CAMBRIDGE A LEVEL PHYSICS

D.C. CIRCUITS

LEARNING OUTCOMES
NUMBER i ii iii iv v vi vii viii ix

LEARNING OUTCOME
Understand what are circuits. Recall symbols of some commonly encountered circuit element. L e a r n K i r c h o f f s 1 st a n d 2 nd L a w s . U s e K i r c h o f f s L a w s t o f i n d e q u i v a l e nt r e s i s t a n c e s f o r series and parallel combinations. L e a r n h o w t o a p p l y K i r c h o f f s L a w s a n d e q u i va l e nt resistances to solve simple circuit problems. What is a potential divider circuit? Understand the behaviour of thermistors and LDRs in potential divider circuits What is a potentiometer? Understand the use of balanced potentiometers to find an unknown e.m.f

CIRCUITS
A circuit is a connection of circuit elements, connected in series or parallel combinations, that allow for the flow of current in a complete path. A source of emf drives current through the circuit (as learned in the previous chapter).

CIRCUIT ELEMENTS

Figure 7.13; Circuit symbols, Page 177, Chapter 7: Electricity, International A/AS Level Physics, by Mee, Crundle, Arnold and Brown, Hodder Education, United Kingdom, 2008.

CIRCUIT ELEMENTS
The symbols listed in the previous slide are symbols of commonly encountered circuit elements. These symbols should be learned by heart by the student to enable easier understanding of the circuit, and most importantly, how each circuit element functions in a circuit.

KIRC HOF F S

ST 1

LAW

Kirchoffs 1st Law is based on the conservation of amount of charge. Since charges cannot be produced or used up at any point along the circuit, including junctions, the amount of charge flowing into the junction must equal the amount of charge flowing out of it. The rate of flow of charge is equal to the amount of current that flows. Hence, we can say that the rate of flow of charge into a junction must equal the rate of flow of charge out of it.

KIRC HOF F S

ST 1

LAW

Kirchoffs 1st Law states that the total amount of current flowing into a junction must equal the total amount of current flowing out of the junction.

Figure 7.16; Circuit symbols, Page 177, Chapter 7: Electricity, International A/AS Level Physics, by Mee, Crundle, Arnold and Brown, Hodder Education, United Kingdom, 2008.

Diagram 26.7, page 856, Sears and Zemanskys University Physics, Young and Freedman, 13th edition, Pearson Education, San Francisco, 2012.

EXAMPLES

Figure 7.17: Example , Page 178, Chapter 7: Electricity, International A/AS Level Physics, by Mee, Crundle, Arnold and Brown, Hodder Education, United Kingdom, 2008.

EXAMPLES

Figure 7.18: Question 1 , Page 178, Chapter 7: Electricity, International A/AS Level Physics, by Mee, Crundle, Arnold and Brown, Hodder Education, United Kingdom, 2008.

EXAMPLES

Figure 7.19: Question 2 , Page 178, Chapter 7: Electricity, International A/AS Level Physics, by Mee, Crundle, Arnold and Brown, Hodder Education, United Kingdom, 2008.

KIRC HOF F S

ND 2

LAW

Kirchoffs 2nd Law states the algebraic sum of all the potential differences in a loop must equal zero.
Diagram 25.20, page 833, Sears and Zemanskys University Physics, Young and Freedman, 13th edition, Pearson Education, San Francisco, 2012.

KIRC HOF F S

ND 2

LAW

Kirchoffs 2nd Law is based on conservation of energy. Looking at the diagram in the previous slide, the battery provides electrical energy to the circuit, while the resistors convert this electrical energy into heat energy. Since energy is conserved, the electrical energy provided per unit of charge by the source must equal the amount of electrical energy converted per unit charge into heat.

KIRC HOF F S LAWS

Junctions are points in a circuit where currents can merge or split. The direction of loop can be set arbitrarily; either clockwise or anti clockwise.
Diagram 26.6, page 855, Sears and Zemanskys University Physics, Young and Freedman, 13th edition, Pearson Education, San Francisco, 2012.

EXAMPLES
The diagram on the left will be used to show how we normally use Kirchoffs Laws to find values of unknown current(s) or potential difference(s).
Diagram 26.9(a), page 857, Sears and Zemanskys University Physics, Young and Freedman, 13th edition, Pearson Education, San Francisco, 2012.

