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7 ADDITIONAL TOPICS IN TRIGONOMETRY

48. Surveying. The layout in the gure is used to determine an inaccessible height h when a baseline d in a plane perpendicular to h can be established and the angles , , and can be measured. Show that h d sin csc ( ) tan

Section 7-2 Law of Cosines

Law of Cosines Derivation Solving the SAS Case Solving the SSS Case

If in a triangle two sides and the included angle are given (SAS), or three sides are given (SSS), the law of sines cannot be used to solve the triangleneither case involves an angle and its opposite side (Fig. 1). Both cases can be solved starting with the law of cosines, which is the subject matter for this section.
FIGURE 1

(a) SAS case

(b) SSS case

Law of Cosines Derivation

Theorem 1 states the law of cosines.

LAW OF COSINES

a2 b2 c2 2bc cos b a c 2ac cos

2 2 2

c2 a2 b2 2ab cos

All three equations say essentially the same thing.

Cases SAS and SSS are most readily solved by starting with the law of cosines.

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We will establish a2 b2 c2 2bc cos . The other two equations then can be obtained from this one simply by relabeling the gure. We start by locating a triangle in a rectangular coordinate system. Figure 2 shows three typical triangles. For an arbitrary triangle located as in Figure 2, the distance-between-twopoints formula is used to obtain a (h c)2 (k 0)2 a2 (h c)2 k2 h 2hc c k
2 2 2

Square both sides.

(1)

FIGURE 2
Three representative triangles.

(a)

(b)

(c)

From Figure 2, we note that b2 h2 k2 Substituting b2 for h2 k2 in equation (1), we obtain a2 b2 c2 2hc But cos h b (2)

h b cos Thus, by replacing h in equation (2) with b cos , we reach our objective: a2 b2 c2 2bc cos [Note: If is acute, then cos is positive; if is obtuse, then cos is negative.]

Solving the SAS Case

For the SAS case, start by using the law of cosines to nd the side opposite the given angle. Then use either the law of cosines or the law of sines to nd a second angle. Because of the simpler computations, the law of sines will generally be used to nd the second angle.

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7 ADDITIONAL TOPICS IN TRIGONOMETRY

After using the law of cosines to nd the side opposite the angle for an SAS case, the law of sines is used to nd a second angle. Figure 2 shows that there are two choices for a second angle. (A) If the given angle is obtuse, can either of the remaining angles be obtuse? Explain. (B) If the given angle is acute, then one of the remaining angles may or may not be obtuse. Explain why choosing the angle opposite the shorter side guarantees the selection of an acute angle. (C) Starting with (sin )/a (sin )/b, show that sin1 a sin b (3)

(D) Explain why equation (3) gives us the correct angle only if is acute.

The preceding discussion leads to the following strategy for solving the SAS case:

STRATEGY FOR SOLVING THE SAS CASE Step Find Method 1 Side opposite given angle Law of cosines 2 Second angle Law of sines (Find the angle opposite the shorter of the two given sidesthis angle will always be acute.) 3 Third angle Subtract the sum of the measures of the given angle and the angle found in step 2 from 180.

EXAMPLE

Solving the SAS Case

Solve the triangle in Figure 3.

1
FIGURE 3

7-2 Law of Cosines

517

Solution Solve for b

Use the law of cosines: b2 a2 c2 2ac cos b a c 2ac cos

2 2

Solve for b.

(10.3)2 (6.45)2 2(10.3)(6.45) cos 32.4 5.96 cm

Solve for

Since side c is shorter than side a, must be acute, and the law of sines is used to solve for . sin sin c b sin c sin b c sin b sin 32.4 6.45 5.96
Solve for sin . Solve for . Since is acute, the inverse sine function gives us directly.

sin1 sin1 35.4

Solve for

180 ( ) 180 (32.4 35.4) 112.2

MATCHED PROBLEM

Solve the triangle with 77.5, b 10.4 feet, and c 17.7 feet.

1
Solving the SSS Case
Starting with three sides of a triangle, the problem is to nd the three angles. Subsequent calculations are simplied if we solve for the obtuse angle rst, if present. The law of cosines is used for this purpose. A second angle, which must be acute, can be found using either law, although computations are usually simpler with the law of sines.

(A) Starting with a2 b2 c2 2bc cos , show that

cos1

a2 b2 c2 2bc

(4)

(B) Does equation (4) give us the correct angle irrespective of whether is acute or obtuse? Explain.

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7 ADDITIONAL TOPICS IN TRIGONOMETRY

The preceding discussion leads to the following strategy for solving the SSS case:

STRATEGY FOR SOLVING THE SSS CASE Step Find Method 1 Angle opposite longest Law of cosines sidethis will take care of an obtuse angle, if present. 2 Either of the remaining Law of sines angles, which will be acute. (Why?) 3 Third angle Subtract the sum of the measures of the angles found in steps 1 and 2 from 180.

