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KINEMATICS AND DYNAMICS

Tl

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A-'

(/
MECHANICS

^ ELEMENTARY EXPERIMENTAL

BY
A.

WILMER DUFF,

M.A., D.Sc. (Edin.)

PBOFBSSOB OF PHYSICS IN THE WORCBSTBB FOLTTBCHNIO INSTITUXB, WOBCBSTBB, MASS.

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

LONDON: MACMILLAN &
1905
CO., Ltd.

AU

rights

ruerved

Copyright,

1904, 1905,

By the MACMILLAN COMPANY.

Set up and electrotyped.

Published August, 1903.

J. S. Gushing

Norbjooli 33rg8 & Co. Herwick & Smith Co. Norwood, Mass., U.S.A.

PREFACE
In
this

book an attempt

is

made

to

combine theory and

is

practice as closely as possible.

Success in teaching

in

proportion to the extent to which

the student
is

the active initiative of

is

aroused, and nothing

if it

so effective in this

respect as laboratory work,

be of the right kind.

affords an invaluable

The use

of the

hand and the eye

stimulus to the imagination and the reason.

Without

such personal work the interest awakened by a good

lecture
is

apt to be superficial and temporary, and the

is

preparation insured by recitations

too often reluctant

and

unfruitful.

Mechanics

is

the most fundamental and

least attractive part of physics,

and in the teaching of

it

lectures

and

recitations

need

all of

the aid that laboratory

work can supply.

grasp of principles
skill in

student than
in this

more value to the average measurement. While the exercises

is

of

book have been chosen

chiefly

with a view to the

elucidation of principles, the need of an adequate degree

of precision in the necessary

measurements has been kept

in mind.

In most cases a test of the accuracy of the

work

is

supplied by a comparison of the results of theory

and experiment.
preliminary
to,

The

course

is

not a substitute
precise

for,

but

is

a course in the
Its

more

measurement

of physical constants.
concepts

and

principles^

aim is to stimulate reflection on and the value of each exercise is

T

Vi

PREFACE
and number of
the physical

in proportion to the importance

ideas which must he considered in performing the exercise.

With

a few exceptions the exercises have been tried by

large classes of students and have been found satisfactory.

The exceptions have been carefully tested by myself or an assistant. The introduction of numerous original exercises is

due to a lack of suitable familiar experiments.

exercises have been omitted either be-

Many well-known

cause they do not strongly enforce mechanical concepts

and principles or because they require complex or expensive instrumental means.

To
sible;

serve the purpose stated above, each exercise should

follow the related lecture or recitation as closely as posit

will lose
I

much

of its value

if

postponed for

several weeks.
exercises that

have therefore endeavored to choose

comparatively simple apparatus,

call for

so that sufficient copies of each part

may

be procured to

enable all the students in a class (or section) to

simultaneously and separately on each experiment.

practice of having

work (The

two or more students work together Important parts of the appais very unsatisfactory.) A few exratus serve for a large number of exercises.
periments which require apparatus of greater complexity

may,
being

if

necessary, be omitted or

may

be performed by

the instructor in presence of the class, the calculations

left to

the latter.
of theory

The statements

have of necessity been brief

is

but brevity in this respect

hardly to be regretted.

Diffuseness and repetition are desirable in an oral explanation, but a printed statement can be reread until
it is

mastered.

Diffuseness in a text-book often defeats

its

PREFACE
own
aim.

vii

Bright students skip prolix explanations, and

others are often only puzzled and confused

unessential;

by what

is

statements of principles cannot be predi-

gested by dilution.

The

directions for the experiments

have not been made so

cise the

full as to leave

nothing to exer-

for

judgment of the student. Condensed formula) calculation and tabular forms for reporting have not
These often tempt the student to work
fit

been supplied.

blindly and confine his attention to finding figures to

the formulae and

fill

the blanks.

The

instructor

may

supply such as he thinks necessary either in the lecture

which precedes the exercise or on the laboratory blackboard.

The

topics

found under the heading "Discus-

sion" must be regarded as mere suggestions;

tions will be suggested

many

ques-

by the laboratory work or by the subsequent discussion between the class and the instructor.
Illustrative experiments

may

be introduced in either

lec-

ture or discussion.

The apparatus
constructed.
rates
It

is

for the
also

most part simple and readily

may

be obtained at very reasonable

from the International Instrument Co. of Cambridge,

Massachusetts.
I

have to thank Dr. A.

W.

Ewell, Assistant Professor

of Physics in the

Worcester Polytechnic Institute, for

B. Harrington, assistants in physics,
aid.

valuable suggestions and assistance, and also Mr. C. F.

Howe and Mr. C. for much valuable

A.

WILMER DUFF.

Worcester Polytechnic

Institutb,
1905.

Worcester, Mass., June,

CONTENTS
KINEMATICS
OHAPTER
I.

Units and Measuring In'struments

Position and Displacement

....

PAG I

II.

7
18

III.

Velocity and Acceleration

Periodic Motion

IV.

38

DYNAMICS
V.
VI.

Force

59 94

Moment of Force
Resultant of Forces.
Equilibrium
. .
.

Vn.
Vin.
IX.

119

Work and Energy

Periodic Motions of Rigid Bodies

....

133
166

ELASTIC SOLIDS AND FLUIDS

X.

Mechanics of Elastic Solids

Mechanics of Fluids

185

XL

204 253
259

Problems
Tables
Index
.

264

^9He^.

For a shorter course omit Exercises V-VIII, XV, XVI (2), XVIII, XIX, XXII, XXIII, XXVII, XXIX-XXXI, XXXVII, and 32, 46-49, (proofs of formulae in) 72 and 75, 76, (part
of) 79, 87, 107, 114, 115, 119, 120, 130, 159, (part of) 160, 171,

177, 179.

Hk.

KINEMATICS
CHAPTER
I

UNITS AND MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

1.

Mechanics

is

the science of motion and of the causes

of changes in the

motion of bodies.

Kinematics

is

the
is

branch of Mechanics which treats of motion.

It

preliminary to the branch which treats of the causes of

change of motion, or Dynamics.

The ideas with which we deal in Kinematics are those of Geometry and Time. Geometrical relations are described by means of lengths of lines and magnitudes of
angles, vals of
it

and time relations are described by means of intertime. To measure one of these we must compare
its

with a standard of
2.

own

kind, called a unit.

Units of Length.

The m^tre was intended by those

who

devised

it

to be equal to itt^ o^oooo ^^ *^ distance

from the north pole to the equator, along the meridian through Paris. While this derivation of the metre is of
historical interest, the

metre

is

actually defined as being

the distance between

two

parallel lines

on a platinum-

iridium bar kept at Sevres, near Paris.

scale is intended to be a copy,
this standard.

Every metre

more or

less accurate, of

Submultiples of the metre are the deci-

metre (0.1 m.), the centimetre (0.01 m.), and the milliB
1

KINEMATICS

metre (0.001 m.).

is

multiple, the kilometre (1000 m.),

used for stating great lengths.

The centimetre

is

the

metric unit mostly used in Physics.

The yard

is

defined in the United States as

j^\y

^^

the Paris metre.

distance between
office of

In Great Britain

it

is

defined as the
at the

two lines on a bronze bar kept the Exchequer in London.

of the yard, the foot

A submultiple
countries.*

Q yd.),

is

the unit

of length mostly used

by engineers

in English-speaking

3.

Some Instruments nsed

in measnring Lengths.

The
dis-

heam-compass consists of a straight rod and two pointers

movable along the rod.

tance

It is

used in measuring a
into position to

when a scale cannot be brought

C

make

Fig.

1.

The

Beam-compass.

the measurement directly.

The

points are adjusted until

they coincide with the ends of the length to be measured.

They

are then clamped in that position on the rod

and

the distance between them measured by a scale.

An inexpensive beam-compass that will suffice for these experiments may be made from a brass rod about 30 cm. in length and
two
large-sized electrical " connectors."

The bore

of the connectors

should slightly exceed the diameter of the rod.

Large-sized sew-

ing-needles inserted by the head into small holes drilled in the connectors and then soldered in position complete the instrument.

For the

ratios of metric

and English

units, see

Table in Appendix.

UNIT8

AND MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

is

A
beam

vernier

caliper
is

essentially a

beam-compass, the

of

which

graduated and provided with a device

called a vernier^ for accurately reading the fractions of

the smallest division of the scale.

The

principle of the

vernier will be understood

from a study of
is

Fig. 2.
(in the

Each unit
scale, or

of the small scale, called the vernier,

instrument figured)

^ shorter than each unit of the main

Let

10 vernier divisions equal 9 scale divisions.

FiQ.

2.

The

Vernier.

one end of the length to be measured

of the small divisions of the
6.1

fall

between two

main

scale,

say at A, between

and

5.2.

Then

it is

easily seen that, if the third divi-

sion of the vernier coincide with a division of the

scale, the distance

main

from 5.1 to
scale.
if

J.

is

of the smallest in this

division of the
case
is

main

Hence the reading

the vernier be

5.13.

In general,

made

so that

n vernier

divisions equal

n1

scale divisions, then the

" least count " of the vernier will be - of a scale divi-

from another type of vernier, the one just described is sometimes called a "direct"
si on.

To

distinguish

it

vernier.

" retrograde " vernier has a length equal to

+1

scale divisions divided into

n parts on the

vernier;

its

divisions

are

numbered

in

a direction opposite to
of vernier

that of the scale divisions.

are read in essentially the

The two types same way.

KINEMATICS
The
vernier
is

very important in

many practical measure(Exercise 1.)

ments.

The

simplest

way

of mastering its principle is to

make an attempt

to construct one.

In the micrometer caliper the device used for estimating

fractions of the smallest scale division depends
fact that

on the

when

a uniform screw travels in a fixed closefitting

nut, the dis-

tance

the
is

screw
propor-

advances

y^
Fig.
3.

tional to its rotation.

For example,
is

if

the

"pitch" of the screw

Micrometer Screw Gauge.

The

0.5

mm.
is

it

adin

vances 0.01
linear scale

mm.

^ of

a complete rotation.

attached

to the nut, the smallest unit of the scale being equal to

the pitch of the screw.

circular scale attached to the

screw makes

it

possible to divide the smallest unit of

the linear scale into as

many

parts as there are divisions

on the
4.

circular scale.

Unit of Time.

the

mean
of

solar

mean solar second is ^-gloTj- of day, which is the average, throughout a

that
elapse

The

year,

the intervals

between successive

transits of the sun across the meridian.

The mean

solar

minute equals 60 mean solar seconds, and the mean

solar

hour equals 60 mean solar minutes.

Units of Ang^le.

5.

The

radian

is

the angle at the

centre of a circle of radius r subtended

by an arc

of

length

r.

An

angle at the centre of a circle of radius r

UNITS

AND MEASURING INSTRUMENTS

.5

subtended by an arc of length a contains - radians.

Since the circumference of a circle
is

tt

times the radius,

4 right angles equal 2

I
TT

ir

radians and 1 right angle equals

radians.

The
Since

degree
300**

is

the ninetieth part of a right angle.

2
7r

equals

radians,

degree

equals

TT

radians and 1 radian equals 57 .29578.

Exercise

I.

The

Principle of the Vernier

To
to n

construct a direct vernier to

1 of

accompany a

scale,

a length equal

the smallest units of the scale must be divided into n parts

on the vernier.

For instance,
in.

to supply

an inch
off

scale divided to

tenths of an inch with a vernier reading to hundredths of an inch,

take a strip of paper about 2

long and lay

on

it

very carefully

a length equal to /j of an inch. This length must next be divided into 10 parts. This may be done with the aid of a piece of crosssection paper, provided the smallest division of the paper be less than

that of the scale.

direction

is

to be

found on the cross-section paper such that the

distance in that direction between two parallel lines separated

by 10

spaces equals
direction, the

of

an inch.

The

vernier strip being placed in that

two

lines

mentioned and the intervening ones will subSlight dents corresponding to the points of

divide

it

into 10 parts.

subdivision
knife.

may

be marked on the vernier strip by means of a sharp

Dividing lines should then be drawn through the dents with

a sharp pencil and a small square.

fastened by thumb-tacks on a strip of

numbered
scale

in the proper direction.

The vernier should then be wood and the vernier divisions The accuracy with which the
tested

vernier has been subdivided

may be

by slipping

it

along the

and noticing whether the difference between each scale division

fairly constant.

and each vernier division seems

"retrograde" vernier should be constructed in a similar

}J of

by dividing

an inch into 10 parts on the vernier.

It

way may be

KINEMATICS

mounted on the other side of the same strip of wood, and its divisions should be numbered in the proper direction. With each of these verniers and the inch scale, two measurements
should be
blocks.

made
is,

of each of the dimensions of several small regular

will

Each measurement
of the scale

consist

in finding,

(1) the zero

reading, that

the point on the scale opposite the zero of the vernier

when the end

coincide,
scale
is

and the end

of the

wooden vernier

strip

and

(2) the position of the zero of the vernier

when

the
is

held vertically on a smooth plane surface and the object

placed in position under the vernier.

A blank form for tabulating these measurements should be devised and drawn neatly. Every separate measurement should be recorded. For practice in the use of the micrometer caliper, some of the blocks should also be measured by that instrument.
DISCUSSION
(a)
(6)

Comparative merits of "direct" and ''retrograde" verniers.

" Least count " of a vernier
;

how

it

depends on the number of

divisions of the vernier.

(c)

Reading

of

barometer vernier and other verniers.

(d)

Comparative merits of the vernier and the micrometer screw

of subdivision.

method

REFERENCES
Gray's " Treatise on Physics," Vol.
of Time."
I,

8-14, on the "

Measurement
I,

Stewart and Gee's " Elementary Practical Physics," Part

ters I

Chap-

and

II,

on

"

Measurement

of

Length " and

"

Angular Measure-

ments."
Encyclopaedia Britannica, 10th edition, " Weights and Measures."

