the
force
were moving in a fixed plane zOP under the two centres of force together with an additional = B^/p^ tending from the axis of z. This problem has p(f>'^
;
been partly solved in Art. 585
it
only remains to consider the
364
effect of
TWO CENTRES OF FORCE.

the additional
force.
[CHAP. VIII.
This force adds, the term
B^l^p^
to the
work function U.
foci of
Taking H^, H^ as the

jM,
a system of confocal conies, let P.
be the
elliptic coordinates of
As
before,
we suppose
that
the work function
of the impressed forces satisfies the condition
{fi^-v^)U=F,{fi)
Since p
is
+ F,{v)..
h'
(2).
the ordinate of the conies [Art. 585],

(fju-
2 _ ^'~
- h^)(v^ - h')
-h^
'
fj?
- V- _
p^
h^
v^-h^'"^'^'
as those
"
~ iM'-h^
The term
to
be added to
to
U has
therefore the
same form
already existing in
we have merely
by
U and shown in (2). add the terms given in
To obtain the integrals

(3), (after
multiplication
^B'^)
to the functions F^, F^.
In this way, we find the integrals
When
the central forces follow the Newtonian law,
where
write in the solution
K^^H^ + H^, K^ = H^H2, as (4), F^ (fi) = K^/ju,
in Art. 586.
We
therefore
F^ (v)
=p
K^v.
force situated
If the particle is acted on
by a third centre of
at the origin
expression for
effect of this is
and attracting as the distance, we add to the U the term \H^r^ = ^Hs(fM^-\- v^ h?). The to increase the functions Fi, F^ hj ^Hs (fi* A'V^),
respectively.
if
and ^H^ (i/^
h^v"^)
In the same way

parallel to
the particle
is
also acted
on by a force
kJp', or
tending directly from the axis of z and equal to

z and equal to k/z^, the
effect
a force
additional terms to the functions F^ and F^.

689.
x.
i\,
is merely to give See Art. 582.
particle
A and
B.
If the angles
P moves under the attraction of FAB, PBA be respectively 6^,
two centres of force at

0^^,
the distances
AP,
BP be r^,
and the
accelerations be Mi/î^> f^h'zî prove that

C,
(ri^fl) (r22^^)=a(MiC08^j + M2Cos2) +

where
AB a, G is & constant
and the motion
is
in one plane.
ART. 591.]
If the
BRACHISTOCHRONES.
is
365
motion
in three dimensions, prove that

'"2^
{'''i^-jfj (
Iff)'^^^
^^ ^1
''* ^2
= (Mi cos
0-^
fj,^
cos
e^)
+ C,
Ex. 1895.]
where h
is
the areal description round the line of centres.
[Coll.
On
'
Brachistochrones.
Frelixninary Statement. Let a particle P, projected from a point A at with a velocity Vq , move along a smooth fixed wire under the influence of forces whose potential J7 is a given function of the coordinates of P, and let the particle arrive at a point B at a time f^ with a velocity Vj Let us suppose
590.
a time
Iq
that the circumstances of the motion are slightly varied.
Let a particle start

.
from a neighbouring point A' at a time tg + dtQ with a velocity Vq + dv^ Let it be constrained by a smooth wire to describe an arbitrary path nearly coincident with the former under forces whose potential is the same function of the coordinates as before, and let it arrive at a point B' near the point B at a time t^ + 51^ with velocity
Vj
+ Svi.
According to the same notation, if x, y, z; x', y', z', are the coordinates and resolved velocities at any point P of the first path at the time t, then x + dx, &c.; x' + dx', &e., are the coordinates and resolved velocities at any point
P' of the varied pAth occupied by the particle at the time
t
+ St.
Let P, Q be any two points on the two paths simultaneously occupied at the time t. Let the coordinates of Q he x + Ax, y + Ay, &c. Then 5a; exceeds Ax by the space described in the time dt,
.:
Ax = 8x-(x' + dx') dt=dx- x'St

as any indefinitely small arbitrary fanctions of
when
quantities of the second order are neglected.
We may We
(1)
regard Sx, dy,
Sz,
X, y, z, limited
only by the geometrical conditions of the problem.
here consider two independent changes of the coordinates.

the variations
There are
the differentials dx, dy, dz

(2)
path, and
when the particle dx, dy, dz when the
travels along the undisturbed

particle is displaced to
some
neighbouring path.
that ddx = ddx.
It follows
from the independence of these two displacements
of unit mass moves under the action of forces so that its velocity v at any point is given by ^v^ = U+G, where U is a known function of the coordinates, the constant G being also known. Supposing the initial and final positions A, B to lie on two given surfaces, it is required to find
the 'path the particle
591.
The Brachistochrone. A particle
transit m,ay be
*
must be constrained a minimum*.
to
take that the time of
An
is
History of Mathematics.
force
is given in Ball's Short Passing to later times, the theorem v=Aptor & central given by Euler, Mechanica, vol. ii. There is a memoir by Roger in
;
account of the early history of this problem
Liouville's Journal, vol. xiu. 1848
he discusses the brachistochrone on a
surfjace
366
ON BRACHISTOCHRONES.
[CHAP.
VIII.
integral a
The time t of transit being t = Jdsjv, we have to make this Since a variation is only a kind of difminimum. ferential, we follow the rules of the differential calculus and make
the
first
variation of
equal to zero.
Let the curve
AB be
varied
into a neighbouring curve A'B', each element being varied into a
corresponding element.
Since the number of elements
is
not
altered, the variation of the integral is the integral of the variation.
Writing ^
for l/v to avoid fractions,
we have
St=JB{(i>ds)=J{<f>dSs
+ dsS(f>).
Since {dsf
= {dxf + (dyf + {dzf, we

dsBds
have
= dxhdx + dyhdy + dzSdz;
Integrating the
first
three terms by parts,
where the part outside the sign of integration between the limits A to B.
is
to be taken
We
notice that in this variation,
has not been varied.
If
G were
different
for the different trajectories,
we should have
dx
dy
"
dz
dC
integral.
It follows that v^ is
There would then be an additional term inside the
regarded as the savie function of x, y, z for all the trajectories.
Since the time

the ends A,
is
to be a
minimum
for all variations con-
sistent with the given conditions, it
must be a minimum when

then have at these points
integral vanishes.
B are
fixed (Art. 144).
We
hx
= 0,
8y =0, Bz
0,
and the part outside the
The required curve must

is
therefore be such that the integral
zero whatever small values the arbitrary functions Bx, By, Bz have.
It
is
may
force.
proved in the calculus of variations (and

force
is
is
and generalises Euler's theorem that the normal

Jellett in his Calculus
equal to the centrifugal
of Vc^riatiom, 1850, proves these theorems and deduces from the principle of least action that the brachistochrone becomes a free path when v = k^lv'. Tait has applied Hamilton's characteristic function to the
problem in the Edinburgh Transactions, vol. xxiv. 1865, and deduces from a more general theorem the above relation to free motion. Townsend in the Quarterly Journal, vol. xiv. 1877, obtains the relation v = v' in free motion, and gives
numerous examples. There are also some theorems by Larmor in the Proceedings of the London Mathematical Society, 1884.
ART. 593.]
THE GENERAL EQUATIONS.
367
perhaps evident) that the coefficients of 8x, By, Bz must separately vanish. We therefore have, writing 1/v for <f>,
da)\v)~ ds\v ds)
'
dy\v)~ds\vds)' dz\vl
if
ds\vds)'
These are the differential equations of the brachistochrone.

These three equations really amount to only two, for &c. and add the products, we find
we multiply them by
<j>dxlds, <f>dylds,
which
is
an evident
identity.
592.
solved, it remains to
effect
Supposing these differential equations to have been determine the constants of integration. To this we resume the expression for 8t, now reduced to the
part outside the integral sign.
We
ds
have
^ds
ds
which
vary the ends
be taken between the limits A to B. Since we may ^4 J5 of the curve, one at a time, along the bounding surface (Art. 144), this expression for 8t must be zero at each end.
is
to
The
variations
Bos,
By, Bz are proportional to
the direction cosines
of the displacement of the end,
and dx/ds, &c. are the direction

This equation
cosines of the tangent to the brachistochrone.
therefore
implies
that the brachistochrone meets the bounding
surface at right angles.
The expression
which
is
for Bt
may be put
Let
Ba-i,
into a geometrical form

So-g
sometimes useful. AA', BB' of the two ends.
be the displacements
dis-
Let
6^, 6^
be the angles these
placements respectively make with the tangents at A and B Let Vi, Wg be the velocities at A, the brachistochrone AB. Then
S/
to
B.
_ ^*^2 ^^^ ^2
^0"l
COS ^1
In some problems the velocity v is a given function of the coordinates of one or both ends of the curve. This does not
593.
affect the differential equations, for in these
the coordinates of the
ends,
when
fixed, are
is
merely constants.
The
case
different
when we vary the ends

is
in that portion
of the expression for Bt which
outside the integral sign.
We
368
to that expression the terms of
B<}>
[CHAP.
VIII.
must add
ends A,
due to the variation
of the ends.
If a;o,yo,
Zq]
^d
2/h sû
are the coordinates of the
B,we
then have
Bt= <l>i~Bx+&;c}j \8a;of^ds + 8zc. + Bw,&ds + kc.,

where the &c. indicate terms with y and z respectively written for cc. The conditions at the ends are then found by equating
this expression to zero.
694.
The equations
a
of
the brachistochrone are found by equating the
first
variation of the time to zero.
To determine whether
this curve
makes
the time a
minimum, or neither, it is necessary to examine the terms of the For this we refer the reader to treatises on the calculus of variations. In most cases there is obviously some one path for which the time is a minimum,
second order.
maximum,
and if our equations lead to but one path, that path must be a true brachistochrone. In other cases we can use Jacobi's rule. Let AB be the curve from A to B given by the calculus of variations. Let a second curve of the same kind but with varied
constants be drawn through the initial point
angle at A, with the curve
satisfies
A and make an
if
indefinitely small C, the curve
AB.
If they again intersect in
some point
the conditions for a true
minimum
only
be beyond B.
595.
Theorem
I.
When
the only force on the particle acts

</>
(like gravity) in
a vertical direction,
= Ijv
is
a function of z
and the first two differential equations of the curve (Art. Remembering that 591) admit of an immediate integration. dx/ds = cos a, dy/ds = cos /S, it follows that the brachistochrone for a vertical force is such a curve that at every point v = acos a, v = b cos yS, where a, /3 are the angles the tangent makes with any two horizontal straight lines, and a, b are the two constants of By equating the two values of v and integrating, integration.
only,
we
see that the brachistochrone
is
a plane curve.
596.
Theorem
forces,
II.
Let X, Y,
&c.
be the components of the
impressed
the mass being unity; then since ^v^ =
U+G,
we have
X = ^dv^/dcc,
ds\v ds)
The
differential
equations of the
brachistochrone therefore become

"'^
^'
v'~
'
ds\v dsJ
v^
'
'-
Let
\,
fi,
V be the direction cosines of the binormal, then since

is
the binormal
of curvature
^
perpendicular both to the tangent and the radius
dx
dy
dz
d^x
d^y
d^z
..
ART. 598.]
THREE THEOREMS.
'-
369
Using the values of X,
Z given in (1) we \X + iiY+vZ=0

F,
find
(3),
the resultant force is therefore perpendicular to the binomial,

its direction lies
and
in the osculating plane.
Let l=:p
m = p -J
&c. be the direction cosines of the
positive direction of the radius of curvature, then
IX +
mY+ nZ 1P + m^ +
v^
vi^
d fV\
ds \vj
V
is
K-*4
(4).
f,
dx
Since the radius of curvature

the last term
is zero,
at right angles to the tangent,
and we have
lX + mY+nZ=-'"p
This equation proves that in any brachistochrone the componmt
of the impressed forces along the radius of curvature is equal minus the component of the effective forces in the same direction,
to
597. To find the pressure on the constraining curve. Let F^, F2 be the components of the impressed forces in the directions
of the radius of curvature and binomial.
pressures on the particle in the

v^^/p
same
directions.
Let Ri, R^ be the Then by Art. 526
= F, + R
i^2
In a brachistochrone
and
= F, + R,. Fi = v-jp, hence
i^2
and
R^
= -2F^.
598.
To find a dynamical interpretation of Theorem

see
II.
We
that
if
by referring
to the equations of
motion in Art. 597,
we changed the
zero,
sign of F^, the component of pressure R^

free.
would be
and the path would then be

not altered.
It
follows
We
also suppose
the tangential component of force to remain unchanged so that

the velocity
is
immediately, that
brachistochrone
other,
and a free path may
be changed, either into the
by making the resultant force at each point act at the same

to the
angle
side,
same
direction of the tangent as before, but on the other
and
still
in the osculating plane.
velocities
of the particle,
when
free
In this comparison the and when constrained, are
equal at the same point of the path,
i.e. v'
= v.
'
370
'
[CHAP.
VIII.
599.
Theorem
III.
The equations
of motion of a particle
constrained to describe the brachistochrone are
ds \v dsj
If
~ da; = k^
first
\v/
or,
'
ds\v ds)~ dy\v)

is
we now
v'
write
vv'
which
dx\
ds
/
the same thing vds =
k^dt',
where
= dsjdt',
the
of these equations becomes

/
,
_ dv'
dx
velocity, is equal to
ds \
Now
v'dxjds being the
x component of the
v'
dx/dt'.
Multiplying by
or ds/dt', the equations take the form
^_
a, y, z at to
^2
rf^y
1 di/2
dt''~2 dx' dt''~2 dy'
These are the equations of motion of a free particle P' moving along the same path with a velocity v' and occupying the position
the time
t'.
It follows that the hrachistochrone from point

is the
point in a field
TJ'
U+ G
same as
the
rj
path of a free particle
in a field
+ C, provided
U' +
C=
k*
i--
'w'
=-
k^
To understand better the relation between the two fields of force we notice that if X, X' be the components of force in any the same direction at the same point,
dx
dx
that dt'/dt
\v.
We also notice
= v/v'.
600. This theorem is useful, as it enables us to apply to a brachistochrone the dynamical rules we have already studied for free motion. It also enables us to express at once the fundamental differential equations in polar or other coordinates.
The
fif st
is vertical
we
theorem (Art. 595) follows at once from the third, for when the force Since v'^k^jv, see by resolving horizontally that v' cos a is constant.
this gives the result.
To deduce the second theorem, we notice that in the free motion v'^lp=Fi, where F^' is the component of force along the radius of curvature. Using the iheoxems v' = k^lv, X'=-X(klvf, (where X is here Fj) this becomes v^lp=-F-y.
601.
Ex.
1.
To find
the brachistochrone
from one given curve
to another,
is
the acting force being gravity
and
the level of no velocity given.
The motion
supposed to be in a vertical plane.