EXAMPLE

Solving the SSS Case

Solve the triangle with a 27.3 meters, b 17.8 meters, and c 35.2 meters. Three sides of the triangle are given and we are to nd the three angles. This is the SSS case. Sketch the triangle (Fig. 4) and use the law of cosines to nd the largest angle, then use the law of sines to nd one of the two remaining acute angles.

2
Solution

FIGURE 4

Since is the largest angle, we solve for it rst using the law of cosines.
Solve for

c2 a2 b2 2ab cos cos a2 b2 c2 2ab

Solve for cos .

cos1 cos1

a2 b2 c2 2ab

Solve for .

(27.3)2 (17.8)2 (35.2)2 2(27.3)(17.8)

100.5
Solve for

We now solve for either or , using the law of sines. We choose .

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sin sin a c sin a sin 27.3 sin 100.5 c 35.2 sin 100.5 27.3 35.2
Solve for sin . Solve for . is acute.

sin1 49.7
Solve for

180 180 ( ) 180 (49.7 100.5) 29.8

MATCHED PROBLEM

Solve the triangle with a 1.25 yards, b 2.05 yards, and c 1.52 yards.

2
EXAMPLE Finding the Side of a Regular Polygon
If a seven-sided regular polygon is inscribed in a circle of radius 22.8 centimeters, nd the length of one side of the polygon. Sketch a gure (Fig. 5) and use the law of cosines.

3
Solution FIGURE 5

d 2 22.82 22.82 2(22.8)(22.8) cos d

360 7

19.8 centimeters
MATCHED PROBLEM

2(22.8)2 2(22.8)2 cos

360 7

If an 11-sided regular polygon is inscribed in a circle with radius 4.63 inches, nd the length of one side of the polygon.

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7 ADDITIONAL TOPICS IN TRIGONOMETRY

Answers to Matched Problems

1. a 18.5 ft, 33.3, 69.2 2. 37.4, 95.0, 47.6 3. 2.61 inches

EXERCISE 7-2
The labeling in the gure below is the convention we will follow in this exercise set. Your answers to some problems may differ slightly from those in the book, depending on the order in which you solve for the sides and angles of a given triangle.

12. a 31.5 meters, b 29.4 meters, c 33.7 meters Problems 1326 represent a variety of problems involving both the law of sines and the law of cosines. Solve each triangle. If a problem does not have a solution, say so. 13. 94.5, 88.3, b 23.7 centimeters 14. 85.6, 97.3, a 14.3 millimeters 15. 104.5, a 17.2 inches, c 11.7 inches 16. 27.3, a 13.7 yards, c 20.1 yards 17. 57.2, 112.0, c 24.8 meters 18. 132.4, 17.3, b 67.6 kilometers 19. 38.4, a 11.5 inches, b 14.0 inches 20. 66.4, b 25.5 meters, c 25.5 meters 21. a 32.9 meters, b 42.4 meters, c 20.4 meters 22. a 10.5 centimeters, b 5.23 centimeters, c 8.66 centimeters 23. 58.4, b 7.23 meters, c 6.54 meters 24. 46.7, a 18.1 meters, b 22.6 meters 25. 39.8, a 12.5 inches, b 7.31 inches 26. 47.9, b 35.2 inches, c 25.5 inches

A
1. Referring to the gure above, if 47.3, b 11.7 centimeters, and c 6.04 centimeters, which of the two angles, or , can you say for certain is acute and why? 2. Referring to the gure above, if 93.5, b 5.34 inches, and c 8.77 inches, which of the two angles, or , can you say for certain is acute and why? Solve each triangle in Problems 36. 3. 71.2, b 5.32 yards, c 5.03 yards 4. 57.3, a 6.08 centimeters, c 5.25 centimeters 5. 12020, a 5.73 millimeters, b 10.2 millimeters 6. 13550, b 8.44 inches, c 20.3 inches

C
27. Show, using the law of cosines, that if 90, then c2 a2 b2 (the Pythagorean theorem). 28. Show, using the law of cosines, that if c2 a2 b2, then 90. 29. Show that for any triangle, a2 b2 c2 cos cos cos 2abc a b c 30. Show that for any triangle, a b cos c cos

B
7. Referring to the gure at the beginning of the exercise set, if a 13.5 feet, b 20.8 feet, and c 8.09 feet, then, if the triangle has an obtuse angle, which angle must it be and why? 8. Suppose you are told that a triangle has sides a 12.5 centimeters, b 25.3 centimeters, and c 10.7 centimeters. Explain why the triangle has no solution. Solve each triangle in Problems 912 if the triangle has a solution. Use decimal degrees for angle measure. 9. a 4.00 meters, b 10.2 meters, c 9.05 meters 10. a 10.5 miles, b 20.7 miles, c 12.2 miles 11. a 6.00 kilometers, b 5.30 kilometers, c 5.52 kilometers

APPLICATIONS
31. Surveying. To nd the length AB of a small lake, a surveyor measured angle ACB to be 96, AC to be 91 yards,

7-2 Law of Cosines and BC to be 71 yards. What is the approximate length of the lake?
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40. Geometry. Find the perimeter of a nine-sided regular polygon inscribed in a circle of radius 7.09 centimeters. 41. Analytic Geometry. If point A in the gure has coordinates (3, 4) and point B has coordinates (4, 3), nd the radian measure of angle to three decimal places.

