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International Journal of Project Management 31 (2013) 889 902 www.elsevier.com/locate/ijproman
Project managers and career models: An exploratory comparative study

Karin Bredin a , Jonas Sderlund b,
a
Department of Management and Engineering, Linkping University, Sweden b BI Norwegian Business School, Norway
Abstract Prior research has paid little attention to the careers and career models of project managers. This is troublesome for at least two reasons. First, project managers are becoming an increasingly important category of managers and today they constitute a major part of many organizations' leadership capability. Second, traditional literature on careers generally does not address project-based careers as a specic case in point, although this kind of career is unique in the sense that it is based on temporary assignments and lack of formal positions. The research presented in this paper identies and explains patterns of similarities and differences among applied career models in ten large, mature project-intensive rms in Sweden. The paper identies a number of factors that seem to be critical for the design of career models for project managers, including the number of levels, the complexity of assignments, and the degree of formal requirements. The paper also outlines two archetypes of career models applied by the rms under study: the competence strategy model and the talent management model. 2012 Elsevier Ltd. APM and IPMA. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Career; Career model; Project manager
1. Introduction 1.1. Project-based work, project-based careers Already in the mid 1990s, former CEO of world electrical giant Asea Brown Boveri (ABB) Mr. Percy Barnevik addressed the importance of project managers to build successful project businesses. He argued that the company was in need of more than 350 global project managers who were able to run large-scale projects. Barnevik stressed the fact that being a manager of such a large endeavor is like being president of a major company or division, and, in addition, these managers have to squarely focus the interest of the group, and have the power to override objections from seven national ABB companies, if it is necessary for the project (Percy Barnevik, lecture at Linkping University, 1995, quoted in Berggren, 1996: 135). In his analysis of ABB and its project operations, Berggren argues that the increasing importance
of project managers is explained by the growing importance and size of projects in some cases making projects more or less separate organizational units with their own balance sheets and profit statements. As Berggren puts it: ABB and its parents have always been involved in large projects, of course, but during the 1990s there has been an enormous expansion in the scale, scope and complexity of such projects Large projects, responsible for orders values of several billion dollars, generate organizational dynamics that are very different from a regular structure. A project means a strong focus and a concentrated effort during a limited period of time. Horizontal communication and cooperation are very important (Berggren, 1996: 134135). This development has spurred the interest in the study of the role and practice of the project manager. Indeed, it should be noted that this is not a new area of inquiry. Paul Gaddis, more than 50 years ago in his classic article about the project manager, called for more knowledge about these matters. He argued that if we are to grow as advanced technology grows, we must realize the importance of the project manager (Gaddis, 1959: 89). His article
Corresponding author. E-mail address: jonas.soderlund@liu.se (J. Sderlund). 0263-7863/$36.00 2012 Elsevier Ltd. APM and IPMA. All rights reserved. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijproman.2012.11.010
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revolved around the following three questions: What does a project manager in advanced technology industry do? What kind of man must he be? What training is prerequisite for success? Given the technological development in a wide range of fields, Gaddis (1959) emphasized: In view of this, the project manager needs a different attitude regarding the classic functions of control, coordination, communication, and setting of performance standards. Moreover, the professional attitude and approach is steadily gaining emphasis and more widespread acceptance throughout all of the engineering industries(Gaddis, 1959: 90). The article by Gaddis was followed up by a series of papers in top-tier management journals in the 1960s and the first years of the 1970s (see Sderlund, 2011). A fine example is the paper by Wilemon and Cicero (1970) which argues that project managers struggle with rather unique kinds of anomalies and ambiguities. According to the authors, this requires development in four principle areas: managing human inter-relationships, maintaining a balance between the technical and managerial project functions, coping with the risk associated with project management, and surviving organizational restraints. During most of the 1970s, 1980s and 1990s, there was a remarkable silence about the role and qualifications of the project manager, but in the last ten years, we have seen considerable advancement in the study of project leadership, in particular attempts to link context/project type with leadership orientation and competence (Mller and Turner, 2010; see also for example Shenhar and Dvir, 2007; De Meyer et al., 2002). These are all valuable insights that add important knowledge of the role, value and practice of the project manager. Most notably, Shenhar and Dvir (2007) underline the importance of developing training programs for project managers and career models to ensure that project managers are motivated to develop their competencies and consider it worthwhile to continue taking on assignments as project managers. Hlzle (2010) relates this to the importance of well-designed incentive systems for project managers, and focuses especially on the implementation of career paths for project managers. The author argues that the qualification of the project manager has to be aligned with the formal career levels and that career models are important to engage and provide continuity to their project managers: The project managers need to trust that project management is a true career booster (p. 785). As the above literature review indicates, there are several things that make the role, career and skills of project managers of key importance; not only for research but also for practice. First, project management is one of the most common management assignments amongst professionals in contemporary organizations. More and more people assume the role of project managers, and for many people in a wide range of industries it is typically their first assignment in a leader role. Second, it is a management role that is often not based on a formal managerial position, but rather a temporary assignment where responsibilities tend to exceed authority. Thus, this role has a set of unique challenges and problems that are different from other management duties (Bredin and Sderlund, 2006). Third, many project leaders express feelings of stress, overload and a lack of control (Lindgren and Packendorff, 2009: 286). Fourth, project managers tend to leave
the role of project manager due to high work pressure and move into other managerial positions, despite their interest in continuing with project management assignments (see e.g., Ricciardi, 2001). Fifth, project management is rapidly undergoing a formal process of professionalization through the standardization of bodies of knowledge and certification (Morris et al., 2006), which makes career models for project managers an interesting part of management professionalization. The points above indicate a need to explore in further depth the specificities and characteristics of the project manager career, since it might give unique insights into a particular kind of professionalization of management work and the mutual interest of laying out career ladders in fields previously unknown to both individuals and firms. Despite the obvious importance of project managers, there are, as mentioned above, both problems pertaining to the preparedness of leadership and the sustainability of leadership. Perhaps this is the area where career models have their most important part to play. This paper aims at increasing our understanding of the design of formalized project manager career models. The purpose is to describe the characteristics of formalized project management career models in use and identify patterns of similarities and differences across career models. We will also suggest explanations to our observations the similarities and differences observed among the firms, and discuss these patterns in relation to previous research on career models in general and careers in project-based organizations in particular. Before presenting the empirical findings and results of this study, in the following we will first make a comment on the definition of career and career models applied in this paper. Then follows a note on the changes in careers in the modern occupational world, which leads over to a discussion on how career models in project-based organizations can be framed and analyzed. Finally, the role and career of project managers are discussed. 1.2. Career and career models The concept of career is often defined as the evolving sequence of a person's work experience over time (Arthur et al., 1989: 8). As such, it has different meanings to people, professionally as well as personally. Careers generally provide linkages between the inner world of self and the outer world of society. This link, Parker (2002) argues, is an important one because it is through their careers that people tend to seek meaning in their work lives as well as in their personal lives. As human beings, careers and the jobs we carry out within them provide meaning and as Wheatley and Kellner-Rogers (1996:63) put it, somewhat poetically: As we go through life, we don't want to become less. We need places to nurture our passions, places where we can become more. Work is one of those places. Conventional markets that used to guide careers and career paths are, Parker (2002) argues, becoming increasingly blurred. In recent years, research has stressed that careers often involve moving across organizations. For instance, Baruch and Rosenstein (1992: 478) point out that a career is a process of development of the employee along a path of experience and jobs in one or more organizations. Recent research has built further on this idea and stated that careers have become more open, more diverse, and