Let the axis of x be at the level of no velocity and let y be measured downwards; then v'^=2gy. By Art. 595 the curve is such that i' = acosa. This gives This is the well-known y = 2bcosâ, where 6 is an undetermined constant.
ART. 603.]
equation of a cycloid, having
the generating circle
VERTICAL FORCE.
371
its cusps at the level of no velocity. The radius of and the position of the cusps on the axis are determined by the conditions that the cycloid cuts each of the bounding curves at right angles
Art. 592.
Ex. 2. If in the last example the bounding curves are two straight which intersect the axis of no velocity in the points L, L'; and make angles
lines
/3, )3'
with the horizon, prove that the diameter 2b of the generating circle is LL'K^ - j8') and the distance of the cusp from L is 2b^. Explain the results when the lines
are parallel.
602.
Ex.
to another
is
Show by using Jacobi's rule that the cycloid from one given point a real minimum, the level of zero velocity being given (Art. 594).
by the calculus of variations passes through A and B and no cusp between these points. Describe a neighbouring cycloid passing through A and having its cusps on the same horizontal line, the radii of the generating circles being i and b + db. Since the base of a cycloid from cusp to cusp is 2irb, it is easy to prove that the next intersection of the two curves lies in a vertical which passes between the two next cusps. The cycloids therefore cannot again intersect between A and B and the time from A to B must be a
The
cycloid found
there
is
minimum.
603.
See also Art. 654.
Ex.
the acting force
is
Find the brachistochrone from one given curve to another when gravity and the particle starts from rest at the upper curve.
it
Fixing the ends,
follows,
from Art. 601, that the brachistochrone
is
a cycloid
having a cusp on the higher curve. To determine the constants of the curve, we examine the part of 5t due to the variation of the two ends. Let a;,,, ?/(,; x-^, ?/j be the coordinates of the upper and lower ends, then v'^2g{y-y^. By Art. 593
we have
where
<A
1/u
and the expression
is
taken between limits.
Now
in our problem
d<f>
_d(p
dy
dyQ
d ( ds \
dy\
d /
'
,
by using the fore have
differential equation of the brachistochrone in Art. 591.
We there-
Remembering
that
<}>
= 1/r and v = a cos o,
this takes the
form
[5x + tan a5?/]J - hj^ [tan o]J = 0.
5f/j
When we fix the = 0. Hence

When we
The
fix
lower end, we have, since y
is
measured downwards, 5x^=0,

(1).
(5a;o
the upper
+ tanao5!/o)-5j/o(tanai-tanoo) = end, 5a;o = 0, 5y(, = 0;

.-.
5j;i
+ tanai5)/i =
giving dyJSXf) = dyJ5x-y,
(2).
last of these
two equations proves that

first,
the brachistochrone cuts the lower
curve at right angles, while the
proves that the
tangents to the bounding curves at the points ichere the brachistochrone meets them
are parallel.
372
604.
Ex.
1.
A particle
falls
[CHAP.
VIII.
from rest
at a fixed point .4 to a fixed point C,
passing through another point B ; find the entire path when the time of motion is a minimum, (1) supposing B to be a fixed point, (2) supposing B constrained to lie
on a given curve.

to B,
The paths from A

the point A.
It is
to
are cycloids having their cusps on a level with

is
supposed that there
no impact
at
in passing
from one
cycloid to the next.
The
particle describes a small arc of a curve of great curva-
ture
and moves
off
along the next cycloid without loss of velocity.

is
have yet to find the position of B when it Taking the origin at A, and the axis of z curve. v'^=2gz. The time is given by
We
only
known
vertically
to lie on a given downwards, we have
r* ds
ds'
where accents
refer to the lower cycloid.
by Art. 592.
tangents at
ing that
Let
(a,
/3,
y], (a',
/3',
7').
(^>
^' ^) ^^ *^6 direction angles of the
two cycloids and to the constraining curve. Then rememberand C are fixed points and that B is varied on the curve, we have
to the
(cos a cos
+ cos j3 cos ^ + cos 7 cos f) - (cos o'.cos 6 + cos /3' cos <p + cos 7' cos Y") = 0.
AB, BC.
It follows that the tangent to the locus of
the two cycloids
B makes equal angles This determines the point B.
xuith the tangents to
Find the curve of quickest descent from a fixed point A to another C, is interposed between A and C having a given finite aperture through which the path must pass. [So long as the curve AC can be Hence if the arbitrarily varied the minimum curve is found by Arts. 591, 601. single cycloid A G does not pass through the aperture, the minimum curve must pass through a point B on the boundary of the aperture. The curve then consists of two
Ex.
2.
supposing that a screen
cycloids
AB, BC, and
the position of
B is
found by Ex.
1.]
[Todhunter.]
605. Ex. 1. If the brachistochrone is a parabola when the force is parallel to the axis, prove that the magnitude of the force is inversely proportional to the [This follows from the equation square of the distance from the directrix.
i;
= a cos a.]
contained by the focal

as pds.]
Prove also that the time of describing any arc PQ varies as the area [For cos a varies as 1/^, therefore dt varies radii, SP, SQ.
See also Art. 649.

2.
A point moves in a plane with a velocity always proportional to the curvature of the path, prove that the brachistochrone of continuous curvature [Math. Tripos, 1875.] between any two given points is a complete cycloid.
Ex.
We here h&Ye jpds =j<pdx a minimum, where (p={l + y'^)^ly". The curve can be immediately found by using two rules in the calculus of variations. First,
we have
djtpdx=<pdx + {Y,-l\/) u+Y,,w' + j(~ Y/ +
Y,/')
udx,
where F,, Y,,, are the partial differential coefficients of (p with regard to y', y"; u) = 8y-y'dx, and the part outside the integral sign is to be taken between limits. Also accents denote differentiation with regard to x. The extreme points being
given,
5a;
= 0,
Sy =
at
each
end.
differential equation of the curve is
Hence exactly as in Y/-Y,f' = and F,,=0
Art.
591,
592,
the
at each end.
This
gives
F,-r/ = .4.
ART. 606.]
CENTRAL FORCE.
373
Secondly, the calculus of variations gives also the integral
<P=(Y<Eliminating Y,l between our two
Y,,')
y'
+ Y,,rj" + B.
we
find
(j>
first
integrals
= Ay' + Y^,y" + B,
(j>
which contains two arbitrary constants A, B. Substituting for .: pds = Âdy + \Bdx. leadsto {l-^y'")"ly" = \Ay' + \B;
and r
this
Taking the straight line Ay + Bx as an axis of ^, this is equivalent to p=Csva.ip where sin ip=d7)lds and C is a constant. This is the known equation of a cycloid. The condition F^, =0 at each end gives y" infinite and therefore p=0.
The
cycloid is therefore complete.

3.
Ex.
at one given point
Prove that the differential equation of the brachistochrone from rest A to another point B, when the length of the curve is also given, is
[Airy's Tracts.]
^ + 6=y/|l-f(g)].
X so that the arc has the given length.
To make ^dsjv a minimum subject to the condition that \ds is a given quantity we use a rule supplied by the calculus of Variations. We make J(X/u + l)ds a minimum without regard to the given condition and finally determine the constant
Central force. Ex. 1. Prove that the brachistochrone for a central given by v = Ap, where ^v^=jFdr and p is the perpendicular from the centre of force on the tangent. The mass is unity, as is usual in these problems.
606.
force
is
The brachistochrone
we have
equation
v = Ap.
is
a free path for a particle moving about the same centre

v'
but with such a law of force that the velocity
= k^lv.
Since v'p = h by Art. 306,
When
vAp
Ffxu^, and the velocity is equal to that from infinity, the differential can be integrated exactly as in Arts. 360, 363.
Ex. 2. Prove that the same path will be a brachistochrone for F=ijm''^ and a free path iox F' = pfu^' it n+n'=2, provided the velocity in each case varies as some power of the distance.
For the brachistochrone and the

v^
free
paths respectively, we have

^'^
= 2mm"-V( - 1).
if 7i
= 2iJ.'u'''-^l{n' - 1).
(Art. 599).
These satisfy the condition vv'=k^
+ n' = 2,
Ex. 3. Prove that the ellipse is a brachistochrone from the focus and equal to /Jt-Kâ - r)^.
for a central force tending
[Townsend.]
The conic is a free path for a force /jlISP^ tending to the focus 8. Hence making the force act on the other side of the tangent as described in Art. 598, the conic is a brachistochrone for an equal force tending from the other focus H.
Ex.
4.
plane curve varies as d

vanishing of p.
Prove that the central repulsive force for the brachistochronism of a (p^)ldr, the circle of zero velocity being given by the
Prove that the cissoid x

proportional to
{x^+y'^)
'2,ay'^
is
brachistochronous for a central

is
repulsive force from the point (-a, 0) which at the distance r from that point
rl{r'^
+ 15d^f,
the particle starting from rest at the cusp.
374
Ex.
5.
[CHAP.
VIII.
tochrone in a
lemniscate,
Prove that the lemniscate of Bernoulli can be described as a brachisfield of potential fir^, r being measured from the node of the
find the necessary velocity.
and
[See Arts. 320, 606, Ex. 2.]
Ex.
effect at
6.
particle, acted
is j-^
on by a central attractive force whose accelerating

2T2
>
a distance r
* being a constant,
is
projected from a given point
with the velocity from
Prove that the form of the groove in which it must move in order to arrive at another given point in the shortest possible time is a hyperbola whose centre coincides with the centre of force. [Math. Tripos.]
infinity.
Ex.
7.
Show
that the force of attraction towards the directrix of a catenary,

it,
along perpendiculars to
for
which the catenary
is
a brachistochrone, will vary as

[Coll.
the inverse cube of the perpendicular.
Ex. 1897.]
tochrone on a given surface

in
Brachistochrone on a surface. To find the brachiswe require only a slight modification the argument of Art. 591. Proceeding as before, we find -^
607.
Bt==^(^Bcc +
where
R.
&2;c^
+J(P8x + Q8y + RSz)ds,

Q and
P=-^
is
-r (-;t-), with similar expressions for
Since Bt
zero for all variations of the curve on the surface,
we must have
PBw + Q8y + RBz = 0.

If f{w, y,z)
is
the equation of the surface, the variations are
connected by the one equation
where
sufiixes
fx â; +fy By +/z S^ = imply partial differential
0,
coefficients.
We
by
must
therefore have P/fa;
= Q/fy = R/fz. chrone on the surface y y,z) = d^l _ d dx\ d _/ 1 d I

(a?,
J.
The equations dy\
of a brachisto-
are therefore given

I
\dsc
ds vds)
/'"'"'
\dy v
is
ds v ds) /
to begin
*^^
_ ~
<^
d dz\
ds vds)
\dz v
j"^''
If the brachistochrone
and end at given bounding

to zero the
curves drawn on the surface,

part of
Bt,
we equate
limits.
integrated
taken between the
Fixing the ends in turn,

zero (Art. 592).
we
see that at each end the cosine of the angle between the tangents
to the curve
and
to the
boundary
is
The brachis-
tochrone therefore cuts the boundaries at right angles.
608.
the form
By
writing v = h^jv' as in Art. 599 these equations
may
be put into
\dt'^
dx J /'='' \dt'^
dy
)l '" ~ \dt'-^
dz )
P''
ART. 609.]
ON A SURFACE.
"
375
These are the equations of motion of a particle moving freely on the constraining surface,- It follows that the'brachistochrone from point to point on a constraining surface in a field U+ C is a free path on the same surface in a field U'+C, where
F' = -
The
relation between the
component
forces in
any direction
is
by a smooth wire to describe the brachistochrone on the surface without a change in the field of force, prove that -v^ sin xIp = G, V'COSxIp=H+R, -'2,G=R^,
If the particle is constrained
Ex.
G are the components of the impressed forces along the normal to the and that tangent to the surface which is perpendicular to the path, and R i?2 are the components of the pressure in the same directions. Also p is the radius of curvature of the path, and x the angle the osculating plane makes with the normal to the surface.
where H,
surface,
,
The
first is
obtained by transforming the equation of motion of a free particle
P', viz. v'- sin
xlp=G' by the
rule given above, the others then follow from the
ordinary equations of motion of the particle P.
6O0. We may also sometimes find the brachistochrone on a given surface by making a comparison with the brachistochrone on some other more suitable
surface.
X, y, z of
Let us derive a second surface from the given one by writing for the coordinates any point P some functions of J, 77, f, the coordinates of a corresponding
Let these functions be such that
point Q.
{dxf + {dyf + {dzf = m2
(d^)^
+ {dr,f + {dtf},
ratio to the
where
fx
is
a function of
f,
t],
f.
Geometrically this equation implies that every
elementary arc ds drawn from a point

corresponding arc
d<r
on the surface bears the same

/j,
:
drawn from Q,
viz. the ratio
1.
t
The brachistochrone on the given

where
fds
surface
is
found by making
minimum,
__
ffida
'Jv-J-T'
and the
velocity
1?
of
is
some given function

^,
tj,
of the coordinates of P.
Expressing v in terms of
curve on the derived surface
f,
this integral implies that the corresponding
is
also a brachistochrone, the velocity v' being given

for the
The work functions t)2 = 2(f/+<7) and U' = {U+C}ltx-.

by
v'=vj/ii.
motions of
and Q are
respectively
If
we arrange matters
is
surface
constant.
so that fifv is constant, the velocity on the second The brachistochrones on the given surface then correspond to
geodesies on the derived surface.
This comparison assists us in determining the point on a brachistochrone with one end given at which the time ceases to be a minimum.
The derived surface may be obtained in many ways, for example by using the method of inversion. The theory of this surface is also used in making maps see the United States Coast Survey, Craig^s treatise on Projections. The application to brachistochrones is given by Darboux in his Theorie generale des Surfaces.
Ex.
particle
P moves
force situated at a point
on a sphere unJer the action of a centre of repulsive on the surface, and the velocity v at any point distant
376
r
ON BRACHISTOCHRONES,
is
is
[CHAP. VIII.
from
v=Ar'^.
Prove that the brachistochrone from one given point to
another
a circle whose plane passes through 0.
Inverting the sphere with regard to 0, the diameter 2a being the constant of
inversion, the derived surface is a tangent plane-
The curve
;
is
traced out by Q,
usually called the stereographic projection of that traced by P.
elementary arcs described by

of
P and Q
of
are in the ratio r^
ia^.
is
The ratio of the Hence if the path

and that
of
P is
a brachistochrone for a velocity v = Ar^, that of
a brachistochrone for
a uniform velocity.
circle.
The path
is
therefore a straight line
P is
Another proof follows from Arts. 608, 318.
Bertrand'8 theorem. A series of brachistochrones is drawn on a given and the arcs AB, AB', &e. are described in equal times, the velocity at A being given. Prove that the locus of B cuts all the brachisto-
610.
surface from a point A,
chrones at right angles.
acute.
The following amounts to Bertrand's proof. If possible let the angle AB'B be Drawing the arc BC so that the angle CBB'>CB'B, the sides of the triangle BCB'. will then be elementary and the triangle may be regarded as rectilinear. It follows that the arc CB'>CB. The time of describing CB' is > than
that of describing
CB
C is
ultimately the same.
because the velocity at every point in the neighbourhood of The time of describing the line ACB is therefore less
than that of describing AB' or AB. The path AB could not then be a brachistochrone. This proof is the same as that used by Salmon in his Solid Geometry, Art. 394, to prove the corresponding theorem for geodesies. Bertrand's theorem is
now
generally enunciated in a generalized form and to this
we proceed
in the next
article.
611.
surface S^ being given, let us

iitarts off
draw from every point
A on
it
that
brachistochrone which
at right angles to the surface.

t
Let lengths
AB be
taken along these lines so that the time

equal to a given quantity.
surface which
of transit from the surface along each is
The
50-2
locus of the extremities

Art. 592,
â/jâ
traces out a second
we may
call S^.
dt
By
we have
^'''i
cos
os djvj
By
construction cos
^^=0
for each line and, since the times of describing neighIt follows that the surface S^ also cuts the lines at
bouring lines are equal, dt=0.

right angles.
If the surface Sj is an infinitely small sphere all the brachistochrones diverge from a given point A. The locus of the other extremities of the arcs drawn from and described in equal times is therefore an orthogonal surface.
This proof
Art. 592.
may
be applied to brachistochrones drawn on a given surface by
expressing the conditions at the limits in Art. 607 in a form similar to that in
This theorem though enunciated for a brachistochrone applies generally to problems in the calculus of variations. The time t may stand for any integral of
the form
j<p
.
ds where
is
the integral
is
minimum between any two
a given function of x, y, z, and the curve points taken on it.
is
such that
612.
Ex.
1.
Prove that the equations of a brachistochrone on a surface of
revolution for a heavy particle with a given level of zero velocity are
r^-^=Av,
ART. 613.]
MOTION RELATIVE TO THE EARTH.
377
v^=2gz, where r, <p, z are cylindrical coordinates, z being measured downwards from the zero level. Prove also that the brachistoehrone touches the meridian at
the zero level.
Ex.
2.
A heavy particle
is
projected from a given point along a smooth groove

is
cut on the surface of a right circular cone whose axis
vertical
and vertex
if it
upwards, with a velocity due to the depth from the vertex.
Prove that,
reach
another given point not more than half-way round the cone in the least possible
time, the curve of the groove must be such as would, if the cone were developed, become a parabola with the point corresponding to the vertex as focus.
Prove that the brachistoehrone on a vertical cylinder for a heavy particle with a given level of zero velocity becomes the brachistoehrone on a
Ex.
f!.
vertical plane
when
the cylinder
is
developed on the plane.
[Roger.]
Find the brachistoehrone when the velocity at any point of space is proportional to the distance from a given straight line. Prove that the curve lies on a sphere and cuts all the circles whose planes are perpendicular to the given
Ex.
4.
straight line at a constant angle,
i.e.,
the curve
is
a loxodrome.
[Tait.]
Motion of a particle relative

613.
to the earth.
Let
still
X be
Let Let
its latitude.
be any point on the surface of the earth and let Then X is the angle which the normal to the
surface of
water at
makes with the plane
of the equator.
OL = 6
ft)
on the axis of rotation. be a perpendicular from be the angular velocity of the earth, then the earth turns
from west to east in the time
27r/a).
round
its axis
As we intend
to discuss the motion of a particle
relative to
it
is
axes moving with the earth and having the origin at 0,
convenient to begin by reducing

to the particle
to rest.
We
therefore apply
a>^b and acting in an initial velocity equal to cob opposite to the direction of motion of 0, i.e. in a direction due westwards from 0.
an accelerating
force equal to
the direction LO.
We
also apply
When
The
force.
the particle has been projected from the earth

usually called gravity
is
it
is
acted on by the attraction of the earth and the applied force

force
is
0)^6.
not the attraction of the
earth,
but
the resultant of that attraction and the centrifugal

of the earth
is
The form
such that at every point of
its
surface this resultant acts perpendicularly to the surface of
still
water.
is
Let g be this force at the point 0, then when the particle at 0, and has been reduced to rest, the resultant force is
"
represented by
^r.
378
[CHAP.
h,
VIII.
When
where a
is
the moving point

is
has ascended to a height
the-
attraction of the earth
altered
and
is
nearly equal to
is
^r
(1 Ihja),
the radius of the earth.

is
Since h
usually not
it is
more
than a few hundred feet and a
roughly 4000 miles,
obvious
first
is so small that, for a we may regard gravity as a force constant in direction and magnitude. Since 27r/a) is 24 hours, we find that mâ is nearly equal to ^/289. Hence if we neglect gh/a we must also neglect <o% at all points near 0. The applied force
that the change in the value of gravity
approadmation at
least,
co^b is
not neglected because at points near the equator b
is
nearly
as large as the radius of the earth.
The equations of motion of a particle referred to axes 614. moving with the earth have been already formed in Art. 49.9.
We
have here merely to express the components
6i,
6^, 6^
in
terras of the angular velocity' w of the earth.
We
then substitute
m^y, m^z.
the values of the space velocities second order and neglect thus find
all
u, v,
in the equations of the
terms of the form (o%
We
dx
^^*
ady a
c,dz ^
^dz
^
^-r
dy
dz
d'^V
^dx
d^Z
adx^
n dy \
where X, Y, Z are the impressed mass being unity.