CHAPTER

II

POSITION AND DISPLACEMENT

6.

Position.

The position of a point cannot be stated

some other point which

definitely without reference to

may

be called the starting point.

is

The statement

of a

position

in reality the description of a path leading

from the starting point to the position described.

other words, "all position
is

In

relative."

Universal experience shows that a complete statement

of the position of a point in space always requires the use of at least three numbers.

starting point at sea level

For instance, to get from a to the top of a mountain or the

bottom of a mine one must go a certain distance east or

tance

and a certain disup or down. Or one might go a certain distance in a direction that makes a certain angle with the north and south line and a certain angle with the horizontal plane
west, a certain distance north or south

through the starting point.

three dimensions.
7.

In other words, space

is

of

Rectangular Coordinates.

The

three numbers that

are necessary in order to state completely the position of

a point are called the coordinates of the point. the

When
at right

numbers are lengths

lines in these

in

some three directions

angles, the coordinates are. called rectangular coordinates^

and

three directions intersecting at the

starting point are called the axes of coordinates.

7

The

8
starting point
is

KINEMATICS
called the origin of coordinates.
a;,

Three
y,

rectangular coordinates are usually denoted by

2,

and

and the corresponding axes are ^-axis, and the 2-axis respectively.
an axis
is

called the ar-axis, the

One

direction along

opposite the negative direction, and values of

in

and the y, and z these directions are marked by the signs + and
called the positive direction of the axis
a;,

respectively.

Any

reader

who

is

not quite familiar with

these ideas should consider the coordinates of various

points in a rectangular

room
of the

of length

I,

breadth

5,

and

height

A,

the origin being taken at a corner, the centre of

one

side,

and the centre

all

room

successively.

When

the points considered in any case are

known

to lie in a single plane,

two rectangular axes and two

In this case the third item of

coordinates are sufficient.

information

is

that which fixes the position of the plane.

8.

Displacement.

A displacement
from
is

is

a change of posi-

tion.

A displacement evidently cannot

its direction as

be clearly specified
well as of
its

without a statement of
nvtude.

mag-

If a point starts

and arrives at B, the

is

magnitude of the displacement

line

the length of the straight the direc-

AB and

the direction of the displacement

tion of the line AB drawn from A to B. The symbol AB or AB may be used as an abbreviation of the phrase " the displacement whose length is AB and whose direc-

tion

is

from

to

5."

point that starts from

and arrives

moved along

the straight line

AB

or

it

at B may have may have taken

any irregular path such as

ACDB. Hence
sum

a displacement

AB may be regarded

as the

of a series of successive

POSITION
displacements
if

AND DISPLACEMENT

the starting point of the series be at

and the ending point at

B or

AC+aD + lJB = AB.

This equation

may

be read "a displtioement

hy a displacement
addition does not
of

CD followed

hy a displacement

AC foUojved DB is
of

equivalent to the displacement AB.^^

Thus the sign

mean

the addition

mere numbers or of quantities that may be represented by lengths

along the same
line, as in

ordinary
sign
of
of
"

Algebra
equality

nor

does

the

mean

equality

mere
addi-

numbers or

of lengths.
is

The
is

tion of displacements

a geometrical addition.

A zero displacement
the point unchanged.

one which leaves the position of

Since

AB + BA = AA = 0,

it fol-

lows that

BA = AB.

Thus

subtraction of a displace-

ment

is

the same as the addition of an equal and opposite

displacement.

The displacements we
in

shall be

concerned with are inde-

pendent displacements, the occurrence of any one does not

any way interfere with the occurrence of any other. Hence they may be supposed to take place in any order, and a consideration of Fig. 4
tion.

will

make

it

clear that the

result of the addition is independent of the order of addi-

Thus

the addition of three displacements

^S,

a,

/S,

in the order a,

is

represented by the figure

/8 is

ACBB,

and

their addition in the order a, 7,

represented by
is

the figure

ACEB

the result in both cases

the displace-

ment AB.

This would not be so unless a displacement

10
represented by

KINEMATICS

BD

were equally well represented by an

equal and parallel line

CE

taken in the same direction.

All displacements are considered as equal which have the

same magnitude and

9.

the

same

direction.

Geometrical Methods of adding Displacements.

The

following propositions summarize the preceding and are

convenient for future reference.

1.

The

Triangle Method.

The sum
and

of

ments
2.

AB

and BO, where

AB

BQ are

two displacetwo sides of a

of

triangle

ABO, is AO. The Parallelogram Method.

The sum

two two

dis-

placements

AB

and

A O,

where
is

AB and A

are

sides

of a parallelogram
3.

ABDO,

AB.

The Polygon Method. The sum of any number of displacements AB, BO, OD " NP, where AB, BO,OD'5rP are sides of a polygon, is AP.
10.
Translation.

A
when

change of position of a body

all

is

called a translation

points in the body

i.e.

move equal

distances in parallel lines,

when they undergo equal

displacements.

When

the displacements are not equal the

body

is

in

rotation or

undergoes angular displacement

about some axis.

We

shall postpone the consideration of

angular displacements for the present.

11.

Addition of

Simultaneous

Displacements.

ball

rolled a certain distance across the deck of a ship while

the ship

moves a

certain distance forward undergoes, rela-

tively to the earth,

two simultaneous displacements, one Moreover the displacements are forward, one sideward.

POSITION

AND DISPLACEMENT
move

11

quite independent, one does not interfere with or influence

the other;

the ball would

the same distance sideit

ward

if

the ship did not move, and

if it

would move the same

distance forward

were not rolled sideward.

is

The

position of the ball at the end of a second

if it

the same as

were

first

in a second,
rolls in a

moved forward the distance the ship moves and then moved sideward the distance it
Hence
it is

second.

obvious that simultaneous

if

independent displacements may be added as

successive displacements.
12.

they were

FormulaB for Resultant of

of

Two

Displacements.
is

The

sum

any number of displacements

also called the

resultant of the displacements

and the displacements are

said to be components of the resultant.

The magnitude
ments be

of the resultant of

two displacements
Let the displace-

can readily be found by trigonometry.

AB
of

and

A O and
d^, oi

their resultant

AD.

Let the

magnitude

AB be

Then from

the triangle

AC d^^ ABD

and of

AD d.

d:^=d^ + d^ - 2 d^d^ cos

If 6 be the angle

ABD.

between the

positive directions of

AB

and

AC, then /.ABD^-ir-d and

therefore
(P
If

= rfj2 4. ^^2 ^ 2 d^d^ cos 0.

AB

__

and

AC
fP

Fig.

6.

be at right

angles and their resultant

make an angle 6 with AB^ then

and tan ^ = 42^1

= (?,2^.^2

12
13.

KINEMATICS
Resultant of Three Rectangular Displacements.

The

resultant of three rectangular displacements

is

OA, OB, 00,

OD, where
^.^--T
1

OB

is

the diagonal of a rectangular parallele-

^
c

piped of which OA, OB, 00, are intersecting edges.

For

OB = AE

^ndi

0O=ED

/,^'

M.

and

OD=OA + AE + EB
=OA-{-OB^OQ.

^"^
If the

Fio. 6.

c?!,

c?2,

c?3

magnitudes of OA, OB, 00, be respectively, and the magnitude of the resultant

14.

Resolution of a Displacement into Components.

is

When
A

a displacement

replaced by components in given direc-

tions,

it is

said to be " resolved into components in those

directions," or, briefly, "resolved in those directions."

displacement can be resolved into components in any

number
of

of

specified

directions,

provided a polygon can be drawn

which one side represents the

displacement and the other sides

are in the directions specified.
If a

displacement d be resolved

component d^ in a direction making an angle a with d, and a component d,^ in a direction

into a

making a
d^

right angle with the

first

component d^ then

= d cos a,

d^

= d sin a,

and d^

= d^ + d^.

POSITION

AND DISPLACEMENT
it is

13

In stating these equations,

understood that the

angle and the right angle that the direction of d^ makes

with the direction of d^ are both measured in the same

direction (say counter-clockwise) from the direction of

Similarly, a displacement

d may be resolved
6,

into

d^ comd^^

ponents in three directions at right angles, namely,

(fg,

<?j,

and, as

is

obvious from Fig.

cP = d^

-f-

d^ +

d^.

15.
sider

Analytical Method of adding Displacements.

Con,

any number of component displacements,

d^, d^, d^,

in the

same plane, and

let the

angles they

make with

the

positive direction,

OX,

of a line in that plane be a^, o^, 03,

respectively, the angles

being

all

measured in
(^e.g.

the same direction

counter-clockwise) from
the positive direction of

OX.
Let each of the displacements be resolved
into a

component

in the

direction of

OX

and a

component in a direction Y, making a right

angle with

OX.

If the
Fio.
8.

sum
the

of the

components

in the direction of

OX be

denoted by
then

D^ and

the

sum

of

components along
J)g

OYhy Dy,

= di cos

ttj

+ C?2 COS 02 + ^8 C^^ "S

"^

^^ ^^^ "'
'*

i)y

= rfj sin aj + <?2 sin 03 4- <^8 ^^^ "s +

= ^^ sin a.

14

KINEMATICS
The
resultant of

displacement

B
i)2

B^ along OX and By along OF making an angle 6 with Ox^ and by

is

12,

= i)^2 ^ ^^2 and

tan

0=^-

is positive, the angle d will be between and By be both positive, and between 180 and 270 if B^. and By be both negative. When tan B is negative, B will be between 90 and 180 if B^ be negative

When

tan 6

and 90

if i)^.

and By positive, and between 270 and 360 tive and By negative.
If i>^

if B^.

be posi-

also true, for BJ'

and By = 0, then B=0. The converse and By^ cannot be negative hence,
:

is
if

i) = 0,

then

B^ = By = 0.

If the

plane, they
directions,
of*^

component displacements be not in the same may be resolved into components in three

OX, OF, OZ,

then the

at right angles.

If the

sums

the components in these directions

final

be D^, By^ B^

respectively,

resultant
if i)^.

is

such that

B^ = B^^ + By^ + B,\

zero,

As

before,

By, and

B, be

all

B will also be zero, and conversely.

Exercise
II.

Addition of Displacements
(2)

Find

(1) graphically

by the polygon method,

by the analytical

method, the sum of the following displacements in the same plane,

the angle between each and a fixed direction, say from west to east,

being as indicated in brackets

8 (0), 10 (60), 6 (115), 4 (150), 7 (190), 8 (270), 12 (350).

The magnitudes and

very carefully laid
ofE

directions of the displacements should be

by a protractor and

scale.

The

addition

should be repeated, the components being taken in the reverse order

and the origin being the same.

POSITION

AND DISPLACEMENT

15

In applying the second method, the components of the displace-

ments should be tabulated, all the x-components being in one column and all the ^-components in another.

vertical

DISCUSSION
(a) Sources of error in applying graphical method.
(6)

Can a displacement be resolved

In any three?

into

components

in

any two

assigned directions?
(c)

Which

of

two component displacements more nearly coincides

to resolve a displacement into
is

in direction with the resultant?

((/)

Show how

two others of given

magnitudes.
(e)

When
is

this impossible ?

What

the resultant of two displacements,

in

m OA

and n OBI

(/) The component,

placements equals the

any

direction, of the resultant of

two

dis-

sum

of the

components of the two displace-

ments in that

direction.

16.

Vector and Scalar ftuantities.

Anything
same kind

that can
is

be measured in terms of a unit of the

a quantity. Quantities

called

may be

divided into two classes.

Those

which have magnitude

certain scales or units.
scalar
quantities.

but not direction are called scalar

quantities, because they are

measured merely in terms of

etc.,

Mass, volume, density,

are
as

Quantities which have direction

well as magnitude are called vector* quantities, because

the simplest vector quantity, a displacement,

may be

regarded as a carrying of a body from one point to another.

Other examples of vector quantities are velocity, acceleration, force, etc.

Derived from the root of the Latin verb for carry; compare convection.

16
17.

KINEMATICS
Graphical Representation of Vector Quantities.
is

diagram in geometry

a graphical representation of the

Tlie lines in

distances and directions of things in space.

an accurate diagram are (either really or perspectively)

proportional in length to the distances they represent,

and the angle between any two

lines is equal to the angle

between the directions they represent.

An

accurate dia-

gram

will

remain accurate
if

if all its it

dimensions be changed

in a constant ratio, or

be turned around into any

new

position.

Precisely similar statements are true of any diagram of

displacements such as

we have
line is

already employed.

The

statement that a certain line represents a certain dis-

placement means that the

to that of any other line

one in a diagram of lines

its

representing displacements, that the ratio

is

length bears

the ratio of the magnitudes

gf the displacements they represent,

and that the angle bebetween the actual

is

tween the two

placements.

lines equals the angle

dis-

A
is

line in

such a diagram

called a vector.

Thus

a vector

a line which has a definite length and a

definite direction relatively to other similar lines in a diagram.

Any

other vector quantity,

e.g.

a velocity,

is

con-

way by means of a line Such a diagram can represent only vector quantities of the same kind, i.e. if one line represents a velocity, all lines in the diagram represent velocities. For brevity we may indicate any vector quantity, represented in a diagram, by the symbol already used for representing a displacement. For example, " the velocity
veniently represented in the same
in a diagram.

AB'' means the velocities by the

velocity represented in a
line

diagram of

AB.

POSITION
It is

AND DISPLACEMENT
way
we

17

not obvious

thiat,

because other vector quantities

as displacements,

may
they
is

be represented in the same

may be added by

the same methods.

This, however,

true of the vector quantities

it

shall be concerned

with, but before assuming

we

shall

prove that the

addition

may be reduced

to

an addition of displacements.

REFERENCES
Clifford's "

The Common Sense

of the

Exact Sciences," Chapter FV,

" Position," 1-4. Maxwell's " Matter

Clifford's "

and Motion," Chapter

Mechanics,"

I.

Elements of Dynamic," Chapter

I,

on " Steps."
II,

Love's
Vectors."

