Adhesive Wear

There are three types of wear that occur, often in combination, in barrels, screws, valves and other components. An understanding of nature and causes of adhesive, abrasive and corrosive wear is essential to the selection and use of these components. This image is an example of adhesive wear notice how the top of the screw flights have rolled over on the edges.
Adhesive Wear

Adhesive wear occurs when two metals rub together with sufficient force to cause the removal of material from the less wear resistant surface. If the two metals have a comparable chemical analysis and hardness, a galling action can occur where one metal is actually welded to the other causing high and low spots where material is added or removed. The screw and barrel can come into contact with each other during operation. The screw is cantilevered in the barrel and is supported only at its shank and by the plastic in the barrel. When conditions cause excessive contact between the two components, adhesive wear and/or galling will occur on the screw flight OD and the barrel wall. There are several causes of adhesive wear and galling, all of which can be prevented through the proper design, manufacture and use of the machinery components.

Adhesive Wear Causes

1. Improper Screw Design If the design of the screw is not adequate to generate the necessary melting capacity, considering the resin type and processing parameters, the unmelted resin can result in an uneven plugging of the flow in the screw channels causing the screw to deflect against the barrel wall. This condition will occur more readily with new rather than old components that have considerable wear. The same condition can occur with a properly designed screw running in a barrel with an improper heat profile. 2. Wrong Component Materials To avoid galling of metals which can rub against each other, the chemical analysis and/or hardness of the materials must be different. This compatibility of materials must be considered when selecting screw and barrel materials. Reiloy Westland Corporation can assist you in choosing the best combination of materials for your application. 3. Incorrect Heat Profile

In an effort to process resins at their lowest melt temperatures, low heater band settings in the transition and feed zones can cause the material to melt almost solely from shear heat generated by the screw. If the shear heat is not uniform, the same restrictive condition described in item (1) will occur, causing screw deflection and consequent adhesive wear and/or galling. 4. Poor Manufacturing Workmanship Inferior plating, flight hard-surfacing or nitriding of screws, improper heat treatment of barrel lining or lack of straightness in the barrel (or screw) can cause adhesive wear and/or galling. --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Adhesive wear

Adhesion wear is a result of micro-junctions caused by welding between the opposing asperities on the rubbing surfaces of the counterbodies. The load applied to the contacting asperities is so high that they deform and adhere to each other forming micro-joints. The motion of the rubbing counterbodies result in rupture of the micro-joints. The welded asperity ruptures in the non-deformed (non-cold worked) regions. Thus some of the material is transferred by its counterbody. This effect is called scuffing or galling. When a considerable areas of the rubbing surfaces are joined during the friction a Seizure resistance (compatibility) seizure of one of the bodies by the counterbody may occur. The factors decreasing adhesive wear:

Lower load. Harder rubbing materials. Contaminated rubbing surfaces. Presence of solid lubricants. Presence of a lubrication oil. Anti-wear additives in oil.

General classification of lubricants Mineral lubricants

Fluid lubricants (Oils)

Mineral fluid lubricants are based on mineral oils. Mineral oils (petroleum oils) are products of refining crude oil. There are three types of mineral oil: paraffinic, naphtenic and aromatic. Paraffinic oils are produced either by hydrocracking or solvent extraction process. Most hydrocarbon molecules of paraffinic oils have non-ring long-chained structure. Paraffinic oils are relatively viscous and resistant to oxidation. They possess high flash point and high pour point. Paraffinic oils are used for manufacturing engine oils, industrial lubricants and as processing oils in rubber, textile, and paper industries. Naphtenic oils are produced from crude oil distillates. Most hydrocarbon molecules of naphtenicnic oils have saturated ring structure. Naphtenic oils possess low viscousity, low flash point, low pour point and low resistance to oxidation. Naphtenic oils are used in moderate temperature applications, mainly for manufacturing transformer oils and metal working fluids. Aromatic oils are products of refining process in manufacture of paraffinic oils. Most hydrocarbon molecules of aromatic oils have non-saturated ring structure. Aromatic oils are dark and have high flash point. Aromatic oils are used for manufacturing seal compounds, adhesives and as plasiticezers in rubber and asphalt production.