615.
forces other
than gravity, the
It will clearly be convenient to choose as the axis of z
the vertical at 0.
If the axis of x be directed along* the meridian towards the south and the axis of y towards the west, we have
Oi
= co cos \,
^2
= 0,
6s
= CD sin X,
since
It
A. is
the latitude of the place.
sometimes necessary to take the axis of x inclined to the /3, the angle /3 being measured from the south towards the west. We then have
is
meridian at some angle
$1
= CO cos X, cos /3,
02
= (o cos \ sin yS,
6^
a>
sin \.
If we wish the axes to move round the vertical with 616. an angular velocity^, we have jBpt + e, where e is some constant.
ART. 618.]
FALLING BODIES.
379
We then
î =
ft)
have
cos
cos
/3,
62
= (o
cos
The components
6^, 62, 63
are not
\ sin /3, 6^= co sin \-\- p. now constants, and in making

equations of motion their
the substitutions for
u, v,
in the
differential coefficients will not disappear.
But
if
be any small
then be
quantity of the same order as w, these differential coefficients are

of the order
g)^.
The equations
of motion
will
still
represented by the forms given in Art. 614.

617.
As
in
some few cases

g)^,
it is
necessary to examine the

results of the substitution
x,
terms which contain
we give the
when
tively
the axis of z
is vertical,
while those of
y point respec-
southward and westward

duOG -5-r-+ 2&)
sin
du
,-
ft)^
sin^Xa;
a>^ sin \ cos \z = X,
dV'
at
^ dx ^ dz 2g) cos X -y- 2a) sm \ ^- ay
r.
.
d-y
,-v
^y.
i.
dt^
dt
-}-
dt
d?z
-^
2ft)
cos
\ -^
P is
dv
ft)2
cos^
\z
G)2 sin X cos X^ = + Z.

5^
618.
It
Ex.
particle
attached
to
a point
at the summit of a high tower
%nd when in relative

strikes the horizontal
rest the particle is

it is
allowed
to fall freely.
The point
being
a height h vertically above 0,

plane at 0.
required to find the point at lohich the particle
Taking the axes of x, y to point due south and west, the equations of motion are x"-2y'9^=Q, z" + 2y'd-i^= -g, y"-2z'î + 2a;'^3=0,
where
î
= wcosX,
first
d.,=
-wsinX, and the accents denote
dfdt (Art. 614).
We
solve
these by successive approximation.
As a
z
approximation, we neglect the terms which contain w.

x', y',
z'
that initially av y,
are each zero
and
= h, we
arrive at
Eemembering x=0, y = 0,
= h-\gt\
As
a second approximation
we
substitute these values of x, y, z in the terms of
the differential equations which contain 6 or w.
We obtain after an easy integration

z=Et + F-^gt^. we have x'=0, y'=0, z'=0, hence
x=:At+B,
The
y=Ct + D-^gtî,
particle being initially in relative rest
^=0, C=0, E=0. The initial velocities in space are not required here, but (after O has been reduced to rest) these are given by u=0, v= -h6^, w = 0. To the value of V we may add the velocity of 0, viz. - ub. Also when t=0, we have x=0, y=0,z = h; .: x=0, z=h-^gt\ y=-h9t%,
We
see
from the value of
z that the vertical
motion
is
unaffected by the rotation
of the earth. The time of falling is given by h = \gt^. Since x = throughout the motion, the particle strikes the horizontal plane on the axis of y, and there i$
380
MOTION KELATIVE TO THE EARTH.

Since
d^
[CHAP. VIII.
\t^
;
no southerly deviation.
descent.
<i3
cos X
is
we have y= -^gu cos
there is there-
fore a deviation towards the east which
proportional to the cube of the time of
This deviation
is
greatest at the equator.

is
619.
Ex.
2.
Ex.
1.
Show
is
that the path of a particle falling from relative rest
nearly the curve
325a?/'' ^cos^ \z^.
particle
projected vertically upwards in vacuo with a velocity V.

is
Prove that when the particle reaches the ground there

south, and that the deviation to the west
is
no deviation
[Laplace
to the
4w cos W'^jSg^.
iv., p.
341.]
Ex.
3.
particle falls
from relative
rest at a point
situated at a height h
above the point 0. Supposing the resistance of the air to be represented by kv where v is the velocity and k a small quantity, find the effect on the easterly
deviation.
Measuring z upwards and neglecting the terms

y" -
x'd^, y'd^,
as
we now know
that they are of the order w^ (Art. 618), the equations of motion become
IB-^z'
= - Ky\
z"=-g- kz'.
if
The
tuting
vertical
motion
is
sensibly the
same as
y'
the earth were at rest.
Substi-
z'
-gt in the
first
ij"
equation,
.:
+ Ky'=- %ge^t,
+ Ky=- gd^t^
where ^=djdt.
deviation
is
This
leads
at
once
to
2/= -
ai/î*^
l-x
^^^
easterly
therefore slightly diminished by the resistance of the air.
Ex.
4.
Prove that,
if
the attraction of the earth on the falling paiiicle were
represented by
X= - gxja, Y=
rest at a height h, as
-gyja, Z= -g (1-20/a), the time of falling from deduced from the equations of Art. 614, would be increased by
itself.
the inappreciable fraction 5ft/6a of

is
Thence show that the easterly deviation
not perceptibly altered.
The southern deviation. A particle falls from relative rest at a point A on the vertical at a point on the surface of the earth. Let the soiithe-m horizontal component of the attraction of the earth be represented by
Ex.
5.
situated
X= sin \ cos X (Ax+Cz),

where
of the earth, the point
and the angular velocity having been reduced to rest. Prove that the southern deviation measured on the tangent plane at is sin\cosXgt*{%u' + -i^C).
are very small functions of the ellipticity
A and C
This result
is
obtained in Art. 618 in the small terms given in Art. 617.
obtained by substituting the approximate values of y and z Expressions for the
components of the attraction of the earth are to be found in treatises on the "figure of the earth" (see Stokes' Mathematical and Physical Papers, vol. ii. p. These give approximately (after some reduction) C=(27?i-e) 2<7/a, where 142). m=wâlg and e= 1/300, hence C = 2w^ nearly.
620.
Two
cases of motion.
;
Two
special cases of the

particle in its
of a particle deserve attention
(1)
when the
does not deviate far from the vertical and (2)

nearly horizontal.
motion motion when the motion is
ART. 621.]
TWO CASES OF MOTION.
381
Supposing the axis of z to be

dz\dt in the
first case.
vertical, the horizontal velocities
dxldt and dy\dt are small compared with the
vertical
velocity
The products
tw
of the horizontal velocities
by
a
o)
are therefore of a higher order of small quantities than the
product of the vertical velocity by

first
and should be neglected in
approximation.
case,
In the second
neglect its product
by
w.
on the contrary, dz\dt is small and we The two sets of equations are therefore
as follows (Art. 614)

tZâ?
fZ^
>^
d^x
dt'
^dy
dt
dt'
dt
^_
df'
dt
^
'
F
'f
dt"
'
" dt
d"z
d^z
^dx
is
^dy
We
ponents
until
notice that
6i,
6.2
when the motion
nearly vertical the com-
enter into the equations, while 63 does not appear
we proceed to higher approximations. It is therefore the component of the angular velocity about a tangent to the earth
affects the motion.
which
On
the other hand

it is
when the motion
of the particle is nearly
horizontal
the component of the earth's rotation about the
vertical, viz. 0^,
which plays the principal
part.
for
If
we compare the x and y equations

is
the case in which
the motion
nearly horizontal with those given in Art. 614,

of
co
when the square
is
neglected
we
see that they express the
motion of a particle moving freely in space but referred to axes which turn round the vertical with an angular velocity 6^. If,
.as
is
generally the case, the forces
X,
are either zero or inz,
dependent of the changes of the nearly constant quantity

can thus obtain these equations in an elementary way.
we
The
particle
earth,
moves
freely in space, unaffected
by the rotation of the
but the axes of reference move round the vertical and leave the
particle behind.
This geometrical interpretation of the equations

evident by considering some simple cases.
the case of a penduluvi.
may be made more

621.
As an example consider
is
small oscillations the motion
nearly horizontal.
When the bob makes To construct the motion we

initial conditions).
suppose the pendulum to oscillate freely in space (with the proper
This oscillation
is left
behind by the earth, and the
effect is that the
plane of
382
[CHAP.
VIII.
oscillation appears to revolve about the vertical with
an angular velocity equal and
opposite to the vertical component of the earth's angular velocity.

oscillation therefore turns
The plane
of
X.
from west to south with an angular velocity w sin
This problem
is
more
fully considered in Art. 624.
622.
nat
trajectories.
A
is
bullet is projected
from a gun, situated
at the
point 0, with a great velocity F, in a direction making a small angle a with the
horizon so that the trajectory
nearly flat.
It is
The
initial velocity of the bullet in space (after
After leaving the
gun the
bullet describes a parabolic
has been reduced to rest) is V. path in space, while the axes
behind by the axes
round the vertical at 0, and the bullet is left Supposing that the initial plane of xz contains the direction of projection, the coordinates of the bullet at the time t are evidently
of reference turn with the earth
(Art. 620).
x=Vtcosa,
The deviation y
is
y- xO^t
left in
where
^3
- w sin X.
If
therefore always to the right of the plane of firing in the
northern hemisphere, and to the
the southern hemisphere.
be the
range the whole deviation

a given distance x
is
notice also that the deviation y is independent of the azimuth of the plane of firing, and that the time of describing
is
Etu
sin X.
We
independent of the rotation of the earth.
The
third equation of
motion
>
(Arts. 614, 615) gives

z
-T-2= -<7 + 2^2"j"
dec
'
= Vtwa.a-^gt^-V(i3t-cos,a.co&\sm^,
the angle the plane of firing
where 6^= -wcosXsin/S and

meridian.
/3
is
makes with the

cos X sin ^.
The
vertical deviation of the bullet
from
its
parabolic path at the
moment
623.
of reaching a target distant x
from the gun
is therefore
- xtui
Deviation of a projectile. Ex. A particle is projected with a velocity making an angle a Wuh the horizontal plane, and the vertical plane through the direction of projection makes an angle j3 with the plane of the meridian, the angle /3 being measured from the south towards the west. If x is measured horizontally in the plane of projection, y horizontally in a direction making an angle )3 + Jtt with the meridian, and z vertically upwards from the point
in a direction
of projection, prove that
x=zV cos at + F sin at^ - \ gt^) w cos X

(
sin
/3,
y = (V sin at- - ^gt^) u cos^X cos p + Fcos at^ w sin X, z=VBin at - ^gt^.-V cos ai^ w cos X sin /3,
where X
is
the latitude of the place, and w the angular velocity of the earth.
(1)
Prove also
that the increase of range on the horizontal plane through the

is
point of projection
(2)
4w sin
/3
cos X sin a (J sin^ a
- cos- a)
V^jg^,
that the deviation to the right of the plane of projection is
4w
and
(3)
sin^
(^
cos X cos
/3
sin a + sin X cos a) V^jg^,
that the time
of flight is decreased
by 2T cos a cos X sin j8 Vulg.
It is
not usual in practical gunnery to take account of the rotation of the earth
great,
except
when F is very
and then only the terms containing
F are perceptible.
mass
624.
is
Disturbance of a pendulum.
fine wire of length
I
particle of
suspended by a
from a point
fixed
relatively to the earth,
and being drawn
aside, so that the wire
ART. 624,]
THE PENDULUM.
vertical at 0, is let go.
383
It is
makes a small angle a with the

required to find the
motion
see Art. 621.
The equations
of the mass
of motion are those given in Art. 614.
the axis of z vertical
Taking and the origin at the position of equilibrium

the ordinate z
is less
m we see that
than 1{1
cos a),
and the terms of the form ddzjdt are of the order Ima.^: these we Let us also make the axes of x, y turn slowly round shall reject. the vertical with such an angular velocity p relatively to the earth that ^3 = to sin A, +p becomes zero, as explained in Art. 616. The equations of motion are now
dt^
ml'
^
dt^~
^
ml'
(1).
I
^^_o^^.ô^^. -5' + 2:77^^+2:^^x = _4-?^ ^ m dt dt df"

where
is
the tension of the string, and
d^, 6^
have the values
given in Art. 616.
The third equation proves that the tension T differs from mg by quantities of the order Icoa at least. Since xjl and yjl are of the order a, and we have agreed to reject terms of the order aa^, we must put T = mg in the two first equations.
Since the two
first
equations are independent of w, the motion

affected
of a real pendulum
when
by the rotation of the earth
is
the same as that of an ideal pendulum, unaffected by the rotation,
but whose path, viewed by a spectator moving with the earth,

appears to turn round the vertical with an angular velocity
p = (0
sin
A,
in a direction south to west.
If In^
= g,
the solutions of the equation are clearly
w = Acos{nt
G),
= Bsm(nt + D)
(2).
It appears that the time of oscillation, viz. ^tt/u, is unaffected
by
the rotation of the earth.

gration,
vertical
we
notice
To determine the constants of intethat when the particle is drawn aside from the
and not yet liberated, it partakes of the velocity of the earth and has therefore a small velocity relative to the axes.
This
is
equal to
displacement.
law sin \ and Taking the plane

t
is
transverse to the plane of
of displacement as the plane
of xz at the time
la,
= 0, the initial conditions are y = 0, dxjdt = 0, dyjdt = laco sin X.
384
'
[CHAP. VIII.
It is then easy to see that
A = la, Bn = - ktu sin \, C = 0, D = 0.

The
particle therefore describes
an
ellipse
whose semi-axes are

viz.
&>
and
B.
Since the ratio of the axes,

is
sin
\ ^/{l/g)
is
very small, the ellipse

to oscillate in
very elongated and the particle appears
a vertical plane.
The
X.
effect of
the rotation of the
earth
is
to
make
this plane appear to turn
round the vertical
with an angular velocity w sin

625.
It is
known
that, independently of all considerations of the rotation of
the earth, the path of the bob of a

the apses vanishes
axis of the ellipse
pendulum
is
approximately an ellipse whose
axes have a small nearly uniform motion round the vertical.
This progression of
this progression will
when
is
the angle subtended at the point of suspension by either

;
zero
see Art. 566.

it is
As the presence of
(1)
complicate the experiment,
important
that the angle of displacement should

aside should be liberated without
be small,
(2)
that the
pendulum when drawn

is
giving the bob more transverse velocity than
necessary.
This
is
usually effected
by fastening the bob when displaced to some point fixed in earth by a thread, and when the mass has come to apparent rest it is set free by burning the thread. The progression of the apses due to the angular magnitude of the displacement is in the opposite direction to that caused by the rotation of the earth.
The advantage
bob
of using a long
pendulum
is
that the linear displacement of the
be considerable though the angular displacement of the wire is very small. The bob should also be of some weight, for otherwise its motion would be soon
destroyed by the resistance of the air; Art. 113.
may
62 3.
As we have
rejected
some small terms

this
it
is
interesting to
examine
(1)
if
these could rise into importance on proceeding to solve the equations
to a
we substitute the first approximation of The third equation shows that Tjm - g has two sets of terms. First, there are terms independent of w which lead to the solution already obtained in Art. 555, and need not be again considered here. Next, there are terms which contain w as a factor and have the form &iu. [nt) where p=pt, Art. 616. These when multiplied by xll or yjl give no terms of the. form sinnt or cos nt. None of the terms which contain w can rise into importance
second approximation.
To determine
Art. 624 (2) in the differential equations.
(Art. 303).
627.
The
idea of proving the rotation of the earth by
falling bodies originated
with Newton.
making experiments on But more than a hundred years elapsed

In 1791 Guglielmini of Bologna
before any observations of value were made.
The liberation of the balls was by burning the thread by which they were suspended, and this was not done until they had entirely ceased to vibrate as observed by a microscope. The vertical was determined by a plumb line, but he had to wait several mouths before The results were disappointing for tliey showed a deviation it came to rest. towards the south nearly as great as that towards the east. This discrepancy was
made some experiments

effected
in a tower 300 feet high.
due to two causes,
(1)
slight winds, (2) the vertical
the numerous apertures in the walls of the tower caused was not ascertained until a change in the seasons had
ART. 628.]
altered
its
INVERSION OF THE PATH.
385
position.
Other experiments were made by Beuzenberg about 1802 in
Hamburg, but Reich's experiments in 1831 3 in the mines of Freiberg are generally considered to be the most important. The height of the fall was 158^ metres and the mean of 106 experiments gave a deviation to the east of 28^
millimetres, the deviation to the south being about a twentieth of that towards the
east.
These were the experiments that Poisson selected
to test the theory;
he
showed that the observed easterly deviation was within a

by calculation.
Art. 617.
particle relative to the earth
thirtieth of that given
Poisson also investigates the general equations of motion of a
and obtains equations equivalent
to those given in
He
then applies them to a variety of problems.
Journal de
I'ecole
jioly technique, 1838.
The
to be
defect of experiments
on
falling bodies is the smallness of the quantities
measured.
In 1851 Foucault invented a new method; he showed that the
plane of oscillation of a simple pendulum appeared to rotate round the vertical

with an angular velocity equal and opposite to the component of the earth's
angular velocity.
be (as
The advantage
of this
method
is
that the experiment can be
continued through several hours, so that the slow deviation of th& pendulum can
it
were) integrated through a time long enough to

large.
make
the whole displace-
ment very
ments.
Foueault's experiment was widely repeated with
Among
English experiments we
may mention
of the
those by
many improveWorms in 1859

at
is
at King's College, London, in Dublin by Galbraith
Aberdeen, at Waterford in 1895.