" Theoretical

Chapter

"

Geometry of

CHAPTER

III

VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION

18.
Velocity.

The

rate of displacement of a point

is

is

called its velocity.

Hence, velocity

a quantitj^ that has a vector quan-

both magnitude and direction, that

tity.

is, it is

When
is

the displacements in equal intervals, how-

ever short, are equal in both magnitude and direction, the

velocity

a constant or uniform velocity.

When

this

condition

is

not

satisfied, the velocity is variable.

is

The measure
it

of a constant velocity
if it

the displacement

produces in unit time

it is

remains constant that long.

Otherwise

the displacement in the fraction of a unit,

is

during which the velocity

constant, multiplied

by the

number

of such fractions in unit time.

Rate of motion without reference to the direction of the motion is called speed. Two ships have the same
speed
if

each travels 10 mi. per hour, but they have not

the same velocity unless they

Velocities

move

in the

same

direction.

and speeds,
is,

like

displacements, are essenspecify the velocity or

tially relative, that

we cannot

speed of a point without reference to some other point

So, too, rest is only a relative term.

19. Composition and Resolution of Constant Velocities.

The

resultant of

two constant

velocities

is

the single velocity

that

would produce

in a certain time a displacement equal

to the

sum

of the displacements
18

produced by the two

VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION

velocities.

19

bird flying northward in a current of air

that has an equal velocity eastward has

velocities,

two component

but an observer at a distance would only be

is

aware of the fact that the bird

The measure

of the resultant of

moving northeast. two velocities is the

is,

resultant displacement in unit time, that

the

sum

of

the displacements produced in unit time

velocities.

by the two

Hence the various methods (triangle, parallelogram, polygon, and analytical method) that may be
used for adding displacements
ing the
resultant of

may

also be

used for find-

velocities.

Conversely, velocities

may

be resolved into components as displacements are

resolved.

20.

Variable Velocity.

The mean
is

velocity of a point in

any interval of time

to

is its

displacement in that interval

divided by the interval.

This definition will apply also

constant
;

a point whose velocity

will

but the mean

velocity

equal the constant velocity, since either

multiplied by the interval will give the displacement.

When
the value

the velocity of a point

is

variable, the velocity

of the point at

any

instant, or its instantaneous velocity^ is

the

approached by

mean

velocity in
is

an

interval

including that instant, if the interval

shorter without limit.
If

taken shorter and

in

As be the displacement
as

an

interval At, v
sider, for

limit

As

At approaches

zero.

Con-

example, the mean velocity of a train in 10 sec,

0.1 sec, 0.001 sec,

and so on.

The smaller

the interval the

more the velocity approaches a definite value, namely, the instantaneous velocity at any instant in the interval.

20

KINEMATICS
The instantaneous
velocity, as

defined above, has a

magnitude and direction at any instant. A constant velocity of the same magnitude and direction would be measured by the displacement it would produce in
definite

unit time.

Hence the instantaneous

velocity of a point

equals the displacement produced in unit time by an

equal constant velocity.

To
is

further illustrate the meaning of an instantaneous

:

velocity consider the following

increasing,
is

A train, A, whose velocity

a passenger on
first

passing a train, B, moving with a constant

velocity in the

same direction

observes

that the velocity of

seems

to decrease, then to

become
rest,

zero,

then to reverse.

At

the instant of relative

the instanfmieous velocity of

If

equals the constant

velocity of B.

we

divide the displacements of

and

in a short interval, including the instant of relative

ffest,

by the length
indefinitely

of the interval,

and suppose the

the
of B.

inter-

val

short,

we

will

get

instantaneous

velocity of
21.

and the equal constant velocity

Composition of Instantaneous Velocities.

An instanit

taneous velocity

may

be measured by the displacement

if it

would produce
long
;

in unit time

continued constant that

similarly for a second instantaneous velocity.

These
in-

supposed displacements
stantaneous velocities
22.
Acceleration.

may be compounded by the triangle,

be similarly

parallelogram, polygon, or analytical method.

may

Hence compounded.

change of velocity

may be an
approach-

increase of speed, as in the case of a train leaving a station, a decrease of speed, as in the case of a train

ing a station, or a change in the direction of the velocity,

VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION

as in the case of a train

21
it

rounding a curve, or

may be

change of direction accompanied by a change of speed, as

in the case of a train

approaching or leaving a station on

is

a curve.

Any

such change of velocity

called an incre-

ment of velocity. An increment of a velocity has a definite magnitude and a definite direction, or it is a vector
quantity.
'

The
all

rate of

change of a velocity

is

called the accelera-

tion of the velocity.

When

the increments of velocity in

equal times are equal as regards both magnitude and

direction, the acceleration is called a constant acceleration.

constant acceleration
of velocity to

may be measured by
it

the incre-

ment
like
is

which

gives rise in unit time.

Hence,

increment of velocity and displacement, acceleration

a vector quantity.

When

an acceleration

is

variable the

mean

acceleration

and the instantaneous

acceleration are defined as in the

analogous case of variable velocity.

construct these definitions for himself.
23.

The

reader should

Composition of Accelerations.

Since

accelerations

are measured

by the increments of velocity to which they

give rise in unit time, accelerations

may be compounded and resolved as velocities and displacements are compounded and resolved.
24.

Constant Acceleration in the Line of Motion.

is

The
This

simplest case of a constant acceleration

when

the incre-

ments of velocity are in the direction of the velocity, that

is,

when they
the case of a

are increases or decreases of speed.

is

body projected

vertically

upward or down-

ward or a

train leaving or approaching a station on a

22

KINEMATICS

straight horizontal track (though in the latter case the

acceleration

may sometimes

be variable in magnitude). be a and the velocity at the

m,

If the constant acceleration

beginning of a certain interval of time be

increment of velocity in the time
at the
t

then the

is

at

and the velocity

end of the time

is

= u + at.
its

(1)

Since the velocity increases uniformly,

in the interval
is

average value

equal to the velocity at the middle of

|^

the interval or w

timens

+ at. Hence the distance s = (w + iaO = we4-^a2.

IV.)

traversed in
(2)
is

(A more
by

satisfactory proof of this equation

suggested

(c) in "discussion" of Exercise

f f

Eliminating

rom (1) and

v^

(2),

we get
(3)

= u^ + 2 as.

25.

Acceleration

of

Gravity.

It has

been found by
per

experimental methods that the speed of a body falling

freely in a vertical line increases

by about 32.2

ft.

second in every second, or 980 cm. per second in every

second.
increase
in
its

(These are only approximate

is

figures, since the

;

slightly different at different places

If a

see Table

Appendix.)
at
its

body

is

moving

vertically
If

upward,
com-

speed decreases at the rate stated.

is

the body's

motion
above

some inclination
velocity vertically

to the vertical, the

ponent of

downward

increases at the
of

rate.

Briefly stated, the acceleration

gravity
ft.

is vertically

downward, and

its

magnitude

is

32.2

per

second per second, or 980 cm. per second per second.

VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION

26.

28
units

Units

and

Dimensions.

The
in

fundamental

used in kinematics are the unit of length and the unit

of time.

Other units defined

terms of these are called

derived units.

A
is

system of units in which the derived

possible relation to the fundaabsolute si/stem.
is

units bear the simplest

mental units

called an

In such a

system the unit of surface

of length, or, as
it

the

square of the unit

(*S')

may

be briefly expressed,

= (X)^.

Similarly, the unit of

locity in

volume = (X)^.
is

The

unit of ve-

an absolute system

unit length per unit time,

and

its

magnitude therefore varies directly as the magni-

tude of the unit of length, and inversely as the magnitude

of the unit of time, or, briefly,

(F)

oc

(i;)(r)-^

The

unit of acceleration

is

unit velocity gained in unit time,

and

its

magnitude therefore varies directly as the magni-

tude of the unit of velocity, and inversely as the magnitude of the unit of time, or (A)

These relations are called

r)(r)-i oc (L)(T)-^. They dimensional relations.

oc

may
sion
tion

be expressed in words thus

in
is

velocity

is

of 1 dimen;

length and
of

dimension in time

accelera-

1 dimension in length

and

dimensions

in time.

The numerical measure

as the
is

of

any quantity varies inversely

it
is

magnitude of the unit of the same kind in which

Thus, a length that
is

measured.

3 in feet
is

is

1 in yards,

and a velocity that

second.

3 in feet per second

1 in yards per
;

These are simple cases of changes of units

more

complicated cases are most readily worked out by means

of dimensional relations.

For

instance, suppose
is

an accelrela-

eration of 32.2
in metres per

ft.

per second per second

to be expressed

minute per minute.

The dimensional

24

KINEMATICS
and time
of
is

tion of acceleration to length

(^A')x(L)(^T)~^,

and the numerical measure

inversely

the acceleration varies

as the unit of acceleration. Denoting the measure of the acceleration in metres per minute per minute by a;,

X
32.2

(foot) (sec.)-2

^
a;

(foot)

(min.)2

^ 30.48 * fm
100

(metre) (min.)-2

(metre)' (sec.)2

(fj,

= 35.3x10*.
in the statement of the result

(The student should note

the use of powers of 10 to express large numbers and also

that, since 32.2 is only given to one-third of
it is

one per cent,

not worth while calculating

a;

to a higher degree of

apparent accuracy.)
Motion of a Point that has a Constant Velocity in
in

27.

one direction and a Constant Acceleration

at right angles.

direction

consideration of any such case will

make

it

clear that the

two parts

of the

motion

may

be

considered as taking place separately and independently.

Thus, a ball thrown upward in a train moving uniformly

returns to the hand.
Relatively to the earth the ball
it

describes a curve, but throughout its motion

keeps

its
is

horizontal velocity unchanged, and

its vertical

motion

had no horizontal velocity. When the velocity of the train is changing rapidly, the ball does not
the same as
if it

return to the hand.

The reader should think

and the time the

this illus-

tration out carefully, assuming different values for the

acceleration of the train

*
1 f t.

ball is in the air.

= 30.48

cm. approximately.

VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION

25

When
tion,
its
a;,

a body

is

projected from the earth in any direcdisplacet,

horizontal
at

ment,

any time,

and

the vertical displacement, y, at

the same time

lated separately.

may

be calcube the
of

If v^

horizontal
velocity of

component
projection,

the
v^

and

the

component

vertically

up-

ward, then, since the acceleration of gravity, ^,

is

vertically

downward,

v^t-lgt'^.
t

From

these

two equations we may eliminate

and get

an equation connecting x and y that holds true for any simultaneous values of x and
y.

This equation
the

is

called the

equation of
the

curve which
If

body

describes.

the

body be projected horizontally

Yio. 10.

from an elevation, then

Vg

and
projection.

Vj

equals the velocity of

If the positive direction of

y be taken down-

ward, x
relation

= Vjt

and y = \ g^. In this case the constant between x and y may be written

= if
if

(which

is

a constant).

The

horizontal velocity at any time

is

Wj,

and the

vertical velocity v^

= gt.

If

be the resultant velo-

26
city at time
zontal,
^,

KINEMATICS
and
the angle
it

makes with the

V

hori-

F^=z,2

+ .2andtan^ = ^.
Path
of

Exercise III.
Apparatus. plane with

a Projectile
is

cross-sectioned

board*

mounted

in a vertical

its lines

horizontal and vertical respectively.

At one
is

of

the upper corners of the board a block in which there

a curved

groove

is

attached to the board in such a

way

that

it is

adjustable in

a vertical plane.

A steel ball rolling down the groove is projected in

and

horizontal direction,

after describing a curved path in front of the

is caught in a small bag or pocket. A simple spring release worked by a cord enables the observer to drop the ball while he is

board

standing in front of the board in a position convenient for observing

the falling ball.
Observation of Curve of Descent.

The

apparatus should
is

first

be

adjusted by means of a level so that one set of lines

zontal and the lower straight end of the "shoot"
is

truly hori-

also horizontal.

These adjustments should be occasionally

formly as possible.
the end of the cord
is
;

retested.

It is necessary

that in successive observations the release should be worked as uni-

For this purpose a small weight

is

attached to

when the
ball.

ball is to be

dropped the small weight

pushed

off

a platform and, falling three or four centimetres, jerks

the cord and releases the

Another simple method that someis

times gives more satisfactory results

to

remove the platform that

supports the weight and raise the weight, by means of the cord, to

some

definite position

and allow

it

to fall three or four centimetres.

fall is

Care must, however, be taken that the

the spring that holds the ball.

not so great as to alter

The

intersection of the curve of descent with each horizontal line

of the board is to be observed about six times in as

many

successive

* The ruled board referred to in this and subsequent exercises may with some advantage be replaced by a plain board on which a sheet of The board will probcross-section paper is fastened by thumb-tacks. ably shrink somewhat, and the shrinkage will be different across and along
the grain.

VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION

falls

27
to one-

and the mean taken.

Each reading should be estimated

line.

tenth of the smallest division of the horizontal

The observer

o
Fio. 11.

shoulji

endeavor to avoid "parallax" by holding his head in such a

position at the

moment

of observation that the gaze

is

fixed at right

28
angles to the board.
venient.
lines

KINEMATICS
The lines may be taken in any order found consome advantage in taking the first, third, fifth, etc.,
etc.

There

is

and afterward the second, fourth,

In this

way

a complete

curve

may

be obtained even

if

time does not permit

all

the lines to be

observed.

Moreover, the observer becomes more expert with practice

will be

and the increased accuracy

referring to

more evenly

distributed.

All these readings should be arranged in tabular form, the readings

any one horizontal

line being in a vertical

column.

When

the readings have been completed, the

mean values should be plotted on

an upper corner of the

cross-section paper, the origin being taken at

paper in imitation of the position of the board.

should then be drawn, striking an average path

smooth curve
the points

among

located but not necessarily passing through any particular point.

For

drawing the curve celluloid curve-forms should be used.

may be tested y by means of the values obtained for each horizontal distance and the
Calculation of Initial Velocity.