EXAMPLES

Diagram 26.12, page 859, Sears and Zemanskys University Physics, Young and Freedman, 13th edition, Pearson Education, San Francisco, 2012.

R ESISTORS IN SE R IES
We can use Kirchoffs 2nd Law to find the formula to calculate the total resistance of two or more resistors connected in series.
R1, R2 and R3 are three resistors connected in series. The current flowing through all 3 resistors will be the equal. We will use Kirchoffs 2nd Law to obtain a formula to find the total resistance of the three resistors in series.
Diagram 26.1 (a), page 851, Sears and Zemanskys University Physics, Young and Freedman, 13th edition, Pearson Education, San Francisco, 2012.

R ESISTORS IN SE R IES
If we apply a potential difference of Vab across the 3 resistors, Vax + Vxy + Vyb = Vab, based on Kirchoffs 2nd Law. Hence, Vab = IR1 + IR2 + IR3 = I(R1 + R2 + R3); or

But, . Hence, .
Diagram 26.1 (a), page 851, Sears and Zemanskys University Physics, Young and Freedman, 13th edition, Pearson Education, San Francisco, 2012.

R ESISTORS IN SE R IES
What this tells us is that the total resistance of all resistors connected in series is equal to the sum of all the individual resistances. This derivation can be extended to be used for 2 resistors, or more than 3 resistors in series.

Diagram 26.1 (a), page 851, Sears and Zemanskys University Physics, Young and Freedman, 13th edition, Pearson Education, San Francisco, 2012.

R E S I S TO R S I N PA R A L L E L
The diagram on the left shows three resistors, R1, R2 and R3 connected in parallel, with points a and b their common junctions. The potential differences across the 3 resistors will be equal. We will use Kirchoffs 1st Law to find the total resistance.
Diagram 26.1 (b), page 851, Sears and Zemanskys University Physics, Young and Freedman, 13th edition, Pearson Education, San Francisco, 2012.

R E S I S TO R S I N PA R A L L E L
I1

The total current, based on Kirchoffs 1st Law. Hence,

I2

or,

I3

Diagram 26.1 (b), page 851, Sears and Zemanskys University Physics, Young and Freedman, 13th edition, Pearson Education, San Francisco, 2012.

R E S I S TO R S I N PA R A L L E L
I1

I2

I3

This tells us that the inverse of the total resistance of resistive elements connected in parallel is equal to the sum of the inverses of all the resistances connected in parallel. This proof can be used for 2 or more than 3 resistors in a parallel combination.

Diagram 26.1 (b), page 851, Sears and Zemanskys University Physics, Young and Freedman, 13th edition, Pearson Education, San Francisco, 2012.

EXAMPLES

Figure 7.28: Example, Page 186, Chapter 7: Electricity, International A/AS Level Physics, by Mee, Crundle, Arnold and Brown, Hodder Education, United Kingdom, 2008.

EXAMPLES

Figure 7.29: Question 1, Page 187, Chapter 7: Electricity, International A/AS Level Physics, by Mee, Crundle, Arnold and Brown, Hodder Education, United Kingdom, 2008.

EXAMPLES

Figure 7.29: Question 2, Page 187, Chapter 7: Electricity, International A/AS Level Physics, by Mee, Crundle, Arnold and Brown, Hodder Education, United Kingdom, 2008.

EXAMPLES
May/June 2008, Paper 1, question 37.

EXAMPLES
May/June 2008, Paper 2, question 6.

EXAMPLES
May/June 2008, Paper 2, question 6 (contd).

EXAMPLES
May/June 2008, Paper 2, question 6 (contd).

EXAMPLES
May/Jun 2009, Paper 21, question 7.

EXAMPLES
May/Jun 2009, Paper 21, question 7 (contd).

EXAMPLES
May/Jun 2009, Paper 21, question 7 (contd).

EXAMPLES
May/Jun 2009, Paper 21, question 7 (contd).

EXAMPLES
May/Jun 2009, Paper 21, question 7 (contd).

EXAMPLES
Oct/Nov 2010, Paper 12, question 35.

EXAMPLES
May/June 2011, Paper 11, question 36.

EXAMPLES
Oct/Nov 2011, Paper 12, question 36.