*23h, 33"", 57-,
The accuracy
and Haughton, at Bristol, method is such that it

24*^, 7'",
possible to deduce the time of rotation of the earth.
Foueault's observations gave
while the repetition of the experiment at Waterford led to

5, is
30%
the true time lying between the two (see Engineering, July
1895).
Though the
experiment can be easily tried when only the general result

difficulties
required, yet
many
Indeed
arise
when the
deviation has to be found with accuracy.
Foucault admitted that it was only after a long series of trials that he made the experiment succeed (see Bulletin de la Soeiete Astronomiqxie de France, Dec. 1896).
Inversion and Conjugate functions.

628.
Inversion*.
Let a point
of unit
mass move under

coordinates
is
the action of forces whose potential in
polar
U =f(i\
where
paints.
6,
.
(f>).
Produce any radius vector

k'^
;
OP
of the path to Q,
OP OQ =
the locus of
is
called the inverse path of

called inverse
that of
and any two points thus related are Let OP = r, 0Q = p.
Let
since
P', Q'
.
OP OQ =
be two other inverse points near the former, then OP' OQ', a circle can be. described about the
.
quadrilateral PQP'Q'.
The elementary
:
arcs PP', QQ' are there-
fore ultimately in the ratio r

*
p.
If the points P,
Q move
is
so as
The reader may consult a paper by Larmor
in The Proceedings of the
London
Mathematical Society, vol. xv. 1884. The, principle of least action to both this method of Inversion and that of Conjugate functions.
R. D.
there applied
25
386
INVERSION.
xt^,
[chap.
VIII.
to be always inverse points, their velocities u,
are connected
by
the equation m/mi
= rjp.
The
position of the point

{p, 6,
cj))
in space
the quantities
or
(r, 6, ^).
is determined either by Choosing the former as the
coordinates, the
Lagrangian equations of the motion of
are
deduced from
T = 1m^ = 1 -]
r
(p'-'
+ pê'"- + p= sin^ e<^'%
These equations contain only the polar coordinates of

primarily give the motion of a point
Q.
They
describing the inverse
path in such a manner that
P and
are always at inverse points.
Let us now transpose the factor

have (Art. 524)
T,
k^/p^
from
to
IT.
We
then
= i(/^ +
&c.),
t/,
= ^|/(^,^,</,) +
cj.
The Lagrangian equations derived from these give the motion of a particle which describes the same path as that of Q, but in a different time. Let the particle be called 11. The form of T.y shows that 11 moves as a free particle, acted on by forces whose
potential
is
C/a.
We
see also that the masses of the particles

2.
and
are equal.
See also Art, 650, Ex.
other.
The path of either particle may be inferred from that of the If the path of the particle P described with a work function
is
f{r, d,^)-\-G
known, then the other particle
11,
if p>roperly pro-
jected, will describe the inverse path, with
a work function
^-?{^(f''''*)+4
between the velocities u, v of the particles P, 11, when passing through any inverse points P, Q, we notice that by the principle of vis viva û^ = U+ C, ^v^ U.2. It follows immediately that v uk-jp-, and therefore that ur = vp. Since the planes of motion OPP', OQQ' coincide, the angidar momenta of the particles, when at inverse points of their ^mths,
629.
find the relation
To
about every axis through the centre of inversion are equal.
The constant G
is
determined bv the consideration that the
ART. 631.]
THE PRESSURES AND THE FORCES.

u
in the given
387
equation
known
The
velocity
path must
satisfy the
particles P, IT
do not necessarily pass through inverse
same instant. Let t, r be the times at which they pass through any pair P, Q, of inverse points; t + dt, r + dr the times at which they pass through a
points of their respective paths at the
neighbouring pair P', Q' of inverse points.

arcs
Since the elementary
PP', QQ' are in the ratio r

:
are in the ratio 1/r
Ijp, it
p while the velocities of P, 11 follows by division that the elementary

:
times
is
dt,
dr are in the
ratio
r'^
p^.
The
.
relation
.
between
and r
found by integration from
=
dt
r"
This agrees with the ratio
given in Art. 524.
Supposing that the particles P, 11 are projected from inverse

points on their respective paths, their initial velocities ],nust be
inversely as their distances from the centre
initial directions of
of inversion.
The
motion must be in the same plane and make supplementary angles with the radius vector which passes through
both the
630.
initial positions.
If the particle
P
(/>,
is
constrained to
move on a
surface
tlie
argument
needs but a slight alteration.

the inverse surface.
The
6, (p)
inverse point
describes a curve which lies on
Let
be the polar coordinates of
then these
may
also be taken as the Lagrangian coordinates of P.
Using the equation of the

p, p'
inverse surface,
we have
p'
-j^^' + rr,
'P'-
Substituting the values of
in the
expressions for
similar results.
and
U+C given
in Art. 628,
we proceed
as before
and arrive at
631.
The
I>Tessiires.
When
the particles P,
are constrained to
move on
a surface and the inverse surface respectively, the pressures R^, B, at any pair of inverse points are such that R^r^B^p^.
To prove
this
we take any
1
axis of z
perpendicularly to the meridian plane zOPQ, Art. 491.
and resolve the forces on the ,We then have
particles
dA dA
1 r sin 6 1 p sin
dU
d(f>
r sin d dt
1
+ R^cosa^
p sin 6 dr
dU, + R^ cos a. d0
where
is
the angular
momentum
of either particle about the axis of z, Art. 629,
and
dt,
dr are the times respectively occupied by the particles in passing from any
pair of inverse points to an adjoining pair.
The
forces R-^
R^
act along the
normals to the two surfaces.
the geometrical relations,
we
describe a sphere passing through P,
To understand Q and touching
one surface.
Then since'the sphere has the property
that for every chord the
388
product
INVERSION,
[chap. VIII.
The make eqtial angles with OPJ^. The angles a^, a., of
OP OQ
.
is
the same, the sphere will touch the inverse surface also.
of the sphere
normals therefore meet in the centre

resolution are therefore equal,
centre of the sphere.
if
and
will
every straight line perpendicular to the radius vector
the reactions are taken positively towards the
Since p- dt = 7-^ dr and p^'U=r^
{IJ
+C),vê see
at
once that r^R^=p^R2.
Since
ur vp, we have B-^^lii^=EJv^,

cubes of the velocities.
i.e.
the pressures at inverse points are also as the
Ex.
(1)
Deduce from the
relations
pÛ2=r^(U+C),
ûÛ+C,
that the parallel components G, G' of the impressed forces on the particles
in
P,
n
(2)
any direction perpendicular to the radius vector are connected by the
equation p^G'^r^G.
that the radial components F, F', are connected by
p'^F'
+ r^F= - 4r- (U+ C).

is
632.
Ex.
;
1.
straight line
particle,
in this case
The path of a we have

is
free particle
?t'^
= 2C7=2C.
under the action of no forces By inversion the path of a

i.e.
free
when v^=u^ -^2U2,
the inverse of a straight line,
a circle passing
through the origin. This gives U^=Ck'^jp'^, and the central force FACk^jp^. This is Newton's theorem that a circle can be described freely about a centre of
force
on the circumference whose attraction varies as the inverse
fifth
'
power of the
distance.
Ex.
2.
Show
that a particle can describe the curve p^ = a- cos- ^
+ 6^
p^)
sin^ ^
under the action of a force
in the origin
which varies as
p^
i-s
(a''
rs
7; -i,l
0-
When the axes a, & of the curve are so unequal that their ratio is greater than sJ2, the force F changes from attraction to repulsion as the particle proceeds from the extremity of one axis to the other. Verify this by tracing the curve, and show that the curve is convex at the extremity of the lesser axis.
Ex. 3. Prove that the central forces F, F', under the action of which a curve and its inverse can be described about the centre of inversion are so related that
- + - =2
show
also that the velocities v,
v'
at inverse points are connected
by
vr==v'r'.
[This follows easily from the expression for
given in Art. 310.
When
Ex.
point
h^h', Art. 629, this agrees with Art. 631, Ex.]

4.
attractive force situated at a point

is B/?-2
moves on a sphere under the action of a centre of on the surface, and the velocity v at any where r=OP. Prove that the path is a circle whose plane passes
particle
through 0.
Inverting the sphere,
line.
we
find that the stereographic projection is a straight
The
633.
result follows at once, see Art. 609.
Conjugate
,
{x, y), (f
7])
of
ftinctions. Let the Cartesian coordinates two corresponding points P, Q be so related that
^
2/*'
=/(f + ^0
(1)>
ART, 634.]
CONJUGATE FUNCTIONS.
%
389
where /is any real function and hand side we have

oc
= \/(
!)
Expanding the right(2),

is
yi
(f)(^,7})
+ ylr{^,7]}i
The transformation
where
<^
effected
and yjr are real functipns. by using the equations

^
therefore
= (f>{^>v),
= i^{^,v)
(3),
the motion of
entiating (1)
following geometrically from that of Q.

find
Differ-
we
^'^
2/
/^^{r + VI
+ vi)-f(^-vi)
(4),
where
/x^ is
a real positive quantity given by
f^'^=f(^
(5).
Let U = F{x,y) be the work function of the forces which act on the particle P. The motions of P and Q may be deduced by the Lagrangian rule from
the constant of
C being
included in
/z-
F for
the sake of brevity.
Transposing the factor
to the
work function, the equations
T.^kiî' + vC-),
U,
= fM'F(<f>,ir),
IT,
give by the same rule the motion of a particle
whose mass
is
equal to that of P, which (when properly projected) will describe
the same path as the point Q, but in a different time, Art. 524.
To
P,
find the relation
between the
velocities u, v of the particles
n
To
at corresponding points of their
paths,
we observe
that
since û-
= U, \v^=Un,
the velocities are such that v
= fMU.
(4),
find the ratio of the times dt,

ds,
dr we notice that, by
the corresponding arcs

It follows
da
are such at ds
= /xda,
while
fjLU
= v.
by
division that dt
It is
= fx^dr.
+ y-lh-l,
kt.
634.
Ex.
known
that a particle can describe the ellipse x-ja"

It is
with a force tending to the centre equal to
required to find the conjugate

{^T]i)'^lc"'~^.
path and law of force when we use the transformation x)ji =

Let x = /-cos^,
tion then gives
jp-'/c"-!,
7/
r sin 6;
= p cos ip,
rj
= p sin
(p;
the equation of transforma-
d-n<p.
The equation
of the path is therefore

cos- Hep
sinncf>
_ c-"-
'''
390
Also,
GROUPING OF TRAJECTORIES.
M-=/'(f+'?0/'(?-î)='i'(l'+rr-Vc"'"';
.-.
ij.
[CHAP.
VIII.
= np'^~^lc'^-'^.
Again in the
elliptic orbit,
Hence
since v=ij.u,
The
ratio of the angular
momenta,
viz. vpjur, is easily seen to be
equal to n.
When n=
-1, this transformation becomes

d.
r=c'^lp,
<p
6=
-<p.
The transformain the
tion reduces to a simple inversion, except that
is
measured positively
opposite direction to
635. Ex. If the particle P is constrained to move on any given curve with a work function U, while the equal particle 11 is constrained to move on the conjugate curve, with a work function V^=fi^'U, the pressures B.^, E^ on the two
curves are in the ratio of the cubes of the velocities,
also
i.e.
Rilu^=R.2lv^.
This gives
R2=M?Ri'
The grouping of
636.
trajectories
and Jacobi's
solution.
The Cartesian equations
of the motion of a free particle
of unit mass are
"
dU =d^v2
dU
'
y =iry-
dU =dJ
w.
,_.
and
to these
we
join the equation of energy
= ^'2 +
2/'2
+ /2^2f7+2a
(2).
When
expressed by three functions of
the equations (1) have been integrated we have x, y, z t with six constants whose values
b, c
become known when the initial values a, and the initial velocities a', b', c' are given.
Since
t
of the coordinates
enters into the equations (1) only in the form
dt,
the
differential equations are not altered
by writing
e for
t.
One
of the constants of integration therefore enters into the solution
mere addition to the time. When we eliminate the time we arrive at two equations which are the equations of all the possible The constant e disappears Avith t, and the trajectories in space.
as a
equations of the possible trajectories contain five constants, of
which the energy
C may
be regarded as one.
To understand the
ART. 637.]
ACTION.
it
391
relations of these trajectories to each other

to
becomes necessary
group them into systems.
group the trajectories according to the values of the Taking any one group, having any given energy, the four remaining constants are determined for any special trajectory when the coordinates of some two points A, B arbitrarily chosen
first
We
energy
G.
on
it
are given.
637.
Action.
to B.
If ds
be an element of the arc of the trajectory,'

is
the m\>egxdX
V = j mvds
called the action as the particle passes
from
we
also
pas.sing
any position have V=jmv^dt, the limits being the times ti and t of through A and B. When we are only concerned with the
If mv^ be the vis viva of the particle in
it is
motion of a single particle, to be taken as unity.
convenient to suppose
its
mass
Considering a single particle,
let s
be measured from
let
to
B
I.
along the trajectory of least action and
the length
AB
be
Let A'B' be a neighbouring trajectory (Art. 590) from some point A' near J. to a point B' near B. Proceeding as in Art. 591, writing
V for
<^,
we
find
SF=
v-^Zx + &c.
as
-/E-l("S)p
J^.^^" ds...{^\
where the part outside the integral is to be taken between the limits A and B and the energy C has been varied for the sake of generality. It is easy to deduce from the equations of motion
(as in Art. 599) that the coefficients of Zx, hy, hz inside the
integral are zero.
Also since
|-v"^
= U+C, we
have vdv/dC
= 1.
Since vdxjds
is
the x component of the velocity
we thus have
.
W^xhx + y'hij
When we
and
all
+ z'hz - a'Sa -
h'8b - c'Sc + (t - 1,) SC.
.(4).
consider the motion of a system of particles, either constrained or free,
it is more convenient to take t as the independent Let us imagine the systera to be moving in some manner which we will call the actual course. Let the work function of the field be U and let L be the Lagrangian function, then L = (Art. 506). Let ^j, d.^, &c. be any indepen-
taking different paths,
variable.
T+U
dent coordinates of the system, a^,
a.,,
&c. their values in some position
occupied
it is
by the system at a time our object to discover.
t^.
Then
6^, dn, &c. are
functions of
t,
whose forms
Let us next suppose the system to

coordinates be functions of
t
move
slightly different
in some varied manner, i.e. let the from those in the actual course. By
6^z
JACOBl'S SOLUTION.
[CHAP. VIII.
the fundamental theorem* in the calculus of variations, we have
5fLdt = [lM-,^f^,J]l^+j^[
where u = S9 6'5t,
dL
dd
d dL\
dt dd'
'
summation for all the coordinates and t. Since each separate term vanishes by Lagrange's equations (Art. 506), we have
implies
i^
6^,
d.^,
&c. and the
limits of integration are
inside the integral
S\Ldt = r{T + 'V)5t + I,'{^,{ê-e'8t)'Y

If the geometrical- conditions
do not contain the time explicitly
will be a
homogeneous function
of d^,
6',
&c. (Art. 510)
and therefore 2 -,6'=^2T.

