Skeleton Manual

Poulton Research Project
Skeleton Manual
Compiled by Steve Crane & Ray Carpenter
Version 4 - April 2006
Copyright Notice Copyright 2006. This manual is the Copyright of Stephen Crane and Raymond Carpenter who have asserted their right to be identified as the authors of the work in accordance with the Copyright, Design and Patent Act 1988.
Table of Contents
1 Introduction ...............................................................................................................................................1
1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 Legal and Ethical Considerations...................................................................................................................1 Overview of Human Remains at Poulton....................................................................................................1 Disarticulated Bone..........................................................................................................................................1 Articulated Burials ............................................................................................................................................2 Acknowledgements..........................................................................................................................................2
Excavation...................................................................................................................................................3
2.1 Cleaning In-Situ ..................................................................................................................................................3 2.2 Recording ...........................................................................................................................................................3 2.3 Lifting and Bagging the Skeleton ....................................................................................................................6
Post-Excavation Cleaning and Storage .................................................................................................9

3.1 Articulated Skeletons.......................................................................................................................................9 3.2 Disarticulated Bones ..................................................................................................................................... 10
Basic Post-Excavation Analysis............................................................................................................ 11

4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 4.6 Sex Determination ........................................................................................................................................ 11 Age Determination........................................................................................................................................ 15 Height Determination................................................................................................................................... 20 Abnormalities ................................................................................................................................................. 22 Skeleton Database ......................................................................................................................................... 23 Minimum Number of Individuals (MNI).................................................................................................... 23
5 6 7
Advanced Post-Excavation Analysis................................................................................................... 25 Disposal.................................................................................................................................................... 27 Cremations.............................................................................................................................................. 29

7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 Cremation Pits ............................................................................................................................................... 29 Vessels.............................................................................................................................................................. 29 Recording ........................................................................................................................................................ 29 Post-Excavation Treatment......................................................................................................................... 31
8 9
References and Bibliography ............................................................................................................... 33 Appendices.............................................................................................................................................. 35

Appendix A Bones of the Human Skeleton................................................................................................... 37 Appendix B Skeleton Context Sheet: Worked Example ........................................................................... 39 Appendix C Basic Post-Excavation Sheet: Worked Example ................................................................... 41 Appendix D Stature Estimation Sheet: Worked Example ......................................................................... 43 Appendix E Standard Context Sheet for Grave Cut: Worked Example................................................ 45 Appendix F Standard Context Sheet for Grave Fill: Worked Example.................................................. 47 Appendix G Home Office Licence for the Removal of Human Remains ............................................... 49 Appendix H Estimating Age From Height...................................................................................................... 51 Appendix I Cremation Sheet: Worked Example ......................................................................................... 53 Appendix J MNI Record Sheet: Worked Example ...................................................................................... 55
Poulton Skeleton Manual
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1 Introduction
This manual started as an extension of the first edition of Poulton Project Field Manual [Emery & Gibbins, 1995] and replaced pages 19 to 30 inclusive of that document. With revision of the Field Manual (now called the Site Manual) to its third edition, this Skeleton Manual is now a stand-alone companion volume. It provides a detailed handbook for the treatment of human remains at all stages of the archaeological process, including excavation, cleaning and storage, post-excavation analysis and disposal.
1.1 Legal and Ethical Considerations

The overriding principle is that human remains must always be treated with care and dignity. Always bear in mind that it is a privilege to be allowed to excavate the remains of another human being. There are important legal restrictions on the excavation of human remains. A license is required since June 2005 this has been issued by the Department for Constitutional Affairs (http://www.dca.gov.uk/corbur/buriafr.htm). See Appendix G for a copy of the licence, which has to be renewed annually. More details of the legal position can be found in [Garratt-Frost, 1992].
1.2 Overview of Human Remains at Poulton

The majority of the human remains found so far at Poulton are from Christian inhumations dating to the medieval era and this manual concentrates on the processing of this type of material. However, some cremations from much earlier periods have also been found (see Section 7) and it is always possible that material from other epochs will be found in the future. Human bones found at Poulton can be classified into two categories: a) Articulated Burials: where bones are still recognisably in place in the correct position. A single grave may contain the remains of one or more individuals. Each articulated burial is assigned a skeleton number. Disarticulated Bones: where bones have been disturbed and can no longer be associated with an individual burial. Disarticulated bones may be found completely out of context (e.g. where they have been disturbed by ploughing), or in the fill of an articulated burial (e.g. where that burial disturbed an earlier one), or deposited in a specially dug charnel pit. Disarticulated bones are identified only by the context in which they are found. A skull is always treated in the same way as an articulated burial, even if no other bones can be associated with it.
b)
N.B.
1.3 Disarticulated Bone

Where disarticulated bones are found in the fill of an articulated burial, they should be cleaned, photographed and recorded along with that burial (see Section 1.4). Where significant quantities of disarticulated bone are found in their own charnel pit, they should be cleaned, photographed and recorded as part of the standard context sheet for the fill of that pit. Where disarticulated bones are found in any other situation, they do not need to be recorded in detail, but should be treated as ordinary finds and placed in the finds tray for that particular context. Sometimes a disarticulated bone may be of special interest, e.g. if it shows some medical abnormalities or if it appears to have been deliberately deposited in a disarticulated state (e.g. like material in Neolithic long barrows). In this case, ask the supervisor if any special procedures are needed. Animal bones are common at Poulton and care may be needed to differentiate them from human bones, particularly where the remains are fragmentary. Detailed guidance is given in [Brothwell, 1981: 36-43] and [Bass, 1995: 309-317].
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1.4 Articulated Burials

The diagram below gives an overview of the process for handling an articulated burial.
Identify a burial and define edges
Assign context nos to grave cut, fill & skeleton, and skeleton no (section 2.2.2)
Clean burial (section 2.1)
Record burial - context sheets, plans, photographs (section 2.2)
Lift & bag bones, clean grave cut, sieve spoil (section 2.3)
Clean bones and place in store (section 3)
Basic post-excavation analysis - age, sex, stature, gross abnormalities (section 4) Optional: Advanced post-excavation analysis (section 5) Disposal (section 6)
1.5 Acknowledgements
Our sincere thanks are due to: Mike Emery, Director of the Poulton Project. Those professional osteoarchaeologists who have provided information, advice and encouragement, notably Gill Dunn, Lawrence Owens, Dave Pepper and Anthea Boylston. All those members of the Poulton project, volunteers and students, who have been involved in excavating and processing the human remains at Poulton.
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2 Excavation
When bones are first discovered in the ground, it may not be immediately obvious whether they are part of an articulated burial, or whether they are disarticulated. The area should be carefully cleared to discover the extent of the bones and to try to identify the edges of the grave cut. Once it is clear that an articulated burial is being dealt with, the following numbers need to be assigned: Skeleton number from the Skeleton Register. Context numbers for the grave fill, skeleton and grave cut (preferably in that order) from the Context Register.
Ideally, a skeleton should be excavated in a single day to minimise damage so avoid starting late in the day. If it is not possible to complete the excavation in a day, cover the skeleton with polythene overnight to keep it damp. Graves must be excavated stratigraphically (deposit by deposit in reverse order of deposition) and in plan: they must not be sectioned. They must be excavated by hand and the work kept scrupulously clean as it proceeds. Great care must be taken to recover all of the bones which are present, in as good a condition as possible, as this directly affects the quality of the post-excavation analysis. All the excavated spoil must be sieved to ensure that small bones, teeth, bone fragments and finds are not lost.
2.1 Cleaning In-Situ

