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INTRODUCTION TO DBMS
A database is a collection of related files that are usually integrated, linked or crossreferenced to one another. The advantage of a database is that data and records contained in different files can be easily organized and retrieved using specialized database management software called a database management system (DBMS) or database manager. A database management system is a set of software programs that allows users to create, edit and update data in database files, and store and retrieve data from those database files. Data in a database can be added, deleted, changed, sorted or searched all using a DBMS. If you were an employee in a large organization, the information about you would likely be stored in different files that are linked together. One file about you would pertain to your skills and abilities, another file to your income tax status, another to your home and office address and telephone number, and another to your annual performance ratings. By cross-referencing these files, someone could change a person's address in one file and it would automatically be reflected in all the other files. DBMSs are commonly used to manage:

Membership and subscription mailing lists Accounting and bookkeeping information The data obtained from scientific research Customer information Inventory information Personal records Library information

DBMS:
DBMS stands for "Database Management System." In short, a DBMS is a database program. The DBMS manages incoming data, organizes it, and provides ways for the data to be modified or extracted by users or other programs. Some DBMS examples include MySQL, PostgreSQL, Microsoft Access, SQL Server, FileMaker, Oracle, RDBMS, dBASE, Clipper, and FoxPro. Since there are so many database management systems available, it is important for there to be a way for them to communicate with each other. For this reason, most database software comes with an Open Database Connectivity (ODBC) driver that allows the database to integrate with other databases. For example, common SQL statements such as SELECT and INSERT are translated from a program's proprietary syntax into a syntax other databases can understand.

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DIFFERENCE BETWEEN DBMS AND RDBMS :

The difference between DBMS and RDBMS :DBMS Database Management System RDBMS DBMS with referential integrity between the tables

No normalization technique Inclusion of flat file data in its system Used for simple business applications Foreign key support

Normalization technique adopted Non-acceptance of flat design Huge database applications file

Relationship established through foreign key only

Supported Only SQL (Sequential Query Languages: Programming Language) supported Language, Data Manipulation Language, Data Definition Language, Schema Description Language, Sub-Schema Description Language No relation between tables Relation between the tables can be established

INTRODUCTION TO ORACLE
ORACLE is a fourth generation relational database management system. In general, a database management system (DBMS) must be able to reliably manage a large amount of data in a multi-user environment so that many users can concurrently access the same data. All this must be accomplished while delivering high performance to the users of the database. A DBMS must also be secure from unauthorized access and provide efficient solutions for failure recovery. The ORACLE Server provides efficient and effective solutions for the major database features. ORACLE consists of many tools that allow you to create an application with ease and flexibility. You must determine how to implement your requirements using the features available in ORACLE, along with its tools. The features and tools that you choose to use to implement your application can significantly affect the performance of your application.

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Several of the more useful features available to ORACLE application developers are integrity constraints, stored procedures and packages, database triggers, cost-based optimizer, shared SQL, locking and sequences. This documentation will lead you through the main features and tools of ORACLE. It is intended to give you a partial view of what is available to you to use within the assignments.

VERSIONS OF ORACLE :
Oracle Database 11g: Overcome the problems associated with using bind variables against indexed columns containing skewed data. Reduce the impact of automated maintenance tasks on your system by controlling how and when they run. Oracle 11g takes the next step down the road to making manual memory management a thing of the past. Take advantage of the Automatic SQL Tuning features of Oracle 11g Release 1. Oracle Database 10g Express Edition : Oracle Database 10g Express Edition (Oracle Database XE) is an entry-level, small-footprint database based on the Oracle Database 10g Release 2 code base that's free to develop, deploy, and distribute; fast to download; and simple to administer. Oracle Database XE is a great starter database. Oracle Database 9i: Reduce segment header contention and wasted space within blocks by switching from using Free Lists to Automatic Segment Free Space Management. Replace you existing rollback segments with self-tuning undo segments. Increase the performance and reduce the size of your data warehouse. Oracle Database 8i: Lists the available mechanisms for gathering database statistics that are used by the cost based optimizer. Hide unused columns or completely remove them. Query external data as if it were a relational table. Allow queries to use indexes even when you are performing a function on the indexed column.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN ORACLE SERVER 9i AND ORACLE SERVER 10g :