The constancy of
Before this
is

corresponding vertical distance.

" shoot "

done care should be

of discharge

taken to ascertain whether the ball at the

moment

from

4he

was exactly

at the origin of the cross lines of the board.

initial position of

If not,

allowance for the

the ball must be

made by
if

subtracting

its initial vertical

and horizontal distances from the mean

Moreover,
the

values recorded for the other points on the curve.

unit of the board
tical distances
is

not a centimetre, the corrected horizontal and ver-

should be reduced to centimetres before the calculations

of

are made.
initial velocity of

The

the ball

is

calculated from the final

mean

value of

DISCUSSION
of formulae.

(a)
(6)

Meaning and derivation

Consider the motion of a line passing through the ball in the

experiment and through another ball discharged simultaneously with

the same velocity in the same direction but supposed devoid of weight.
(c)

Consider the motion of a line passing through the ball and

to fall

through another ball allowed

simultaneously from the same point.

VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION

(rf)

29
direc-

At what point on the curve and

at

what time was the

tion of motion of the ball inclined at 45 to the horizontal?

At 30?

At 60? (e) Show that V^ increases as if the fall were wholly vertical. (/) From what height would the ball have to fall freely to attain
its initial

velocity ?
initial velocity

{g)

Could the

be deduced from the height of the

groove?
(A) Does the rotation of the ball affect the results?
(i)

Equations of the vertical and horizontal motion and of the

is

path when a ball

(y)

discharged obliquely.

What

initial velocity

must a

bullet have to fall back to its

starting point in 10 sec. ?

(k)

body

is

projected at an angle of 30 with the horizontal with

a velocity of 30 m. per second.

When and

where will

it

again meet

the horizontal plane through the starting point?

How
lasts.)

high will

it

ascend
(/)

(First find
is

how long

the vertical motion

What

the final speed of a body which,

moving with uniform

acceleration, travels 72 m. in 2 min. if

(1) the initial speed

(2) the initial speed

=
=

0?
15 cm. per second?
in order

(m) At what angle with the shore must a boat be directed

to reach a point on the other shore directly opposite
if

the speed with

which the boat

an hour ?
(n)

is

rowed be 4 mi. an hour and that of the stream 3 mi.

still

raindrop, falling nearly vertically in

air,

makes a

" streak " inclined at 30 to the vertical

on the pane of a railway car

travelling at 25 mi. an hour.

What

is

the velocity of the drop?

28.

Curve of Speed.

A curve of speed

is

a convenient

method of showing graphically the way in which the speed of a body varies. A horizontal line OT m drawn to represent time reckoned from some moment represented by 0. At the end 2\ of a length OT^ that represents an
interval
t^

an ordinate

T-^S^ is

erected to represent the

30

KINEMATICS
t^.

speed at the end of the interval

erected at points T^, T^
/S'p
. . .

Similar ordinates are

T^.

smooth curve through

S^i

S^"'

iSis the curve of speed of the

moving
t

point.

When

the curve has been drawn the speed at the end of

any interval
the

can be

found by measuring
ordinate at the

corresponding
T.

point
to

(^TS

is

said

be

by interpolation.^ This diagram has the

found
that

property

the

distance traversed by

the body in any interval T^Tn

ctltve, the
is

represented by the area bounded by the

horizontal time line,

is

and the ordinates

t, is

at T^

and

Tn'

This

evident from the fact that the distance

equal to the speed

traversed in any very short time,

at the middle of the time multiplied

fore,

represented by the area of

by r and is, therethe narrow trapezium

t.

that stands on the length representing

29.

XTniform Circular Motion.

When a point revolves in

magnitude of
constantly
its velocity,

a circle at a constant rate, the

that

is,

its

speed, remains constant, but

is

the direction of the velocity

changing.
If
8

denote the speed, then

is

the

length of the arc described in unit time.

The angle through which

the radius turns

fig.

13.

VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION

in unit time is
velocity
-i-

81

r radians.
<o.

This

is

called the angular

and
is

is

denoted by

Hence

o)

= T

If

the time required for a revolution, since the

tt

radius turns through 2

radians in time

t'
If

is

the frequency of the motion or the

number

of

revolutions in unit time,

nT= 1 and (o lim.

30.

Accelerated Angular Velocity.

When an angular veit is

locity increases at a constant rate,

said to be subject

to a constant angular acceleration.

If

we denote

the con-

by a we may say that a is the change of a> in time t divided by t. If Wq is the angular velocity at the beginning of t and g> that at the end of t
stant angular acceleration
(o

= (Oq-\- at.
t is

The mean angular

velocity at time

velocity in this time

o>q

the angular
de-

\t or

+ \ at.

Hence the angle

scribed in time

i is

= o^ + i *^'
These formulae are analogous to the formulae for
accel-

erated linear velocity, angular displacement corresponding

to linear displacement, angular velocity to linear velocity,

and angular acceleration to linear acceleration (see (d)

p. 37).

When

a rigid body

is

in rotation about an axis each

is

point in the body rotates in a circle whose centre

on

32
that axis and
all

KINEMATICS
points necessarily have the same angular

velocity and the same angular acceleration. velocity and acceleration of the
particle in the body.

The angular
of

body are those

any

When

a point revolves in a circle of radius r with an

a, its linear

angular acceleration,
to the circle changes
if

speed along the tangent

by ar

in unit time ( 29).

Hence

is its

linear acceleration a

= ar.
of

31. Graphical

Representation

Angular

Velocities.

When

body rotates about any

axis, its

angular velocity
length

may be represented in magnitude and direction by a

proportional to the magnitude of the velocity, laid off on

the axis of rotation, the direction of this length being

related to the direction of rotation as translation to rotation in the

motion of an

ordinary or "right-handed"
screw.

Suppose

LM

to be

the
to

axis of rotation

and
off

AB
on

be the length laid

to

LM

represent
If

the

angular

velocity.

pendicular distance of a particle

speed of

is

represented by

P AB
as

p is the perfrom LM, the linear

( 29) or twice the
is

area of the triangle

APB,

and

AB*

from

left to

right in the diagram, the linear speed of

P is

toward the

reader and perpendicular to the plane

*

APB.

AB is

in this case a localized vector, since it stands for quantity that

has magnitude and direction and also relates to a definite straight line

LM,

the axis of rotation.

VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION

32.

33
us suppose

Composition of Angular Velocities.

Let

that a body has simultaneously two angular velocities

about axes intersecting

in

A^ and

let the

magnitudes and

directions of these angular velocities be represented by

AB
We

and
shall

AO

respectively.
is

The

resultant of these com-

ponent velocities

a rotation about some axis through A.

is

show that the resultant

an angular velocity

about the diagonal

resented by

AD of the parallelogram ABDC and is repAD.

Consider the

motion of a point
of

P
P

in the plane

ABDC.
speeds

The two
of

separate
repre-

linear

are

sented by twice the areas of the

triangles
tively.

APB
Now

and

APC respec-

^^- ^^

the area of the triangles

APD

equals the
triangles

sum

of the areas of

are on the same base

APB AP and
of

and

APQ

(these

the distance of

D from AP
therefore

equals the

sum
linear

of the distance of

Hence twice the area

resultant

B and C from AP^. the triangle APD represents the

Thus P, and

speed of P.

every other point in the body, rotates about

AD

with

an angular velocity represented by

AD.
The same law
evi-

Hence, angular velocities about intersecting axes are

compounded

like

linear velocities.

dently holds for angular accelerations, since they are

increments of angular velocities in unit time.

The

reader should note that the axes

we have been
is

speaking of are certain lines in space, not certain lines

fixed in the
since a line

moving body. The in the body changes

difference
its

important,

position as the

body

34
rotates.

KINEMATICS
The
propositions hold true, however, for lines
at

in the

body that coincide

it

any m'Dment with the axes in

space, provided

be understood that

we

limit ourselves
to instantane-

to the angular velocities at that instant,

i.e.

ous velocities.
33.

Linear Acceleration of a Point that moves in a Circle

with Constant Speed.

When a point revolves

the linear velocity
is

in a circle

with constant linear speed, although the magnitude of

constant, the
is

direction of the linear velocity

constantly
there
is

changing
a
linear
is

and
it is

hence

acceleration.

When

the point

at Q^

mov-

ing in the direction of the tangent

QT with
by a
its

a speed

s.

Let us repre-

sent the velocity at that

line oq.

moment

moving point is at Q' velocity may be represented by oq\ and oq and oq' will
Similarly,

when

the

be equal in length since the speed

triangle oqq'

is

constant.

From

the

we

see that the velocity

.

which has been

t

added

to oq to produce oq' is qq'

If

is

the time in

which the moving point passes over the distance QQ', the mean acceleration in the interval t is qq' -^t. li Q and Q'
be supposed indefinitely close together, the mean acceleration in the interval
t

will equal the instantaneous accelerat

tion at the middle of

half
at
qq' P, = ^^

way between Q and

-5-

when the moving point was at P, Q'. Hence if a be the acceleration

qq;

and

= at.
qq' is in

(1) the direccircle.

It is readily seen

from geometry that

is

tion

PO,

or the acceleration

towards the centre of the

VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION

Since QQ'
is

35
,

traversed in time

with speed

QQ'

= st.
OQQ' and oq^

(2)

From

the similarity of the triangles

and since the arc

QQ

is

indefinitely short, it
.

may be taken

as equal to the chord

QQ

Substituting in (3) from (1)

and (2) we get ^ ^

at
8

_t

Hence
and, as

=
r
circle.

we have

seen, a

is

towards the centre of the

The

effect of this acceleration is to

produce a change in

the direction of the velocity without affecting the magni-

tude of the velocity.

If the

angular velocity in the circle

is &>

and the

fre-

quency

is w,

g^^j.^27rnr.
.*.

a = G)V

= 4 irh^r.
a,

When

a point moves in a circle with varying speed, in

addition to the acceleration,

towards the centre, there

must be an

acceleration,

a',

along the tangent.

The whole

acceleration will be the resultant of

accelerations, a

these two component

and

a!

34. Acceleration

of

a Point

moving in Any Curve.

circle

P.
P.

Through any point

This

P
is

on a curve a

may

be drawn

that coincides exactly with the curve at the point

circle is called the circle of curvature of the
its

curve at

P, and

radius r

called the radius of curvature at

36

KINEMATICS
point moving along the curve on reaching the position
is

for a

moment moving

in the circle of curvature at

and hence has an acceleration

centre of curvature.
If the

directed towards the

speed of the moving point

be variable, there will also be an acceleration along the

tangent.
Curve of Speed of a Projectile

Exercise IV.

This exercise

is

a further study of the curve of descent of a falling

body obtained

in Exercise III.

from the curve

lated

Let the x or y of any point P on the curve of descent be obtained then the time when the ball was at P can be calcu;

from the equation for the horizontal or that for the

( 27).

vertical

motion

With a knowledge of t, the component velocities at P can be calculated ( 24). The resultant velocity can then be found from the components. The values of the velocity as obtained in this

nay should be tabulated for five or six points on the curve. With the values of the speed and time draw on cross-section paper
a diagram of speed on any convenient
scale.

The whole

distance the

ball descended along the curve can be obtained

from the diagram of

speed by counting up the number of large and small square units in

the area of the diagram.

This area would equal the length of the

curve of descent

if

each unit of length along the time axis repre-

sented a unit of time, and each unit of length along the speed axis
represented a unit of speed.

But

if

the former represent

units of

time and the latter n units of speed, then each unit of area represents

mn

units of length of the curve of descent, and the area of the dia-

gram must be multiplied by mn to get the length of the curve of descent. The length of the curve of descent can also be obtained by direct measurement. Fasten the sheet containing the curve on a board by
half a dozen ordinary pins passing through points

on the curve, and

for the scale to

with a strip of cross-section paper stretched on edge close against the

pins,

measure the length of the which the curve was drawn.

curve.

Then allow

VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION

DISCUSSION AMD PROBLEMS
(a)

87

Meaning

of instantjvneous velocity

and instantaneous speed.

(6) Definition

and chief properties of curve of speed (why not

in

" curve of velocity " ?). (c)

Curve of speed of a body falling

t.

a vertical

line.

Formula

for distance traversed in time

(<l)

Curve of angular speed of a body rotating with a constant

angular acceleration ( 30).

Formula

for angle described in time

/.

REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER HI

Ames's
" Text-book of General Physics," Chapter
I, I.

Watson's " Text-book of Physics," Book

Chapter V.

Daniell's " Principles of Physics," Chapters II, V.

Macgregor's " Kinematics and Dynamics," Chapters

I-VL

CHAPTER IV
PERIODIC MOTION
35.

Periodic Motion.

When a point repeats a

equal intervals,
its

series of
is

movements

in successive

motion

called periodic.

The

vibrations of a pendulum, of a mass

cir-

attached to a spring, of a point which has a uniform

cular motion, of a planet rotating about the

sun, are

periodic motions.

The time required

is

for each complete

repetition of the motion

called the period of the motion.

is

In some respects steady rotation in a circle

the simplest

form

of periodic motion.

36. Phase and Epoch in TTniform Circular Motion.

When
way
any

a point

P revolves

uniformly in a

circle,

the simplest

of describing its position at

time

is

by stating the magnitude

of the angle,

POA^ that the radius

it

through
that
in

P makes with some fixed

being understood
is

radius OA^

POA

measured from

OA
The

some

definite direction of rota-

tion, e.g. counter-clockwise.

angle
Fig.
17..

POA

is

called the phase

of P's motion,

and

is

denoted

by

^.

If

E
is

be the position of

at the

moment from

which time

reckoned, then EOA., or the phase of P's

38

PERIODIC MOTION
motion at zero time,
is
is

39

called the epoch of P's motion,

and

denoted by
t

. tui,

If

P's angular velocity be , then at

time

POE=
is
is,

and

Phase
2
TT,

sometimes measured by the ratio of

POA

to

by the fraction of a period that has elapsed since P last passed through the fixed point A. The epoch is then measured by the fraction of a period required by
that

P to move from A to E.
37.