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less structured and controlled by employers (Baruch, 2004: 59), which also indicates a change of the psychological contract (Rousseau, 1995) with an increased focus on employability and opportunities for development. Some effects of those changes are convincingly described in Schein's (1996) longitudinal study of career anchors which shows dramatic shifts towards employability and increased self-reliance. In a world of temporary projects, people would then need to be more self-reliant and their careers become critical for self-development (see for instance Castells, 1996; Boltanski and Chiapello, 1999). Among other things, this has led scholars to discuss the nature and possibilities of the so-called boundaryless career where the challenges involve uncertainty, mastering relationships, and timing in which the significance of building one's reputation and social capital are singled out as critical elements (Jones and DeFillippi, 1996: 91). At the same time, carving out a career might be decisive for the functioning of markets in the new economy. This could have profound implications, which Whitley (2006) shows in his analysis of project-based industries. The author stresses the value of stability and separation of work roles for the possibilities of creating sustainable project-based firms and successful project collaboration. Thus, the evolution of careers within project management might be viewed as a way to improve the rotation, mobility, and use of human resources in increasingly dynamic economies, having implications both on the internal and external labor markets. Prior research has made the distinction between subjective and objective careers, where the subjective career is the individually perceived career experience while the objective career is a description of an individual's sequence of jobs (see e.g. Hall, 2002; Walker, 1976). Based on this distinction, Walker separates the term career from the term career path, arguing that career paths are objective descriptions of sequential work experiences, as opposed to subjective individual feelings about career progress, personal development, status or satisfaction (Walker, 1976: 2). The need for new ways of understanding the career concept has been addressed primarily in terms of subjective careers and changes in people's career paths in relation to the changing labor market in general. However, those changes also have important implications for the internal organizations of firms that need to meet the growing requirements to attract, retain, and develop talent by offering employability-strengthening job opportunities. This paper draws the attention to formalized career paths as one important tool for project-intensive firms to meet the needs for establishing project management capabilities. In that sense, this paper is chiefly concerned with careers in the objective meaning, rather than project managers' subjective perception of their careers. Moreover, the phenomenon under study here is not the actual career paths of project managers as they unfold over the working-life of a project manager. Instead, the matter of interest here is formalized career models for project managers, that is, a generalized or idealized route for advancement within the unit or function (Walker, 1976: 3), and an organizational frame for the creation of career opportunities (Hlzle, 2010: 781). To clarify this distinction, in this paper we will use the term career model to refer to a formalized model for the advancement along a particular career path (see also Tremblay et al., 2002). One
important reason for drawing the attention to such formalized career models for project managers is the inherent relationship between subjective and objective careers. Walker expresses the significance of this relationship, arguing that career models: provide a link between the individual's own career aims and the organization's actual talent requirements. The net result can only be positive: improved utilization of talent and less ambiguity in employee views of the employment relationship. (Walker, 1976:6). This means that career models that successfully motivate and develop people in the direction that fits with the organization's requirements, also need to be aligned with people's subjective perceptions of their careers. The implementation of a new type of career model that is aligned with the goals of the employees and the organization can be seen as one way of meeting those requirements. In an organization that relies mainly on projects to carry out its strategic and operational activities, career models will need to take different forms compared to those in, for example, a more traditional functional organization. In the following, we will outline this argument in further detail. 1.3. The career of the project manager Project management is increasingly seen as a profession with specific competence requirements, rather than merely a temporary managerial assignment (see e.g. Hodgson and Muzio, 2011; Morris et al., 2006; Wang and Armstrong, 2004) project management is then singled out as a particular career path next to experts and general managers. El-Sabaa (2001) points out that one of the key elements to understanding the meaning of a career is that it provides occupational identity. In a similar vein, Hall (2002) argues that one distinct meaning applied to the concept career is career as profession, which implies a pattern of systematic advancement that a person needs to follow to make progress in his/her profession (for example, legal and medical professions). Hence, the development of career models for project managers can be seen as a step in acknowledging and strengthening project management as a profession in its own rights. Pursuing a project manager career might, without a doubt, be challenging since it involves high levels of mobility and a continuous deadline pressure. El-Sabaa (2001) identifies a number of important differences compared to the conventional functional managerial career. For instance, project managers are younger, their average number of movements from one organization to another is higher, the average number of lateral movements across projects and firms is higher, and the average number of vertical movements along the hierarchy of firms and projects is higher. In addition, the duration that people stay in one field is shorter for project managers compared to other managerial roles. As mentioned earlier, prior research has indicated that the role of the project manager creates so much pressure that people tend to choose other career paths, despite the fact that they might favor the action-orientation, temporary engagements, and dynamic work environment typical for project-based work. One problem could be that project managers are not trained to fulfill the role.
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According to Carbone and Gholston (2004), less than half of the organizations in their survey had any type of project management training program and only 41% of the project managers felt their organizations prepared them for the project manager role. Interestingly, from those project managers who had been trained, 73% felt the training prepared them for their leadership assignment. In that respect, training could do a lot, and it should be the initial obvious step. However, one still has to realize that training is not the complete answer. Shenhar and Dvir (2007: 209) suggest that the main problem is the uneven distribution of leadership capabilities pointing out that the best leaders typically do not become project managers, despite their criticality for their organizations relative to other leadership assignments, such as in operational production or support units. According to the authors, this, to a great extent, is explained by the failure of career models to provide guidance to leaders, in combination with the lack of development opportunities, training and status within the organization. The authors therefore stress the importance of instituting adequate career models to solve the problem and thus to achieve better results for both firms and individuals. As noted earlier, previous research has identified the importance of studies on project management as a discipline and profession, and also on the project management role, related competencies and leadership skills, and strains that come with the role. Research within this area has grown considerably over the past decades, but so far only limited attention has been paid to formalized career models of project managers. However, as our review above indicates, such models should be of vital importance for providing a sense of occupational identity and for creating linkages between project managers' career aspirations and organizations' need for project management capabilities. There is a need for more empirical studies on applied career models for project managers to arrive at a better understanding arrive at a better understanding of how such models are designed and how the differences in applied career models can be understood. As a response, the present paper aims at comparing career models in large, project-intensive firms. Moreover, the paper discusses the identified empirical patterns in light of previous research on careers and project-based organizing in order to offer a theoretical interpretation of the findings. 2. Research methodology To enhance our understanding of what firms do to develop project managers and project management careers, by the means of formalized career models, we conducted a multiple case study involving ten firms. The firms were chosen to constitute an empirical base that fulfilled the following requirements: (1) Large and mature firms. The size, as such, would increase the probability of having formalized HR practices, such as career models, since size in general tends to promote the degree of formalization within an organization (Gooderham et al., 1999). Notably, the companies are mature, which increases the likelihood of formalized models since age is another factor typically contributing to an organization's degree of formalization (Mintzberg, 1979).