The skeleton must be carefully cleaned prior to recording, using a variety of tools such as a leaf trowel, small paintbrushes, dental tools and wooden sticks. The cleaning of small bones such as hands, feet and ribs can cause disturbance and it is often best to excavate only the minimum amount of soil necessary to show their position. If the soil is hard, it may be lightly sprayed with water to help soften it. Individual bones may not always appear where you expect them! This may be a feature of the original burial, or due to later disturbance or deposition of disarticulated bone. N.B. Always be aware that a grave could contain multiple burials, or that the remains of a foetus could be present with an adult skeleton. Any metal nails that are found during excavation should be treated as potentially in-situ coffin nails. They should be left exactly as found and their positions recorded on a plan.
2.2 Recording
Photography is now generally accepted as the best way of recording a skeleton in-situ: it is both rapid and accurate. The traditional approach of site drawings of skeletons at 1:10 is time-consuming and often inaccurate.
2.2.1
Planning
The skull, pelvis and long bones of the skeleton should be recorded precisely on the plan of the grave cut (at the usual 1:20 scale). This will enable the photographs (see below) to be accurately located in relation to the site grid.
2.2.2

Context Sheets
Standard cut-type sheet for the grave cut see worked example in Appendix E. Standard fill-type sheet for the grave fill see worked example in Appendix F. Specialised skeleton sheet see worked example in Appendix B.
Each skeleton should have at least 3 associated context sheets:
If the remains of a coffin are found, this should have its own context sheet. Detailed notes on filling in the skeleton context sheet are given below:
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Site Code Trench SW Grid
POU/CHF/ followed by the last two digits of the year, e.g. POU/CHF/03. Number of the trench containing the burial. The south-western grid co-ordinates of the 5-metre grid square in which the grave is situated (if the grave spans more than one 5-metre square, give the SW co-ordinates of all the squares). Unique skeleton reference number. Context number of skeleton. Context number of the grave cut. Context number of the grave fill. Shade all the bones which are present in the grave (N.B. this may have to be updated as the bones are lifted). Indicate any breaks in long bones. Sketch the attitude of the skull and limbs in relation to the pelvis and spine. Define the orientation of the burial by indicating the end of the grave at which the head is placed (e.g. W) and by drawing a North arrow. Prone = face down, lying on the front Supine = face up, lying on the back Extended = laid out in approximately straight line Flexed = leg joints bent by < 90 Crouched = leg joints bent by > 90 Contracted = knees brought right up against chest (foetal position) Note the condition of the bone, e.g. well preserved, friable (crumbly), weathered. Disturbance by roots, animals, erosion, etc. should be noted and also shown on the sketch plan (see below). Truncation (cutting away by a later feature) where skeleton is truncated, indicate on bones diagram (above) and on sketch plan (below) with truncating context features. Post-mortem damage (e.g. breaks in long bones, crushing of skull) should be noted. Pathology any evidence of disease and/or ante-mortem fractures of the bones. At this stage, it is only possible to identify obvious pathologies, which should be briefly described. More detailed study of pathology will be performed during post-excavation analysis. Shroud/Coffin: Presence indicate if there is any evidence for a shroud (e.g. pins) or a coffin. If a coffin was present, then define: Type e.g. wooden (nailed), wooden (dowelled), lead, stone. Context No number assigned to coffin Any other points of interest (e.g. assemblies of stones) any other aspects of the burial which may be of interest or are unusual, e.g. associated burials, female with foetus in place, or any other complex burial situation. These should also be shown on the sketch plan (see below). Of particular interest are assemblies of stones, which have been found in several burials, predominantly around the skull. These should also be photographed before and after lifting the bones. List all the contexts which come immediately before and after the skeleton context in the Harris matrix. Those below (before) the skeleton context will include the grave cut context. Those above (after) the skeleton context will include the grave fill context. List the sample numbers and where they were taken from (see Section 2.3.4). Draw a sketch of the burial (with the skeleton in simple outline only), including its relationship to surrounding layers, features and other burials, associated finds and grave goods. Ensure the plan is correctly oriented to the site grid and that the co-ordinates of the grid squares are shown (precise co-ordinates of specific points on the skeleton are shown in the next section). N.B. This is not a substitute for accurate plans!
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Skeleton No Skeleton Context Grave Cut Context Grave Fill Context Shade bones present
Position
Preservation
Additional Description
Stratigraphic Matrix
Environmental Samples Sketch Plan
Levels & Co-ordinates
Wherever possible, the grid co-ordinates and levels of the skull, pelvis and ankle(s) should be measured: the positions of these points are shown on the bones diagram above. If additional points are measured, indicate these on the same diagram. TBM = Temporary Bench Mark height BS = Backsight to Temporary Bench Mark IH = Instrument Height (TBM + BS) FS = Foresight to point of interest RL = Reduced Level of point of interest (IH FS) Measure the overall length of the skeleton (as an approximation to the stature of the individual, if the burial is extended). Any finds associated directly with the burial (but not general constituents of the grave fill such as building rubble, which will be recorded on the fill context sheet). These finds will often be treated as Small Finds and assigned their own numbers. The drawing numbers of all plans which show the skeleton (see Section 2.2.1). The film and frame numbers of all the photographs which show the skeleton (see Section 2.2.3). A brief interpretation of the burial as a whole, including comments about the coffin, grave and grave goods (if any). The estimated sex and age should only be recorded where this is obvious or where the person completing the sheet has some expertise in this area. More detailed analysis will be carried out during the post-excavation phase. Name of person completing the form and date completed. Name of supervisor and date form checked.
Associated Finds and Small Finds Plan Nos Photos (Colour & Mono) Interpretation
Recorded By / Date Checked By / Date
2.2.3
Photography
The photographs are the primary visual record of the skeleton. Photographs should be taken as soon as possible after the skeleton has been exposed. The usual site guidelines for photography apply, but in addition: If the bones are well preserved, then they can be cleaned with a small sponge and water to improve definition. If poorly preserved, a fine water spray may achieve the same result. However, skeletons should not be repeatedly wetted and allowed to dry, as this may result in disintegration of the bone. Photographs of the entire skeleton should be taken from a not too oblique angle and from the feet end of the grave where possible. Close-up photographs should also be taken of any abnormalities, particularly if the bone is fragile and may be damaged on lifting. Any stone assemblies associated with the burial should also be photographed. Each photograph must show the skeleton context and skeleton number. Both colour and monochrome photographs should be taken and their film and frame numbers recorded on the skeleton context sheet.
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2.3 Lifting and Bagging the Skeleton