Semi-fluid lubricants (greases)

Semi-fluid lubricants (greases) are produced by emulsifying oils or fats with metallic soap and water at 400-600F (204-316C). Typical mineral oil base grease is vaseline. Grease properties are determined by a type of oil (mineral, synthetic, vegetable, animal fat), type of soap (lithium, sodium, calcium, etc. salts of long-chained fatty acids) and additives (extra pressure, corrosion protection, anti-oxidation, etc.). Semi-fluid lubricants (greases) are used in variety applications where fluid oil is not applicable and where thick lubrication film is required: lubrication of roller bearings in railway car wheels, rolling mill bearings, steam turbines, spindles, jet engine bearings and other various machinery bearings.

Solid lubricants

Solid lubricants possess lamellar structure preventing direct contact between the sliding surfaces even at high loads. Graphite and molybdenum disulfide particles are common Solid lubricants. Boron nitride, tungsten disulfide and polytetrafluorethylene (PTFE) are other solid lubricants.

Solid lubricants are mainly used as additives to oils and greases. Solid lubricants are also used in form of dry powder or as constituents of coatings.
Synthetic lubricants

Polyalphaolefins (PAO)

Polyalphaoleins are the most popular synthetic lubticant. PAOs chemical structure and properties are identical to those of mineral oils. Polyalphaoleins (synthetic hydrocarbons) are manufactured by polymerization of hydrocarbon molecules (alphaoleins). The process occurs in reaction of ethylene gas in presence of a metallic catalyst.

Polyglycols (PAG)

Polyglycols are produced by oxidation of ethylene and propylene. The oxides are then polymerized resulting in formation of polyglycol. Polyglycols are water soluble. Polyglycols are characterized by very low coefficient of friction. They are also able to withstand high pressures without EP (extreme pressure) additives.

Ester oils

Ester oils are produced by reaction of acids and alcohols with water. Ester oils are characterized by very good high temperature and low temperature resistance.

Silicones

Silicones are a group of inorganic polymers, molecules of which represent a backbone structure built from repeated chemical units (monomers) containing Si=O moieties. Two organic groups are attached to each Si=O moiety: eg. methyl+methyl ( (CH3)2 ), methyl+phenyl ( CH3 + C6H5 ), phenyl+phenyl ( (C6H5)2 ). The most popular silicone is polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS). Its monomer is (CH3)2SiO. PDMS is produced from silicon and methylchloride. Other examples of silicones are polymethylphenylsiloxane and polydiphenylsiloxane. Viscosity of silicones depends on the length of the polymer molecules and on the degere of their cross-linking. Short non-cross-linked molecules make fluid silicone. Long cross-linked molecules result in elastomer silicone. Silicone lubricants (oils and greases) are characterized by broad temperature range: -100F to +570F (-73C to 300C).
Vegetable lubricants

Vegetable lubricants are based on soybean, corn, castor, canola, cotton seed and rape seed oils. Vegetable oils are environmentally friendly alternative to mineral oils since they are biodegradable. Lubrication properties of vegetable base oils are identical to those of mineral oils.

The main disadvantages of vegetable lubricants are their low oxidation and temperature stabilities.
Animal lubricants

Animal lubricants are produced from the animals fat. There are two main animal fats: hard fats (stearin) and soft fats (lard). Animal fats are mainly used for manufacturing greases.
Classification of lubricants by application

Engine oils Gear oils Hydraulic oils Cutting fluids (coolants) Way lubricants Compressor oils Quenching and heat transfer oils Rust protection oils Transformer oils (insulating oils) Turbine oils Chain lubricants Wire rope lubricants

Engine mechanisms lubricated by engine oils

Piston motion in cylinder; Crankshaft rotation in engine bearings; Piston pin rotation in the bush of small end of the connecting rod; Camshaft rotation in camshaft bearings; Cams sliding over the valves rods.

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Functions of engine oil

Provision of stable oil film between sliding surfaces.

Direct contact between a rotating crankshaft and the engine bearings occurs only for short periods of engine start and shutdown. In normally operating engine there is a continuous oil film between the two surfaces. This friction regime is called hydrodynamic. Oil film provides low coefficient of friction, distributes load applied to the bearing over its surface, cools down the sliding parts, takes foreign particles away from the friction region.

Provision of reliable engine operation in a wide temperature range.

Viscosity of an oil strongly depends on its temperature. When an engine starts at low temperature the oil is viscous (thick). If the viscosity is too high the oil will not be able to flow to the sliding parts and the non-lubricated engine will not operate. On the other hand oil viscosity in a heated engine is low. The oil flows easily, however oil film thickness of the hot oil is low, and it may become less than roughness of the sliding surfaces. In this case hydrodynamic regime is broken and direct metal-to-metal contact between the surfaces occurs. Metal-to-metal contact causes excessive wear, overheating and even Fatigue of the sliding materials.