Simple Harmonic Motion.

When a point P rotates

P
on a
T

in a circle with constant speed, the projection of

diameter moves backward and forward along the diameter,

completing a whole

vi-

bration in the time in

which
tion of
tion

completes a

revolution.

The moprojec^'1

M^ the

P, is called Simple Harmonic Moof

tion.

Hence,

simple
is

harmonic motion
circular motion

the

projection of uniform

on a
velocity

Fig. 18.

and acceleration of are the projections of the velocity and acceleration of P. It will help the reader to realize the meaning of simple harmonic motion if he imagine himself looking at a uniform circular motion from a very great distance in the The only part of the motion seen plane of the motion.
diameter.

The

would be the part transverse to the

line of sight.

40
38.

KINEMATICS
Acceleration in Simple Harmonic Motion.

The acceland
in

eration of
in the

is coh"

along

PC

Let

RPQ be parallel to
acceleration of

same direction
is

as

A' A^ the diameter on which the

motion of

P is projected.
eo^r

co^r cos PCA. CA If CM (ox the displacement as is always called in S.H.M.) cos PCA = Hence, be denoted by a be the accelthe direction
it
a;,

Then the cos CPQ, or

if

eration of

il^f

in the direction

CA,
2

^
r

= Of^X
TJ
Hence
the acceleration is opposite to

and proportional
motion
is

to

the displacement,

and the period

of the
"

^
I

39. Velocity in Simple of

Harmonic Motion.

The velocity

is (or

along the tapngent

PT.
it

The
v,

velocity of

in
of

the positive direction the velocity of P.

OA

is

the component along

CA

Denoting
v

by

= (or cos TPQ = -(or cos TPB = -a)r sin POM

'

=1

(or

PM
r

= -c^PM

PERIODIC MOTION
In this expression,

41

is

the period of the S. H. M., and

r equals tlie greatest displacement in the

amplitude of the S. H. M.
the square root
positive, as
is

S.H.M., or the The ambiguity of sign due to removed by considering that v must be
to

M moves from A'

jNI.

A, and negative from

A
is

to A'.
40. Circle of Reference of a S. H.

M.

From

38

it

seen that S. H.
eration
is

is

a linear vibration in

which the

accel-

opposite to and proportional to the displaceis,

ment.

This might have been, and frequently

taken

as the definition of S.

H. M.

It was only for convenience

S.

and brevity
it

in

deducing the properties of

H. M. that

was defined as projection of uniform circular motion. The reader must guard himself against confusing a S. H. M. and the uniform circular motion from which it may

be regarded as projected.
centre of a S. H.
S.

The

circle described

with the

M.

as centre
is

and the amplitude of the

the
circle

H. M. as radius

called

of reference of

the

S.H.M.
linear
/x

Any
a=
a

vibration

that

has

the

characteristic

that
is

/ta:,

being a constant throughout the vibration^

the period of the vibration is

S.H.M., and

r=27r\/^=27r\/i.
Exercise V.
Method.

Graphical vStudy of S.H.M.

A large sheet of

paper
III.

is

tacked to the vertical crossshall suppose that the

section board used in Exercise

is

We
in

paper

plain

but the use of accurate cross-section paper, with millimetre

divisions,

would simplify the work

On

the paper a quadrant

PA

of a circle is

ways that will be readily seen. drawn with care by mea*ns

42

KINEMATICS
(The pencil may be firmly clamped
wood, through one end of

of a hard sharp-pointed pencil.

by means

of a screw pinch-cock to a rod of

which a sewing needle

is

driven.)

Through the
the circle a

centre of
vertical

and a horizontal

radius are drawn.

The
verti-

point on the arc through

which
cal

to

draw the

radius

should

be

found

accurately

by

means

of a plumb-line

of fine silk thread, the

bob being allowed to

hang

in a glass of water

to prevent oscillations.

The

direction

of

the

horizontal radius

may
The
paper

be found
Fig. 19.
stick

by a metre
level.

and
of

surface

the

should be as nearly plane and vertical as possible.

The board may

be levelled by loosening the screws in the feet of the supports and

placing thin wedges under them.

Imagine that a point

which

P describes with constant

speed the circle of

PA

is

a quadrant and carries a plumb-line that always remains

intersection of the plumb-line
its

vertical.
S.

The

H. M. along OA,

amplitude being

OA

or

r,

and OA will have a and its period the

with
gi-eat care into

same as the period

sharply as possible.

T of

P.

Divide the arc

'>

PA

8 or 10 equal parts, PPi, PiP^i

P,, P^,
...

^"^^

mark

the points of division as

will be the position of

If

after succes-

sive equal intervals, each, say, of length t.

M^,

ikTj,

-"be the pro-

jections of Pj, Pg,

they will be the successive positions of

at the

ends of these equal intervals and the corresponding displacements of

AT will be 01/,, OM^, .... Let p^ be the middle of the arc PPi, p^ that of PiP2 and so on,

PERIODIC MOTION
and
of
let n,, n,,

43
Then
the velocities

be the projections of

;>,, p.^,

at the middle of the succe&sive equal time intervals will be

;),nj, jOgfij, ...

proportional to

Measurements.

To find the displacements OA/,, OM2,

( 39).

fasten a

thin steel tape along

plumb-line

metre scale clamped work below the board may be used instead of the
.

OA and note estimating to | mm. (a

carefully its intersection with the

to the frame-

tape).

The
initial

plumb-line should pass accurately through P^, P.^

displacement,
Xq,

The

of

3/

is

0;

a:,

OA/j;

x^= 0M^\
/>,], p^j^^y

....

Tabulate

these values of x and also the values of

Law of

Velocity.
rfj

The distance traversed

in the successive equal

Xq\ rfg = a:, x^; .... The mean velocities in these intervals are r, = dy^ r,V2 = d^-^ t, -. For t, any value, say ^ sec., may be assumed, and T and o) may then be deduced from the
intervals are

x^

number
sive

of parts in the quadrant.

The mean
Hence
v^
-r-

velocities in the succes-

intervals
to

may be
-Piny,
ta

taken as the velocities at the middle of the

intervals, or

p^v,

Pin-^, v^

-r-

p^n^

should

be nearly equal and their mean should be

w.

Law
t>2

0/ Acceleration.
first

The

increment of the mean velocity from

in this

the middle of the

interval to the middle of the second interval is

Vy

Hence the mean acceleration

time

is Oj

= (t'2

Vj)

^ t,

and thus may be taken

interval, or

as the acceleration at the

end

of the first

w^

x^.

Similarly the acceleration at the end of the

(rg

second interval
,

is a^

Vg)

-4-

t,

and

so on.

Hence

a^ h- Xj,

a^-^x^

mean should give w". It will be noticed that we have spoken of mean Source 0/ Error. velocities and mean accelerations. This is because we could not
should be nearly equal and their

measure indefinitely short intervals and so get instantaneous

velocities

and
7',

accelerations.

It can,

however, be shown that

if

is

only ^^ of

the errors from this cause are small.

method.
cise.

There
first

is

Such an error is an error of a more serious source of possible error in this exer-

The

couple of intervals are so nearly equal that,

take differences to find the acceleration, the difference

when we may be in error

by a

large fraction of itself,

owing to unavoidable

errors of measure-

ment, and this

imperfect.

may

cause the value of Oj and possibly of a^ to be very

is

Such an error

an error of measurement or of

observation.

44

KINEMATICS
DISCUSSION
(a) Relation of U. C.

M. and

S.

H. M.
~r,0, +lr,

(6) Velocity for various values of X, e.^. +r, (c) Acceleration for various values of x.
(rf)

^r, etc.

How, from the

velocity or acceleration at a given displace-

ment, could the time required for a whole vibration be calculated V

41.

Phase and Epoch in

S.

H. M.

The terra phase

is

used

in S.

H. M.

to denote the position

motion of the vibrating point at

of the phase in the S.

and direction of the any time. The measure

H. M.

is

taken as the same as that

in the uniform circular motion from

which the

S.

H. M.

may
has

be supposed to be projected.

When

the point which

S.H.M.

ejaoch of

the S. H.

motion, so

(Fig. 18), its phase is AOP. The M. is similarly the epoch of the circular that we have, as in uniform circular motion,
is

at

(f)

cot

-{-

e
t

-&)
As
S.

+ e.

in

uniform circular motion the phase and epoch of a

also be
of

H. M. may
42.

measured in fractions of a period.

Uniform
S.

Resolution

Circular
at

Motion

into

Two
If

H. M. 's

Right Angles.

P
and
di-

rotates uniformly in a circle,

if

M and N
P

are the projections

of

on A' A and B'B, two

ameters at right angles, then the

motions of Jf andiVare S.H.M.'s,

and taken together they make up the motion of P. These two S.H.M.'s have the same amplitude and period, 'but when is

PERIODIC MOTION
ut its greatest displacement, that
is,

46

at

A
is

or

A\

is

at

zero displacement.

Hence one motion

one-fourth of a

vibration ahead of the other, or the motions differ in phase

by one-fourth of a period or by ^ tt. This is also the difference of the epochs, since the epoch of a S. H. M. is its
phase at time
43.
t

0.

Trigonometrical Expression

for

the

Displacement in

S.H. M.

If r is the
^,

amplitude of a S.
it is

H.M. and x

the

displacement at time

obvious from Fig. 18 that

(^cot -\-

= r C08
18)

e).

If the vibrating point is at its greatest positive displace-

ment

(i.e.

at

A in Fig.

when

= 0,

then

and

x=r cos
If,
^

a)t.

on the other hand,

is

at zero displacement

when

and

is

moving

in the positive direction, then e

and
X

= r cos (cot ^ tt) = r sin at.

TT

If

we

replace

a>

by -^,

jT

being the period of the S.H.M.,

for S.

we get trigonometrical expression

H. M. in which

no reference to circular motion appears.

44. The Simple Pendulum.
of a small

A simple pendulum consists

When
set

heavy body (usually a sphere) called the bob

suspended by a cord (or wire) whose weight may be neglected

compared with the weight of the bob.

is

vibrating through a small angle the bob describes a small

arc that

approximately a straight

line.

46

KINEMATICS
Let 6 be the angle that the cord makes at any time

with the vertical.

If

allowed to

fall vertically

the acceler-

ation of the bob would be the acceleration of gravity, g.

Since

it

is

confined

to

the

arc

the

acceleration,

a,

of the bob in the positive direction of

its

motion
a

is

= g cos

'

-d

= g sin 6

= -9 /sin 6
{-J
d

gfsm
I

X being the displacement of the bob

from the centre

Fia. 21

of its
less

path of vibra3,

tion.

If e be
less

than

(^^)

will

differ
it

from unity by
as unity,

than 3 parts in 10,000.

Taking

Hence the motion

is

( 40) S.

H. M. and

^=2
Spring.

7r

^=2 7r\/I
a

^g

45. Vibrations of a Tuning-fork and of a

Weight suspended

by a

It will

be shown later that a point on a

is

tuning-fork executes a motion that

very nearly

S.

H. M.

and that the same

is

true of a mass suspended by a spiral

spring and vibrating vertically.

PERIODIC MOTION
Exercise VI.

47
Pendulum

Study

of

Motion

of

heavy iron cylinder forms the bob of a pendulum, the suspension

steel

being a

rod the mass of which

is

small compared with that of the

cylinder.

The ends

of the cylinder are parallel to the plane of vibra-

tion,

and

to one

end a glass

plate,

on which a millimetre scale

clips.

is

etched,
to
its

can be attached by three small

the framework that supports the

tuning-fork
in such

is

clamped

pendulum

a position that

48

KINEMATICS

prongs vibrate parallel to the plane of vibration of the pendulum.

fine needle-point carried

by a light

flexible strip of brass that

is

attached to one prong of the fork presses against the glass plate.

If

the plate be coated with soap (bon ami) and allowed to dry, the needlepoint will trace a clear sharp-cut curve on the glass plate when both pendulum and tuning-fork are in vibration. The pendulum should be drawn aside about 5 cm. and held by a cord which passes through a couple of screw eyes (as in Fig. 22), and is held by pressure of a thumb on the table when the thumb is removed the pendulum will be released without any jar. The tuningfork is started by a blow from a small wooden mallet and then the pendulum is released. To prevent confusion of the record the pendulum should be arrested at the end of half of a complete vibration. When the tuning-fork has stopped the pendulum should be released and allowed to complete the vibration and again arrested. The pendulum should then be allowed to stand vertical and quite at
;

rest

and the fork

set into a slight vibration so as to give a record of

the middle of the arc of vibration.

If the plate

be removed from the pendulum and held up in front of

window

(or placed at an angle in front of a mirror that rests on the

table so as to reflect light

from the window) and then examined

through a magnifying

glass, the length of the successive half-waves of

the curve can be read on the etched scale with considerable accuracy.

Assuming that each vibration of the tuning-fork is completed in the same time, t, each group of 3 waves in the record will be the distance the bob of the pendulum travels in time 3 t. The lengths of the successive groups should be recorded with the greatest possible accuracy. The
nature of the motion should then be studied as in Exercise V, the
successive groups corresponding to

OM^, M^M^

in that exercise.

From

the

known frequency of
means

vibration of the tuning-fork and the

record just obtained the period of vibration of the pendulum

calculated by
of the formula in 39.

may be

discussion of Exercise V.)

calculated

The

(See also (^) in the period of vibration should also be

length of

by means of the formula for the simple pendulum, the the pendulum being taken as the distance between the knifeFinally the period should be found

edges and the centre of the bob.

PEmODIC MOTION
experimentally by counting the
minutes.

49
two or three

number
is

of vibrations in

(A

scale etched

on the glass

not indispensable.