(2) Firms that rely on projects to organize integration (business projects, development projects, change projects, see Sderlund, 2005). The reason for selecting them was primarily because we expected these companies to have singled out project competence as critical for the company's success. Given the latter, the companies would then also be expected to have implemented some kind of formal career model for project managers. (3) Firms that represent various industries and sectors. Given the exploratory stage of this research, the empirical data needed to cover more than one sector in order to avoid the risk of getting a very limited or at least narrow view on the current status of career models. Although the subject area investigated has developed rapidly in recent years, many of the companies have been project-based for several decades, for example, within the construction and engineering sectors. In other sectors, though, the experience of project organizing and project management could be less developed, and the distinctive features of the sector could also influence the career models in use. (4) Firms that are primarily based, or at least, have a large part of their activities in Sweden (although most of them are large multinationals). One reason for this is simply accessibility it is much easier for us to get an inside view and access to reports, data and interviews for these companies. A second important reason is previous knowledge within the research team. Over the years, several of the companies have participated in other related research projects within our research group. Hence, even before starting this particular study, we had already a relatively good understanding of the organizational context, industry specifics, organizational structure and management philosophy, in addition to having several reliable and helpful contacts within the companies. However, as indicated earlier, the sample was not a convenience sample in the ordinary sense. The previous three requirements were in all regards treated as the most important ones. Our ambition was, then, to study the largest project-intensive companies in Sweden and their work with regard to project management career models. We obtained a list of the major companies on the Stockholm Stock Exchange and from this list, identified and selected those companies that the research team defined as project-led or project-based (Hobday, 2000). Some companies on the original list were hence deselected, since we considered them only to a lesser extent relying on projects for their everyday operations, or at least would not fully see the reasons for them to employ project managers working in engineeringintensive projects on a large scale (such as the fashion chain store H&M). As seen from our dataset, the companies vary in terms of industry, size, and primary type of projects. Table 1 gives an overview of the companies in our sample with regard to industry, size and a general note about their status and reputation as a project-oriented company and employer. The information is taken from interviews and public records from the time when the empirical data were gathered, 20092010.
K. Bredin, J. Sderlund / International Journal of Project Management 31 (2013) 889902 Table 1 Sample companies: an overview. Company Type of industry Number of employees worldwide 120,000 60,000 70,000 30,000 90,000 Reputation as project-oriented company and employer
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ABB
Engineering
AstraZeneca Pharmaceutical Ericsson Telecom
TeliaSonera Telecom Volvo Transportation products and systems Defense and security Automotive
Saab Scania
10,000 30,000
Sandvik Skanska Posten
High-tech, engineering Construction Logistics
40,000 60,000 30,000
One of Sweden's largest companies, considered to be a good place to work. Generally recognized for having good project managers and project management routines. One of the most research-intensive organizations that has become more and more international. Considered to be a good place to work and average in terms of project management compared to similar companies. One of the leaders in the telecom industry. Well-known for its capabilities in systems integration and systems engineering. The company is considered to be leading in project management. The company has changed fundamentally in recent years, hiring more and more engineers. It is one of the largest companies and has invested considerably in improving its project management capability. The leader within its primary branch of industry. The company is, on the whole, considered to be a good place to work and has grown considerably in recent years. For the past decade it has appeared regularly on the list of most popular employers within engineering. The company is one of the most knowledge- and engineering-intensive companies in Scandinavia. It is well-known internationally for its ability to handle complex systems and development projects. One of Sweden's most popular employers with a unique track record with regard to profits and development. For the past decade it has appeared regularly on the list of most popular employers within engineering. The company is internationally known for its project management capabilities. A niche player within its line of business. Generally considered to be a good company, although perhaps not as well-known as many of the other companies in the sample. One of the leading construction companies in the world. Within construction often viewed as the best when it comes to managing large-scale projects. The company has also a long-standing reputation as a popular employer. A company that has changed considerably in recent years. The company is not ranked as the most popular employer within its type of business; however, it is one of the players that invest most in human resources, career development and training.
The data collection was conducted in two stages. In the first stage, we relied on secondary sources and documentation, both public and internal. Initially, we studied public documents and written reports to get a first understanding of the companies' project operations and publically reported initiatives to promote project management. Thereafter, we studied internal documents, such as power point presentations, guidebooks, project management templates, and course information, all of which added to our understanding of the activities performed within the participating companies. In the second stage, we conducted interviews with informants that had particular knowledge about the project operations and the design and development of career models. We carried out at least two interviews (approx. 1.5 h per interview) at each company. We also had the chance to conduct shorter telephone interviews if necessary to supplement our data. At each company, we interviewed representatives from the HR department, often the individual in charge of project management training, career paths, etc. to get an inside view of the model, how the model was developed and the ideas underlying its design. In addition, we interviewed either a line manager, project director or senior project manager to get a user view of the model, how it was perceived by people who climbed the project manager ladder and took part in the training programs. The data analysis was guided by the multiple casestudy approach as suggested by Eisenhardt (1989), with the intention to understand each company in depth, and to be able to make cross-case comparisons. We compiled a brief case transcript from each casestudy firm which summarized key data and figures about the number of employees, project characteristics, etc. In addition, we produced a detailed story about the implementation
which was subsequently discussed with the contact person at each company. After the within-case analyses, we continued with cross-case comparisons in order to search for patterns across the cases to identify similarities and differences across career models. 3. Empirical observations: an overview Since this is exploratory research, we will begin by emphasizing the empirical observations. In the final part of the paper, we will suggest some possible theoretical interpretations to make sense of our observations. The first part of our investigation relates to the type of projects within the firm, the number of project managers, and the size and nature of the projects. This part of the investigation aimed at understanding the context for the development of career models. Table 2 presents a summary of these observations. As seen, the companies vary in terms of their types of projects, the approximate size of projects, duration and number of project managers. Most interesting is that some companies have an emphasis on business projects (external projects), which presumably has implications on the company's inclination to implement formal career models. One might also assume that project size could signal the importance of general project management competence (see for instance Shenhar and Dvir, 2007), which also would promote the use of formal career models. In addition, the number of project managers is another factor brought up as a possible factor contributing to the degree of formalization in career models, indicating the need to stratify skills and levels within the group in a way that cannot rely only on subjective and social measures.
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Table 2 Project types and project managers. Primary project types (Sderlund, 2005) ABB AstraZeneca Business projects, development projects in R&D organizations Development projects, some change projects Business projects, development projects, some change projects Development projects, business projects, change projects Development projects, change projects, a few business projects Business projects, development projects, a few change projects Development projects, change projects, investment projects Development projects, change projects, a few business projects Business projects, change projects, a few development projects Change projects, development projects, business projects Average size of projects (number of participants) 50100 in the typical business project 2030 plus in many cases a range of external partners. 5500 250 5150 5500 10100, typically around 20 101000 50200, depends on sub-contractors and region Many different kinds of projects, ranging from 5 to 100 Average project duration 34 years for major contracts 34 years, although in different phases of development. 3 months4 years 3 months3 years 35 years 6 months3 years 4 months3 years 26 years 1 year, but occasionally up to 3 years Many different lengths of projects, ranging from 6 months to 2 years Number of project managers (formal) 400, plus a number of R&D project managers 350 world-wide in R&D, but approx. 250 more if including investment projects and change projects. More than 2000 within the two primary business areas Employed at project offices in Sweden: approx. 80 The investigated subsidiary has 35 project managers 500600 in the entire company, although an additional 1500 manage projects on a continuous basis as part of their jobs. Approx. 700 have the formal role as project manager or work as sub-project manager Approx. 50 at relatively senior level Approx. 250 in Sweden
Ericsson TeliaSonera Volvo Saab
Sandvik
Scania Skanska
Posten