Rust/corrosion protection of the engine parts.

Combustion gases containing water vapors and other chemically active gases partially penetrate to the crankcase and may cause corrosion. In addition to this some constituents of the combustion gases dissolve in the oil and increase its acidity. Such oil may become aggressive to the metal parts contacting with it. Corrosion inhibitors are added to engine oils in order to provide protection of metallic (both ferrous and non-ferrous) parts.

Cleaning the engine parts from sludge.

Combustion gases past through the piston rings to the crankcase contain some amount of not burnt carbon, which may deposit on the rings, valves and cylinders, forming a sludge. The sludge clogs oil passages and clearances decreasing lubrication of the engine parts. In order to remove the sludge from the surface detergents are added to the engine oils. Dispersants, which are also added to the engine oils, help to maintain the removed sludge and other contaminants (non-metallic and metallic) in form of fine suspension permitting engine functioning between the oil changes.

Sealing piston ring - cylinder gap.

Imperfection on the surfaces of the piston rings and cylinders walls result in penetration of combustion gases into the crankcase, which decreases the engine efficiency and causes contamination of the oil. Engine oil fills these microscopic passages and seal the combustion gases.

Prevention of foaming.

Engine oil circulating in an engine may entrap air and form foams (foam is a mixture of a liquid with gas bubbles). Foamed oils are less effective in their important functions (oil film formation, heat removal, cleaning). In order to diminish foam formation special additives (anti-foaming agents) are added to engine oils.

Cooling the engine parts.

Combustion heat and friction energy must be removed from the engine in order to prevent its overheating. Most of heat energy is taken by the engine oil.

Clean oil passages, proper viscosity and low contamination provide sufficient flow rate of the engine oil and effective cooling. to top
SAE viscosity grading system

The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) established a viscosity grading system for engine oils. According to the SAE viscosity grading system all engine oils are divided into two classes: monograde and multigrade:

Monograde engine oils

Monograde engine oils are designated by one number (20, 30, 40, 50, etc.). The number indicates a level of the oil viscosity at a particular temperature. The higher the grade number, the higher the oil viscosity. Viscosity of engine oils designated with a number only without the letter W (SAE 20, SAE 30, etc.) was specified at the temperature 212F (100C). These engine oils are suitable for use at high ambient temperatures. Viscosity of engine oils designated with a number followed by the letter W (SAE 20W, SAE 30W, etc.) was specified at the temperature 0F (-18C). The letter W means winter. These grades are used at low ambient temperatures.

Multigrade engine oils

Viscosity of engine oils may be stabilized by polymeric additives (viscosity index improvers). Viscosity of such engine oils is specified at both high and low temperature. These oils are called multigrades and they are designated by two numbers and the letter W (SAE 5W30, SAE 15W30, SAE 20W50, etc.). The first number of the designation specify the oil viscosity at cold temperature, the second number specifies the oil viscosity at high temperature. For example: SAE 15W30 oil has a low temperature viscosity similar to that of SAE 15W, but it has a high temperature viscosity similar to that of SAE 30. Multigrade oils are used in a wide temperature range. The most popular multigrade engine oil in the North America is SAE 10W30. Hydraulic oil is a fluid lubricant used in hydraulic systems for transmitting power. Common hydraulic system consists of:

Oil tank; Hydraulic pump; Oil filter; Control valves; Pistons;

Pipes.

The following characteristics and properties are important for hydraulic oils:

Low temperature sensitivity of viscosity; Thermal and chemical stability; Low compressibility; Good lubrication (anti-wear and anti-stick properties, low coefficient of friction); Hydrolitic stability (ability to retain properties in the high humidity environment); Low pour point (the lowest temperature, at which the oil may flow); Water emulsifying ability; Filterability; Rust and oxidation protection properties; Low flash point(the lowest temperature, at which the oil vapors are ignitable); Resistance to cavitation; Low foaming; Compatibility with sealant materials.

Hydraulic systems are widely used in industrial machinery, construction equipment, automotive, aircraft and marine applications.

Types of hydraulic fluids Viscosity of hydraulic oils SAE Designation of hydraulic oils by viscosity ISO Designation of hydraulic oils Properties of some hydraulic oils

Types of hydraulic fluids

Optimal properties of hydraulic oils are achieved by a combination of a base oil and additives (anti-wear additives, detergents, Anti-oxidants, anti-foaming agents, Corrosion inhibitors etc.).