du
dT
We
also suppose that for each varied course the velocities are so arranged that the principle of energy holds, i.e. T - U= C, though C may be different for each course.
Hence L = 2T-C, and
5j
Cdt = 5
(f
f^)
We now have the
two equations
(A)
8fLdt=-C{St-dtT} + -2,f^,8e\-^['^,da]
6f2Tdt=(t-'t,)6C-,^('^,Se)-^[5a)
(B)._
The action V of the system is the sum of the actions of the several particles. therefore have V=j2Tdt. When the system reduces to a single particle of unit mass 2T=x''^ + y'- + and the equation (B) becomes the same as (4).
We
z''-^,
638.
let
the energy
Let us consider the motion of a single free particle and C be given, therefore 8(7=0. Let Vt, v., be the
velocities at
A, B;
So-j,
So-o
the displacements
A A',
BB'
6i, 6^
the angles these displacements

of the tangents at J.,
make
with the positive directions
5;
then, as in Art. 592, (4) becomes

cos
6^h<r.2
hV=v.2
*
Vi cos
d^ha^
(I^)-
The proof
of this
theorem
is
as follows.
We have
6, 0',
S\Ldt=^l(bLdt+LdSt) = [L5f\ + \{5Ldt-dUt).
Now L
is
a function of the letters typified by

:.
8L = -s:{LeSd + Le'Sd'),
dL = -Z(Lede + Le'd"dt),
Since
where
suffixes
imply partial differential

dd + dde
dt
coefficients.
ART. 639.]
JACOBl'S SOLUTION.
393
Introducing the mass m, this

in passing
difference ends.
maybe
read, the change of the action
from
one trajectory
AB
to
a neighbouring one
the
is
the
of the virtual
moments of
momenta
at
the
two
Taking any arbitrary surface which we may call S^, let us group together all the trajectories which cut Si orthogonally, then cos 6i = 0. On each of. these trajectories let us take the point B so that the action from the surface Si to B is some given
quantity.
As we
pass from one trajectory to a neighbouring one,
traces out a second surface
which we may
It
call
S.2,
and at every
point of So
we have 8V =0.
it
follows that for this surface

6.2
(supposing
to be of finite extent) cos
is
also zero.
The
trajectories therefore intersect the surface S^ at right angles.
Considering
all
possible trajectories
we
first
group them
ac-
cording to the value of the energy.

selecting all those at right angles to
We
classify
them again by
have now a congruence of

system of surfaces.
trajectories.
asserts that all these trajectories
some given surface. We The theorem just proved can be cut orthogonally by a
These orthogonal surfaces are such that, when any two are given, the action from one to the other is the
same for all the trajectories. See Thomson and Natural Philosophy, 1879, vol. i. Art. 332.
All possible trajectories
just described in
Tait, Treatise on
may be grouped
together in the manner

is
many
different ways.
all
One method
to select
a surface intersecting
surface
the trajectories.
Each point
of this
may be
all
is
regarded as the centre of an infinitely small

the trajectories intersect at right angles.
sphere which
surface S^
The
then reduced to a collection of points occupying an

This
is
arbitrary surface.
the method of grouping adopted in

different
Arts. 159, 330, 339, &c.
By a
grouping we obtain different
orthogonal surfaces.
639.
These considerations lead us to a rule which
is
a special
case of that given by Jacobi for the solution of dynamical problems.
When
this
method
is
applied to the dynamics of a particle the

first
orthogonal surfaces are investigated

afterwards deduced.
bodies the interpretation
and the
trajectories are
In the general case of a system of rigid

is
not so simple.
394
640.
JACOBl'S SOLUTION.
[CHAP.
VIII.
Let the action
V be
expressed as a function of the energy

h, c)
and of
the coordinates {x, y, z), {a,
arbitrary positions
differential calculus,
and A.
Then by the
of the particle in the two principles of the
dV^ , hV. dV. dV. dV.j dV. dV^^ ,., '^^=dx^'-^dy^y+dz^'-^da^''+'db^^'-dc^''-dC^^'--^'^'

the energy being varied for the sake of generality.
this with the expression (4) (Art. 637)
.'
Comparing
we
see that
=^5!, &c., &e..
a'
= -^>c.,&c
*-*.
= ^..,(6).
Substituting in the equation (2) of energy, we find
(IT ^
where
values
motion.
{%)' Z7o
(ST' m-m' - (f y=-'.--<').

U
when we
the
w^rite for x, y, z their initial
is
the value of
c.
a, b,
These are called
Hamiltonian equations of
'
'
It is obvious that if
we can deduce from the equations

first set
(7)
the proper form for the function V, the
of (6) will give
the component velocities of the particle and the second set will
give the relations between the coordinates
values.
x, y,
and their
initial
The
last
equation will give the time,

it is
'^
Jacobi proved that
not necessary to obtain the general

It is sufficient to discover
integral of either differential equation.
one solution of the form

F=/(;,2/,^,C,a,yS)
containing three
new
constants
ot,
/3,
7.
+7 He
(8),
also
proved that the
introduction of the initial, coordinates

for
a, b, c
into the expression
V is
641.
unnecessary.
Instead of these he uses the two constants

a, /3.
of integration here called
In the
first differential
integral (8), the quantities* x, y,
equation (7) and in the complete z are the independent variables.

(T)
Jacobi's rule asserts that if lue esfxihlish the folloiuing relations
between
x, y,
will be satisfied.
and a new variable t, the equations of motion These assumed relations are
'^=-^->
:;c
(^>'
ART. 641.]
JACOBl'S SOLUTION.
39o
where
a-i,
ySi,
and
are three
t,
new
constants.
These new relations

a, /3,
ttj
,
make
and
e.
x, y, z
functions of
G and
we
the five constants
/S,
To prove these
and
relations
differentiate (9) with regard to
thus arrive at three equations of the form
^'_&_ + y'AL+2'_^ =
dxda
dydcL
dzda.
(10) ^
The other equations have ^ and C written

the zero on the right-hand side
equations determine x
,
for a,
is
replaced by unity.
but in the third These
y, z
first
Also since (8)

equations
(7),
it
is
a solution of the
satisfy that
of the differential
must
a,
equation identically.
We
may
therefore differentiate (7) after substitution with regard to

^, C.
each of the constants

of the form
We
thus arrive at three equations
dx dxda.
^_^ + ^_^/ +^^^ = dy dyda dz dzda

/3
(11).
The
other equations have

is
and
the zero
replaced by unity.
written for *
a,
but in the third

*^
Comparing the three equations (10) with the three

see at once that
<if
...
(11),
we
V
d'f
,
'"^txIt also follows that
y'=dy'
,
df .. ^'=5
<^^)-
_^
""
d'^f
'dx^"" '^'dxdyy
y", z".
^ dxdz^
^^'^^'
with similar expressions for
We may also differentiate (7) after substitution from (8) partially

with respect to any one of the three variables
x, y, z\
dfd^
dx dx^
df drf_ dy dxdy
dfd^f^^dU
dz dxdz
'
dx
Substituting from (12), the left-hand side becomes by (13) equal

to x".
We
therefore have
dU
dx
^
dU
dy
dU
dz
\v'hich
are the equations of motion (1).
396
642.
JACOBl'S SOLUTION.
[CHAP.
VIII.
Consider the system of surfaces defined by
f{x,y,z,C,a,^)^K
where
C, a, /3 are constants
(14),
and
K the parameter.
The equations
is
(12) piôve that the direction of motion at any point
normal to
that surface of the system which passes tlnôugh the point.

the surfaces (14) cut the trajectories at right angles.
Thus
jectories (with their parameters !,
yQj)
These tramay be deduced from (14)
by the rules given in the theory of easily by Jacobi' s equations (9).
differential equations or
more
The
trajectories in Jacobi's
to^
method
are thus grouped together
according
their orthogonal surfaces.
By
taking different com-
plete integrals for (8),
we group the same
trajectories in different
ways.
643.
Art. 638. As an example which requires no long algebraical process, let us discuss when the forces are absent. The Hamiltonian equation is
the trajectories
)^(^)^(/=One complete
integral, suggested
<-)
by the rules
for solving differential equations, is

(16),
^
V^\ax + îj+^l{l-o?-^-)z}J[2C)+y
another complete integral
is
r-{(,r-ar+(y-/3)^ + r^}iv/(2C)
If
(17).
we choose the
first
integral the surfaces
V=^K are
planes and the trajectories

If
are grouped into systems of jjarallel lines, the lines taking all directions.
we
choose the second integral, the surfaces T'=A' are spheres having their centres on
the plane of xy.
The
trajectories are
grouped into systems of straight lines
diverging from points on that plane.
To
illustrate the use of equations (9)
let
us substitute in
them the second
integral.
We
have at once
x-a V -? ^--% =-ft.

^
>'
,/(2C)-*+^
(1^)'
where r'^=(x
-a)'^
+ {y
^)-
z'^.
These evidently give a system of straight lines

2
diverging from the point x = a, y ^,
= 0,
described with a velocity ^(2C).
644.
When
(2).
the coordinates chosen are
not
Cartesian the
expression for the kinetic energy does not take the simple form
given in
Let the kinetic energy
T be
given by
(19),
6, <^,
-v/r.
2T = Pd'-' +
where P,
Q,
Qc^'-'
+ 'Rf'
are functions of the coordinates
Let us
now take
as the Hamiltonian equation

1
jdVy
(dV\-
/dV\^
_^
,^_,
ART. 645.]
JACOBl'S SOLUTION.
397
if
Proceeding exactly in the same way as before, we prove that
V=f{d,4>,^\r,a,a,^) be an integral of
(20),
+ r^
of the
(21),
the
first
integrals
Lagrangian
equations of motion (Art. 506), are
^''-%'
The
trajectories, &c. are
' = !' ^t' =
(22).
given by
(2^)'
1=-' %=-^- 1=*+^

where
ttj,
/3i,
and
are
new
constants.
This enunciation includes the most useful cases of Jacobi's

rule.
But
his
a.
method
applies also to
which
iQ
quadratic function of the velocities.
generalizations
645.
Ex.
1.
we
refer the reader to
any d3rnamical system, in For these treatises on Rigid Dynamics.

projectile.
Apply Jacobi's rule to find the path of a

is
The Hamiltonian equation
(STKI>
Separating the variables,
we
find' that
one complete integral
is
Ex.
2.
Apply Jacobi's method
to find the path of a particle in three dimensions
about a fixed centre of force which attracts according to the Newtonian law.
Taking polar coordinates we have
2r=r'2 + 9-2^'2 + r2sin2 0rf.'2,
U=-.
>
.
The Hamiltonian
equation (Art. 644)
may
be put into the form
].(f)'-..-.c.j.(i-^)%,L^(:4.r=o.
'/
a,
we equate these - j8 cosec^ 6, we obtain

If
three expressions respectively to
-a + /3cosec^^ and
Let the inteobvious that
three differential equations in which the variables are
separated and whose solutions satisfy the Hamiltonian equation.

grals of these be
V=f^{rj
is
a),
V=f^{e,
a,
/3),
V=f^{(i>,
all
/3).
It
is
y = f\+ f-2+ f3 + y
deduced.
a complete integral from which
the trajectories
may
be
Ex.
3.
ordinates
(X,
Apply Jacobi's method to find the motion of a v) when the work function is
//,,
particle in elliptic co-
Taking the expression
for
given in Art. 577, the Hamiltonian equation (Art.
644) after a slight reduction becomes
^
[CHAP.
_
VIII.
3&8
V2) (X2
JACOBI'S SOLUTION.
_
(^L.
,,2)
(^=
,.)
^^_y+
{(m- -
J,-2)
(^2
,,.)
(,2
X2)
(ÎLy +
(X-
(,-2
J,?)
(,2
fc-2)
(X2
_ ^2)
(^
= -2
where
Z)
v^)f^ (X)
(v-
(.-
- X=)/o
Since
(m)
- A*-) f,
(")
- 2CD,
= (\- - jU-) (^- - v-)
X^) .
(m2
1/2)
(;/2
_ X-2) + (X2 _ ^2) = 0,

X2)
X2)
X2 (^2
^2)
+ ^2
(^2
_ _
+ 2
+
i
(X2
(X-2
_ /^2) ^ Q,
X*
- J/S) + ^4 (Ai2
is satisfied
(^2
- ^2) ^ _
2)^
the differential equation

(X2
by assuming
r-) (X2
r-)
('Jiy
- 2/i
(X)
+ a + |3X2 + 2CX^
with similar expressions for dVjdfM and dVjdv. In these trial solutions the variables and the third v. X, fx, V have been separated, the first containing X, the second
ij.,
Supposing the integrals
to be
required complete integral by simple differentiations with regard to the constants
&c.), V^F^ {v, &c.), the C), V = F^ V=F^ (X, o, The solution then follows is then V ^F^ + F^ + F^ + y.
/3,
{/j.,
a,
|3,
G.
vol. xii. 1847.
uses
This expression for U is given by Liouville in his Journal, it in conjunction with Jacobi's solution.
He
We may also write the expression in a different form. Let 2h^ P-2f Ps ^^ ^^^ perpendiculars from the origin on the tangent planes to the three confocals which We find intersect in any point, and let X, jx, v be as before the. semi-major axes.
by using the expressions
for these perpendiculars in elliptic coordinates (Art. 577)
U = Pi'F^ (X) + i^s^F,

Taking
U'=2J-i^(X), (omitting the suffixes)
.
w)
+ p.J^F., {p)
see at once that the level surfaces
we
intersect the ellipsoids in the polhodes.
The direction of the force at any point P It may be shown by is therefore normal to the polhode which passes through P. differentiation that the components, T and N, of the force, tangential and normal to the ellipsoid which passes through P, are
r=
-2p^F{\){S,-p'S,^]'=
-2i>'^F{\) Is^^'^qx^^-.^'p-,
N^2i}'F{\)S,+^~F{\),
where S
=+ +-.
The Cartesian components
A",
1',
are
xJ^fî^-^, + 2f-Se\F(\) +
with similar expressions
for
p*x F'
X-
(X)
^
Y and
Z.
We may obtain
/
(X)
- X-"+'*,
/-,
simpler expressions by combining the three terms of U. Putting '-"+', we see that U is equal to the sum (m) = - M^""*"^, fs (") of
X-, m". ""
of the different
homogeneous products
of n dimensions, each product
being taken with a coefficient unity. This symmetrical function of the roots of the cubic in Art. 576 may be expressed as a rational function of the coefficients. We thus find possible forms for U in Cartesian coordinates. For example, putting
/j(X)=-X&c wefind
U=\- +
iJ.'
i'-
= {x- + y- + Z-) + A
ART. 646.]
PRINCIPLE OF LEAST ACTION.

(X)
399'
As another example, put /^
= - \^
&c.,
we then have
U-\'^ + lj.^ + v^ + \-/x- + fi-f' + 1^\-
= (x- + y- + s-)- + (x- + if + z^)

where A and
{h- + k-)
+ h-i/- + l;-z- + B,
B are
two constants.
646.
Principle of least action.
Let the extremities A^

the particle be constrained
B
to
of the trajectories be given
and
let
move from one point
to the other along a
smooth
wire, the
energy being given, Art. 636. Of all the different methods of conducting the particle from A to B there may be one which is
the trajectory the particle would take
if
unconstrained.
We
see
by Art. 637
equation
(4).
that for this course the value of
hV
is
given by
But
since the points
A,
vanish at each end.
We
therefore have
B are SF= 0.
fixed, hx, hy, hz
It follows there-
fore that the free trajectory is
such that the change of action in

is
passing from
it to any neighbouring constrained course The action for a free trajectory luith given energy is maximum, a minimum, or is stationary.
zero.
either
Conversely,
if
the path from
to
is
required which makes
the action a max-min, the principles of the Calculus of Variations

require that the coefficients of hx, hy, hz inside the integral (3) in Art. 637 should be zero, provided the geometrical conditions
of the
this,
problem permit
^x, 8y, 8z to
have arbitrary
result
signs.
Assuming
the vanishing of the coefficients leads, as already explained,
to the equations of motion.
The
is
that the free trajectory

action given
from
to
is
then the path of
max-min
by the
calculus of variations.
similar theorem holds for the motion of a system either free or connected hy
geometrical relations.
we conduct the system from A
Let any two configurations or positions ^, i3 be given. If to B by any varied paths as described in Art. 637 we
of these positions are zero)
have (since the variations of the coordinates
5^Ldt=-C(dt-5tj)
Let us
(A),
8J2Tdt = {t-t^)SG
(B).
now suppose
that in these varied paths the particles, without violating

are conducted with
the geometrical relations,
such velocities that the energy
C T - V has
jiatlt.
a given value, (the same as in the actual course,) then

is
50=0, and the
equation (B) shows that the action ^21\lt
a viax-min or
is
stationary in the actual
The equation
then ^Ldt
is
(A) gives a
companion theorem.
stationary.
Let us suppose that in the varied