If the glass is
glass, face

plain, the

wave lengths may be read by placing the

scale.)

down,

on a millimetre

DISCUSSION
(a) Sources of error.
(b)

In what respect

is

the motion of the

pendulum not exactly

S.H.M? (c) What form of

velocity, (2)
(rf)

curve would be obtained if the bob of the pendulum were replaced by a body moving horizontally, (1) with constant

with constant acceleration ?

curve would be obtained
if

What

the bob of the

pendulum

were replaced by a body falling freely while the tuning-fork vibrated

horizontally?
(e)

Calculate the length of a second's pendulum.

(/) IIovv much shorter than a second's pendulum would a clock pendulum be that lost one minute per day?
(</)

pendulum which

is

a second's pendulum where g

980

vibrates 3599 in an hour at the top of a mountain.

Find the

accel-

eration of gravity at that point.

46. The Projection of a

S.

H. M. on a Straight Line in the

Same Plane
i\r

is

also

a S.H.M.

Let M he

a point having

S.H.M. along A' A.

and

If the projections of

a.nd

be

B respectively,

then

But
. .

ON^OB OM OA 0M= OA cos

(ait -f c),

0N= OB cos (cot + c)

Fia. 23.

Hence the projection of a S.H.M. is a S.H.M. of the same period. By reversing the proof it can be shown that a linear vibration that projects into a S. H. M. is itself a

S.H.M.

50
47. Composition of
S.

KINEMATICS
H. M.'s in Lines at Right Angles.
in a vertical line

If

a point has one S. H. a horizontal line,

its

M.

and another in
displacement,

resultant displacement at any time

its vertical

can be found by compounding

2/,

and its horizontal displacement, x, at that time. These might be found from the trigonometrical expressions for

the two S.H. M.'s.

They can
is

also be readily

found by

projection from the corresponding circular motion.

(1)

The

simplest case

when

the S.H. M.'s have the

same period, amplitude, and phase.

reference are coincident.

garded as beginning at
zontal motion
is

Then the circles of The two S.H. M.'s may be reThe horiat the same time.

the projection on A'

of the

motion of a

point

that revolves in the circle beginning at

B\ and

PERIODIC MOTION
the vertical motion
of a point
is

61

the projection on

B'B

of the

motion

that revolves in the circle beginning at A.

It is obvious that

OL

will

always be equal to

OM and
al-

that the point

T that

has both of these motions will

ways

lie

in the bisector R'JR of the angles

A OB
Mia

and
the

A' OB'.
of

Moreover,

it is

clear that the

motion of

projection of the motion of T.

T
(2)

is

also a S.

H. M.

of

Hence by 46 the motion the same period as the com-

ponents.

When
in the

the period and amplitude are equal but the

ir

phases differ by

or one-half of a vibration,
is

it

can be

shown

same way that the resultant

along the bisector S'S of the angles

S.H.M. and B'OA BOA'.

a

The only
(3)

difference in the proof consists in supposing

to begin at

B instead

of at B'.

When
is

the periods and amplitudes are equal and

tt

the phases differ by ^

or one-fourth of a period, the

circle of refer-

motion

uniform circular motion in the

ence, as has been already

shown

in 42.
is

(4)

When
to be

the phase difference

still

anything

else,

the

period and amplitude

being equal, the path can be

shown

an

ellipse inscribed in

MSB'S'.

(5) Let us next suppose that the periods are equal but the amplitudes different, the amplitude of the vertical

motion being the greater.

elongation of
all

The

result will be a relative

the vertical lines of Fig. 24.

Corre-

sponding to (1) and (2) above we shall still have motion in straight lines but the lines will be closer to the vertical,

and corresponding
(6) If

in ellipses wliose directions

and (4) we shall have motion depend on the phase relations. the periods be slightly different, then one motion
to (3)

62

KINEMATICS
on the other
;

will continually gain in phase

at

any moment

the motion will be in an ellipse whose form and position

will

depend on the difference of phase

through the
circle

at that

moment,
line as

but the ellipse will be continually changing in form and

position, passing

and straight

particular cases.

48.

Composition of

S.

H. M.'s of Different Periods in Lines at

Right Angles.

Let P have a vertical S. H. M., of which the

4 cm., represented by

amplitude

is

OA

and the period

3 sec, and a horizontal

S.H.M.,
amplitude
period 2

of
is

which the
2 cm., rep-

resented by
sec.

OB and
To

the

avoid
cir-

confusion draw the

cle

of reference,

(7,

of

the vertical S. H.

M.

at

a distance from
its

with

centre on a horizontal

line

through

and the

circle of reference, C", of

the horizontal S. H.
at a distance

M.
with
its

Fig. 26.

from
If

centre on a vertical line

through 0.

be divided into twelve equal parts

parts,

and
^
sec.

into

eight equal

then the time of de-

scribing each part of

C and
two

O' will be the same, namely

Consider the case in which the vibrating point

H.M.'s is at its greatest displacement, OA^ in the vertical S. H. M. when it is at its greatest displacement, OjB, in the horizontal S. H. M.
that has the
of the
S.

sum

PEIilOniC

MOTION
is

53
the intersec-

Then

at time

the resultant position

tion of a horizontal line through point 1 of circle

and

a vertical line through point 1 of circle

t

C.

At time

=\

sec.

the resultant position

is

the intersection of a

horizontal line through point 2 of C, and a vertical line

and so on. Thus the curve in which the vibrating point moves can be traced out point by point. If the phase relation between the two S. H.M.'s be
through point 2 of
(7',

something different from the above, a different resultant

curve will be obtained.

The

different curves obtained

by

vertical motion start ^ sec, | sec, | sec, later than the horizontal motion are readily drawn.
If the ratio of the periods

making the

etc.,

be slightly different from

2,

the resultant curve will pass continuously through

tliese

each of

forms and back again.

For other

ratios of the period similar sets of curves are

obtained, each set being characteristic of a particular ratio

of the periods.

Exercise VII.

Resultant of S. H.M.'s at Right Angles

is

Blackburn pendulum

used in this experiment.

An
is

endless

braided cord passes over two hooks in the ceiling and

together

brought

by a small ring attached

to one side of the cord, so that

the whole suspension has the form of a Y.

of lead soldered to a metallic disk,

The bob

is

a heavy ring
fine

and carrying a quantity of

is

sand, which can stream out through a small hole in the centre of

the disk.
S. II.

When

allowed to

swing, the bob

subject

to

M.'s at right angles, the period of one being invariable

ceiling,

two and

determined by the distance of the bob from the

position of the other depends

while the

on the position of the small rjng through which the cord passes. The motion of the bob is traced

54

KINEMATICS
The sand should be
it is

on a cross-section board by the stream of sand.

sifted clean

and dried by being heated

in a dipper before
first
:

used.

The

position of the ring should

be adjusted so that the

periods are in

some simple

ratio, say 3

4.

This will require a few

preliminary

trials,

which, for convenience in collecting the sand,

of paper placed below the

may best be made on a sheet When the proper adjustment

curve
is

pendulum.

has been attained so that the same

traced over and over again, the paper

may

be replaced by

the cross-section board placed centrally below the pendulum

at rest.

when

To

obtain wide amplitudes and a clear curve, release the

of inches

bob a couple

from the corner

of the board,

and

arrest the

motion when the curve has been completed once.

adjustment in the meantime undisturbed.

Then reproduce

the curve on cross-section paper as in Exercise III, leaving the

The same
rest,

resultant curve should also be derived

by graphical

composition, as described in 48.

Since the pendulum started from

the phases of the components were initially the same.

is

Before the adjustment

disturbed the effect of varying the phase

For this purpose the pendulum may be an impulse from various parts of the board. Two or three such variations should be obtained and drawn free-hand on
relation should be studied.

started with

the cross-section paper.

The
studied

effect of slightly

varying the ratio of the periods

may

be

by

slightly raising or lowering the small ring.

The

exact

ratio of the periods, if they are

commensurate,

may be found by
Some

counting the number of oscillations in the two directions.

of the curves corresponding to different ratios of periods, such as

2:1, 5:3,
effect of

etc.,

should be obtained and drawn free-hand, and the

varying phase and ratio of period examined as before.

Finally the ring should be

drawn

as near to the top as possible,

and the resultant

of

two

S.

H. M.'s of nearly the same period studied.

DISCUSSION
(a) Points
is 0,

on the
TT.

first

curve drawn at which the phase difference

TT,

TT,

(b)

Does the escape of sand change the period ?

PERIODIC MOTION
(r)

66
halfway between the

Ratio of the periods when the ring

is

ceiling
(rf)

and the bob

of the

pendulum.
to

the

Where and in what direction might an impulse be given pendulum without influencing the form of the curve ?
Composition of S.H.M.'s in the Same Line.
S.

49.

Cases
same

in

which a point has two or more

waves.

H. M.'s

in the

line

occur in the transmission of sound, light, and electrical

Each component
of

S.

H. M. may be regarded

as

the projection

a uniform circular motion.

Let us

suppose that

P
H.

rotates steadily in

a circle and that the motion of the

projection,

X, of
S.

is

one of the

component
point,
Q^

M.'s.

Let another
an^

rotate uniformly in

other concentric circle, and let the

motion of the projection,

iHf,

of

Q be
If

^^^-

the other component S. H.

M.

ON

be always equal

and OM^ the motion of will be the to the sum of the two component S. H. M.'s. ON m evidently the projection of OR, the diagonal of a parallelogram of which OP and OQ are adjacent sides. (1) Let the periods of the component S. H. M.'s be

sum

of

OL

and Q move with equal angular Hence velocities and the angle POQ remains constant. R rotates in a circle in the same period as P and Q, and is, therefore, a S. H. M. of the same the motion of period as the components. The phase of Ns motion at any time is the angle R ON, and this is always intermediate
equal.

In this case

between the phases of the components or the angles

POL

and

QOM.

The amplitude, OR,

of the resultant

depends

on the amplitudes,

OP

and OQ, of the components and

56
also
is 0,

KINEMATICS
on the constant phase difference
of

POQ. When
is

POQ
the the

the components are in the same phase, and

sum

OP

and

OQ

and when

POQ
and

180,

OR is OR is

difference of

OP

and OQ.

(2) Let the periods of the components be different.

Let the period of

be
T^,
is

and

be

T^^

let that of

M and Q
and Q Hence

and suppose T^ <

T^, so that

the angular velocity of

P
R

greater than that of Q.

In this case, as

rotate, the angle

PO^

increases at a constant rate.

in a circle and the motion of iV is thereH. M. If Tj and T^ are nearly equal, the amplitude of the motion of iV" varies between the sum of OP and PQ and their difference. The farther T^ and T^ are from equality the more rapidly do the variations occur.

does not

move

fore not a S,

The

rate of increase of

POQ is the difference between the

and
Q, that
is,

angular velocities of

When

POQ
POQ

is

zero, the

components are in the same phase, and

to 2
tt,

when PO^ has increased

phase;
is
if

they are again in the same

this requires a time T, the rate of increase of

Hence

1 = 1.-1.
T
T^
or,

T^

denoting the respective frequencies ( 29) of the com-

ponents by Wj and n^ and the frequency of coincidences

Exercise VIII.

Resultant of

S.

H. M.'s in the

Same Line
some

Two

light spiral springs, each carrying a weight, are placed

distance apart so that the weights are at the same level.

A very light

wooden rod

is

suspended from the weights by short threads that leave

PERIODIC MOTION
the rod considerable freedom of motion.
If

67
one weight be kept at

rest while the otlier is in vertical vibration, the centre, C, of the rod

will
I

have a

S. II.

M.

of the

same period

as the vibrat-

ing weight but of half the amplitude.

weights are in vibration the motion of

of two S. H. M.'s in the

When both C is the sum

placed behind
vibrations.

will

same line. A vertical scale show the amplitudes of the

^
rod

both weights be drawn downwards until the

horizontal

T
zontal

is

and then released simultaneously,

they will start in the same phase of vibration (that

of greatest displacement).

When

the rod

is

hori-

and for a moment moving

parallel to itself, the

motions will

be again in the same phase and the time between these two coincidences will be the "coincidence period," T.

To

find

by

obser-

vation, release the weights on a tick of the clock at the beginning of

a minute and find the number of minutes and seconds required for
several coincidences.

springs that T, and T^ are quite different

Tj

This should be done (1) with such weights and (e.g. about 3:2). (2) When

and T^ are not

far

from equal.

In the

first

case the coincidences

will occur frequently

and a large number should be counted and

timed.

In each case T^ and T^ should be found by observing several times

the

number of vibrations
these

in three or four

nnnutes and taking the mean.

T^ and T^ will need to be
differ-

From
ence

T should be

calculated ( 49).

observed with special care in the second case above, since their
is

used in calculation.

Using a scale pan and weights for one suspended body, adjust the
weights in the pan until T^ and T^ are equal, and then verify the
statements of 49 as regards the composition of
period
;

S.

H. M.'s of the same

vary both the phase difference and the amplitudes of the

components, and note the amplitude of the resultants.

DISCUSSION
(n)

What

is

the resultant of three or more S. H. M.'s of the same

period in the same line?

58
(b) If

KINEMATICS
two
S.

H. M.'s of the same period in the same line

is

differ in

phase by ^ of a period (or 90), what

resultant ?
(c)
S.

the amplitude of the

Find an expression

for the amplitude of the resultant of

two

H. M.'s of the same period and with a phase difference of 6. (d) When the components in (c) are of different amplitudes, to
is

which

the resultant nearer in phase

(e) If the coincidence period of

two

S.

H. M.'s

is

observed and the

period of one of

them (" coincidence method

is

known, how can that

of the other
?

be found

" of rating a

pendulum)

REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER IV

Watson's " Text-book of Physics," Book
I,

Chapter VII.

Daniell's " Principles of Physics," Chapter V.

Clifford's " Kinematic," Chapter I. Macgregor's " Kinematics and Dynamics," Part

I,

Chapter IV.

DYNAMICS
CHAPTER V
FORCE
50.