Once the skeleton has been cleaned and all recording completed, it can be lifted.
2.3.1
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
Equipment
Skeleton number and context number of fill Finds tray (for finds within the fill) + label Trowel, small tool, picks, etc. Plastic bags 8 large (for long bones, skull etc.), 12 medium (for other bones and finds) Permanent marker pen Large cardboard boxes (for transporting filled bags) Skeleton context sheet (in case it needs updating during lifting, e.g. if more bones are found)
2.3.2
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Procedure
Write the context number of the fill on the label (with all the other standard information) and place in finds tray. Work systematically through the skeleton, as defined in Order of Lifting below (Section 2.3.3.). Retain all the spoil from the excavation, as it must be sieved later (step 9). Choose an appropriate size bag, write on the outside the skeleton number and description of bones, e.g. SK 102 RIGHT ARM. Using the tools, fully expose and undermine the bones, gently lift, carefully remove any large clods of attached earth and place bones in bag. If the soil is hard, it can be lightly sprayed with water to help soften it. As many fragments of bone should be recovered as possible. N.B. Dont scrape the bones, or attempt to remove earth from holes (particularly from the skull!). Dont forget the epiphyses on juveniles & infants! Skulls must always be supported by both hands and never picked up by the eye orbits the weight of an earth-filled skull should not be underestimated. Long bones should always be lifted by both hands to avoid breakage.
When in doubt, ask the supervisor!
6. 7. 8. 9.
If additional bones are found during lifting, update the diagram on the skeleton context sheet. When each bag is full, seal it (if possible) and place gently in a box. Any finds within the fill should be placed in the finds tray. At the end, transfer the finds and the label to their own bag. At the end, gently trowel over the area where the skeleton laid, in case there are further small bones or finds. All of the spoil from all stages of the lifting should be sieved and any bones or finds placed in the appropriate bags. Fully excavate the grave cut (sieving the spoil) and record it on its own context sheet. Transport the filled bags to the finds cabin.
10. 11.
2.3.3
1. 2. 3. 4.
Order of Lifting
Right hand (M) Right arm (L) Left hand (M) if the hands cannot be easily separated, then bag together Left arm (L)
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There is no correct order, but a suggested order is given below (L = large bag, M = medium):
5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19.
Right foot (M) Right leg (L) Left foot (M) if the feet cannot be easily separated, then bag together Left leg (L) Skull and hyoid cartilage (L) Mandible (M) only if easily separated from the rest of the skull, otherwise bag together Loose teeth (M) Sternum & Manubrium (M) Right Ribs (M) Left Ribs (M) Right Clavicle & Scapula (M) Left Clavicle & Scapula (M) Pelvis including Sacrum (L) Vertebrae (L) Miscellaneous loose bones (as necessary)
2.3.4
Environmental Samples and Other Organic Material
Environmental samples can tell us about the overall environment at the time of the burial (e.g. from pollen and snails), as well as about the individual (e.g. food remains and kidney stones). The supervisor should determine whether or not environmental samples are required for each skeleton, depending on the needs of the research programme and the likelihood that organic material has been preserved. If required, they should be taken from some or all of the following areas: Skull Neck Chest Abdomen Pelvis
The usual guidelines for environmental samples apply, but in addition: Sample size should be 1kg. Sample numbers and locations should be entered on the skeleton context sheet.
The excavator should also be aware of other material which is associated with the skeleton and which should be retrieved if not specifically included in environmental samples. These include: a) b) Kidney, bladder, sinus and gallstones. These resemble small pebbles and are therefore difficult to recognise. Hyatid cysts, produced as a reaction to the tapeworm parasite, can be found in many regions, most commonly in the abdomen, thorax and cranium. These are normally of a thin calcareous nature and roughly spherical. Biological material stomach contents and coprolites. These may contain cereal fragments, seeds of food plants and the eggs of intestinal parasites. These are most likely to occur in waterlogged deposits and hence are rare at Poulton.
c)
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3 Post-Excavation Cleaning and Storage

Much of the material in this section is taken from [Anderson, 1993a]. Excavated human bones need to be cleaned, both to prevent them from going mouldy and to aid postexcavation analysis. Although some sources recommend dry brushing as a means of removing soil, this is generally ineffective with the clay soil typical of Poulton: instead, the bones must be washed. N.B. Bones must never be glued or consolidated with chemicals, as this can damage them.
3.1 Articulated Skeletons

At Poulton, it is best to wash the bones before the clay soil dries out completely, as it then becomes too hard. The bones should be carefully washed in lukewarm water using a toothbrush, without being soaked, in the same way as other finds. If there are incomplete and/or damaged bones, soil can be carefully removed from the broken ends using picks or other fine tools, but great care must be taken to avoid damaging the bone. The skull may fall apart when washed (often it is only the soil inside which holds it together), but as long as all the pieces are saved this is not a major problem. The facial bones in particular are very fragile. Care should also be taken not to remove the brown tartar deposits on teeth. When changing the water, ensure that small bones and bone fragments are not thrown away. Always change the water before starting a new skeleton. The bones should now be laid out to dry in clean trays lined with newspaper and with the original bag (which is the only form of identification) turned inside out so that it can dry thoroughly too. The drying process may take a few days (depending on conditions). This needs a secure location with a fairly consistent and moderate temperature dont leave the bones in direct sunlight or apply artificial heat. The dry bones should be placed back in the original bags (turned the right way out), or if the bags are too dirty or damaged, in clean new bags. Each bag must contain a standard label showing site code, trench number, skeleton number, skeleton context and description of bones. The same information should also be written on the outside of the bag with an indelible marker. All the bags for a single skeleton should be placed in a separate box, preferably one of the standard 12" x 24" x 4.5" boxes which can usually hold a complete skeleton. An additional box may be necessary if the skull is large, or if there are environmental samples, which should be kept with the skeleton at this stage. In this case, ensure the boxes are labelled 1 of 2, 2 of 2, etc.. Occasionally (especially for incomplete or subadult remains), it may be permissible to store more than one skeleton in a single box. The site code, skeleton number(s) and skeleton context(s) should be written on the top of the box with a marker. A standard label (see below) should be stuck onto the end of the box for each skeleton, giving the skeleton number and context number (again) and its status in terms of washing and post-excavation analysis.
SKELETON NO.: CONTEXT NO.: WASHED: AGE DET: SEX DET: HT DET: PHOTOS:
Finally, the box should be placed in the skeleton store, in the area allocated to skeletons awaiting postexcavation analysis, with the label visible. Boxes should not be stacked too high, to avoid crushing. Stacking directly on the floor should also be avoided as the boxes may become damp.
3.2 Disarticulated Bones