is
paths the particles are so conducted that the time t-t^

a vw.v-min or
is
equal
to
a given quantity,
400
647.
[CHAP. VIII.
The action from one given point to another cannot be a real maximum Every is always the same function of the position of the particle. element of either of the integrals \v'^dt or ^vds is positive and therefore, whatever path from A to B may be taken, we can increase the whole action by conducting
if
the velocity
the particle along a sufficiently circuitous but neighbouring path. Thus, if C be any point on the- free course AB w.e can conduct the particle along that course
to C, then
compel
it
it
to
make
a circuit,
and
after returning to the
neighbourhood
of
C conduct
along the remainder
CB
of the free path.
Additional positive
terms are thus given to the integral and the action is increased. motion is unaltered, but the time of transit is longer.
The energy of the
A and B
Since every element of the integral is positive, there must.be some path joining which makes the action a true minimum. If the theory of max-min in
the Calculus of Variations gives only one path, that path must be a
minimum.
648.
from
It
may
be that there are several free paths by which the particle could travel
to B.
Selecting one of these, say
ADB, we may ask
if
the action along
it is
Let a neighbouring free path starting from A (the energy being To simplify matters let no other free path the same) intersect ADB in C. If B lie between A and C there is only one intersect ADB nearer to A than C.
a true
minimum.
free
path from
to
which
is
in accordance with the principles of mechanics,
and
that path makes the action a true

are two neighbouring free paths
minimum from A to C.
Art. 647.
It
If
is
beyond
C, there
may
be proved that the action
from
yi
to jS is not in general a true
minimum, the
action for
some neighbouring
courses being greater and for others less than for the free path
AB
(Art. 653).
is no free path from A to B, yet there must be a path For example, a heavy particle projected from A with a given velocity can by a free path arrive only at such points as lie within a certain paraboloid whose focus is at A, Art. 159. The path of minimum action from A to a point B beyond the paraboloidal boundary is not a free path. When deduced from the Calculus of Variations it falls under the case mentioned in Art. 646. Its position is such that it cannot be varied arbitrarily on all sides, i.e. the signs of the variations 5.r, Sy, 8z are not arbitrary along the whole length of the course.
649.
It
may be
that there
of
minimum
action.
Such limitations motion (Art. 299).
exist
when thg path runs along the boundary

therefore
of the field of
We
draw
verticals
from A and
to intersect the
level of zero velocity (which in this case is the directrix) in
C and D.
please,
conduct the particle from
A along
.JC to a point as near
as
we
Let us and thence
along a course coinciding indefinitely nearly with the directrix to a point as near The particle is finally conducted along the vertical DB to the as we please.
given point B.
ij(2gz)
Throughout
this course the velocity is always
supposed to be
where
z is the
depth below the directrix.
The
velocity being ultimately
zero along the directrix the whole action from

actions along the vertical paths
to
is
reduced to the
sum
of the
AC, DB.
The path
close to the directrix cannot
he varied arbitrarily, because the particle cannot be conducted above that level without making the velocity imaginary. This minimum path is therefore not given
by the ordinary rules of the Calculus
of Variations.
similar anomaly occurs in the case of brachistochrones.
The parabola
is
brachistochrone
the force acts parallel to the axis and is such that the velocity is inversely proportional to the square root of the distance from the
when
ART. 651.]
directrix; Art. 605.
EXAMPLES.
The
directrix being given in position, the initial
401
and
final
be so far apart that no such parabola can be drawn. In this case the brachistochrone is found by conducting the particle along the vertical straight line ^C in accordance with the given law of velocity, thence with
points A,
of the course
may
an infinite toB.
velocity along the directrix
CD, and
finally along the vertical line
DB
The further discussion of these points is a part of the Calculus of Variations. Some remarks on the dynamics of the problem may be found in the author's
Rigid Dynamics,
vol.
ii.
chap. x.
660. JEx. 1. Prove that the same path is a brachistochrone and a path of least action for v''^=Alf{x, y, z); Art. 599.
for
v^=f{x,
y, z)
The brachistochrone
Idsjv a
is
minimum
the path of least action by

if
must
give the
2.
same curve
deduced from the calculus of variations by making making ^v'ds a minimum. These v'=k^jv ; (Jellett and Tait).
Ex.
Prove that,
d,
if
a path be described by a particle
function that v^=f(r,
<f>),
P with such a work the inverse path can be described by a particle II with
a velocity v', such that v'^=-^f{
,e,cf>\, where rp=k^;
Art. 628.
To find the first path we make jvds a minimum. Since ds'lds=plr, the second path is found by making jv'dspjr a minimum. These are the same integrals. This mode of proof applies equally whether the particle is free or constrained to move on a surface.
Ex. 1. Prove that in an elliptic orbit described about the focus S, the measured by the area described about the focus S and the action by the time described about the empty focus H.
time
is
651.
If p, v'
pp'=b'^.
about
be the perpendiculars on the tangent from S and H, we know that Since v^hjp, the action jvds becomes jp'ds .hlb^; the area described being ^jp'ds, the result follows at once. [Tait, Dynamics of a particle,]
Ex. 2. In an ellipse described about the centre G, perpendiculars PM, PN are drawn from P on the major and minor axes CA, CB, and A, B represent the Prove that the action from ^ to P is elliptic areas PMA, PNG A respectively.
(aU + b^B)^filab.
Ex.
3.
Prove, that the action in describing
an arc of a central orbit
is
-i
/K-S)'
dr.
When
the central force
is
F=nlr'^ and the

is
initial velocity is
that from infinity, prove also that the action
^tan^^, where
;
is
measured from the
maximum
or
minimum
radius vector
Art. 360,
Prove that the action from any point A to another B is k times the sectorial area ASB, where S is the focus, K^ l&gjl and I is the semi-latus rectum.
4.
Ex.
heavy particle describes a parabola.
Prove also
that, if the
is
chord
AB
pass through the focus, the action along the
parabolic path
greater than that along the course

Arts. 159, 649.
AG, GD,
DB
where AG,
BD
are perpendiculars on the directrix.
402
652.
paths.

Ex.
1.
[CHAP.
VIII.
When
a heavy particle
is
projected from a point
with a given,
velocity to pass through a point B, there are in general two possible parabolic
AB
is less
from A
Prove that the action is a minimum along that parabola in which the arc than the arc AC where C is the other extremity of the chord drawn through the focus.
action
is
The
neighbouring parabola drawn from
minimum when B is not beyond the A Art. 648. Since the

;
intersection with the
chord of intersection
ultimately passes through the focus of either of these neighbouring parabolas, Art.
159, the result given follows at once.
Ex.
2.
When
the force
is
central
and varies according
to the
Newtonian law,
there are in general two elliptic paths which a particle could take
when
projected
from
with a given velocity to pass through B.

along that ellipse in which the arc
minimum
^5
is
Prove that the action is a is the less than A C, where

:
other extremity of the chord drawn from
through the empty focus

a
Art. 339.
653.
Ex.
particle
describes
a circular orbit about
centre
of force
represented by F=fj.lr'^, situated in the centre 0.

in the action
It is required to find the
change
when
the particle
is
conducted ivith the same energy from a given point
to
another
on the
circle by
some neighbouring path lying in the plane of the
circle.
Let
be
the
radius,
then
taking
the
normal resolution,
the
velocity
Vq=s/(/j-Io."'~^)-
The
principle of energy for the varied path gives
- = -^2
-n-lr"-!
Also
C=
2 w
1 a"-^
since the energy '
C is
the same for both paths.
Let the equation of the varied path be r=a{l+p) where p

of
6.
is
some function
Substituting
we
find
v = Vo{l-p + h{n-l)p-^+...}
(1).
Here
is
equivalent to the 8r of the Calculus of Variations.

(ds)^ r^
Since
{ddf +
{dr)"^,
we
find
by the same substitution
"-'{'+
The
action therefore
p^l(^0+-\
from
to ^ is
(2).
when
6 increases
jvds = av,
where p" = B-n as
{e
lj{{%y-py}
de+...]
to
6.
(8),
m Art.
367,
the value corresponding to
and the limits are (9 = any assumed variation of
By
substituting for p
the path, the change in the
action follows immediately.

If the particle starting
from
were to describe a neighbouring
free
path with
the same energy,
we know by
Art. 367 that the first intersection of the
new path
with the circle
is
at a point given
by d = irjp nearly.
(3)
We may
easily deduce
from the expression
that the action
from A
to
is
ART. 654]
true
TEEMS OF THE SECOND ORDER.

if the angle
403
this
minimum
A OB < irjp
Since
see Art. 594, 648.
To prove
we use
an
artifice
due to Lagrange*.
-(Xp-)=.2Xp/^ +
where X
is
r-
(4).
side of (3) in the
an arbitrary function of form

I=-[X/)2] +
6,
we may
write the integral
on the right-hand
/|(^:)^-^4,H^-')'iA and end
The term
at B.
Xp^ taken between the limits is zero, since both paths begin at
Let us choose the function X so that
?^-=^-i^^
then
Since this integral
is
X=i)tanj3(6>-a)
(5),
1= jf^ + Xpydd
essentially positive it follows
(6).
from
(3)
that the action along
every varied path from
to
is
greater than that along the circle.

infinite within the limits of
This argument requires that X should not be

integration.
By
taking pa=l'ir
(5)
where
e is
a quantity as small as
we
please the
e'
values of X given by
can be
please.
made
finite
from
to d
Trjp- e'
where
is
quantity as small as
should not make the
The argument angle AOB>irlp.
we
therefore requires that the point
When
the angle
AOB
is
greater than irfp lye can prove that the action along
to
some varied curves extending from A

in the circle.
is less,
and along
others is greater, than that
To prove
each end, g
is
this let us
is
conduct the particle from

Let
/3
io
along the varied path

since p vanishes at
whose equation
p=L B\r*gd.
be the angle
AOB, then
Since p^>ir one value arbitrary except that g^ is a multiple of tt. at least of g is less than p and the others are greater than p. Substituting in (3),
we
find that the integral iS
.dOj ^/iC ^J-pyj.
de=-^^{g^-p^)
(7),
the limits being d = Q io 6=^.
greater values (which correspond to the
The conclusion
a true minimum.
is that
The smaller values of g make I negative, while the more circuitous routes) make I positive. when the angle AOB>irlp, the action along the circle is not
velocity v
at
6S4. Ex. a given point

required
A particle moves in a plane loith a A and ending at B. The path taken

is
= (p
(x,
y) beginning
action,
being that of
minimum
it is
to find in
Cartesian coordinates the equation of the path and the change

varied in an arbitrary manner.
of action ivhen the path
Let the elementary action t;ds=:0^{l + 2/'2) dx be represented by f{x, y, p)dx, where p has been written for y'=dyldx. Then writing y + dy, p + 8p for y and p,
* Lagrange Theorie des fonctions Analytiques 1797. He refers to Legendre, Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences 1786, and adds that it must be shown that X does not become infinite between the limits of integration. Not being able to See also Todhunter's settle this question, he just missed Jacobi's discovery.
History of the Calculus of Variations, page
4.
404

on the varied curve
[CHAP.
is
Vlll.
(but not varying x) the whole increase of action
by Taylor's
theorem,
SA = j[fy5y +fpSp + h.
{fyy
m^ + 2fypdydi> +fpp(Sp)^ + &c.] dx,

Integrating the
}
where
suffixes as usual represent partial differential coefficients.
second term by parts, as in Art. 591, we have

8A
= [fpSy] + J{ (/j, - fp') 5y + &c.

integral, being taken
dx,
is zero,
where the part outside the

action
is
between fixed limits,
and
is
accents denote total differentiation with regard to x.
The path
of
minimum
found by equating the
coefficient of 8y to zero, Art. 591.
This path
(1).
therefore given by
fy-fp' =
and the change of action
in
any varied path by

(2).
(1).
SA = ij[fyy(Syf + 2f,p8ySp+fpp(dpr']dx
To
find the path in Cartesian coordinates
we
integrate the equation

<p
This
can only be effected presents only those

equations.
when
the form of the function
is
given.
treatises
The
on
integration
differential
difficulties
which are discussed in
We now
proceed to find the change in the action given by
(2).
To determine
the sign of 5^,
we write
(2)
in the form
dA=[\{8y)^] + ^j[(fyy-2\'){dy)^ + 2{fyp-2\)Sy8p+fpp{dpf]dx......{B),
where the term outside the integral between the limits of integration.
Let y=:F
C2
{x, Cj
j3
,
is zero,
provided \ does not become infinite
Cg)
be the integral of
(1),
then changing the constants into
Cj
+ a,
+ P where
a,
are indefinitely small,
^
is
dF ^ ^ dF ^ + ^2^="^+^/+d^^
choose the constants
Cj,"c2 so
,,,
<'^)'
also a solution of
(1).
We
that the curve y =

(4)
passes through the limiting points
A and
to find
B.
pass through A,
we have an equation
Making the varied curve Hence /3/a.
also
fdF
is
dF p\
the equation of a neighbouring path of minimum action beginning at A and making a small arbitrary angle with the path AB, the magnitude of the angle depending on that of a. If C is the first point of intersection of these two paths, then u is not zero between A and Q.
Differentiating
(1)
we
see that
5y=u
satisfies
the equation
fyySy + fypSp -
^^^
(fypdy +fppdp)
= 0;
^^>-
(^^^-^^^0"=i(-^^'""'^
Returning to the integral
(3) let
us choose X so that
(7).
{fyp-2\)u=-f,pXl'
Substituting in
(6)
we
find
\dx-""'
dx)
Jpp
ART. 654.]
TERMS OF THE SECOND ORDER

(7).
405
This becomes
()-
the last term being obtained by substituting for w' frona
(/2^-2g)/pp=(/.p-2X)^
The quantity under the bering (7) we see that
integral sign in (3) is therefore a perfect square.
Remem-
SA = ljfpp\5^-'^5y\''dx
(9).
The
value of X
is
by
(7)
-,
/dv
u'\
^Hdy'^-iTû) VIT^
and the
subject of integration in
(9)
,,-. <'')
Hence
it is
in order that both X
may
be finite
necessary that u should not vanish between the limits of integration.
The
second limiting point
must
therefore not be
beyond C.
It is
supposed that v
and dvldy are

Supposing
positive
is
if
finite
between the same limits.
See Art. 648.

(9)
this
is
condition to be satisfied, every term of the integral
is
fpp
positive from
to B.
Since fpp=v
(l
+ p^)"^, and
the velocity v
supposed to keep one sign throughout the motion, this condition also is satisfied. The cliange of action caused by a variation of path is therefore always positive and
its
amount
is
determined by
(2)
or
(9).
This investigation can be applied to brachistochrones and

to
may also be
extended
any cases in which the subject of integration, viz. f{x, y, p), is a function only of the coordinates y, x, and the first differential coefficient. In order that the course AB given by (1) should be a true minimum, no variation must exist which can make 34 negative. The conditions for this are (1) the point B must not be beyond C, as explained in Arts, 594, 648, (2) the differential coefficient dYldp^ must be positive throughout the whole course AB.
If d^fjdp^ were negative for
any portion
PQ
of the course given by

is
(1), let
us
vary the remaining portions AP,

please, the portion
QB
so that 8y
as nearly equal to
that 8A
u as we
is
PQ being varied in
from
(7)
some other manner.
In this variation such

(9)
prominence
negative.
is
given to the negative elements of the integral

that X
is finite if dJ^fjdp^,
made
It is also evident
d^ffdpdy are
finite.
A SWARM OF
PARTICLES.
Note on Art. 414.
The argument
the
will
be
made more complete
swarm
is
an
ellipsoid instead of a sphere.
if we suppose that the boundary of Owing to the manner in which the
forces of attraction
depend on the shape of the swarm, the results
for
an
ellipsoid
are not altogether the
same as those
for a sphere.
Taking the same axes as before, the coordinates of the projection of any particle on the plane of motion of the centre are r + ^, ij, while f is the distance of P from that plane. Treating the ellipsoid as homogeneous and of density D, the component attractions of the swarm at any internal point are A^, Bt), Cf, where A, B, G are functions of the ratios of the axes of the bounding ellipsoid and their
sum
is
47rD.
(1)
The equations
ireplaced
of Art. 414 are slightly modified by having their last terms

;
by - A^, -
Brj
and instead of
(3)
we have
The equation
for f is evidently
S=-'^^-(?f=-K+^)f
>]= b sin
{2yt
(II)-
Putting ^z=a cos (pt
+ a),
+ a), and ^csin{qt + y) we

q"-=^n^+C
find by pro-
ceeding as in Art. 414,

.
{i7^-(A-3n^)}{2)--B}-4:2}^n' = 0,
(III).
The condition
direction of
for stability is therefore
A > 3-.
In an ellipsoid
rj.
A> B
il
It follows that if the axis of ^ is
the axis in the direction of f is less than that in the the least axis, A is greater for
an
ellipsoid
than for a sphere.
The swarm
is
therefore
more
stable for an ellipis
soidal
than for a spherical swarm provided the least axis of the ellipsoid
placed along the radius vector from the sun.
Let us suppose that
all
the particles are describing the

^rj
same principal
oscillation.
The
T]
projections of their paths on the plane
are therefore given by ^=:acosd,

ellipses described in the
b.
= b sin 0,
where 0=pt'+ a.
27r/j^j,
These paths are coaxial
same
periodic time
the semi-axes of any ellipse being a,

(I), '
By
;
substituting these
it
values of
t,
-n
in the second of equations
we
find
=-
the ellipses are similar to each other.