Oralce 10g is higher version of 9i , Oracle 10g has added a follwoing features: Transparent Data Encryption Async commits CONNECT ROLE can not only connect Passwords for DB Links are encrypted New asmcmd utility for managing ASM storage Grid computing - an extension of the clustering feature (Real Application Clusters) Manageability improvements (self-tuning features) Performance and scalability improvements Automated Storage Management (ASM) Automatic Workload Repository (AWR)
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Automatic Database Diagnostic Monitor (ADDM) Flashback operations available on row, transaction, table or database level Ability to UNDROP a table from a recycle bin Ability to rename tablespaces Ability to transport tablespaces across machine types (E.g Windows to Unix) New 'drop database' statement New database scheduler - DBMS_SCHEDULER DBMS_FILE_TRANSFER Package Support for bigfiletablespaces that is up to 8 Exabytes in size Data Pump - faster data movement with expdp and impdp

INTRODUCTION TO STRUCURE QUERY LANGUAGE

Structured Query Language is a database computer language designed for managing data in relational database management systems (RDBMS), and originally based upon relational algebra. Its scope includes data insert, query, update and delete, schema creation and modification, and data access control. SQL was one of the first languages for Edgar F. Codds relational model in his influential 1970 paper, "A Relational Model of Data for Large Shared Data Banks"] and became the most widely used language for relational databases. The SQL language is sub-divided into several language elements, including:

Clauses, which are in some cases optional, constituent components of statements and queries Expressionswhich can produce either scalar values or tables consisting of columns and rows of data.

Various type of SQL Languages :

Data-Definition Language: A database schema is specified by a set of definitions expressed by a special language called a data-definition language (DDL). The result of compilation of DDL statements is a set of tables that is stored in a special file called data dictionary or data directory. A data dictionary is a file that contains metadata-that is, data about data. This file is consulted before actual data read or modified in the database system. The storage structure and access methods used by the database system are specified by a set of definitions in a special type of DDL called a data storage and definition language. The SQL DDL statements are CREATE, ALTER, DROP, RENAME. Data-Manipulation Language: Data manipulation means: The retrieval of information stored in the database
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The insertion of new information into the database The deletion of information from the database The modification of information of database A data-manipulation languages (DML) is a language that enables users to access or manipulate data as organized by the appropriate data model. There are basically two types: Procedural DMLs are requiring a user to specify what data are needed and how to get those data. Non-procedural DMLsrequire a user to specify what data are needed without specifying how to get those data. Data Control Language(DCL): DCL statements control access to data and the database using statements such as GRANT andREVOKE. A privilege can either be granted to a user with the help of GRANT statement. The privilege assigned can be SELECT,ALTER ,DELETE ,EXECUTE ,INSERT, INDEX etc. in addition to granting of privileges, you can also revoke it by using REVOKE command. The SQL DCL statements are GRANT, REVOKE, COMMENT. Data Query Language(DQL): A query is a statement requesting the retrieval of information. The portion of a DML that involves information retrieval is called query language.The SQL DQL statement is SELECT command that is only to retrieve data from database. Transaction Control Language(TCL): Transaction stands for program in execution. A transaction is a collection of operation that performs a single logical function in a database application.The SQL TCL statements are SET TRANSACTION, COMMIT, ROLL BACK, SAVE POINT, END TRANSACTION. Data administrative statement(DAS): DAS statements allow the user to perform audits and analysis of solutions within the database. These statements are used to analyse the performance of database. The SQL DAS statements are START AUDIT, STOP AUDIT.

Various Data Types of SQL :

Code 1 Datatype VARCHAR2(size [BYTE | CHAR]) Description Variable-length character string having maximum length size bytes or characters. Maximum size is 4000 bytes or characters, and minimum is 1 byte or 1 character. You must specify size for VARCHAR2.
BYTE

indicates that the column will have byte length

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Code

Datatype

Description semantics; CHAR indicates that the column will have character semantics.

NUMBER[(precision Number having precision p and scale s. The precision p [, scale]]) can range from 1 to 38. The scale s can range from -84 to 127. LONG RAW(size) Character data of variable length up to 2 gigabytes, or 231 1 bytes. Provided for backward compatibility. Raw binary data of length size bytes. Maximum size is 2000 bytes. You must specify size for a RAW value.