Disarticulated bones are processed in basically the same way as articulated skeletons, but note the following: All the bones for a single context should be kept together, with a label showing the context number and DISARTICULATED BONE. Unstratified remains should be kept separate from stratified bones (and labelled accordingly). There may be several bags for each context: each bag should be uniquely identified with a sequential number, e.g. for context 768 there would be bag numbers 768.001, 768.002, 768.003, etc. Unstratified remains are assigned the dummy context number 0, so the corresponding bags are labelled 0.001, 0.002, 0.003, etc. Bones from a single context should be placed in the same box, unless more than one box is required. Otherwise, it is quite acceptable to store several contexts in a single box, so as not to waste space. The site code, context numbers and DISARTICULATED BONE should be written on the top and one end of each box with a marker. Unstratified remains should be placed in separate boxes from stratified bones. The site code, UNSTRATIFIED DISARTICULATED BONE and the range of bag numbers should be written on the top and one end of each box with a marker. Finally, the boxes should be placed in the skeleton store, in the area allocated to disarticulated bones awaiting post-excavation analysis.
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4 Basic Post-Excavation Analysis

A basic level of post-excavation analysis must always be carried out for every excavated skeleton, before disposal. This covers the fundamental analysis of the skeleton, including age, sex, stature and gross abnormalities. An example of a completed form used to record the results of this analysis is shown in Appendix C. Details of more advanced analysis are given in Section 5.
4.1 Sex Determination

Within any human population, adult male and female skeletons differ in general size and shape and this is the basis for determining their sex. There are no generally agreed standards for determining sex in juveniles (apart from DNA analysis which we are unlikely to use at Poulton). This can lead to problems with adolescent skeletons [Buikstra & Ubelaker, 1994]: Pelvis Immature pelvises tend to follow the male pattern. Hence female features are a reasonable indicator of sex, but male features are ambiguous, since they may represent either a male or an immature female. Skull Conversely, immature skulls tend to follow the female pattern. Hence male features are a reasonable indicator of sex, but female features are ambiguous since they may represent either a female or an immature male
So the evidence of sex should always be considered together with that of age (see later). The two primary bones for determining sex are the pelvis and skull. The accuracy which can be achieved has been estimated as follows [Dunn, 2002]: Skull alone 80% Pelvis alone 95% Both skull and pelvis 98% Many different attributes of the pelvis and skull have been proposed as a means of sex determination. A number of the most commonly used have been taken from [Brothwell, 1981: 60], [Buikstra & Ubelaker, 1994: 17-20], [Sutherland and Suchey, 1991: 502] and [Mays, 1998: 34]. As many as possible of these attributes should be used for each skeleton, since this increases the accuracy of sex determination. In some cases the skull or pelvis may not be available or may be in poor condition, which will limit the number of attributes which can be assessed: it may sometimes prove impossible to determine the sex at all. On the recording form (Appendix C), each attribute is scored using a range of 1 (most female) to 5 (most male), using as a guide the diagrams given below. Where diagrams are only given for values of 1 and 5, interpolate for the intermediate values. Attributes more extreme than 1 and 5 should be scored as 1 and 5 respectively. If it is not possible to assess the attribute (e.g. because of damage to the bone), then assign a score of 0.
Finally, make an overall assessment based on all the available data and taking into account the varying reliability of the different indicators (i.e. dont just average the scores!)
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4.1.1
Pelvis
The Greater Sciatic Notch tends to be broad in females and narrow in males. Hold the os coxae about 15cm above the figure below and align it as closely as possible with the diagram (which shows the left side). As a rule of thumb, place your thumb in the notch. If the notch is filled or only limited side-to-side movement is possible, it is male. If considerable side-to-side movement is possible, it is female.
The Sub-Pubic Angle (dotted line in figure below) tends to be wider and more U-shaped in females, narrower (generally less than 90) and more V-shaped in males.
The Preauricular Sulcus (location shown in the left figure below) is more consistently present in females, although sometimes poorly developed or present on one side only.
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There are three main attributes of the subpubic region, the area indicated in the figure below (the right side is shown):
The Ventral Arc is a slightly elevated ridge of bone across the ventral surface of the pubis, which tends to be present in the female (diagram shows view from front):
The Subpubic Concavity (diagram shows left side viewed from rear):
The Ischiopubic Ramus Ridge (diagram shows left side viewed end-on):
1
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4.1.2
Skull
Males tend to have larger, more robust skulls than females, but the differences can be difficult to interpret. Four key aspects have been chosen and are illustrated below. Hold the cranium or mandible at arms length a few inches above the appropriate part of the figure, oriented as closely as possible to the diagram. Nuchal Crest:
Mastoid Process: The most important variable to consider is the volume, not the length.
Supra-Orbital Margin: Hold the edge of the orbit between your fingers to determine its thickness. To score 1, the edge should feel sharp, like the edge of a slightly dulled knife. To score 5, the edge should feel thick and rounded like a pencil.
Supra-Orbital Ridge/Glabella:
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4.2 Age Determination