Approx. 15 senior project managers at the corporate level
Table 3 summarizes the findings concerning the details about the career models applied in the studied companies. The existence of formal career models is apparent in most of the studied firms, however, not in all of them. The table displays the applied levels in the career models, the relation to levels of project complexity, and the set requirements and relation to competence/leadership training programs (cf. El-Sabaa, 2001). As seen in Table 3, seven out of the ten studied firms have implemented career models for project managers. Some of them have used their model for more than ten years, while many of them have developed their models only recently and one of them was, at the time for the study, still in the process of implementing the new career model. To complement this descriptive empirical account of the career models, in the following we outline the main empirical patterns concerning the respondent's viewpoints on the reasons behind implementing a model, what they aimed at achieving, and explanations to their respective designs. 4. Empirical patterns I: reasons for implementing career models for project management In all studied firms, including those who have not implemented career models for project managers, project managers have been singled out as an increasingly important manager category. The initiative to discuss project managers as a separate pool of managers is of relative recent date within most of the studied firms.
Although, projects and project managers have been critical for decades, there is a rather distinct change to push this even further. The companies report various reasons for this change. One is the increasing internationalization, that they are now part of a larger, global group and thus need to respond to international requirements. Among such requirements are career models, certification and formalization to implement a global and transparent system of expertise. Among the seven firms who have implemented career models for project managers, the respondents tend to refer to four main reasons behind the decision to implement a career model. 1) Build and attract project management competencies, 2) Achieve commonality to enhance communication, 3) Create transparency in development opportunities, and 4) Get recognition for project management as a profession. Below we deal with them in further detail. 4.1. Build and attract project management competencies All the companies that have implemented career models for project managers refer to the importance of the models in building and sustaining project management competencies. The respondents refer to the increased importance of project management competence in order to shorten lead-times and time-to-market, and to manage ever-more complex and costly projects. They also emphasize the importance of career models to
K. Bredin, J. Sderlund / International Journal of Project Management 31 (2013) 889902 Table 3 Project manager careers in ten companies: levels and requirements. Existence of formal career model Saab Yes A company-wide career model was developed and implemented about four years ago. Inspired by IPMA and PMI. Levels in the career model Three levels: 1. Basic 2. Senior 3. Master Relation to levels of project complexity Formalized There is a system for classification of projects into three levels: 1) limited complexity, 2) complex projects with subprojects, and 3) multi-project/ program. These levels are linked to the three levels in the career model, but in practice this link is hard to implement. Formalized Projects are classified into complexity levels depending on several dimensions such as dependence on internal/external stakeholders, organizational impact, novelty in technology, novelty in methods and processes applied, level of physical dispersion, and size. A project manager's experience of projects on a certain complexity level is assessed before advancement to the next level in the career model. Formalized Projects are classified as small, medium, or large, based on budget, size, and complexity. These project levels are directly linked to the three levels in the career model. Set requirements and relation to competence/leadership training programs
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Yes There are three levels of project management training programs, aimed at preparing people for project management assignments on more complex levels. Certification levels according to IPMA are linked to the levels in the career model. Not formalized There are set competence requirements concerning project management tools and models, as well as for leadership skills for each level in the model. Extensive training programs available, but they are not formal requirements for reaching higher levels in the career model. No formal certification program implemented, the internal career and competence models are regarded to be enough quality assurance. Not formalized A formal role description which states required experience and competence. There are project management training programs, but they are not explicitly linked to the career model. Ongoing discussions about certification, although no decisions have been taken. To some extent Eight functional competencies have been identified as critical, plus three leadership competencies. All project managers have to attend a specific training program ranging from basic project management to more advanced courses. An internal certification framework exists. To some extent.
Ericsson
Yes The company has recently developed two separate career models for project managers. One for development projects within R&D and one for business projects.
Sandvik
Yes The studied business unit has recently developed a career model for project managers.
Development projects: five levels 1. Project manager 2. Advanced project manager 3. Senior project manager 4. Master project manager 5. Principal project manager Business projects: four levels 1. Assessed customer project manager 2. Experienced customer project manager 3. Senior customer project manager 4. Principal customer project manager Three levels: 1. Project manager 2. Senior project manager 3. Program manager
ABB
Yes Project management is one of the key competence models
Four levels: 1. Associate project manager 2. Project manager 3. Senior project manager 4. Company senior project manager
Not formalized No systematic classification of projects into complexity levels. However. Large-scale projects and global projects are more formalized and typically managed by either senior project managers or company senior project managers.
AstraZeneca
Yes A detailed model exists for development project managers
TeliaSonera
Yes The company has recently developed a career model according to IPMA. The model was intended for the whole company, but has not been fully implemented. Two business units use it actively.
Four levels: 1. Associate project manager 2. Project manager 3. Project manager director 4. Senior project management director Four levels: 1. Project management associates 2. Project manager 3. Senior project manager 4. Senior project director
Not formalized No systematic classification of projects into complexity levels. However, global projects are in most cases managed by project manager directors. Not formalized No systematic classification of projects into complexity levels, but larger and more complex projects are assigned to more experienced project managers.
Not formalized Specific competence, leadership, and experience requirements are set for each level according to IPMA. There are training programs for project management, but these do not explicitly correspond to the levels in the career model. Certification programs have been launched according to IPMA and PMI (in some units). (continued on next page)
896 Table 3 (continued)
Existence of formal career model Skanska Yes The company has a wellestablished career model for project managers.
Levels in the career model Four levels: 1. Project manager Level 1 2. Project manager Level 2 3. Project manager Level 3 4. Project manager Level 4
Relation to levels of project complexity Not formalized The projects are not classified in levels that explicitly correspond with the levels of project management. Projects are assessed primarily based on their size in terms of budget, and project managers are assigned based on level of experience and availability.
Set requirements and relation to competence/leadership training programs To some extent A 1-week training module in which all project managers must participate once a year. Besides that, there are other available training programs, but they do not explicitly correspond to the project management career model. Requirements in terms of experience from project work and production manager. The company is very project-intensive so most management tasks and education involve a great deal of project management. There is a basic training program in project management, which is highly recommended for project managers, project members and other stakeholders. Formal requirements only set for those that have permanent positions as project manager or senior project manager. More than 25 project managers have taken some kind of certificate either the PMI or the IPMA. A comprehensive four-step training program in 1) being a project member, 2) tools and methods for junior project managers, 3) project management in larger projects, and 4) advanced project management for the most experienced. Individual development plans are in place to secure the development of project managers. Certification programs have been discussed and are considered to be important to further develop project managers. There is a role description with recommended requirements for project managers. There are also internal training programs for project management, but these are not formal requirements for taking on project management assignments. Certification is not considered important at the moment.
Posten
To some extent There is no formal career model, although there are positions called project manager and senior project manager within the organizational structure. In the past, a lot of attention was been paid to the senior project managers, including a formal organization, certification programs and training programs. No No formalized career model with multiple levels. However, there is a formalized unit with senior project managers on permanent positions to manage strategic, company-wide projects.
The company had before the re-organization set up a project management center that identified all project managers in the company and divided them into three primary levels. A small group of senior project managers were organized in a separate project manager pool that division and top managers could call upon when needed.