8 23 96

CHAR [(size [BYTE Fixed-length character data of length size bytes. Maximum | CHAR])] size is 2000 bytes or characters. Default and minimum size is 1 1

ADVANTAGES OF DBMS :
The database management system has a number of advantages as compared to traditional computer file-based processing approach. The DBA must keep in mind these benefits or capabilities during databases and monitoring the DBMS. The Main advantages of DBMS are described below. Data Security Form is very important object of DBMS. You can create forms very easily and quickly in DBMS. Once a form is created, it can be used many times and it can be modified very easily. The created forms are also saved along with database and behave like a software component. A form provides very easy way (user-friendly) to enter data into database, edit data and display data from database. The non-technical users can also perform various operations on database through forms without going into technical details of a Database. Controlling Data Redundancy In non-database systems each application program has its own private files. In this case, the duplicated copies of the same data is created in many places. In DBMS, all data of an organization is integrated into a single database file. The data is recorded in only one place in the database and it is not duplicated. Sharing of Data In DBMS, data can be shared by authorized users of the organization. The database administrator manages the data and gives rights to users to access the data. Many users can be authorized to access the same piece of information simultaneously. The remote users can also share same data. Similarly, the data of same database can be shared between different application programs.
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Data Consistency By controlling the data redundancy, the data consistency is obtained. If a data item appears only once, any update to its value has to be performed only once and the updated value is immediately available to all users. If the DBMS has controlled redundancy, the database system enforces consistency. Integration of Data In Database management system, data in database is stored in tables. A single database contains multiple tables and relationships can be created between tables (or associated data entities). This makes easy to retrieve and update data. Integration Constraints Integrity constraints or consistency rules can be applied to database so that the correct data can be entered into database. The constraints may be applied to data item within a single record or the may be applied to relationships between records.

DISADVANTAGES OF DBMS :
Although there are many advantages of DBMS, the DBMS may also have some minor disadvantages. These are:

Cost of Hardware and Software: A processor with high speed of data processing and
memory of large size is required to run the DBMS software. It means that you have to up grade the hardware used for file-based system. Similarly, DBMS software is also very costly.

Complexity: A database system creates additional complexity and requirements. The

supply and operation of a database management system with several users and databases is quite costly and demanding.

Qualified Personnel: The professional operation of a database system requires

appropriately trained staff. Without a qualified database administrator nothing will work for long.

Lower Efficiency: A database system is a multi-use software which is often less efficient
than specialised software which is produced and optimised exactly for one problem

Database Damage: In most of the organization, all data is integrated into a single
database. If database is damaged due to electric failure or database is corrupted on the storage media, the your valuable data may be lost forever.

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Experiment No. 1
AIM : Learning basic SQL commands . HARDWARE REQUIRED:1) Physical memory (RAM) :- Min 512 MB recommended 2) Disk space :-Min 2.04 GB 3)Processor:-Min 800 MHz

SOFTWARE REQUIRED:1) Operating System :- Windows XP Professional 2)SQL:-10.2.0

Commands :1.CREATE Table :It is used to create table .

Syntax :create table tablename(column1 datatype(size1),column2 datatype(size3),..,columnNdatatype(sizeN)); datatype(size2),column3

example :-Create table STUDENT461 (roll_noint, name varchar(20), sem number(2,0),

branch char(5), address varchar(20), email_idvarchar(20)) ;

2. DESC Tablename :- It is used display the structure of the table created.

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Syntax : desctablename ;

example :-desc STUDENT461;

3.INSERT INTO:It is used to insert values in the table. Syntax:-

insert into tablename values(value1,value2,value3,.valueN);

example :-

insert into STUDENT461 values('1154440','Divya Bajaj','5','CSE','Moahli','divyabajaj@gmail.com'); insert into STUDENT461 Singh','5','CSE','Mohali','manmeet@gmail.com'); values('1154477','Manmeet

insert into STUDENT461 values('1154461','Jasmeet Singh','5','CSE','Mohali','jasmeet@gmail.com'); insert into STUDENT461 values('1154411','Amanjot Singh','5','CSE','Patiala','amanjot@gmail.com')

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4.SELECT:-a) It is used to retrieve all the data inserted in the table

Syntax:Select * from tablename ;

example :select * from STUDENT461;

b)It is used to retrieve data from a particular column.