the particles.
There will
- 2hp therefore be no
b
= -
follows that all
collisions
between
ELLIPSOIDAL SWARM.
The
we
find ratio of the axes of the ellipses is not altogether arbitrary.
407
By
using
(III)
and therefore ^^ are known functions of the ratios of the axes of the may deduce from the values of ^1, J5 given in the theory of Attractions that Aa^ is less or greater than Bb^ according as a^ is greater or less than b"^. It then follows from this equation that in both the principal oscillations the axis of the ellipsoid in the direction of the radius vector from the sun is less than the axis of the ellipsoid in the direction of motion of the centre.
where A,
ellipsoid.
"We
If
P, Q,
be any three particles describing similar co-axial ellipses in the same
time with an acceleration tending to their

prove that the area of the triangle
common
centre,
it is
not
difficult
to
PQR
is
constant throughout the motion.
Let
us apply this theorem to the motion of the projections of the particles on the plane of ^t]. Joining adjacent triads of particles, we divide the whole area into
elementary triangles.
are initially equal
If the swarm is homogeneous, the areas of these triangles and we see that they will remain equal throughout the The swarm will therefore remain homogeneous.
motion.
Consider next the motions of the particles perpendicular to the plane of f??. These are harmonic oscillations and are all described in the same time 2Trlq.
The amplitude
of each oscillation is the ordinate of the ellipsoid corresponding
to the ellipse described by the projection
and
this is constant for the
same
particle.
The distance between two adjacent particles movingin the same ordinate in the same direction is increasing or decreasing according as they are approaching or receding from the plane of ^rj. As there are as many particles approaching as
receding, the uniformity of the density
is
not affected by this motion.
When
both the principal oscillations are being described simultaneously the
motion becomes more complicated. The outer boundary is not strictly dependent on both the states of motion. Since also the rotations in the principal oscillations are in opposite directions, we can no longer neglect the collisions between the particles.
state of the
ellipsoidal, being
To
take account of the collisions
we must have
But
this
recourse to a statistical theory
analogous to the kinetic theory of gases.
would lead us too
far
from the
methods
of this treatise.
to a
For an example of the application of the kinetic theory the reader is referred memoir by G. H. Darwin, On the mechanical conditions of a swarm of meteorites,
Phil. Trans. 1889.
etc.,
He
supposes a number of meteorites to be falling togethet
from a condition of wide dispersion and to have not yet coalesced into a system of a sun and planets. No account is taken of the rotation of the system.
Callandreau has discussed the case in which a comet, regarded as a spherical
swarm
of particles, is heterogeneous, the density being a function of the distance

centre.
from the
account.
The
effect of
a passage near Jupiter has also been taken into
See his Etude sur
la theorie des comStes periodiques.
He
considers
it
probable that the periodic comets are undergoing a gradual disintegration and he
points out that according to this hypothesis a few comets captured by the action
of Jupiter could by repeated subdivisions produce all those
known
to exist.
See
The Observatory, Feb. 1898.
Note on Art. 524.
This rule may be put into another form. We know that ii L = T+U+C'be the Lagrangian function and 0, <p, &c. the coordinates, the equations of motion are
d (IL
_dL
We now
see that
dtde'~de' we may use the same
d dL _dL dtd^'^d^'
equations,
if
,.
''
we
substitute
L=^ + 3I(U+C)
where
(2),
is
any arbitrary function of the coordinates

solving the equations.
for T^ differs
0, tp,
&c. which
we may
find
suitable
when
The expression
efi&cients are
from T only
in the fact that the differential co-
taken with regard to a different independent variable, which has been

r.
represented by
Thus
When
the
equations have been solved the paths of the particles are found by
its
eliminating t without enquiry into
meaning.
The equation known when the
of energy is supposed to be
initial values of 0,
<p,
T0',
J7=
the constant
is
therefore
&c.,
<p',
&c. are given.

to that given
We
notice that one solution
must be analogous
by the principle
of vis viva.
We
therefore have
it
^=M{V+C).
Mdr = dt.
To
Since this must agree with the
equation
T=C7+C,

t is
T=tJj~\
may
T^^SI-T.
The
relation between t
and
therefore
When
from
'
the paths of the particles are alone required, loe
eliminate the time

the
the
Lagrangian equations by using a new function instead of
Lagrangian
function.
In this method we choose some one coordinate to be the independent variable and regard the others ip, \p, &c. as unknown functions of whose forms are to be determined by the altered equations of motion. Let
T = i^ll6''2 + ^12^'0' + 4^220'^ + ^23^''/''+

where accents denote differential coefficients with regard to the time.
(4).
Let also
(5).
T'=4^11 + 4l^,+4Jo20i2 + ô301^1+

where the
suffixes of
(p,
<(/,
&c. here denote diif erentiations with regard to the
new
0.
dT _dT'
" il^~
d<pi
'
dT_dT'
d^ ~
(6).
d'
where
all
the differential coefficients are partial except the dJdO.
Remembering that
U is
not a function of 0^ this becomes

,
1^4'^''^^^'''^'^^^^''^''^'"^^'
^'^-
If then we use Q = {{TJ+C) T']^ as if it were the Lagrangian function and regard 9 as the independent variable, we have the equations
d^dQ ^dQ
from which
the paths
^dQ^dQ^^
may
be found.
by putting dT=dd, and we have here reproduced so much of that article as is required for our present purpose. If dr = dd, we have Mdd = dt and therefore by (7) of this note
This result follows easily from the theorem of Art. 524
M=
^^
Substituting in
(2)
the Lagrangian function becomes
L = 2{(U+C)i']^.
We
may
6,
<j>,
notice that however the expressions for the vis viva
and the work function
be different in different problems, yet so long as the product
{U+ C)
T rcviains
unchanged, the paths are determined by the same relations between the coordinates
(&c. 6,
<p,
Since in the Lagrangian equations, the letters
&c. represent arbitrary
functions of the quantities or coordinates which determine the position of the
system,
it
is
evident that
we have here taken
as the independent variable
any
arbitrary function of the coordinates.
If some one coordinate, say of motion
(p,
is
absent from the product

(/>),
(U+C)
I" (though
contains the differential coefficients of

is
ice see that
one solution of the equations
^=a,
ivhere a is
..(U+Cr^-=a
(10),
independent of
is
an arbitrary constant. If C is arbitrary, the product Q cannot be and U are separately independent of (p. But when C (p unless
given by the initial conditions this limitation
not necessary.
If
we
substitute
for rfr'/rfî
which
is
and 7" the values given by (6) and (7) the same as that obtained in Ai't. 521.
this integral
becomes dTjd^' = 2a,
We may deduce this extension directly from the

T^2I
where
{iA^ê"^ + &c.],
6,
Lagrangian equations.
>/',
Suppose
U+C^ ^^f{e,
&c.),
is
a function of
(j>,
&c. while A^^, &c. are not functions of ^.
In this
case the product
t/
+ C)
is
not a function of 0.
The Lagrangian equation
410
for
tf)
gives
dT
dM
14.
It d^'
ii^nO- + ô.)=
,,
^,, --, -f(6,
dM
^,&o.);
dtd<p'-dpM^^^^^
If then
<^^^-
the initial circumstances are such that the equation of energy

,
is
T= U+ G,
dT we have 3 = 0.
d<(>
case of a projectile moving under the action have T=:\{x'^-\-y'^), U=-gy. Since the product of these is independent of x we choose some other coordinate as the independent variable. Writing x-^ = dxjdy we have
of
As a simple example, consider the

gravity.
We
Q-{(l + x,^)(y + C)}K
d^^-;/(ri:V)~
{x
This by an easy integration leads to the parabola
- j3)'^ = 4a^
{y
+ C-a^).
by Painleve
The elimination
of the time from the Lagrangian equations is given
in his Legons sur I'integration des equations differentielles de la Mecanique, 1895.
By an
called
application of the principle of least action he obtains the function here
r-y = r^ From these dq^ dqidq'n he deduces (page 239) that the Lagrangian equations may be written in the two forms
Q and
writes the equations in the typical form ^
^_dT_dU
dt dq'
where T' = T(U+C) and
dq~ dq dT = {U+C)dt.
'
A^^'_^'-0
dr dq'
dq
'
This special result follows from that
given at the beginning of this note by putting l/iH=

the fact that by this change the motion is
U+ C.
Its
importance
lies
in
made
to
depend on that of a system moving

given by Darboux
under no forces.
The elimination
results in the
of the time
from Lagrange's equations
is also
in his Legons sur la theorie generate des surfaces, Art. 571, 1889.
He expresses
his
same form as Painlev^.

(2).
We may
discussed
obtain an extension of the theorem
In such problems as those
m Art. 255 the Lagrangian function takes the form

i=I-2 + -Li + Lo
(12),
where
!, is
0,
<f>,
6',
0',
being functions of
&c. but not of
t.
We
&c. of the order n, the coefficients then find as in Art. 512, Ex. 3, that
the equation of energy becomes
L^-L^ = G
Proceeding as in Art. 524, we change dt into dr and write
(13).
L=^ + L^ + M{L, + C)
We may now
use this as the Lagrangian function.
(14).
INDEX.
The immhers refer
to the artich'--
AccELEKATiON.
CoiTipoueuts in two dimensions, 38.
Moving
axes, 223.
Three
Accele-
dimensions, 490, &c.

rating force, 68.
Moving
heavy
axes, 498.
Hyper
acceleration, 233.
Adams,
Algol.
J.
C.
Motion
of a
projectile, 178.
The true and mean anomalies,
347.
Proof of Lambert's theorem, 352.

problems, 405.
Kesistance to comets, 386.
Two
Ai,LEGREX.
Problem on the resistance to a projectile, 176, Ex. 4. Amhigxjous signs. In rectilinear motion &c., 97, 100. In Euler's and Lambert's theorems in elliptic motion, 350, 353.
Anomaly.
Apse.
Defined, 342.
Various theorems, 346.
Defined, apocentre
367, 422,
and
pericentre, 314.
Apsidal angle and distances found.
when independent
of the distance, 368, 370.
Second approxima434, 436.
tions, 370, 426, 427.
Conditions there are two, one, or no apsidal distances,

circle,
430-433.
boundaries, 441.
Equal apsidal distances, 434, apsidal Conical pendulum, 564.

In central
orbits, 434, 446.
Apsidal
Asymptotic ciecles.
Atwood. Machine, 60. Constant of gravity, 66. Backlund. Eesistance to Encke's comet, 385, note. Ball. History of mathematics, 591, note.
Baeriek cueves.
action, 649.
Boundaries of the
field,
299.
In brachistochroues and least
Bashforth.
Motion of
projectiles, 169.
Law
of resistance, 171.
Beetrand.
2, 3.
General and particular integrals, 245.
Law
of gravitation, 393, Ex.
The
apsidal angle, 426.
Closed orbits, 428.
Brachistochroues, 610.
Besant.
On
infinitesimal impulses, 148, note.
Bonnet.
Superposition of motions, 273.
Beachistocheones.
606.
In space 591, on a surface, 607, on a cone, cylinder, &c., 612.

Central force, 606.
Relation to the free path, 598, 599,
fails, 649.
Vertical force, 601.
Case in which the construction

3, 6.
conic, 605, Ex. 1, 606,
Ex.
cycloid, 601, &c.

5.
Beyant.
True and mean anomalies, 347, Ex. Bubnside and Paxton, quoted, 489, note.
Call.\ndeeau.
Encke's comet, 385.
Spherical swarrn; 414.
The
disintegration of
comets, page 407.

Cardioid.
On
Tisserand's criterion, 415.
Catenary.
a central orbit, 320. A tautochrone, 211. A

Convergency of the
brachistochrone, 606, Ex.
7.
Cauchy.
series in Kepler's problem, 488.
412
Caylet.
INDEX.
Infinitesimal impulses, 160, Ex.
3.
Elliptic functions, 218, 220, 364.

ellipse
Lambert's theorem, 352, note. force, 365, Ex. 4.
Motion in an
with two centres of
Centeal fokce.
three dimensions, 645.
Elementary theorems, &c., 306. Solution by Jacobi's method in Locus of centres for a given orbit, 421. Force =;*,
Stability, 439.
362,
classification of the orbits, 436.

is
Solution
when the
velocity
3.
that from infinity,
360,
time,
disturbed path, 363, Ex.
The
inverse cube, rectilinear motion, 100, lemniscate, 190, Ex. 11, Cotes' spirals,
356.
Inverse fourth,
fifth,
&c. 364, 365, &c.
Centrifugal foece.
Challis.
Explained, 183.
Infinitesimal impulses quoted, 148, note.
Choeds of quickest descent. Smooth and rough, 143, &c. Circle. Motion of a heavy particle, time just all round, 201, Ex. 1. arc, 213. Continuous and oscillatory, 216. Coaxial circles,
force, 318, 321, 190,
orbits, 367,
Time
219.
in
any
Central
force is
Ex. 7. Parallel force ^=Al/.V^ 323, 452. Nearly circular second approximation, 369, 370, least action, 653. When the infinite, 466. A rough circle, 192, a moving circle, 198. Geodesic
circles, 648, 571.
Two
centres of force, 194.
Clerke.
Conic.
History of Astronomy quoted, 386, note.
As a central orbit with any centre, there are two laws of force, 456. Time, Elements of the conic, 457. Classification, 460. A corresponding curve on an ellipsoid, 672. A brachistochrone, 606, Ex. 3, 4, Conical Pendulum. The cubic, 555. Kise and fall, 558. Tension, 557. Radius of curvature, 559. Projection a central orbit, 560. Time of passage, 562.
454.
Apsidal angle, 564.
Conjugate functions.
636.
Eelation between the motions, 633, between the pressures,
Conservative
system.
Explained, 181.
Oscillations, 294.
Forces which disappear in the work
function, 248.
Convergency.
CoEioLis.
Ceaig.
The series in Kepler's problem, 488, &c. Theorem on relative vis viva, 267. Particle on an ellipsoid, 668. Treatise on projections
referred to, 609.
Motion in two dimensions, fixed, 181, rough, 191, moving, 197. Three dimensions, fixed, 626, moving, 528, changing, 533. Cycloid. A tautochrone, 204, theorems, 206, rough, 212. Resisting medium, 210.
CuEVE.
A brachistochrone,
Cylinders.
601, 602, theorems, 603, &c.
Motion on,
544.
Brachistochrones, 612, Ex.
3.
D'Alembert. The principle, 236. Daeboux. The apsidal angle, 427.

chrones to geodesies, 609.
Force in a conic, 450. Relation of brachistoElimination of the time in Lagrange's equations,
page 410.
Darwin.
Periodic orbits, 418, note.
Swarm
of meteorites, page 407.
Degrees of freedom. Defined, 262. Despeybons. Problem on time in an

Dimensions.
arc, 203,
Ex.
1.
General theory, 161.
In central
orbits, 316.
Direct distance. With this law of force, rectilinear motion with friction, 125, and resistance, 126. Time in an arc of lemniscate, 201, Ex. 2, 3. Central
force, &c., 326.
Discontinuity.
135.
Of
friction,
125, 191.
Of
orbits, 467, &c.
Of resistance, 128. Of a central Of brachistochrones, 604, 649.
force,
INDEX.
Double answebs.
Effective force.
Virtual
413
In rectilinear motion, 98. In two dimensions, 266. Kesultant effective force and couple, 239. Defined, 68, 235.
507.
moment,
Ellipsoid.
Cartesian coordinates, 568, a case of integration, 569, 575.

Central force, 570, 571, 572.
Elliptic
coordinates, 576, a case of integration, 578, 582.

584.
Spheroidal coordinates,
Translation
into
Motion on a
585,
line of curvature, 583.

576.
Elliptic
cooedinates.
Two
dimensions,
three,
Cartesian, 576, 580.
Elliptic motion.
Time found,
342, 345.
Disturbed by impulses, 371, &c.,
bj-
continuous forces, 376.
Change
383.
of eccentricity
and
apse, &c. by forces, 380.
by a resisting medium,
480.
Kepler's problem, 473, Lagrange, 479, Bessel,
Elliptic velocity, 397.

to a comet, 385.
of,
Encke. Resistance Eneegy. Principle

Epicycloid.
250.
In central forces, 313.
See also vis viva.
central orbit, 322.
Force
infinite, 472,
Ex.
2.
tautochrone, 211.
Equiangulae spiral.
chrone, 211.
Pressure, 190, Ex. 8.
Moving
305,
spiral, 198,
Ex.
2.
tauto-
central orbit, 319, particle at centre of force, 470.
Euleb,
350.
Problem on a rebounding particle, With two centres of force,
Ex.
4.
On motion
in a parabola,
2.
585,
note.
Lemniscate, 201, Ex.
Brachistochrones with a central force, 591, note.
Finite differences.
Forsyth.
Differential equations, 243.
Problems requiring, 305. Theory
of functions, 489.
FoucAULT.
Friction.
Pendulum referred to, 57, 627. Theory, 624, 626. Eough chords with gravity, 104, centre of force, 133.
Eough
curve, 191.
Discontinuity, 126, 191.
Frost.
Gauss.
Elliptic velocity, 397.
Singular points in a circular orbit, 466.
Coordinates, 546, 547.