The projects are classified into three levels: 0) Strategic change projects on a company level, 1) Strategic change projects on a business unit level, and 2) Project activities within a business unit. There is no formal procedure for assigning project managers to the different project levels, even though the senior project managers mostly work with projects on level 0 and 1.
Volvo Aero
A small group of senior project managers has been identified. They have participated in advanced training programs and extensive project management programs.
No systematic classification of projects into complexity levels, but larger and more complex projects are assigned to more experienced project managers.
Scania
No Top management has decided not to implement a formal career model, but has instead emphasized the importance of moving across assignments as line manager and project manager.
No formalized levels, although senior management and HR have recently discussed the need of making it more formalized.
Projects are classified depending on product development phase and scope of the project. Project managers are assigned projects based on their known competence and experience.
attract and keep talented project managers, to keep people in the project management role, and to drive the development of project management competencies on various levels, in order to build competencies to meet future competition.
We started to work more focused with project management as a profession within the organization about three years ago. And the main reason for this is that we need to shorten the lead time of our projects, so that we can get the products out there at a
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higher pace. We need to invest in this so that we//meet the competition in the future we need to be one step ahead (R&D manager, Sandvik). Firstly, we clarify that we develop our employees, which is very important to get the competencies we need, and secondly we do this in order to be an attractive employer to get the best talents out there into our business. We want to show that you can make your career with us. We want the talents out there, and the talents want a career. They want to feel that they can grow and develop in an organization (HR manager, Skanska). 4.2. Commonality for communication The respondents emphasize the usefulness of career models to achieve clarity and a common language throughout the organization, nationally and internationally, concerning different levels of project managers. This would, they argue, facilitate the communication in processes of assigning project managers and comparing project managers, and it would also clarify what a project manager is and is not. The following two quotes show how an HR manager and project management director express their concerns: The career model makes it easier to understand what persons you talk about, since you have a common nomenclature. We have global projects that include many different organizations, and these organizations needed to understand the competence and level of the person that all of a sudden turned up as the project manager for a certain project. So there was denitely a need for a model. (HR director, Ericsson). Someone has to decide that everyone who is a project manager acts in a formal position, and that they are working at a certain level, which is the same in the entire company. This is important to compare project managers across the rm. Many are saying that they are project managers when they in fact only are responsible for some small activity. This causes the word project manager to be watered down, and the same goes for the word project. (Project management director, TeliaSonera). Many respondents also stress that the career model makes it easier to explain to outside partners how the firm is working in terms of project management and to assure clients and partners that the person in charge of the project has a certain level of experience and qualification. 4.3. Transparency in development opportunities A common argument in favor of implementing career models for project management is the transparency in career- and competence development opportunities that they provide. The respondents stress the importance for employees to know how they can advance within the company and what requirements they need to fulfill on different levels. This is considered to enhance motivation, to clarify project management as a
development opportunity, and also to enhance the employer's image as an attractive employer. It's a great advantage to get transparency, both for the company and for the employees. It becomes clearer which requirements we set for different levels, and since the levels correspond to the salary level, it is in the interest of both employees and the company to get this right and that we apply this in the same way across the entire organization. For the individual and her competence development plans, it is also important to understand what she should do and which the requirements are. If I want to become advanced project manager, what should I do? (HR manager, Ericsson). It's important to feel that you develop and expand your role in the organization. You need to see that there is a path to follow, either as a specialist or within management, and I think that it's important to know one's opportunities in order to decide what one wants to do. It's obvious that it makes the organization more attractive to show that there are a number of steps to follow, and normally steps also include some kind of compensation and benets. I think it's important to clarify all this to get people to stay, to be explicit right from the start: these are the development opportunities (HR manager, Skanska). 4.4. Recognition for the profession Some of the respondents underline the importance of the career models to strengthen project management as a profession, moving away from previous designations of project management as a temporary managerial position. This is particularly apparent at TeliaSonera and Sandvik, where the individuals behind the development of the career models can be seen as internal champions for project management, with a passion for identifying and developing the project management profession and getting recognition for the particular skills and competencies that this profession entails. Well, for us at least that's my opinion it's important to get recognition for the project manager profession. It's a profession, not merely a role. You need professional project managers, and the project managers need recognition in the company. There is no doubt about that. (Project management director, TeliaSonera). In the past few years, our company has worked a lot with the general concept of the manager as a career within the company, and invested quite a lot in it. And there has been a lot of work on the role of specialist, R&D has taken a lead on this development. The reason for this was to avoid that people would have to become a general manager to get a career, which used to be the case in the past. By creating project ofces, networks and careers, we are now trying to boost the status for project management as a profession to make it into a real profession. Some people work with
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project management only part time, but if you are really skilled, you should focus on project management. You shouldn't do it ve percent of your time and do the rest of your work in the line, which sometimes happens. Those who have the right qualities and want to do this, those who have the passion, should get the opportunity to do it in the right way (HR manager, Sandvik). 4.5. Reasons for not implementing career models for project managers Three of the studied companies have chosen not to implement formalized project management career models, although, two of them have formalized project management positions and groups for project managers on senior levels. For example, at Volvo Aero, a group was recently created, hosting 30 of the company's most senior project managers who hold formal positions as project managers. Posten has a similar solution. The main reasons for creating this group was to achieve focus on project management, to receive top management attention, to enhance cooperation and knowledge sharing among project managers, and to develop an overall idea of what the project management role should look like. In order to be part of the project management group, a candidate needs to fulfill extensive requirements concerning project management experience and leadership training. Apart from this group, there is no formal career model for project managers, even though discussions have begun concerning the need for such a model: Looking back in time, we have had a development ladder for general management for quite some time, but now we have started to talk about a ladder for project managers as well. You can say that it's still in its cradle. But I'm sure that managers and co-workers have this invisible ladder in mind when they talk about career opportunities (HR manager, Volvo Aero). Scania has taken an even stronger stand against the implementation of project manager career models. Project management is considered to be a key competence and in the most projectintensive parts of the company, project management is defined as a possible development path. There are role descriptions for different types to project management roles, but these are not considered to form part of any career model. One main argument is that the company wishes to maintain a certain level of flexibility across different categories of managers: I know that many companies have a very strict framework when it comes to project work. They have a project model and they also have a clear structure for the career path of project managers. We don't really have that. I would claim that we have a more pragmatic and exible idea of how to run projects, from what I understand, since we allow for various models. And we also have a more exible view of the role and career development for project managers. It looks different depending on where in the company you look. There is no central regulation or policy it (HR manager, Scania).
One example of the flexibility strived for is that the company does not wish to lock people into certain careers, but instead encourages mobility across different types of management positions and assignments. Moving across line management roles and project management roles is considered to be valuable for the overall understanding of the firm's operations, and something that creates better project managers as well as better line managers. Also, there is a general skepticism in the company towards central concepts being pushed out in the organization, and the HR manager explains that their approach is instead to let people take part in developing such models locally, to enhance commitment in their application. The three companies that have not implemented formal career models for project managers do have rigorous training programs for project managers, Scania and Volvo Aero in particular, and it is clear that project management is considered to be a strategically crucial competence, even though the companies do not single out project management as a separate profession.