Mineral hydraulic oil (petroleum base).

Mineral based oils are the most common and low cost hydraulic fluids. They possess most of the characteristics important for hydraulic oils. The disadvantages of mineral (petroleum) based oils are their low fire resistance (low flash point), toxicity and very low biodegradability.

Phosphate ester based synthetic hydraulic fluids.

Phosphate esters are produced by the reaction of phosphoric acid with aromatic alcohols. Phosphate esters based hydraulic fluids possess excellent fire resistance, however they are not compatible with paints, adhesives, some polymers and sealant materials. They are also toxic.

Polyol ester based synthetic hydraulic fluids.

Polyol esters are produced by the reaction of long-chain fatty acids and synthesized alcohols. Polyol ester based hydraulic fluids are fire resistant and possess very good lubrication properties. They are environmentally friendly but their use is limited by high cost.

Water glycol synthetic hydraulic fluids.

Water glycol based fluids contain 35-60% of water in form of solution (not emulsion) and additives (anti-foam, anti-freeze, rust and corrosion inhibitors, anti-wear etc.). Water glycol based hydraulic fluids possess excellent fire resistance, they are non-toxic and biodegradable. However their temperature range is relatively low: 32F - 120F (0C - 49C). Water evaporation causes deterioration of the hydraulic fluids properties.

Vegetable hydraulic oils.

Vegetable hydraulic oils are produced mainly from Canola oil. Their chemical structure is similar to that of polyol esters. Vegetable hydraulic oils possess very good lubrication properties and high viscosity index (low temperature sensitivity of viscosity). They are non-toxic and biodegradable. The main disadvantage of vegetable hydraulic oils is their relatively low oxidation resistance. to top
Viscosity of hydraulic oils

Viscosity of a hydraulic fluid depends on its composition and the temperature. Low viscosity limit is determined by the lubrication properties of the oil and its resistance to cavitation. Upper viscosity value is limited by the ability of the oil to be pumped. Common viscosity of hydraulic oils is in the range 16 - 100 centistokes. Optimum viscosity value is 16 - 36 centistokes. to top
SAE Designation of hydraulic oils by viscosity

The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) established a viscosity grading system for oils. According to the SAE viscosity grading system all oils are divided into two classes: monograde and multigrade:

Monograde hydraulic oils

Monograde hydraulic oils are designated by one number (10, 20, 30, 40, etc.). The number indicates a level of the oil viscosity at a particular temperature. The higher the grade number, the higher the oil viscosity. Viscosity of hydraulic oils designated with a number only without the letter W (SAE 10, SAE 20, SAE 30 etc.) was specified at the temperature 212F (100C). These oils are suitable for use

at high ambient temperatures. Viscosity of hydraulic oils designated with a number followed by the letter W (SAE 10W, SAE 20W, SAE 30W etc.) was specified at the temperature 0F (-18C). The letter W means winter. These grades are used at low ambient temperatures.

Multigrade hydraulic oils

Viscosity of hydraulic oils may be stabilized by polymeric additives (viscosity index improvers). Viscosity of such oils is specified at both high and low temperature. These oils are called multigrades and they are designated by two numbers and the letter W (SAE 5W30, SAE 10W20, SAE 10W30 etc.). The first number of the designation specify the oil viscosity at cold temperature, the second number specifies the oil viscosity at high temperature. For example: SAE 10W30 oil has a low temperature viscosity similar to that of SAE 10W, but it has a high temperature viscosity similar to that of SAE 30. Multigrade hydraulic oils are used in a wide temperature range. to top
ISO Designation of hydraulic oils

International Standardization Organization (ISO) established a viscosity grading (VG) system for industrial hydraulic oils. According to the system hydraulic oils are designated by the letters ISO followed by a number equal to the oil viscosity measured in centistokes at 40C (104F): ISO VG 32, ISO VG 46 etc.
Types of gear oils

Combinations of additives impart special functions to gear oils:

Rust and oxidation preventive gear oils

Rust and oxidation preventive (R&O) oils are mainly mineral base. They contain rust and oxidation inhibitors. The viscosity of R&O oils according to the ISO grading system is between 32 to 320.