HOMEWORK
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Oct/Nov 2008, Paper 1, question 35. May/June 2009, Paper 1, question 33. May/June 2009, Paper 1, question 34. May/June 2009, Paper 21, question 7. Oct/Nov 2009, Paper 11, question 33. Oct/Nov 2009, Paper 11, question 36. Oct/Nov 2009, Paper 22, question 6. May/Jun 2010, Paper 11, question 33.

HOMEWORK
9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. May/Jun 2010, Paper 11, question 34. May/Jun 2010, Paper 11, question 35. May/Jun 2010, Paper 11, question 36. Oct/Nov 2010, Paper 11, question 34. Oct/Nov 2010, Paper 11, question 35. Oct/Nov 2010, Paper 11, question 36. Oct/Nov 2010, Paper 12, question 37. Oct/Nov 2010, Paper 21, question 6.

HOMEWORK
19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. Oct/Nov 2010, Paper 23, question 8. May/June 2011, Paper 11, question 35. May/June 2011, Paper 12, question 36. May/June 2011, Paper 12, question 38. May/June 2011, Paper 22, question 5. May/June 2011, Paper 23, question 5. Oct/Nov 2011, Paper 11, question 37. Oct/Nov 2011, Paper 11, question 38.

HOMEWORK
27. Oct/Nov 2011, Paper 12, question 38. 28. Oct/Nov 2011, Paper 23, question 4.

POT E NT IA L DIV IDE RS

The term potential dividers is for a series connection of 2 or more resistive elements that divide the e.m.f of a cell.
Figure 7.31: Page 187, Chapter 7: Electricity, International A/AS Level Physics, by Mee, Crundle, Arnold and Brown, Hodder Education, United Kingdom, 2008.

POT E NT IA L DIV IDE RS

Since the total and the individual currents through both resistors are equal, we can get:
; and hence obtain: ;

Note that at all instances.

POT E NT IA L DIV IDE RS

If R1 and R2 have fixed values of resistances, then V1 and V2 will have constant values. We can use variable resistors, thermistors and light - dependent resistors (LDR) connected in series with a fixed resistance to obtain variable values of potential differences.

T HE R MISTORS
Thermistors are resistive elements whose resistance is affected by its temperature. We will look at negative temperature coefficient thermistors; i.e. thermistors that the values of resistivity decrease when the temperature increases. Since the resistance of a resistor that has fixed length and cross sectional area is linearly proportional to its resistivity, the resistance of a thermistor will also decrease with increase in temperature.

T HE R MISTORS
The curve on the left shows the resistivity vs. temperature characteristic of a negative temperature coefficient thermistor. The negative temperature coefficient is due to the negative gradient of the curve. At a higher temperature, the resistivity would be lower. As resistivity decreases, resistance also decreases. How does the plot of resistance vs. temperature look like?

Diagram 25.6 (b), page 824, Sears and Zemanskys University Physics, Young and Freedman, 13th edition, Pearson Education, San Francisco, 2012.

T HE R MISTORS
Thermistors are often connected in series with a fixed resistor to form a potential divider circuit. By varying the temperature of the thermistor, we can get different potential differences across the fixed resistor and thermistor. This can be used in a fire alarm, for example.

LIGHT - DEPENDENT RESISTORS (LDRs)

LDRs are resistive elements that have a varying resistance that depends on the illumination (amount of light) that reaches them. The resistance of an LDR will decrease with higher illumination, while its resistance will increase with lower illumination.

EXAMPLES

Example 1: Page 189, Chapter 7: Electricity, International A/AS Level Physics, by Mee, Crundle, Arnold and Brown, Hodder Education, United Kingdom, 2008.

EXAMPLES
Figure 7.35, Question 1: Page 190, Chapter 7: Electricity, International A/AS Level Physics, by Mee, Crundle, Arnold and Brown, Hodder Education, United Kingdom, 2008.

EXAMPLES
Figure 7.35, Question 1: Page 190, Chapter 7: Electricity, International A/AS Level Physics, by Mee, Crundle, Arnold and Brown, Hodder Education, United Kingdom, 2008.

EXAMPLES
May/June 2008, Paper 1, question 36.

EXAMPLES
Oct/Nov 2008, Paper 2, question 7.

EXAMPLES
Oct/Nov 2008, Paper 2, question 7 (contd).