5. Empirical patterns II: the design of project management career models In the following, we present the empirical patterns observed across the studied firms concerning the actual design of the applied career models and how the design choices are explained by the respondents. As explained earlier, the design of the career models is in this paper discussed in terms of 1) levels (number of levels, and what they are called), 2) the relation between the levels in the career models and levels in project complexity when assigning project managers, and 3) set competence requirements and training programs.
5.1. Levels in the career models Although the studied companies operate in different types of industries, and their projects vary in type and size, the applied career models for project management are strikingly similar. Most of the applied career models consist of three or four different levels (ranging from junior project manager, project manager, senior project manager, to program/project director), and they are typically based on general guidelines from IPMA or PMI. On a direct question to one of the respondents if they ever considered developing something different, finding their own adapted model, the answer was: Heavens no! Never invent the wheel when there is so much material already developed. It's much better to follow the standards. We cannot do this any better than PMI or IPMA (HR manager, TeliaSonera). Ericsson has chosen to expand the number of levels to five in their project management career model for development projects. One important reason for this was that a larger number of levels,
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with shorter distance between them, would create a sense of achievable development and hence be more motivating: We have compared a couple of different career models, and normally, they end up in ve or six levels. It seems as if six levels is common, and that is because you want to achieve a broad spectrum, from team leaders with relatively little experience to principals with very much experience. It's a very broad dynamic, and maybe you actually need even more levels. It's also an issue about giving the project managers a possibility to move up in their careers. It must be achievable to advance to the next level, if it is too hard so that only very few succeed in moving up, it's not attractive for the employees (HR director, Ericsson). 5.2. Careers and project complexity Even though the design in terms of vertical levels applied in the career models for project management is very similar across the studied firms, the integration and application of the models prove to be quite different. In three of the seven firms that have implemented career models for project management Ericsson, Saab, and Sandvik, there is a formalized relation between the levels in the career models and the level of project complexity. This relation can work in both directions: on the one hand the career level is often a formal requirement for being assigned to projects on a certain complexity level and, on the other hand, experience from projects on a certain complexity level is often formally required to reach a higher level in the career model. We classify the projects into ve categories, and in order for a project manager to reach a certain level [in the career model], the project manager needs to have experience from having managed at least two projects at that level. Apart from that he needs to fulll our set leadership requirements for that level (HR director, Ericsson). In the remaining four firms that apply career models for project managers, there is no formalized relation between levels of project complexity and levels in the career models. Of course, more complex projects are assigned to more experienced project managers, but the career models are not explicitly integrated in this process. In three of these firms ABB, AstraZeneca, and TeliaSonera, there is no systematic classification of projects into complexity levels. The assessment of projects' complexity is instead a qualitative analysis made by managers at project offices, or the like. Some firms refer to a skill that people develop over time in assessing project complexity a gut feeling that experienced project managers develop. there is no model for dening a project's level of complexity. You just know that this is huge, it will be a very complicated project. You kind of know that when you scope the project. But we don't work with explicit levels of projects in that sense. (Project management director, TeliaSonera). Skanska, on the other hand, apply a systematic classification of the projects primarily in terms of size and budget. However, the
levels are not linked to the project classification; the career model is not integrated in the process of assigning project managers. We look at the size of the project, and assess what kind of competence is needed to manage that project. It's not like the project managers have hats with level one, two, or three written on them. Instead we discuss what experience and competence is required to manage this large project, and then you need to see who's available (HR manager, Skanska). 5.3. Competence requirements and training programs The applied career models typically include formal competence, experience and leadership requirements for each level. There are also extensive project management training programs in all of the studied firms. However, only at one company Saab there are training programs that specifically correspond to each level in the career model, which in its turn linked to the IPMA levels. When they have done the basic project management training program, they will normally work in the sub-projects or limited complexity levels. After a couple of years, they can be certied on IPMA level C. If we look at the career model, they are on the basic level. The next step will be in 23 years' time, when they can take the course Development for project managers. That's a ten day's training program, and they [the project managers] already work in, or will work in, complex projects, which include subprojects. Then you can call yourself senior project manager, and be certied at the C or B level (HR manager, Saab). The remaining companies all have invested heavily in project management training on different levels, and they are seen as important for building project management competencies. However, there is no explicit link between training programs and the levels in the career models applied. Instead, the respondents refer to the importance of performance and competence review meetings in which employees can discuss their competence level with their manager, and agree on what type of assignments they need to do and which courses they need to take in order to move up to the next level in the career model. Several of the firms have implemented certification programs according to the frameworks by IPMA or PMI to clarify the requirements needed for each level, and support the careers and development of the individual project managers. Interestingly, the development of project manager career models also seems to trigger the development of other models, besides the traditional manager career ladder. In particular, the companies investigated have emphasized the need for clarifying the specialist engineer career, such as chief systems engineer, in combination with an increased focus on project manager careers. In that respect, the companies did not only promote the creation of careers within the management area, since this would perhaps lead talented specialists to opt for a management career although their comparative talent would be in a more traditional engineering role. Hence, multiple career directions for engineers seem to be critical to establish a balance in the development of
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general and specific knowledge, expert careers and different kinds of management careers. 6. Theoretical interpretation We have divided the theoretical interpretation and analysis into two separate parts. The first part seeks to develop the idea that the firms in our study largely develop career models for two different reasons and based on this observation may be seen as relying on one of two archetypical career models. The second part seeks to discuss in theoretical light the observations in our study primarily be relating to extant career research. We believe that some of the observations in our study are particularly important for further scholarly attention. From this study, it is possible to distill two archetypes for the development of career models targeting project management. The first archetype which might be referred to as the competence strategy model is observed in Saab, Ericsson and Sandvik. Here the models are not primarily discussed as a way to provide development opportunities for individuals, but more as a way to implement strategy and identify ways to better manage and handle the linkages between strategy formation and competence strategy. The primary focus and discussions are linked to the needs of the organization, the strategic evolution and growth areas and what requirements these developments have on the pool of project managers. At Saab, Ericsson, and Sandvik, the career models are frequently discussed as an integrated tool to facilitate resource allocation and project assignment processes. At ABB, AstraZeneca, TeliaSonera and Skanska, the emphasis lies rather on the career model as providing development opportunities for individual project managers. In these firms the career model is to a greater extent following a talent management model. The focus is less on the strategic evolution of the firm and more on the individual needs and individual requirements. The models primarily provide the individual project managers with career opportunities within project management, to support the individual development process. Hence this kind of career model might be better referred to as the talent management model. Career models are aimed to handle primarily one stream of capabilities, namely those capabilities that are established to ensure the continuous supply and development of human resources (Hedlund, 1994). As cases in point, project-oriented companies are interesting examples for empirical investigations into the career models operating in project-based economies. The models are obviously intended to ensure the continuous supply and development of project managers. At the same time, several authors have pointed out that doing a career in a project setting is very different from careers elsewhere (Heimer, 1984; Midler, 1995). Some authors have pointed out the inherent difficulties in making a projectoriented career (Allen and Katz, 1995), which would then possibly, on the one hand, contribute to the emergence of formalized career models, and on the other hand, delimit its chances of sustainable success. The case of the project manager is interesting for several reasons since it presents a particular kind of management career that has been developed in a number of sectors in recent years. However,