Line, 539.
Circles
Geodesic
Glaisher.
on
ellipsoid, 548.
Eoberts, 571.
Brachistochrones
Bertrand, 610, Darboux, 609.
Time in an ellipse, 347, Ex. 1, 476. Force in a conic, 450, note. Gray and Mathews. Treatise on Bessel functions, 286, Ex. 9. Kepler's problem,
481.
Greenhill.
force
An
fiu'^,
integral,
116.
Motion
of
213,
projectiles,
169.
Cubic law of
resistance, 177.
Elliptic functions,
note, 364.
Paths for a central
special values of n, 356, note.
Stability of orbits
and asymptotic
circles, 429, note.
Conical pendulum, 555, note.

particle.
Grouping.
Of
trajectories of a
Theory, 636, 638.
Special cases, 159,
330, 339, &c.
Guglielmini. Experiments on falling bodies, 627. Haerdtl. Traces path of a planet in a binary system, 418, Ex. 2. Hall, Asaph. Satellites and mass of Mars, 403. Singular points in central
465, note.
orbits,
Hall Maxwell. On Algol, 405, Ex. 1. Halphan. Law of gravitation, 393, Ex. 1. Force in a conic, 450, note. Hamilton. Law of force in a conic, 453. Hodograph, 394. Haemowic oscillation. Definition, frequency, amplitude, &c., 119. Helix. Heavy particle on, fixed, 527, moving, 534.
Helkjoide.
Motion on, Liouville's solution,

5.
583,
Ex.
4,
another problem, 543,
Ex.
Hjerschel.
Disturbed
elliptic
motion, 379.
Algol, 405.
414
Hill.
Stability of the
INDEX.
moon's orbit, Elementary theorems,
417.
29.
HoDOGRAPH.
Hopkins.
Central orbits, 394.
Itself
a central
orbit, 398.
Infinitesimal impulses, 148, note.
HoBSE-POWEB. Defined, 72. HuYGENS. Terminal velocity. 111. Impulses. How measured, 80. Infinitesimal,
Inebtia,
Ini-inite.
148.
Smooth
bodies, 83, &c.
Explained, 52, 183, note.

Force, 100, 466.
Moment
of, 241.
Subject of integration infinite, 99, 202.
Motion of projectiles quoted, 169. iNiTiAii. Tension and curvature, 276, &c. String of particles, 279. Starting from rest, 280. Initial motion deduce from Lagrange's equations, 517. Three attracting particles fall from rest, 284, Ex. 6. Imtegeals. Of the equations of motion. Two elementary, 74, 76. Rectilinear
Ingall.
General and Particular integrals, 244, 245. Summary of 97, 101. methods in two dimensions, 264. Integrals of Lagrange's equations, 521 and page 408, Liouville's, 622. A general case in three dimensions, 497, in Jacobi's method, 645. Inverse squabe, law of. Eectilinear motion, 130. Particle falls from a planet,
motion,
134.
Central force, 332, &c.
See Time.
Invebsion.
Of the motion of a
particle, 628.
Of the pressure on a curve,
&c., 631.
2.
Of the impressed
Jacobi.
forces, 631, 632.
Calculus of variations, 650, Ex.

centres of force, 585, note.
Criterion of
Integral for a planet in a binary system, 255, 415, 417.

of Lagrange's equations, 523.
Case of solution
Two
Method
of
solving dynamical problems, 640, 644.

of variations, 594, 648.
max-min
in the calculus
Jellett.
On
The
brachistochrones, 691, note, 650, Ex.

laws, 387.
1.
Kepler.
Law
of gravitation in the solar
and
stellar systems, 390:
Kepler's problem, 473.
Koeteweg.
Lachlan.
Laisant.
Stability,
asymptotic
circles, &c., 429, note.

to, 219.
Treatise
on modern geometry referred

test of
stability,
On
a case of vis viva, 258.

296.
Lagbange.
Energy
Conical pendulum, 555,
note.
Two
Lagbange's equations.
Proof, 603, &c.

3.
Elementary resolutions deduced, 512.

Small
oscillations, 613.
Initial
Ex.
517.
1,
2; vis viva deduced, Ex.

521,
motion,
Methods of solution, variable, 524, and page 408.

the time, page 409.
and page
408.

Elimination of
Transference of a factor, 524.
Lambebt. Time in an elliptic arc, 352. Lame. On curvilinear coordinates, 625.

Laplace.
476.
On
three attracting particles, 406.

3, 4, 5.
Series for longitude of a planet,
<fec.,
Other expansions, 487, Ex.
Convergency, 488.
Labmob. Calculus of variations, 691, note. Inversion, 628, note. Laws. Of motion, 61. Of resistance, 171. Of Kepler, 387. Least action. Principle of, 646. A minimum, 647, 648. Case when there
free path, 649.
is
no
Relation to brachistochrones, 650, &c.
Parabola, ellipse
and any central orbit, 651. Terms of the second order, 663, 664. Legendee. Central orbits, 356, note. Two centres of force, 585, note. Lejeune Dirichlet. Energy test of stabiUty, 296, note.
INDEX.
Lemniscate.
415
Time
in
an
arc, 201,
Ex.
2,
3.
Centre of force in the node, 320.

;
Two
Leveeriek.
centres of force, pressure, 190, Ex. 11
free, 587,
Ex.
4.
The pedal
central orbit, 363, Ex. 2.
brachistochrone, 606, Ex.
5.
True and mean anomalies, 347." Limiting velocity. Explained, 111. Theorems, 115, 116, &c. Linear equations. Theory, 118. Elementary cases, 122. See Oscillations. Liouville. The line arrangement of three attracting particles, 406, note. Solution
of Lagrange's equation, 522.
particle
on an
ellipsoid, 568, note.
Two
Solution by Jacobi's method of a class of
problems, 645.
Lloyd and Hadcock.

Magnification.
369.
Treatise on Artillery, &c., 169, note.
Eectilinear motion, 139.
In two dimensions, 303.

267.
Central orbits,
Mass.
Units, 63.
Maxwell.
Laws
of
Problems on bodies without mass, motion quoted, 51.
Of a planet,
403.
Mean
distance.
Miller.
Of a planet. Mean value of Comparison of standards, 63.

Linear,
54,
79.
r", 344.
Momentum.
Angular,
79,
492.
Conservation
of
259,
linear
and
angular, 92.
Equation of moments in two dimensions,

dimensions, 492.
in
central
forces, 306, in three
Moving axes. In two dimensions, 223. Geometrical relations between relative and actual path, 229. Oblique axes, 232. In three dimensions, 498, deduced from Lagrange's equations, 512, Ex. 2. Moving curves, 197. Moving
'central orbits, 359.
MuiEHEAD.
Mayevski.
On
the laws of motion, referred to, 51, note.
Newton.
The law of resistance, 171. Laws of motion, 51. Constant

attracting spheres, 134, Ex. 3.
of gravity, 67.
Law
of elasticity, 83.
Two
NivEN.
Orbits.
Central forces, a
circle,
318; a conic
about any centre, 450, a moving orbit, 359.
Motion of projectiles, 169, note. Bertrand on closed orbits, 428.
Orbits near the origin, 437, at a great
distance, 438.
Classification of orbits for Ffiu^, 436.
central orbit
is
brachistochrone, 606.
Orthogonal Coordinates.
Oscillations.
finite,
Examples and Lame's

137.
generalization, 525.
Small
200.
rectilinear,
Problems, 138.
Small curvilinear, 199,

Principal oscillations,
One degree
of freedom, 285, two, 287.
292.
Of suspended
ficiency of a first
About a steady motion, 304. Insufapproximation, 302. Of a series of n particles, 305. Use
particles, 300.
ellipsoid, 568, note.
of Lagrange's equations, 513.
Painleve.
Particle
on an
Elimination of time from Lagrange's
equations, page 409.
Parallel forces. Constant, see Projectile. Variable a conic described, Parallelogram- law. Velocity, 4, acceleration, 28, angular velocity, 43.
_222.
323, 452.
Vectors,
Path.
Laplace's differential equation,
268.
Solution in some cases,
269, &c.
Central forces, 309.
Pendulum.
Point to
Change
point.
of place, 207,
itc.
itc.
See Circle and Conical Pendulum.
Eotatiou
of the earth, 621, 624,
Path under gravity, 159.
Under
central force,
330,
339.
brachistochrone, 591.
Least action, 646.
416
PoissoN.
INDEX.
Expansion of true anomaly,
&c., 487, Ex. 3.
Effect of the rotation of
the earth, 627.
Pkessuke.
Two
dimensions, 184.
Three dimensions, 626, &c.,
636, 662, 660, &c.
constrained motion
may
be free, 190, 193, 194, &c., 529, &c.
Does the
kv,
5.
particle leave the curve ? 195.
Pbojectiles.
In
vacuo,
164,
by Jacobi's method,
645.
Resistance
176,
162.
Resistance xr", 168, cases of n = 2, 172, h = 3, 177,

trajectory find the resistance, 179.
trajectories, 621.
n=0,
Ex.
Given
flat
Rotation of the earth, high and
Deviation from parabolic motion, 623.
PuissEUx.
The
spirals of, 322.
Reciprocal spiral.
Reich.
central orbit
rd=a,
358.
Radial velocity constant, 358.
Arrival at the centre of force, 472.
Experiments at Freiberg, 627. Relative motion. Acceleration relative to a moving point,

curve, 197.
39, 276; to
a moving
Relative
and actual paths,
229.
Coriolis, 257.
Three dimen-
sions, relative to the meridian plane, 495, to a moving curve, 630. Representative particle. Defined, 295. Resisting medium. Rectilinear motion, light particle, 102. Heavy particle on a chord, 107, falls freely, 115, &c. Curvilinear motion of a heavy particle,
162
180.
Law
of resistance, 171.
Resistance in the solar system, 385.
Roberts, R. A.
Integral calculus referred to, 116.

ellipsoid, 568, 571.
Roger.
W. B. W. Motion on an On brachistochrones, 591,
note, 612, Ex. 3.
RoucHE.
Salmon.
Sang.
Convergence in Kepler's problem, 488.

Solid geometry referred to, 577, 610.
particle
Heavy
on a
circle, 217.
Schiaparelli.
Disintegration of comets, 414, note.

Rectilinear
Second approximations.
Serbet.
Similar.
&c.
motion,
141,
curvilinear,
202,
302,
303.
Central orbits, 367, 426.
Conical Pendulum, 562, 564.

2.
Lemniscate, 201, Ex.
Two
9, 10.
Configurations, 265, Ex.
Line arrangement of three
particles, 409,
Triangle arrangement, 407.
Singular points.
Slesser.
Of
infinite
force, 466.
Arrival at the centre of force,
468.
Special cases, 470, 472.
Acceleration for moving axes, 500.
Spheres,
Impacts of smooth spheres,
83,
&c.
Energy
lost,
90.
Impulses of
spheres inside moving vessels, tied by strings, &c., examples, 94.
Motion of
a point on a sphere, 542, &c., 555, &c.

Stability.
Energy
/cth,
test, 296.
inverse
298.
Of oscillations, 287. When the law of force is the Of the moon's orbit, 417, 418. Of central orbits, 439, 444.
Stokes.
Resistance to comets, 386.
On
the figure of the earth, 619, Ex.
5.
Stone.
Longitude
is elliptic
motion, 476.
String of particles, n heavy suspended particles, 305. Initial tensions, &c., 279. * Train and engine, 150, Ex. 5, 305, Ex. 3. Pulleys, 78^ Ex. 10. String passes over a surface, 545; Sufficiency. Of the equations of motion, 243. Insufficiency of a first approximation, 302.
Superposition.
Of motions.
Theory, 271
275.
INDEX.
SuKFACE.
417
steady motion,
String, 545.
Small oscillations of a heavy particle about lowest point, 301. About Motion on any surface, 535, &c. Cylinders, 544. 553.
Developable, 549.
Of revolution,
414.
541, the
zones,
550,
&c.
Paraboloid, 554.
Sphere, 542, 555.
Ellipsoid, 568.
Swarm.
Tait.
Stability of a spherical
swarm,
Ellipsoidal swarm, page 406.
Sylvester.
Motion in a
of
circle 321,
with two centres of force, 194.

650.
Kelation
brachistochrones to free paths, 691,
Brachistochrone
when the
Tautochronb.
velocity varies as the distance

elliptic orbits, 651.
from the
axis of Z, 612, Ex. 4.
Least action in
Linear equation, 119.

particles.
Examples of tautochronous curves,

Ex.
6.
211.
Three attracting
Motion from
Time.
Initial radius of curvature, 284,
Triangle
arrangement, 407.
Stability, 408.
Line arrangement,
6.
409.
Unstable, 412.
rest in either
arrangement, 413, 284, Ex.

orbit,
ellipse,
In an arc, 199, 200.

parabola, 349.
In a central
342,
hyperbola,
348,
Ellipse of small eccentricity, 345.
Euler's and Lambert's
theorems, 350, 352.
Ambiguities in sign, 350, 353.
Tisserand.
TissoT.
Comet
in a resisting
medium,
384, &c.
Disintegration, 414.
Criterion
4.
of the identity of a comet, 415.
Proof of a theorem of Laplace, 487, Ex.
The
conical pendulum, 555, note.

638.
604.
Thomson and Tait. Laws of motion, 51. Orthogonal surfaces of trajectories, ToDHUNTER. Eiror in a Newtonian problem, 134, Ex. 3. On brachistochrones, TowNSEND. Memoir on brachistochrones, 591, note.
Transon. On hyper-acceleration, 233. Two ATTRACTING PARTICLES. Orbit and time, 399. Mass of Two CENTRES OF FORCE. A circlc is a possible orbit F=/j.n^,
Ffjiu^,
a planet, 402.
194.
Ellipse described
two dimensions,
355, three, 529.
F=ij.ifi,
lemniscate, 587, Ex. 4.
Liouville's general solution, 585, &c.
In three dimensions, 588.

15,
Uniform.
Units.
Velocity and acceleration,
2,
&c.
Angular velocity,
41.
Defini-
tion, 53.
Space and time,
46.
11.
Mass,
63.
Force, 64.
of,
Work,
71.
Horse-power,
72.
Velocity.
Components,
Moment
9.
In a central orbit from infinity
and
Vis Viva.
to the origin, 312.
Villarceau.
Law
of gravitation, 390, note.
Force in a conic, 450, note.

Principle for a
Coriolis
See Energy.
Defined, 69.
Constrained particle, 184.
fixed field, 246, rotating field, 255.
Vis Viva of a rigid body, 253.
on
relative vis viva, 257.

70.
Deduced from Lagrange's equations,

72.
512, Ex. 3.
Work.
Defined,
force, 186.
Rate of doing work,
Work
function,
185.
Central
Elastic string, 187.
Effective forces, 507.

627.
Worms; Experiments on Foucault's pendulum, Wythoff. Memoir on dynamical stability, 406,
note.
Young. Rule for the attraction of table land, 208. Zenger. Mean and true anomalies, 347, Ex. 2.
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A A TREATISE ON DYNAMICS OF PARTICLE,
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'

WITH NUMEROUS EXAMPLES

EDWARD JOHN ROUTH,

HON. FELLOW OF PETEKHOUSE, CAMBBIDGE

FELLOW OF THE DKIVERSITY OF LONDON

questions which necessarily excite our interest and

curiosity are discussed in the

dynamics of a particle that

this subject has always

been a favourite one with students.

that by observing the motion of a

the time of the rotation of the earth, or knowing this,

we can deduce the

latitude of the place

the law of gravitation were different

other law give

our planet might

undisturbed) repeat the same path continually

slowly but continually bringing our

orbit nearer to the

the path of a particle

a comet passes close

to a planet does it carry with

as these (which are merely examples) excite

our curiosity at the very beginning of the subject.

study the replies we find new objects of interest.

are led on from one

general method, by which

single function (worthily called

name) has been found we can write down,

any kind of coordinates,

the equations of motion cleared of

by which the whole solution of a dynamical problem can be made

word has not yet been said on these problems.

student finds as he j)roceeds

extend our studies so as to include the planetary

bodies the mathematical difficulties are

dynamics of a particle we confine ourselves to simpler problems

mathematical course, the student cannot be expected to master

In this treatise the parts intended for

reading are printed in large type and the student

The same problem may be attacked on many

most elementary method has in general been

other solutions being given later on.

they have also generally been treated

separated from those of pure georaetry and

thus be more easily overcome.

of the examples have been fully

have been giv(m.

of these have been selected from

the Tripos and College papers in order that they

indicate the recent directions of dynamical thought.

has kindly assisted

most of the proofs and

has given material aid by his verifications and suggestions.

Units of mass and force

solutions of the equations of motion

Motion of the centre of giavity

103. 117. 122.

Solution of the equation.

heavy particle in vacuo and in a resisting medium.

Linear equation and harmo.aic motion

and of central forces