So far we have considered the motion of bodies

velocities

which have certain

inquiring

how

these velocities

and accelerations without and accelerations are pro-

duced.

Clear, systematic views as to the

way

one body
first

may

influence the motion of another

in which body were

arrived at by Sir Isaac Newton.

His three Laws of

Motion lead to results that have been verified in innumerable cases

and

this is the

ground

of our belief that they

are accurate.

When

once stated and understood they

seem so nearly obvious that they are sometimes called

axioms.

Improvements in the way of arranging and

stat-

ing them will no doubt come in course of time, but they

form at the present time the most convenient and

factory basis of Dynamics.
51.

satis-

Newton's First

Law

of Motion.

" Every body con-

tinues in

its state of rest

or of uniform motion in a straight

line except in so far as it is

compelled by external force to

a certain muscular

change that state."

Our primary conception

change
in
its

of force

is

sensation associated with any attempt to

move a body

or

motion.

When we see
60

the same effect produced

of a second

some other way, for example by the impact

60

DYNAMICS

body on the first, we attribute the result to a force exerted by the second body on the first. This is a somewhat artificial

but very convenient extension of our primary con-

ception of force.

definition of force in this sense is

implied in Newton's First Law.

Force
is

any

action between two bodies that changes the

motion of

either.

This must be understood as a definition

;

of the meaning of force

a definition of the measure of force

follows from Newton's Second Law.

When a body at rest

begins to

move
is

or

when

its

motion varies in either magni-

tude or direction, the effect can be traced to some other

body which
in virtue of

said to exert a force

on

it.

The property
re-

mains at
52.

which a body not acted on by any force rest or in uniform motion is called inertia.

Newton's Second
:

Law

consists

essentially

of
is

two
the
;

statements

(1) the ratio of two different forces

ratio of the accelerations they produce in the

same body
is

(2) the ratio of the masses of two different bodies

inverse ratio of the accelerations produced in
certain force.

the
a

them by

The

first

enables us to compare and meas-

ure forces

the second enables us to compare and measure

masses

both are usually combined in a single statement.

it

In giving
the time

we

current since
it

two terms that have become Newton's time. The product of a force by
shall use

acts is called the impulse of the force.

its

The

product of the mass of a body by

velocity

is

called the

momentum of the body. " Change of momentum

of the force applied
force."
If a force,

is

proportional to the impulse

and takes place in the direction of the ^, act for a short time, t, on a body of

FORCE
mass, m, and
if

61

the velocity of the body change from

ftow',
or
or

Ftoc(mv'-mv),
v' XT Fccm

V
,

Fccma^

a being the acceleration of the body.

The law

refers only to the change of

momentum

pro-

duced by a force and therefore implies that the change of momentum is the same no matter what the initial motion
of the body.
It also implies that the
is

change of

momentum

produced by a force
forces, or

independent of the action of other

of forces act on a

when

number

body we may

calculate their results independently

and then compound

these results.
53. Units of Mass and Force.

Newton's

Second

Law

may

be stated thus

F= k

ma
being understood that the
of length

k being a constant the value of which depends on the units

of

mass and force adopted

is

(it

unit of acceleration

fixed

by the units

and

time already chosen).

If suitable units of

mass and force

be chosen, k will be unity.

first

Let the unit of mass be chosen

be taken as that force
Since
unit acceleration.

and then

let the unit of force

it

which acting on unit mass gives

in this case F, m,

must

also

and a are all unity at the same time, k be unity and therefore

jP= ma.
The
unit of mass that
is

usually employed in Physics

is

the mass of a thousandth part of a certain block of platinumiridiura

kept at Sevres near Paris and

prototype.

known

as the kilois

gramme

The thousandth

part of this mass

62
called the

DYNAMICS
gramme.

The corresponding
is

unit of force, or the

of 1 cm.

force that

would give a gramme an acceleration

called the dt/ne.
of

per second per second

The gramme

and the dyne are the units

mass and force respectively

is (veri/

in the absolute C. G. S. (centimetre-gramme-second) sys-

tem

of units.

The gramme

nearly) the mass of

1 cc. of water at 4 centigrade.

54.

Mass and Weight.

is

the earth

attracted

called the weight of

Every body on the surface of by the earth with a certain force the body. Newton showed that at
different bodies are pro-

any one place the attractions on

which he proved

portional to the masses of the bodies.

The experiments by
pendulums
of the

this consisted in timing

same length but with bobs of different sizes and different materials. He found that they all vibrated in the same ^ime. Two such pendulums when at the same inclination
to the vertical are acted

on in the direction of motion by

the same

fraction of the force of gravity.

But

since they

vibrate in equal times they must at equal inclinations to the

vertical
tion.

have the same acceleration in the direction of mo-

Therefore the ratio that the force in the direction of

motion bears to the mass must, by Newton's Second Law, be Hence the whole force's the same for the two pendulums.
of gravity

on the bobs must be proportional to their masses,

proportional
to

or weight

is

mass.

This

is

the basis of the

most convenient method of comparing masses, namely, by

of the masses by means of a balance. While there is this close connection between mass and weight, it must not be forgotten that mass or inertia is

comparing the weights

essentially different

from weight or the force of gravity.

FORCE
At

68

a very great distance from other attracting bodies the

its

weight of a body would be very small, while

mass

is

everywhere the same.

If

be the mass of a body and Tfits weight in absolute

units of force,

j^^ ^^
which
is

g being the
all

acceleration of gravity,

the same for

bodies at the same part of the earth.

Gravitational Unit of Force.
is

55.

In dealing with prob-

lems in which weight

engineers find
it

the chief force to be considered,

convenient to use the weight of a pound

(in English-speaking countries) as their unit of force, the

mass of a pound being the unit of mass.

value of k in Newton's Second
if

In this case the

For,

Law

cannot be unity.
act freely

the unit of force (a

pound weight)

on the
is g.

unit of mass (a pound), the acceleration produced

.*.

=^

^, or

= -'
if

Hence, in this case, the formula for Newton's Second

Law
it

is

1 ma, F=-

9
being understood that
as unit of force,

F is measured in the weight of a

and

pound
mass.

in the

pound

as unit of
if

The inconvenient

factor

- may be omitted

mass of ^-pounds be taken as unit of mass.

Exercise IX.

Force and Acceleration

is

Apparatus. A bicycle wheel

mounted on top

of a tall post

and

a cord carrying large iron masses

is

stretched over the wheel.

In the

wood

of the

rim (and somewhat closer to one side to avoid the spokes)

64
a V-shaped groove
is

DYNAMICS
turned, and the cord rests in this groove.

simple form of clamp fixed to the post enables the operator to keep
the wheel fixed
;

a slight jerk on a cord

attached to the clamp will release the

wheel.
If the axis of the

wheel passes
the

through the centre

of

gravity of

wheel and also through the centre of

the groove in which the cord rests, the

wheel will have no tendency to move

when

the masses at the end of the cord

are equal.

A small weight placed on one

acceleration

of the large masses will cause the latter

to move with a constant when the wheel is released.

Additional

large masses

and

different small weights

are provided so that the masses

moved

may be changed and

also the forces caus-

ing the motion varied.

The observer can

note the position of the large masses at

any time by reading a vertical scale which stands close behind one of them. The
cord sustaining the masses extends to the
floor

on both
is

sides, so that its

weight on

each side

always the same.

Adjustments.

The

supporting

post

- must be adjusted until the cord has no

tendency to move out of
its

groove.

On

four of the spokes of the wheel there are small movable weights which must be adjusted until the wheel remains at rest
in

any position when the masses supDistance and Acceleration.

ported by the cord are equal.

Fig. 28.
stant, the distance traversed

When the
is

acceleration in the line of motion

con-

from

rest is proportional to the square

of the time.

This

may be

tested by attaching equal masses to

FORCE
One mass being

65

the cord (preferably the largest masses supplied) and placing a small

weight on one.

elevated to a jwjsition observed

floor,

on the

vertical scale

and the other being near the

the wheel

is

released on a tick of the clock

and the position of the descending mass

at the third succeeding tick noted (the intermediate seconds being

passed over, since the distances are too small to be accurately observed).

This should be repeated twice and the mean of the three

readings taken.

The same should be done

mass reaches the

for each succeeding second,

until the descending

floor.

Twice the distance

in

each case divided by the square of the time should give a constant,
namely, the acceleration.
Device for Recording Distances.
are supposed to be observed
plicity,

In the above, distances of descent

This has the advantage of simIf preferred,

by

eye.

and with care gives

satisfactory results.

a record
heavy,

of the motion

may be

obtained by the following device.

adjustable pendulum, adjusted to beat seconds, swings from a knife-

edge attached to the post.

hair brush

The rod

of the

pendulum extends above

the knife-edge, and to the upper end of the extension a small camel'sis

attached.

The brush

is

inked once in a vibration by

touching a wet stick of India ink, and as the pendulum passes through
the vertical, the brush makes a trace on a strip of mucilaged paper wrapped around one side of the rim of the wheel. When the pendulum is released at the beginning of an experiment, it releases the wheel on first passing through the vertical and at the same time makes the first record on the paper.
Since the

movement of the paper keeps pace with

is

the

movements

of

the weights, the record on the paper the weights.

its

a record of the movements of

The paper

is

removed at the end of an experiment and

record interpreted.

Newton's Second Law of Motion. (1) The accelerations given to a mass are proportional to the forces applied. This may be tested by

comparing the acceleration just measured with the acceleration when

the weight placed on the descending mass
is

doubled.

All of the

readings need not be repeated

it

will be sufficient if the distance for

one particular number of seconds

is

determined, preferably the largest

number

for

which observations can be conveniently made.

66
(2)

DYNAMICS
The
accelerations produced

the masses set in motion.

This

may

by a given force are inversely as be tested by replacing the

masses attached to the cord by others half as great and finding the
acceleration as before.
Calculation of Distances.

From the masses, the value of g and the

Any
discrepancy between the
for.

greatest time observed in each of the preceding cases, the correspond-

ing distances should be calculated.

observed and the calculated distances should be accounted

Tension of Cord.

The

equation for the motion of each mass

should be stated and the tension of the cord deduced in each of the
three cases studied.

(This exercise will be continued from the point of view of energy

and angular motion

of the wheel in Exercise

XXV.)

DISCUSSION
(a)
(b)

AND PROBLEMS

Meaning and deduction of formulte used. Is the tension the same in all parts of the cord ?
Effect of friction.

(c)
1^
((/)

Calculate

what addition
of the wheel.

to the large masses

would be equiva-

lent to the
(e)

mass

Calculate for one of the cases studied the height to which the
rises after the

ascending mass

other mass strikes the

floor.

(/) Suppose that in one of the cases studied the cord were to break when the masses are at the same level. (1) What would be
the interval
(2)

between the impacts of the masses

velocities

on

the

floor?

With what

would they

strike the floor?

(g) Twelve bullets are divided between two scale pans connected by a cord passing over a very light pulley. What division of the

bullets

will
?

produce the greatest tension of the support of the

passes over two fixed pulleys and through a third pul-

pulley
(h)

A cord

ley suspended

between them.

mass of 10 kg.

is

attached to one

end of the cord, a mass of 5 kg.

being
vertical,

to the other end,

and the suspended

parts of the cord
if

pulley and an attached weight weigh 2 kg.

The

with what acceleration will the masses move

released ?

FORCE
56. Force of Gravitation.

67

The

weight of a body

is

particuhir case of the attraction between bodies called

gravitation.

From

a study of the motions of the

moon

and the planets, Newton discovered that the accelerations of these bodies are due to the fact that between any particle

of

mass Wj and another particle of mass m^, at a

first,

distance r from the

there

is

an attraction expressed

by the formula

G being a
far as

constant called the constant of gravitation.

this

So

known

law

is

perfectly exact.

It is true for

bodies like the planets and the sun at great distances

apart,
is

and very careful experiments have shown that

it

true for small bodies only a few centimetres apart.

Whether it also holds true for much smaller distances is not yet known. Experiments have shown that the attraction between two bodies does not depend on the materials of which they consist and is not influenced by intervening
bodies.

Newton
of

showed that a body of spherical shape, and the same density at all points equally distant from the
also
if it

centre, attracts external bodies as

at the centre.

were concentrated
surface

The

earth
it

is

very nearly such a body, and

its

the attraction between

and a body outside of

varies nearly inversely as the square of the distance of

the body from the centre of the earth.

But the earth

is

not quite spherical, and a body on the surface of the earth

is

farther from the centre the nearer

it is

to the equator.

This slightly affects the acceleration,

g, of

a falling body,

and there

is

also

an

effect

due to the

rotation, of the earth

68
( 64)

DYNAMICS
and
different in different latitudes.

Measurements

of g by the pendulum agree fairly closely with the formula

g
where \
is

= ^^(1 _ =

.0026 cos 2
I

.0000003

Z),

the latitude,
980.6.

the height above sea-level in

metres, and ^q

The value
earth.

of the constant of gravitation, G, has been found

by
is

measuring the attraction between two bodies on the surface of the

When

m,,
If

TOjj

'"

^'^^

^^'^

expressed in C. G.

S. units,

6.6576 X 10~^.

we

use this value for

is,

and consider the attraction

1,

between a

gm and

the earth, that

give m^ the value

r the value

of the radius of the earth in centimetres,

in

and

the weight of a

gm

dynes at a pole or 978, the value of

nij

deduced from the formula

This divided

for the law of gravitation will be the

mass of the earth.

by the known volume

which
ties of
is

of the earth gives the

mean

density of the earth,

thus found to be 5.527.

(Poynting and Thomson's " Proper-

Matter," Chapters II and III.)

57.

Force in Simple Harmonic Motion.

Since the

accel-

eration of a

body having a

S.

H. M.

is

/2 7rY
the force acting on the body

when

the displacement

is

is

^=-(^)%.
Hence
if

a body performs a vibrating motion under the

is

action of a force wliich

site direction to

proportional to and in the oppois S.