we also know that the role of the project manager was formalized in several companies and industries, in particular aerospace and defense, as early as in the 1950s (Gaddis, 1959). The associations of project management have worked hard to formalize the role of the project manager and to professionalize the discipline of project management. For many years, their efforts had little impact on career models in firms but today their certification frameworks have become integral parts in many companies' efforts to promote the role of the project manager. In that respect, there is a tight linkage between professionalization attempts of management and the institutionalization of career models. Thus, contrary to conventional orthodoxy, the explorative study presented here sheds some new light on the notion of the boundaryless career and its connection to organizations in the project-based economy. Generally, careers in such context are presented as those that move across organizations to a greater extent than elsewhere. In that respect, the increasing projectification would be assumed to promote the existence of boundaryless careers. However, the findings reported here indicate that there is another side to this development. Our findings reveal significant efforts on behalf of the firms to bound careers, to specify career steps and formal requirements to make sure that project managers stay with the firm. In that respect, the firms follow a well-known principle of investing in resources that are highly important to their competitiveness. As said by Heimer (1984: 306): When an organization is interested in developing the abilities of a group of people and in retaining them as these skills increase, it will create hierarchies, job descriptions, and training programs; it will pay attention to educational qualications and experience; and it will collect and disseminate information about these people. (Heimer, 1984: 306). In that respect, the need to formalize career models seems to be greater in situations when uncertainties and fluidity abound. One might therefore argue that the flattening of organizations and elimination of managerial layers actually work to promote the institutionalization of management careers at least in the domain that relates to their project activities. As recent research has emphasized, careers have become more open, diverse, less structured and possible to control by the employer (Baruch, 2004). However, the investments made by the studied organizations indicate that their attempts to control and design formalized career models are increasing, although perhaps the possibility of actually controlling them diminishes. One sign of the latter is the tendency to adopt external guidelines for the design of career models and that companies seek verification from external associations to gain legitimacy for their activities. At the same time, some firms report the inherent problems associated with such developments. Aligning too much with external bodies involves the risk of making their project managers more mobile. There is another important peculiarity with the project manager career not immediately seen in other areas of management. This has to do with the possibilities of arranging for career tournaments (Rosenbaum, 1979). In functional and hierarchical careers, there is normally a set limit for the possibility of moving upwards.
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However, the nature of project production is quite different. Here there is a possibility of creating new organizations to allow for more opportunities to assume assignments at the very upper echelon of the project management pyramid. In that respect, there is an interesting dynamics involved in the careers of project managers, which not only allows firms to launch large-scale development projects if there are excessive managerial resources, but also to bid on external contracts. The dynamic thus resembles Penrose's (1959) classic idea of resources as generators for company growth. Of course, such measures are also theoretically possible in other areas, although they tend to be involved in a completely different resource commitment which would make them irreversible and associated with considerable costs and lock-ins. Another observation of some theoretical validity relates to the paradox of instituting formalized careers in fluid organizational settings. The drawback, according to some of our interviewees, is that it might limit the possibilities for job rotation. Even though project managers have unique opportunities to move across organizational settings and pursue a cross-functional and multidimensional career (cf. Baruch, 2004), there is a risk that they become too addicted to the project logic of organization. In that respect, the possible downside of creating separate pools of project managers that lead their career only within the domain of projects might produce a certain narrow-mindedness that might be dangerous in the long run. This generally illustrates the observation that Gaddis (1959: 94) put forth as projectitis, i.e., a seeing of all things as though a particular project were the center of the corporate universe. He warns that projectitis tends to lead to adverse results, including the reduction in efficiency and productivity of the human resources in the project. As some of the companies in our study reported, there is a need for a certain job rotation at the managerial levels between project and line functions to create the right kind of generalist knowledge. Interpreted differently, this demonstrates the value of the project managers in having an understanding of the various units whose activities are to be integrated in the project, an idea already put forward by Lawrence and Lorsch (1967) in their classic research on the role of the project manager as the integrator. Too rigid formalizations and lock-ins of project manager careers might thus delimit the development of absorptive capacity among managers and the development of the capabilities with a particular focus on complex problem-solving and knowledge/technology integration (Hedlund, 1994). 7. Conclusions This paper has identified some patterns and offered new ideas about the emergence of career models to promote management careers in project-based work settings. The study reported on a series of dilemmas and paradoxes that, while supporting previous research, also added new perspectives on previous findings which, to some extent, challenge mainstream orthodoxy within the area of career theory. In this section we pinpoint the dilemmas observed in our empirical study. 1. Bounded boundaryless careers. The role of the project manager, to a great extent, is a work role very much in line
with the idea of the boundaryless career. However, companies recently seem to have invested heavily in the formalization of career models to make sure that project managers refrain from the boundaryless, market-based career model, but instead, decide to pursue their career following a rather traditional organizational career path. 2. Multidimensional careers. The development of career models is multidimensional. For instance, it is affected by the external labor market (to attract external talent), clients (to guarantee quality in deliveries/output), and outside institutions (through professionalization attempts and certification initiatives). It is also affected by the nature of production as such, most notably in the sense that projects differ (business projects, development projects, etc.), and projects, as such, differ in their degrees of clarity (definition of projects as temporary organizations). These conditions generally speak in favor of a stratification of career models in terms of different career models for different kinds of project managers. 3. Career models and the formalization of psychological contracts. Career models, such as the ones studied here, seem to be tied to the new psychological contract (Rousseau, 1995) and they are typically the result of a collaboration between employers and employees. Many of the initiatives to create formalized models came from individual project managers who wanted to have a more specified path to better steer their career. In that respect, the models clarify what the employee might expect from the employer with regard to promotion, status, payment, training, feedback, and most important, assignments. The latter centers on the fact that career models, to a great extent, produce expectations with regards to the difficulty and challenge associated with the management assignment. Similarly, it creates expectations on the employee who agrees on certain kinds of aptitude tests, competence development initiatives, studying at leisure time to pass certification, willingness to stay current and take part in certification programs, and the general expectation to be prepared for assignments at the most advanced project levels. These three areas would then also be important for future research. The current paper, limited in scope and theoretical analysis, is a preliminary analysis in terms of comparing career models across firms. However, we believe that the empirical context as such career models for project managers is generally of interest to better understand the changes of managerial careers in a modern economy. Acknowledgments We are grateful for the research assistance from Elisabeth Borg and Elin Hllgren. We would also like to thank the companies that participated in this study. It should be noted that most of the empirical work was performed in 2010 and the findings presented here do not necessarily reflect the companies' current career models and leadership development programs. We would also like to express our gratitude to the special issue editor
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International Journal of Project Management 31 (2013) 889 902 www.elsevier.com/locate/ijproman