EXAMPLES
Oct/Nov 2008, Paper 2, question 7 (contd).

EXAMPLES
Oct/Nov 2008, Paper 2, question 7 (contd).

EXAMPLES
Oct/Nov 2008, Paper 2, question 7 (contd).

EXAMPLES
Oct/Nov 2010, Paper 22, question 6.

EXAMPLES
Oct/Nov 2010, Paper 22, question 6 (contd).

EXAMPLES
Oct/Nov 2010, Paper 22, question 6 (contd).

EXAMPLES
Oct/Nov 2010, Paper 22, question 6 (contd).

EXAMPLES
Oct/Nov 2010, Paper 22, question 6 (contd).

EXAMPLES
Oct/Nov 2010, Paper 22, question 6 (contd).

EXAMPLES
Oct/Nov 2010, Paper 22, question 6 (contd).

HOMEWORK
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. May/June 2009, Paper 1, question 35. Oct/Nov 2009, Paper 11, question 35. May/June 2010, Paper 11, question 32. May/June 2010, Paper 23, question 6. Oct/Nov 2010, Paper 12, question 36. May/June 2011, Paper 12, question 37. Oct/Nov 2011, Paper 11, question 39. Oct/Nov 2011, Paper 12, question 37.

HOMEWORK
9. Oct/Nov 2011, Paper 13, question 40.

POT E NT IOME T E RS
A potentiometer is an instrument that can be used to measure the e.m.f of a source, with an internal resistance, without drawing any current from the source. When current flows, the potential difference across the source will be lower than the e.m.f. of the source.

POT E NT IOME T E RS
The basic setup of a potentiometer is shown below .
Vin Figure 7.32, Page 188, Chapter 7: Electricity, International A/AS Level Physics, by Mee, Crundle, Arnold and Brown, Hodder Education, United Kingdom, 2008.

POT E NT IOME T E RS
By moving the position of the jockey (C), we can vary Vout.

POT E NT IOME T E RS
The following few slides explain how we can use a potentiometer to obtain the value of an unknown e.m.f. with an internal resistance, r. We need three sources of e.m.f, 2 known and 1 unknown, a rheostat and a centre zero galvanometer. The setup is shown in the following slide.

POT E NT IOME T E RS

1 1 is known while 2 is unknown. The galvanometer is a centre zero galvanometer. The jockey (c) is moved along from a to b, and stopped when the galvanometer shows no deflection (I2 = 0 A). The potentials, 1 and 2 , are now balanced. The length of cb, , is recorded.

Diagram 26.19, page 864, Sears and Zemanskys University Physics, Young and Freedman, 13th edition, Pearson Education, San Francisco, 2012.

POT E NT IOME T E RS

1 We now replace 2 with a known e.m.f source, 3. Move the jockey from a to b again until = 0. Record the length of cb, , . Using Kirchoffs 2nd Law, we can obtain , and , . Dividing both, we get:

, ,

, ,

Diagram 26.19, page 864, Sears and Zemanskys University Physics, Young and Freedman, 13th edition, Pearson Education, San Francisco, 2012.

EXAMPLES

Figure 7.34: Example 2, Page 189, Chapter 7: Electricity, International A/AS Level Physics, by Mee, Crundle, Arnold and Brown, Hodder Education, United Kingdom, 2008.

EXAMPLES
Oct/Nov 2008, Paper 1, question 37.

EXAMPLES
Oct/Nov 2010, Paper 11, question 37.

EXAMPLES
May/June 2011, Paper 11, question 37.

EXAMPLES
May/June 2011, Paper 21, question 5.

EXAMPLES
May/June 2011, Paper 21, question 5 (contd).

EXAMPLES
May/June 2011, Paper 21, question 5 (contd).

EXAMPLES
May/June 2011, Paper 21, question 5 (contd).

EXAMPLES
May/June 2011, Paper 21, question 5 (contd).

EXAMPLES
May/June 2011, Paper 21, question 5 (contd).

EXAMPLES
May/June 2011, Paper 21, question 5 (contd).

HOMEWORK
1. 2. 3. 4. May/June 2008, Paper 1, question 38. May/June 2010, Paper 22, question 6. Oct/Nov 2010, Paper 11, question 37. Oct/Nov 2011, Paper 22, question 5.