32. Surveying. Suppose the gure for this problem represents the base of a large rock outcropping on a farmers land. If a surveyor nds ACB 110, AC 85 meters, and BC 73 meters, what is the approximate length of the outcropping? 33. Geometry. Find the measure in decimal degrees of a central angle subtended by a chord of length 112 millimeters in a circle of radius 72.8 millimeters. 34. Geometry. Find the measure in decimal degrees of a central angle subtended by a chord of length 13.8 feet in a circle of radius 8.26 feet. 35. Geometry. Two adjacent sides of a parallelogram meet at an angle of 3510 and have lengths of 3 and 8 feet. What is the length of the shorter diagonal of the parallelogram (to three signicant digits)? 36. Geometry. What is the length of the longer diagonal of the parallelogram in problem 35 (to three signicant digits)? 37. Navigation. Los Angeles and Las Vegas are approximately 200 miles apart. A pilot 80 miles from Los Angeles nds that she is 620 off course relative to her start in Los Angeles. How far is she from Las Vegas at this time? (Compute the answer to three signicant digits.) 38. Search and Rescue. At noon, two search planes set out from San Francisco to nd a downed plane in the ocean. Plane A travels due west at 400 miles per hour, and plane B ies northwest at 500 miles per hour. At 2 P.M. plane A spots the survivors of the downed plane and radios plane B to come and assist in the rescue. How far is plane B from plane A at this time (to three signicant digits)? 39. Geometry. Find the perimeter of a pentagon inscribed in a circle of radius 12.6 meters.

42. Analytic Geometry. If point A in the gure has coordinates (4, 3) and point B has coordinates (5, 1), nd the radian measure of angle to three decimal places. 43. Engineering. Three circles of radius 2.03, 5.00, and 8.20 centimeters are tangent to one another (see the gure). Find the three angles formed by the lines joining their centers (to the nearest 10).

44. Engineering. Three circles of radius 2.00, 5.00, and 8.00 inches are tangent to each other (see the gure). Find the three angles formed by the lines joining their centers (to the nearest 10). 45. Geometry. A rectangular solid has sides as indicated in the gure. Find CAB to the nearest degree.

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7 ADDITIONAL TOPICS IN TRIGONOMETRY

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46. Geometry. Referring to the gure, nd ACB to the nearest degree.

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47. Space Science. For communications between a space shuttle and the White Sands tracking station in southern New Mexico, two satellites are placed in geostationary orbit, 130 apart relative to the center of the earth, and 22,300 miles above the surface of the earth (see the gure). (A satellite in geostationary orbit remains stationary above a xed point on the surface of the earth.) Radio signals are sent from the tracking station by way of the satellites to the shuttle, and vice versa. This system allows the tracking station to be in contact with the shuttle over most of the Earths surface. How far to the nearest 100 miles is one of the geostationary satellites from the White Sands tracking station, W? The radius of the earth is 3,964 miles.

48. Space Science. A satellite S, in circular orbit around the earth, is sighted by a tracking station T (see the gure). The distance TS is determined by radar to be 1,034 miles, and the angle of elevation above the horizon is 32.4. How high is the satellite above the Earth at the time of the sighting? The radius of the Earth is 3,964 miles.

Section 7-3 Geometric Vectors

Geometric Vectors and Vector Addition Velocity Vectors Force Vectors Resolution of Vectors into Vector Components

Many physical quantities, such as length, area, or volume, can be completely specied by a single real number. Other quantities, such as directed distances, velocities, and forces, require for their complete specication both a magnitude and a direction. The former are often called scalar quantities, and the latter are called vector quantities. In this section we limit our discussion to the intuitive idea of geometric vectors in a plane. In Section 7-4 we introduce algebraic vectors, a rst step in the generalization of a concept that has far-reaching consequences. Vectors are widely used in many areas of science and engineering.

Geometric Vectors and Vector Addition

A line segment to which a direction has been assigned is called a directed line segment. A geometric vector is a directed line segment and is represented by an arrow (see Fig. 1). A vector with an initial point O and a terminal point P (the . Vectors are also denoted by a boldend with the arrowhead) is denoted by OP