Project managers and career models: An exploratory comparative study

K. Bredin, J. Sderlund / International Journal of Project Management 31 (2013) 889902

K. Bredin, J. Sderlund / International Journal of Project Management 31 (2013) 889902

K. Bredin, J. Sderlund / International Journal of Project Management 31 (2013) 889902

AstraZeneca Pharmaceutical Ericsson Telecom

Sandvik Skanska Posten

High-tech, engineering Construction Logistics

40,000 60,000 30,000

K. Bredin, J. Sderlund / International Journal of Project Management 31 (2013) 889902

Ericsson TeliaSonera Volvo Saab

Approx. 15 senior project managers at the corporate level

Yes Project management is one of the key competence models

Yes A detailed model exists for development project managers

896 Table 3 (continued)

K. Bredin, J. Sderlund / International Journal of Project Management 31 (2013) 889902

K. Bredin, J. Sderlund / International Journal of Project Management 31 (2013) 889902

K. Bredin, J. Sderlund / International Journal of Project Management 31 (2013) 889902

K. Bredin, J. Sderlund / International Journal of Project Management 31 (2013) 889902

K. Bredin, J. Sderlund / International Journal of Project Management 31 (2013) 889902

K. Bredin, J. Sderlund / International Journal of Project Management 31 (2013) 889902

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