All techniques for determining age at death rely on relating changes in the skeleton to the age of the individual concerned. Even where these relationships can be determined with some degree of accuracy for modern populations, there is no guarantee that they will be equally applicable to the population under study. Furthermore, individuals within a population can show great variability. The chart below, taken from [Buikstra & Ubelaker, 1994:51], should be used to determine age based on overall development of the teeth:
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4.2.1
Adults
There are no wholly satisfactory methods for determining the age of adult skeletons; it is only possible to assign skeletons to fairly wide age bands. The diagram below [Brothwell, 1981: 72] shows the pattern of molar wear in Neolithic to Medieval British skulls, which covers most of those expected to be found at Poulton.
N.B. The correlation between age and dental wear is greatest for first and second molars, and much lower for third molars [Mays, 1998; 57]. N.B. It is possible for the third molar to be present on the mandible but not on the maxilla (or vice-versa) or even more confusingly, to vary from side to side of the maxilla or mandible. In this situation, there would be minimal wear on the third molar, but this would give little or no indication of age. This should be borne in mind particularly when you are missing the mandible or maxilla. While the development of the pubic symphysis is commonly used to determine age, we do not use it at Poulton: a) because these bones are often too damaged, and b) because it has been shown to perform poorly on archaeological material, especially when calibrated using a different reference population, e.g. [Mays, 1998: 55] and [Molleson and Cox, 1993: 167-170].
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4.2.2
Children and Young Adults
Age at death can be most accurately determined for children and young adults, since age-related changes to the skeleton are most distinct at this stage of development. In particular, the fusion of the epiphyses is commonly used [Mays, 1998: 48] and [Bass, 1995:194]. Epiphysial Fusion The diagram below shows the ages of epiphysial fusion. Use the recording form (Appendix C) to record absence or presence of fusion for each available epiphysis and then use the diagram to determine a bounding age for each one. For example: If the femur head (p) is fused in a male skeleton, then record age as >= 14. If the radius distal epiphysis (f) is unfused in a female skeleton, then record age as =< 20.
In cases where it is not possible to determine the sex, check the figures for both males and females and use the least restrictive condition. For example: If the femur head is fused, it implies >= 14 (male) or >= 13 (female). Record age as >= 13. If the radius distal epiphysis is unfused, it implies =<23 (male) or =< 20 (female). Record age as =< 23.
Finally, use the data for all available epiphyses to determine an overall age range. A Visual Basic program is available which performs all these calculations. N.B. Newborn infants do not have any epiphyses. However, the absence of epiphyses should not be used as a guide to age determination, as these small and less-mineralised bones often do not survive anyway or are lost during excavation.
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Diaphyseal and Epiphyseal Length Where insufficient material is available to assess age based on dental development and/or epiphyseal fusion, then the table below (taken from [Scheuer & Black, 2000:289;299;308;394;416;426]) can be used to estimate the age of subadults based on the length of the long bones. For bones where the epiphyses have not yet fused, this is the diaphyseal length (Di in the table below), i.e. the length of the diaphysis or shaft of the bone. For bones where the epiphyses have fused, this is the epiphyseal length (Epi in the table below). The bones should be measured to the nearest mm using an osteometric board, and the lengths and derived ages recorded on the form (Appendix C) under the Height Determination section. Age 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 Femur Di 7.5 13.6 17.2 19.9 22.4 24.7 26.9 29.0 31.1 33.0 34.9 36.7 38.7 Epi Tibia Di 6.5 10.9 13.9 16.2 18.2 20.1 21.8 23.5 25.3 26.7 28.5 30.0 31.7 Epi Fibula Di 6.2 10.6 13.7 16.1 18.1 20.0 21.7 23.3 25.0 26.5 28.0 29.5 31.1 Epi Humerus Di 6.5 10.5 12.9 14.6 16.2 17.7 19.0 20.3 21.7 22.8 24.0 25.2 26.4 Epi Radius Di 5.2 8.1 9.7 11.0 12.1 13.2 14.2 15.1 16.1 16.9 17.9 18.7 19.7 Epi Ulna Di 5.9 9.1 10.8 12.2 13.4 14.6 15.6 16.6 17.6 18.5 19.5 20.5 21.5 Epi
38.4 40.4 42.7 44.7 46.5 47.7 48.5 48.6
32.1 33.9 35.9 37.6 39.1 39.9 40.5 40.5
30.9 32.5 34.4 35.9 37.4 38.3 38.9 38.9
25.7 27.0 28.5 29.9 31.3 32.2 32.9 33.1
19.1 20.1 21.3 22.4 23.4 24.2 24.6 24.8
20.3 21.4 22.7 23.9 25.0 25.8 26.4 26.5
N.B. All bone lengths in cm.
4.2.3
Foetuses
Diaphyseal bone length is a good indicator of age in foetuses. Bone growth is less affected by external factors (e.g. malnutrition) than after birth, and the skeleton grows rapidly during this stage. Age can be estimated from long-bone length to an accuracy of approximately 2 weeks. The data in the table below is taken from [Chamberlain, 1998: 9] and [Mays, 1998: 43]. The bones should be measured using an osteometric board, and the lengths recorded on the form (Appendix C) under the Height Determination section. Foetal Age (weeks) 20 25 30 35 40 45 N.B. All bone lengths in cm.
Femur 3.1 4.1 5.2 6.2 7.3
Tibia 2.8 3.7 4.5 5.4 6.3
Humerus
Radius 2.5 3.2 3.8 4.4 5.1
5.0 5.9 6.8 7.7
4.3 Height Determination

For adults, the most reliable method of estimating stature is from the long bones: the femur, tibia, fibula, humerus, radius and ulna [Brickley & McKinley, 2004: 33]. Formulae can then be applied to calculate height from the length of these bones. This technique cannot be applied to immature individuals (i.e. those with unfused bones) because the relative sizes of the bones change during development: in fact there is no generally agreed method for estimating height in this case. Use the following procedure for an adult skeleton: Measure the lengths of all available bones to the nearest mm using an osteometric board. The diagrams below [Brothwell, 1981] show how the bones should be positioned. Horizontal arrows denote movement from side to side, curved arrows circular movement.
Back of bone placed face downward on board, long axis of bone parallel to long axis of board. Back of bone placed face downward on board, rotate bone to find maximum length.
Head placed against fixed vertical, distal end against movable upright. Bone moved up & down and side to side until maximum length obtained. (Ulna and fibula are also measured in the same way).
Broken bones can generally be re-assembled and measured, provided that the breaks are clean and all pieces are present. The pieces should be held together by hand and not glued or fixed in any way. This requires two people, one to hold the bone and the other to operate the osteometric board. The measurements are recorded on the form (Appendix C). Also record on the form the number of pieces of each bone and whether or not it is complete. Calculate the stature using the appropriate set of equations, Male American White or Female American White, depending on sex (stature can only be determined if the sex is known).
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Each formula should be calculated separately for left- and right-side bones, and the results averaged where both values are available. Examine and compare the various estimates and consider rejecting any outliers which appear too different from the rest (e.g. might a bone from a different skeleton have been measured?). The stature estimate based on the equation with the lowest standard error should be taken as the best estimate, rather than averaging the estimates from all the available equations. A spreadsheet is available which performs all these calculations (see Appendix D). Record the estimated stature and the standard error of the corresponding equation on the PostExcavation recording form (Appendix C). The stature should be recorded to a precision of 0.1cm and 0.1", and the standard error to a precision of 0.01cm.
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4.4 Abnormalities
Any obvious abnormalities of the skeleton should be noted on the recording form (Appendix C), for possible further investigation either in-house or by an external expert (see Section 5). Only definite abnormalities should be recorded be aware that changes to bones and teeth could be due to post-mortem factors such as root marks, rodent gnawing, deformation through soil pressure, and soil erosion. The following information should be recorded for each abnormality: Which bone/tooth is affected (including side)? Which part of the bone/tooth (e.g. proximal shaft)? What is the nature of the change has additional bone been formed (most common), has bone been destroyed, or has the bone bent (least common)? If bone has been formed, is it disorganised (indicating active disease at the time of death) or organised (indicating a healed lesion)? If bone has been destroyed, is there any sign of healing, e.g. rounding of the edges of the lesion? What is the distribution pattern if more than one tooth/bone is affected? Can the abnormality be measured and compared with a normal tooth/bone?
Photographs (both monochrome and colour) should be taken and the film and frame numbers noted on the recording form. Scales should be used, and preferably a normal bone or tooth should be included for comparison. A dark background usually gives the best results for bones.
4.4.1
Types of Abnormality
The following list summarises the major types of abnormality which should be recorded, with the most common type first. Type Arthropathy (joint diseases) Dental Disease Trauma Description & Examples Osteoarthritis (formation of new bone on and around joints) is most common. In severe cases, the cartilage is totally destroyed and bones directly abrade each other. Wear on teeth leads to abscesses and loss of teeth. Gum disease can lead to loosening of teeth. Broken bones note whether any healing has occurred (can help to determine if damage is post-mortem). Trephining or trepanning. Stripey lines on teeth (enamel hypoplasia). Harris lines in long bones (visible only in radiographs). Cribra orbitalis (pitting in the tops of the orbits, due to anaemia). Rickets. Osteoporosis (thinning of walls of long bones and loss of bone mass difficult to identify). Generally leaves little evidence on the skeleton. TB causes centres of vertebrae to collapse, leading to curvature of spine. Syphilis causes a gnawed effect on many bones, with rough edges. Leprosy bone is lost on the palate, front of maxilla, etc., with smooth edges. Cleft palate. Hip dislocation due to shallow acetabulam. Hydrocephalus (indicated by enlarged skull). Sacralisation of 5th lumbar vertebra. Unusual formation of teeth. Erosion of normal bones and growth of other bone.
Stress Indicators
Infection
Congenital/Developmental
Cancerous Growths
[Roberts and Manchester, 1995] gives a comprehensive description of the most common diseases and traumas which affect bone.
4.5 Skeleton Database