Compounded gear oils

Compounded oils are mineral base. They contain rust and oxidation inhibitors, demulsifiers and up to 10% of fatty oils for better lubricity. Compounded oils are used mainly in worm gears. The viscosity of compounded oils according to the ISO grading system is between 460 to 1000.

Extreme Pressure (EP) gear oils

EP oils may be either mineral or synthetic base. They contain EP additives, rust and oxidation inhibitors, anti-foaming agents and demulsifiers. The viscosity of EP oils according to the ISO grading system is between 68 to 1500.

Synthetic gear oils

Synthetic gear oils may be based on polyalphaolefins (PAO), esters oils or polyglycols. They may contain EP additives, rust and oxidation inhibitors, anti-foaming agents and demulsifiers. The viscosity of synthetic oils according to the ISO grading system is between 32 to 6800. Synthetic gear oils are used for gears operating under extreme conditions: very low or very high temperatures, high pressures. to top
Viscosity of gear oils

Viscosity of gear oils (lubricants) is a compromise between the gear parameters requiring low viscosity and those requiring high viscosity. Low viscosity is favorable for: high speed, low loaded gears with a good tooth surface finish. Low viscosity provides thin oil film, low friction (high mechanical efficiency), good cooling (heat removal) conditions. High viscosity is favorable for: low speed, highly loaded gears with a rough tooth surface. High viscosity provides thick oil film, high wear resistance and low galling even at high pressure (EP). Viscosity of a gear oil depends on the temperature, therefore an oil selected for a particular gear should provide its reliable operation within the expected temperature range. The low temperature limit of a gear oil is 9F (5C) higher than its pour point (the lowest temperature, at which the oil may flow). Mineral oils possess relatively high pour point - about 20F (-7C). Pour point of syntethic oils may reach -50F (-46C). The highest operation temperature in spur gears is about 130F (54C). In the worm gears the temperature may reach 200F (93C). to top
SAE Designation of gear oils by viscosity

The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) established a viscosity grading system for gear and Engine oils. According to the SAE viscosity grading system all oils are divided into two classes: monograde and multigrade:

Monograde gear oils

Monograde gear oils are designated by one number (70, 90, 140, 250, etc.). The number indicates a level of the oil viscosity at a particular temperature. The higher the grade number, the higher the oil viscosity. Viscosity of gear oils designated with a number only without the letter W (SAE 80, SAE 90, SAE 140 etc.) was specified at the temperature 212F (100C). These gear oils are suitable for

use at high ambient temperatures. Viscosity of gear oils designated with a number followed by the letter W (SAE 70W, SAE 75W, SAE 80W etc.) was specified at the temperature 0F (-18C). The letter W means winter. These grades are used at low ambient temperatures.

Multigrade gear oils

Viscosity of gear oils may be stabilized by polymeric additives (viscosity index improvers). Viscosity of such gear oils is specified at both high and low temperature. These oils are called multigrades and they are designated by two numbers and the letter W (SAE 75W-90, SAE 80W-90, SAE 85W-140 etc.). The first number of the designation specify the oil viscosity at cold temperature, the second number specifies the oil viscosity at high temperature. For example: SAE 85W-140 oil has a low temperature viscosity similar to that of SAE 85W, but it has a high temperature viscosity similar to that of SAE 140. Multigrade gear oils are used in a wide temperature range. to top
Designation of gear oils by performance

American Petroleum Institute (API) established a performance grading system for gear oils (mostly automotive gear oils). According to the system gear oils are designated by the letters GL (Gear Lubricant) followed by a number 1,2,3,4 or 5:

GL-1

GL-1 gear oil has rust and oxidation protection effect but it does not contain extra pressure (EP) additives. the oil is used in low load applications only.

GL-2

GL-2 gear oil contain more additives than GL-1, but without EP effect. It is used in medium loaded worm gears.

GL-3

GL-3 gear oil possesses light EP effect. It is used in non-hypoid gears.

GL-4

GL-4 gear oil possesses moderate EP effect. It is most widely used oil.

GL-5

GL-5 gear oil possesses high EP effect. It is used in hypoid and other highly loaded gears. to top
ISO Designation of industrial gear oils

International Standardization Organization (ISO) established a viscosity grading (VG) system for industrial gear oils. According to the system industrial gear oils are designated by the letters ISO followed by a number equal to the oil viscosity measured in centistokes at 40C (104F): ISO VG 32, ISO VG 46, ISO VG 68, ISO VG 100, ISO VG 150, ISO VG 220 etc.