Syntax:Select column1,column2,columnN from tablename ;

example :select roll_no,name,branch from STUDENT461;

5. WHERE :-It is used with select clause to display data of particular column specified in condition. Syntax : Select * from tablename where <condition>

example :select * from STUDENT461 where roll_no = 1154461;

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EXPERIMENTNO.2

AIM :Create three tables client_master461,product_master461 salesman_master461 and practice various commands.
1. Client_master461table :

and

create table client_master461(clientnovarchar(5),name varchar(20),address varchar(20),city varchar(20),pin number(8,2),state varchar(20),balancedue number(10,2));

insert into client_master461 values('c1','Manav Jindal','HNO.78','Jalandhar','157352','Punjab','50000'); insert into client_master461 548','Patiala','147001','Punjab','6500'); insert into client_master461 123','Ambala','167251','Haryana','10000'); values('c2','Vikramjeet Singh','HNO.

values('c3','Pratap

Kumar','HNO.

insert into client_master461 values('c4','Vinod Gupta','HNO. 109','Mohali','238976','Punjab','20000');

select * from client_master461;

OUTPUT :
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2. Product_master461table : create table product_master461(productnovarchar(5),description varchar(10),profit_per number(8,2),qtyonhandint,sell_price number(8,2),cost_price number(8,2));

insert into product_master461 values('p1','Samsung TV','5.5','10','29000','33000'); insert into product_master461 values('p2','HTC Mobile','6.5','15','10000','13000'); insert into product_master461 values('p3','HP Laptop','4.5','9','54000','58000'); insert into product_master461 values('p4','Motorcycle','2.5','5','43000','47000'); select * from product_master461;

OUTPUT :

3. Salesman461table :

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create table salesman_master461(salesmannovarchar(5),name varchar(20),address varchar(20),city varchar(20),state varchar(20),salesamt number(8,2),targettoget number(6,2),sales number(8,2),remarks varchar(10));

insert into salesman_master461 65','Ambala','Haryana','3000','100','50','Good'); insert into salesman_master461 75','Patiala','Punjab','4000','200','10','Fair'); insert into salesman_master461 95','Gurdaspur','Punjab','3000','200','50','Good');

values('s1','Ramesh

Kumar','HNO.

values('s2','Abhinav

Kapoor','HNO.

values('s3','Paramjeet

Singh','HNO.

insert into salesman_master461 25','Karnal','Haryana','3500','300','150','Fair'); select * from salesman_master461;

values('s4','Harsh','HNO.

OUTPUT :

1. DISTINCT Clause: It is used to delete the duplicate entries in the table.

Syntax : Select distinct from client_master461;

example :

Inserting duplicate entries in client_master440 table values('c3','Pratap Kumar','HNO.

insert into client_master461 123','Ambala','167251','Haryana','10000');

insert into client_master461 values('c4','Vinod Gupta','HNO. 109','Mohali','238976','Punjab','20000'); Jasmeet Singh 13 1154461

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OUTPUT :

(a)select distinct * from client_master461 ;

OUTPUT :

(b)select distinct name ,city , balancedue from client_master461 ;

OUTPUT :

2. ORDER BY Clause :It is use to specify the order in which rows appear in the result set which can be in ascending or descending order. By default the order is ascending. Syntax:select * from tablname where condition=value order by columnname ;

example:(a)select * from salesman_master461order by name; OUTPUT :

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(b) select * from salesman_master461 where state='Punjab' order by name ;

3. Creating table for existing table :- (a)Create table from another table and populate
the table with same value as present in other table Syntax : Create table tablename 1 (colm1,colm2..colm n) As select colm1,colm2..colmn from tablename2;

example :create table employe461(empno,name,address,city,pin,state,salary) As select

clientno,name,address,city,pin,state,balancedue from client_master461 ;

OUTPUT :

(b)Create table from another table without populating the values present in other table.

Syntax:Create table tablename(colm1,colm2.colm n) As selectcolm1,colm2..colm n from tablename where 1=2 ;

example :create table

workers461 (id,name,address,city,pin,state,salary) As select clientno,name, address,city,pin,state,balancedue from client_master461 where 1=2; select * from workers461;

OUTPUT :
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1. Retrive the names of all the clients from the table client_master:select name from CLIENT_MASTER461;

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