Basic data about the skeleton and from the post-excavation analysis should be recorded in the computerised Skeleton Database [Carpenter and Crane, 2003: 16]. This is not intended to replace the conventional paperbased recording system, but rather to assist in the rapid analysis of the considerable quantity of data that has been collected and generated. For example, it has been used to automatically create plans showing the locations of burials, and graphs of age and height distribution. One major advantage is that these analyses, reports and graphs can be rapidly re-generated whenever new or modified data becomes available.
4.6 Minimum Number of Individuals (MNI)

All disarticulated bone (whether stratified or unstratified) should be analysed in order to assess the Minimum Number of Individuals (MNI) represented. The numbers of various key bone portions in each bag should be counted, and the results recorded using a form similar to that illustrated in Appendix J, using separate forms for Adults and Subadults. The key bone portions are: Skull Left & right mastoid processes, nuchal crest, left & right upper eye orbit Mandible Left & right sides, mental eminence Clavicle Left & right proximal & distal ends Sacrum proximal end Pubic Symphysis left & right sides Humerus, Radius, Ulna, Femur, Tibia, Fibula left & right proximal & distal ends
These key bone portions have been chosen as those which: a) Are generally well preserved in the Poulton material. b) Are identifiable even for bones in bad condition. c) Are distinctive enough to minimise the risk of double counting. The total number of each portion is calculated by summing up the columns. The MNI is then determined as the largest of these totals. N.B. It is not valid to simply add the MNI figures from two or more different groups of bones from the same site, when attempting to calculate the MNI for the combined set. This is because there may be overlap between the groups, i.e. bones from the same skeleton may be present in more than one group.
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5 Advanced Post-Excavation Analysis

This section of the Manual is still under development. There are two types of more detailed post-excavation analysis: In-house This covers more detailed analysis of parameters such as the numbers of individual bones and the state of dentition. At Poulton, this level of analysis is not carried out routinely, but only when required to address specific research issues. External In exceptional circumstances where the skeleton is of special interest or importance, it may be necessary to call upon the services of an external expert to carry out a professional examination of the remains. [Roberts, 1998] is an example of such a report.
It is essential that all basic post-excavation recording and analysis has been completed before any destructive analysis is performed (such as 14C dating).
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6 Disposal
One of the conditions of our licence to excavate human remains (Appendix G) is that the remains should be re-interred in a duly authorised burial ground. The Poulton Research Project has arranged for our human remains to be re-buried at Mount St. Bernard monastery, near Loughborough in Leicestershire. This is particularly appropriate as this is a Cistercian monastery, maintaining the link with the chapels past history. Remains should only be sent to Mount St. Bernard when the Project Director and the Project Human Remains Specialists confirm that all analysis and recording has been completed. A careful record should be kept of which skeletons are being re-buried and the context and bag numbers for any disarticulated bones. The bones should then be removed from their plastic bags and emptied into cardboard boxes. All nonorganic objects and any other material not suitable for burial, such as labels and environmental samples, must be removed. While the bones should still be treated with respect (e.g. they should not be crushed or broken), there is no further need to keep different skeletons separate. A convenient date and time should be arranged with Mount St. Bernard (see contact details below) and the boxes taken there by road. Finally, the skeleton database should be updated to show the location of the skeletons concerned as Mount St. Bernard.
Contact Details for Mount St. Bernard

Abbot: Rt. Rev. Joseph Delargy Mount St. Bernard, Coalville Leicestershire LE67 5UL 01530-832298/832022
Directions to Mount St. Bernard

Mount St. Bernard is located approximately 4km North-East of Coalville, at grid ref. SK 458 162.
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7 Cremations
A cremation consists of the burnt remains of a human body. In most cases, only fragments of bones will remain. The average human body will reduce to about 3kg of ash, but it is rare to find this quantity. The bone will often be fragmented (sometimes deliberately) and is very fragile. Burnt bones are not necessarily human: animal bones may be found on their own or mixed with human bone. However, unless it is obvious that the bones are animal, they should always be treated as human bone during excavation and recording, leaving differentiation to the post-excavation phase. Although smoking is not permitted on site in any case, this ban is particularly important when working on cremations, as tobacco ash can easily contaminate the cremation material.
7.1 Cremation Pits

Most cremations will have been deposited in a small hole in the ground, known as the cremation pit. As with inhumations, the burial should be excavated stratigraphically (deposit by deposit in reverse order of deposition) and in plan. Where a vessel is found containing the burnt bones, then the backfill round this vessel will be excavated first: on the other hand, if the cremation pit has simply been backfilled with the ashes, then they will be treated as a fill. Cremated bone is very fragile. Every effort must be made not to break it during excavation, as this makes identification more difficult: frequent dampening of the soil can make it easier to lift the bone. All deposits removed from cremation pits should be treated as environmental samples and will be processed later to remove all the burnt bone, carbonised wood and other materials. Where a vessel is broken or the soil is disturbed, great care may be needed to ensure that all the cremation material is recovered. Sometimes the pit will contain grave-goods, which may or may not have been burnt together with the body. More frequently the fill will contain nails and fragments of carbonised wood, which may be from a coffin or the funeral pyre. All of these should be collected along with the pit fill and noted on the appropriate context sheet(s). Special finds such as jewellery should be recovered separately and treated as ordinary small finds. They should also be noted on the context sheet of the fill in which they were contained.
7.2 Vessels
Any vessel (or urn) containing burnt bone is assigned a separate context number and the contents left intact for later off-site excavation. The vessel must be completely exposed before any attempt to lift it. Sometimes there will also be cremated bone outside the vessel; such bone should be collected as part of the cremation pit backfill. The cremation pit may also hold other vessels which do not contain any bone. These are also assigned individual context numbers and their contents left intact as they may have contained food offerings to the deceased. Again, they must be completely exposed before any attempt at lifting. Extreme care is required if a vessel is broken, to ensure that none of its contents are lost. It may be helpful to bandage the vessel to provide extra support. If the vessel is badly smashed, then it may have to be excavated in-situ.
7.3 Recording
An overall plan at a scale of 1:10 should show the general areas in which bone fragments are found, together with larger individual fragments and the locations of vessels and other finds. However, there is no need to plan every bone revealed during excavation. Both colour and monochrome photographs should be taken. An appropriate standard context sheet should be completed for each of the following: Cremation pit (cut) one sheet Each layer of fill in the pit one sheet for each layer Vessel(s) containing ashes and accessory vessels without ashes one sheet for each vessel
In addition to the context sheets, a separate cremation record sheet should be completed, providing a summary of the contents of the burial. See Appendix I for a worked example. Detailed notes on filling in the cremation record sheet are given below:
Site Code Trench SW Grid POU/CHF/ followed by the last two digits of the year, e.g. POU/CHF/03. Number of the trench containing the cremation. The southwestern grid co-ordinates of the 5-metre grid square in which the cremation is situated (if the cremation spans more than one 5-metre square, give the SW co-ordinates of all the squares). Context number assigned to the bone: this will be either the number of the pit fill (if unurned) or the number of the cremation urn (if inurned). Context number of the cremation pit. Context numbers of all the fills of the cremation pit. Context numbers of all the vessels in the cremation pit. Inurned = bones contained within a vessel (may also be bones outside the vessel) Unurned = no bones inside a vessel Level at top of the cremation pit (in metres, to nearest cm). Level at base of the cremation pit (in metres, to nearest cm). Draw a sketch of the cremation, including its relationship to surrounding layers, features, associated vessels and finds. Ensure that the plan is correctly oriented to the site grid and that the co-ordinates of the grid squares are shown. N.B. This is not a substitute for accurate plans! A written description of the cremation pit and its contents. Note any discolouration of the sides of the pit suggestive of burning or scorching. Interpretative comments should not be included here, but under Interpretation below. Number of vessels in the cremation pit, the material of which they are made (pottery, glass, wood, etc.), their condition (whole, broken, crushed, burnt, etc.) and a description of each vessel. Each vessel should be given a reference number keyed to the sketch plan. Note type and quantity of any bone (burnt or unburnt), or other significant material such as charcoal and slag, found in the fill outside of any vessels. Record maximum size of bone fragments prior to lifting. List all the contexts which come immediately before and after the bone context in the Harris matrix. Those below (before) the bone context will include the cremation pit context. List the sample numbers assigned to the fill(s). Any finds associated directly with the cremation (but not general constituents of the fills such as bone and charcoal, which will be recorded on the relevant fill context sheet). These finds will often be treated as Small Finds and assigned their own numbers. The drawing numbers of all plans which show the cremation. The drawing numbers of all sections which show the cremation. The film and frame numbers of all the photographs which show the cremation. A brief description of the cremation as a whole, including comments about the bone, vessels and finds (if any). Cremations should be excavated in plan: give reasons if any other method was used. List all the tools used in the excavation. Assess the risk of contamination of the bones as Low, Medium or High. Name of person completing the form and date completed. Name of supervisor and date form checked.
Context No Cremation Pit Context Fill Context(s) Vessel Context(s) Inurned / Unurned Level at Surface Level at Base Sketch Plans
Additional Description
Vessels
Material Outside Vessels
Stratigraphic Matrix
Environmental Samples Associated Finds & Small Finds Plan Nos Section Nos Photos (Colour & Mono) Interpretation Excavation Method Excavation Tools Risk of Contamination Recorded By / Date Checked By / Date
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7.4 Post-Excavation Treatment

The processing of cremated bone (including the emptying of vessels) is a specialised task which would normally be performed by external experts. See [Brickley and McKinley, 2004: 9-13], [McKinley and Roberts, 1993: 7], [Brothwell, 1981: 14] and [Mays, 1998: 207].
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8 References and Bibliography

The most important reference book for anyone with a professional archaeological interest in human remains is [Brothwell, 1981]. [Mays, 1998] is also essential reading. For those with a more general interest, [Stirland, 1999] is an accessible and affordable introduction. Anderson, S., 1993a Digging Up People: Guidelines for Excavation and Processing of Human Skeletal Remains. http://www.spoilheap.co.uk/digbone.htm. Date accessed 08-Jun-2003. Skeletons in the Cupboard: What a Human Bone Specialist can tell from your Bones. http://www.spoilheap.co.uk/hsrspec.htm. Date accessed 08Jun-2003. Western Kentucky University Anth 300 Forensic Anthropology Lab 10: Stature Estimation. http://www.wku.edu/~appleda/forensic/lab10.html. Date accessed 25-Nov-2002. Techniques of Archaeological Excavation. Routledge, London. Human Osteology: A Laboratory and Field Manual (4th ed.). Special Publication No. 2 of the Missouri Archaeological Society. Guidelines to the Standards for Recording Human Remains. IFA Paper No. 7, Reading. Digging Up Bones (3rd ed.). British Museum (Natural History), London/Oxford University Press, Oxford. Standards for Data Collection from Human Skeletal Remains. Arkansas Archaeological Survey Research Series, No. 44. Dead Men Do Tell Tales. Chester. Analysis of Human Skeletal Material from the Poulton Research Project, 1995-2002. Chester Interpreting the Past: Human Remains. British Museum Press, London. Digging Up the Past: An Introduction to Archaeological Excavation. Sutton, Stroud. Sedgeford Historical and Archaeological Research Project: Basic Excavation and Recording Techniques Handbook. Sedgeford. Personal Communication Poulton Project Field Manual. Liverpool. Human Bones from Archaeological Sites: Guidelines for Producing Assessment Documents and Analytical Reports. English Heritage, Swindon. Guidance for Best Practice for Treatment of Human Remains Excavated from Christian Burial Grounds in England. English Heritage, Swindon and http://www.englishheritage.org.uk/upload/pdf/16602_HumanRemains1.pdf. Date accessed 17-Apr-2006. Recommendations for Age and Sex Diagnoses of Skeletons. Journal of Human Evolution, 9: 517-549. The Law and Burial Archaeology. IFA Technical Paper No. 11, Birmingham. The Archaeology of Human Bones. Routledge, London. Excavation and Post-Excavation Treatment of Cremated and Inhumed Human Remains. IFA Technical Paper No. 13, Birmingham.
Anderson, S., 1993b
Applegate, D., 2002
Barker, P., 1993 Bass, W.M., 1995 Brickley, M. and McKinley, J.I. (eds.), 2004 Brothwell, D., 1981 Buikstra, J.E. and Ubelaker, D.H. (eds.), 1994 Carpenter, R.J., 2002 Carpenter, R.J. and Crane, S.A., 2003 Chamberlain, A., 1998 Collis, J., 2001 Cox, A. (ed.), 2001 Dunn, G., 2002 Emery, M. and Gibbins, D., 1995 English Heritage, 2002
English Heritage and The Church of England, 2005
Ferembach, D., Schwidetzky, I. and Stoukal, M., 1980 Garratt-Frost, S., 1992 Mays, S., 1998. McKinley, J.I. and Roberts, C., 1993
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Molleson, T. and Cox, M., 1993 Owens, L.S., 1998 Parker Pearson, M., 1999 Roberts, C., 1998
Roberts, C. and Manchester, K., 1995 Scheuer, L. and Black, S., 2000 Stirland, A., 1999 Sutherland, L.D. and Suchey, J.M., 1991 Travers, C.T., 1998 Westman, A. (ed.), 1994
The Spitalfields Project Volume 2: The Anthropology. CBA Research Report 86. Council for British Archaeology, York. An Analysis of Human Skeletal Material from the Mediaeval Site of Poulton Chapel, Cheshire. M.Sc. Thesis, Liverpool University. The Archaeology of Death and Burial. Sutton Publishing, Stroud. Report on Skeletal Remains of One Individual from Poulton Chapel, Cheshire. http://srs.dl.ac.uk/arch/poulton/skel.html. Date accessed 10Nov-2002. The Archaeology of Disease (2nd ed.). Sutton Publishing, Stroud. Developmental Juvenile Osteology. Academic Press, London. Human Bones in Archaeology. Shire, Princes Risborough. Use of the Ventral Arc in Pubic Sex Determination. Journal of Forensic Sciences, 36(2): 501-511. Were They Shorter Back Then? http://www.plimoth.org/Library/lshort.htm. Date accessed 06-Oct-2002. Archaeological Site Manual. Museum of London Archaeology Service, London.
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9 Appendices
A B C D E F G H I J Bones of the Human Skeleton Skeleton Context Sheet: Worked Example Basic Post-Excavation Analysis Sheet: Worked Example Advanced Post-Excavation Analysis Sheet: Worked Example (not yet available) Standard Context Sheet for Grave Cut: Worked Example Standard Context Sheet for Grave Fill: Worked Example Copy of Home Office Licence for Removal of Human Remains Estimating Age from Height Cremation Sheet: Worked Example MNI Record Sheet: Worked Example
Please note that the pro-forma sheets are always being revised and those in current use may differ slightly from those shown in these appendices.
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Appendix A Bones of the Human Skeleton
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Bones of the Adult Skeleton from [Mays, 1998: 2-3] Skull: Hyoid Spinal column: Vertebrae Sacrum Coccyx Thoracic cage: Rib Sternum Pectoral girdle: Clavicle Scapula Pelvic girdle: Limb bones: Pelvic bone Arm bones: Humerus Radius Ulna Wrist/hand: Carpal Metacarpal Phalanx Leg bones: Femur Patella Tibia Fibula Ankle/foot: Tarsal Metatarsal Phalanx Total 28 (including mandible & ear ossicles) 1 24 (7 cervical, 12 thoracic, 5 lumbar) 1 1 24 (12 pairs) 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 16 10 28 2 2 2 2 14 10 28 206
In addition, there are a variable number of small bones (sesamoids) embedded in the tendons of the hands and feet. Although this list shows the standard number of bones in an adult skeleton, extra bones are not uncommon, e.g. 13 rather than 12 thoracic vertebrae, or 6 rather than 5 lumbar vertebrae.
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Appendix B Skeleton Context Sheet: Worked Example
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Appendix C Basic Post-Excavation Sheet: Worked Example
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Appendix D Stature Estimation Sheet: Worked Example
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Appendix E Standard Context Sheet for Grave Cut: Worked Example
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Appendix F Standard Context Sheet for Grave Fill: Worked Example
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Appendix G Home Office Licence for the Removal of Human Remains
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Appendix H Estimating Age From Height

The following table can be used to provide an approximate estimate of age at death for immature individuals, either where there is insufficient material available for a more accurate determination, or simply to provide a quick and dirty figure before the skeleton can be examined properly (e.g. while it is still in the ground). Ideally the height should be estimated from an exposed interment, before the bones are lifted.
Height (cm) 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 105 110 115 120 125 130 135 140 145 150 155 160 165 170 175 180 185 Age Male 0 - 1.5 mo 0 - 3 mo 1 - 5 mo 3 - 8.5 mo 4.5 - 12 mo 7.5 - 17 mo 11 - 22.5 mo 15 - 29 mo 19.5 - 35.5 mo 2.25 - 4 yr 2.75 - 4.75 yr 3.25 - 5.75 yr 4 - 6.75 yr 4.75 - 7.75 yr 5.5 - 8.75 yr 6.25 - 9.5 yr 7 - 10.5 yr 7.75 - 11.5 yr 8.5 - 12.5 yr 9.5 - 13.5 yr 10.25 - 14.25 yr 11 - 15 yr 11.75 - 15.75 yr 12.5 - 17.25 yr 13+ yr 13.75+ yr 14.5+ yr 16+ yr 9.25 - 13.5 yr 10 - 15 yr 10.75+ yr 11.5+ yr 12.25+ yr 13.5+ yr Female
Notes: These figures are based on modern growth charts so should be used with caution. However, according to [Travers, 1998], the average heights in medieval England were 171cm (male) / 158cm (female), which compare closely to the modern British equivalents of 174cm / 161cm. There is a 90% probability that an individual with the stated height would be within the corresponding age range.
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Appendix I Cremation Sheet: Worked Example
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Appendix J MNI Record Sheet: Worked Example
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Poulton Research Project

Compiled by Steve Crane & Ray Carpenter

Version 4 - April 2006

Post-Excavation Cleaning and Storage .................................................................................................9

Basic Post-Excavation Analysis............................................................................................................ 11

References and Bibliography ............................................................................................................... 33 Appendices.............................................................................................................................................. 35

Poulton Skeleton Manual

1.1 Legal and Ethical Considerations

1.2 Overview of Human Remains at Poulton

1.3 Disarticulated Bone

Poulton Skeleton Manual

1.4 Articulated Burials

Clean burial (section 2.1)

Record burial - context sheets, plans, photographs (section 2.2)

Clean bones and place in store (section 3)

Poulton Skeleton Manual

2.1 Cleaning In-Situ

Each skeleton should have at least 3 associated context sheets:

Site Code Trench SW Grid

Environmental Samples Sketch Plan

Poulton Skeleton Manual

Levels & Co-ordinates

Recorded By / Date Checked By / Date

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2.3 Lifting and Bagging the Skeleton

When in doubt, ask the supervisor!

Poulton Skeleton Manual

Environmental Samples and Other Organic Material

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3 Post-Excavation Cleaning and Storage

3.1 Articulated Skeletons

3.2 Disarticulated Bones

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4 Basic Post-Excavation Analysis

4.1 Sex Determination

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Poulton Skeleton Manual

Poulton Skeleton Manual

4.2 Age Determination

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Children and Young Adults

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38.4 40.4 42.7 44.7 46.5 47.7 48.5 48.6

32.1 33.9 35.9 37.6 39.1 39.9 40.5 40.5

30.9 32.5 34.4 35.9 37.4 38.3 38.9 38.9

25.7 27.0 28.5 29.9 31.3 32.2 32.9 33.1

19.1 20.1 21.3 22.4 23.4 24.2 24.6 24.8

20.3 21.4 22.7 23.9 25.0 25.8 26.4 26.5

N.B. All bone lengths in cm.

Femur 3.1 4.1 5.2 6.2 7.3

Tibia 2.8 3.7 4.5 5.4 6.3

Radius 2.5 3.2 3.8 4.4 5.1

5.0 5.9 6.8 7.7

4.3 Height Determination

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4.5 Skeleton Database

4.6 Minimum Number of Individuals (MNI)

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5 Advanced Post-Excavation Analysis

Poulton Skeleton Manual