H. M., known, the When an elastic body such period T can be calculated. as a spiral spring or a bar is distorted in any way, that is, stretched, bent, or twisted, etc., the force with which it resists the distortion and tends to recover its form is prothe displacement, the motion

and

if

the force at a certain displacement

is

FORCE
portional to the distortion (provided the distortion
so great as to cause a
is

69
not

permanent change).
as

This

is

an

experimental fact
(127).

known

Hooke's law of

elasticity

Hence such a body when distorted and

set free

to vibrate performs

S.H. vibrations, the period depending

on the force resisting distortion and the mass set into

vibration.

The

vibrations of a spiral spring carrying a

weight and of a tuning-fork are examples that have been

employed already.
Exercise X.

Force in S.H.M.

mass

is

vertical line.

suspended by a vertical spiral spring and vibrates in a The motion is S. H. M. if the resultant force acting on
its

the body at any displacement x from

position of rest

is

proportional to

x.

Let the length of the spring when the

I.

mass

is

at rest be

The
I

force F^ required to stretch the

spring to the length

is

the weight of m.

When m

is dis-

placed through a distance x (positive

downward) the
F^, if

result-

ant (upward) force acting on

m iaF^
(Fj

F^ be the force
I

required to stretch the spring to the length

the motion will be S. H.

x.

Hence

M.

if

Fj)

x x,

Le. if

^^^

^^^

a constant.

If various values are

given to F^ and the cor-

responding values of x noted, a curve connecting F^ (as ordinate) and X (as abscissa)
oc z,

the curve will be a straight line.

may be drawn and, if (Fg Fj) From this line a more

accurate value of the constant ratio of (Fg

Fj) to x can be
yiq. 29.

found and used to calculate the period of vibration of m.

The curve thus obtained

expresses the relation between

it,

the length of the sp'ring and the force applied to "calibration curve" of the spring.
brated,
it

and

is

called the
cali-

When
known

a spring has been

forces to bodies,

may, along with

its

calibration curve, be used as a spring

balance to weigh bodies or to apply

and as

such we shall have frequent occasion to use

it.

The

calibration of each spring consists in determining the length

70
for each of half a dozen or

DYNAMICS
more
different weights attached

and then

plotting a curve with stretching forces as ordinates and lengths as

abscissae.

The

calibration of a spring will be found necessary in

several other exercises.

device that facilitates the calibration

steel.

is

a vertical scale etched on mirror glass or on nickel-plated

the spring be

If

hung

in front of the glass scale, its length

reflection

between the

hooked ends can be read by

without danger of parallax.

A numbered tag should be attached to each spring calibrated, and the number should be marked on the calibration curve. The periods of vibration of two masses attached to spiral springs are to be calculated by the above method and then determined experimentally by counting the number of vibrations in several minutes.
DISCUSSION
(a) Limit to the amplitude
(i)
if

the motion

is

to

remain

S.

H. M.

Should the masses of the springs be taken account of in the

calculation ?
(c)

How

could the vibrations of a spring, carrying a weight, be

^sed

to find the value of

gf

58.
ticle.

Composition and Resolution of Forces acting on a Par-

Every force has a definite direction and a definite

Hence any number of forces acting on a by lines in the directions of and proportional in lengths to the magnitudes

magnitude.

particle can be represented

the forces

of the forces.

Since the forces give rise to accelerations which are in the

directions of the forces

and proportional

in

magnitude to
of forces

the forces, a set of lines that represent any

number

applied to a particle
celerations to
tions can be

may

be also taken to represent the acrise.

which the forces give

These accelera-

compounded and resolved by methods already Hence forces can be similarly compounded stated ( 9). and resolved by means of the lines that represent them.

FORCE
Exercise XI.
Composition of
siuall ring.

71
of Forces

The Composition

Two

Forces.

Two spiral springs are attached to

Tlie other ends of the springs are tied to cords

which

/
3
\

\
h

/ \ H

--

\K
*l

\/
\

/
/

/
J*
)

Fia. 30.

are fastened

weight

is

by thumb-tacks to a vertical cross-section board. A hung from the ring by means of a cord. The board may

72

DYNAMICS
coi'd as

be levelled by using the weight and

a plumb-line.

When

the
is

ring has come to rest the projection of

its

centre on the board

is

marked by a

pin.

The length
it

of each spring

obtained from a

mirror scale placed between

and the board.

A careful copy of
section paper.
fixed

the arrangement should then be

made on

cross-

The

direction of the line representing each spring is

of the

by the position

peg to which

it is

attached and the centre

of the ring.

If the springs

have been already calibrated, the forces

they apply to the ring can be deduced from their measure lengths.
If

they have not been calibrated, each must be hung vertically and
it

the weight required to stretch

as in the

experiment determined.
should also be cal-

The

resultant of the forces applied to the springs can then be found

It

graphically by completing the parallelogram.

culated by the trigonometrical formula.

The

resultant should be

approximately equal and opposite to the weight carried by the cord.

Composition of Three Forces.

An additional spring
A
is

is

attached to
is

the ring and fastened to the board by a peg.

dravsdng

made

on cross-section paper
forces

as before.

The

resultant

then found (1) by

the polygon method, (2) by the analytical method, the angles the

make with

the horizontal being measured by a protractor.

The

resultant should be approximately equal

and opposite to the

weight carried by the cord attached to the ring.

DISCUSSION
(a)
(6)

Meaning of

resultant and proof of formulae used.

What

is

the

sum

of the vertical forces

on the pegs equal to?

Of the horizontal forces?

(c) Calculation of the angle

between the cord and each spring in

the

first

part of the exercise.

of the three forces in the first part of the exercise
is

(rf)

Each

proportional to the sine of the angle between the other two.

(c)

How

does the tension in each spring vary with the inclination

of the spring to the vertical ?

(/)

What

is if

the

minimum

strength of a wire that will sustain a

?

heavy picture
(g)

the angle between the two parts of the wire be 90

On what

does the pull on a kite-string depend ?

FORCE

78

59. Condition of Equilibrium of Forces acting on a Particle.

Any number of forces acting on a particle are said

when
their resultant is zero.

to be in equilibrium

Two

forces are in equilibrium

when they

are equal

and

opposite,

and they cannot be

in equilibrium unless they

are equal and opposite.

Three forces are in equilibrium

of

if

the resultant of two

If the three

them

is

equal and opposite to the third.

forces can be represented

sides

by the three

AB^ BC^ CA

of a triangle, the

sides being taken in continuous order,

then the resultant of two of the forces

AB

and

BC

is

equal and opposite to

the third (M, and the forces are therefore in equilibrium.

Conversely, if three forces are in equilibrium, and if any triangle be drawn whose sides taken in order are in
the directions of the forces, then the forces are proportional to the sides of this triangle.

For

if

any two

lines

AB^

BC
CA

hQ drawn to represent two of the forces, the

resultant of these

two

is

represented by

AO.

Hence

for

equilibrium the third must be represented by the third

side

of the triangle

ABC.

Any

other triangle whose

sides are parallel respectively to the sides of the triangle

ABC^
is

that

is,

in the directions respectively of the forces,

similar to

ABC.

Hence the

forces are proportional

also to the sides of this second triangle.

It

can be shown in the same

way

that a necessary

sufficient condition for the equilibrium of

and any number of

forces

is

that they should be representable by the sides of

a closed polygon taken in order.

74

DYNAMICS
Another convenient way
of stating the condition for

the equilibrium of any the analytical

of the

number

of forces is supplied
If

method

of composition ( 15).

by the sums

components
JT,

of the forces in three directions at right

if

angles are

Y, Z, and

H is the
Z are

resultant,

Hence

i2 is

if if

X,

T',

and

each

0.

Conversely,

H is

0,

X, Y, and

Z must

each be

0,

since

their squares cannot be negative.

Exercise XII.

The Triangle

of Forces
is its

An

interesting illustration of the triangle of forces

applica-

tion to the calculation of the forces that act on the parts of a jointed

framework.

As a

simple example,

we may

consider a skeleton frame-

work

ABC made up of three

B
and

spiral springs

suspended from the

verti-

cal cross-section

board by two other springs which are attached to the

of the triangle.

corners
of

A weight

W attached to the corner

Let the tension in
it

will put all the springs in a state of tension.

the sides of the triangle and the forces applied to

i^2>

be

T^, T^, T^, jPj,

^3) as indicated in the diagram.

At the

point

three forces Tj, F^, and T^ act so as to keep the

point in equilibrium, and they

triangle oab
forces.

may

therefore be represented by any

whose

sides are, taken in order, in the direction of the

The

forces T^, F2, T^, that keep the point

in equilibrium,

may

similarly be represented
ob in

by the

sides ohc of a second triangle

which has one side

joining c and a

common with

the

first triangle.

Finally,

by

we have a triangle oca whose sides represent the forces Tg, Fg, Tj, which act at C. The figure oabc is sometimes called the "force-diagram" of the framework ABC. From it the magnitudes
of all the other forces can

be deduced by proportion

if

that of one of

the forces be known.

Having

carefully constructed the force-diagram on cross-section

paper, assume F^ as

known from

the magnitude of the suspended

weight, and then deduce the magnitudes of the other forces and tabu-

FORCE
late the results

75
springs.

and the numbers of the

As a check on

the

results, carefully
results,

measure the lengths of the springs and tabulate the

tenjiiou of the calibrated springs

and then deduce the

from

Fio. 32.

their calibration curves.

Calibrate the remaining springs, or at least

find the forces necessary to stretch

them

as in the experiment.

The

closeness of agreement of the results found graphically,

and those
on the

deduced from calibration of the springs,

will

depend

chiefly

care with which the force-diagram was drawn.

76

DYNAMICS
DISCUSSION
(a)

Show
Show

that the external forces applied to the framework would

if

be in equilibrium
(b)

applied to a particle.
for the internal forces in the

the

same

framework.

framework consisted of uniform rods of considerable weight, in what way would the force-diagram have to be
(c)
If the sides of the

modified ?
(c?)

cord fastened at the ends to a support carries weights at

various points.

Draw

the force-diagram of the arrangement (called

a funicular polygon).
(c)

Construction and calibration of a simple form of light balance

for letters, etc.,

on the principle suggested by

d.

(/) Three forces acting on a particle are represented by the sides .45, ^C, iJC of a triangle. Find the resultant.

60.

Newton's Third
is

Law

of Motion.

"To

every action

there

an equal and opposite reaction or the mutual

readily recognized
;

actions of bodies are equal and opposite."

^he
is

truth of this law

is

in.

cases in

which the bodies are

at rest

pressed against the

against a wall, when a two equal masses hang by a cord that passes over a
pulley,

when one hand other, when a hand is pressed hand supports a weight, when
for instance,

when

a horse exerts force on a rope attached to

is

a canal boat which

prevented from moving.

When
law
is

applied to bodies in motion the meaning of the

not so obvious.

Consider the case of the horse

in

and the canal boat when both are

stant velocity.

motion with con-

If the boat did not pull

backward on one

end of the rope with a force of the same magnitude as

that with which the horse pulls forward on the other end,

there would be a resultant force on the rope and

it

would

move with an

acceleration.

FORCE
Next suppose the horse and boat
acceleration.
l)e

77
are

moving with an

If the
if

rope

is

so light that its mass

may

neglected, then,

there were an appreciable difference

its

in the

magnitudes of the forces at

ends,

it

would move

with a very great acceleration.

is

If the

mass of the rope

not negligible,

we cannot any

longer regard the horse

and the boat as bodies acting and reacting directly on one another, for now there is a body of definite mass
between them.
Consider, however, a part of the rope so
short that its mass

may be regarded

as negligible

the

pulls at its ends must be equal, for otherwise it would move with a very great acceleration. From what has been stated it will be seen that (1) the action and reaction spoken of are not two forces acting

on the same body, but the action

is

a force applied to one

body, the reaction, a force applied to the other body;

(2) the bodies referred to are bodies directly in contact,

although,
there
is

when
is

there

is

no relative acceleration, or when

an acceleration but the mass of the intervening

negligible, bodies not directly in contact

connection

may be treated as if they were The reader should consider all

in the case of the horse

in contact.

the actions and reactions

and the canal boat (1) between

horse and ground, (2) between horse and rope, (3) be-

tween

and boat, (4) between water and boat, (5) between water and ground.
rope
61.
Stress.

Forces
The
is,

always occur in

pairs,

an action

and a

reaction.

action and reaction considered to-

gether are called a

of a stress, that

stress.

force

is

only a partial aspect

its

a stress considered only as regards

78

DYNAMICS
The complementary
aspect of

action on a single body.

the stress
of stress
is

the reaction on the other body.

In terms

Newton's Third

Law may
;

be stated thus: "All

force

is

of the nature of stress

stress exists only

between

two portions of matter, and its effects on these portions are equal and opposite." There is reason to believe that when two bodies seem to influence one another's motion without any visible connection existing between them, e.g. two magnets or two
bodies charged with electricity, the effect
a stress in an intervening
is

really

due to

medium.

In the case of mag-

netized and electrified bodies, the

medium

is

the ether

and the nature of the

stood.

stresses are to

some extent under-

In one important case, namely, the gravitational

probably the medium.

attraction between bodies, the nature of the stress has not

yet been discovered, but the ether

is

62.

Transference and Conservation of

Momentum.
is

The

force that a

body

exerts on a

body B

opposite to the force that

exerts on A.

change of
is

momentum

that

produces in

equal and Hence the in any time

that

equal and opposite to the change of

momentum
If,

produces in

in the

same time.

therefore,

we

reckon

momentum

in one direction as positive,

and in
action

the opposite direction as negative, the mutual

between two bodies produces no resultant

change of

momentum; one

suffers a decrease of positive

momen-

tum, the other an increase.

transferred from one

mentum
ciple is

is

body to unchanged by the mutual

Hence momentum may be another, but the total moaction.

This prin-

sometimes called the conservation of momentum.

FORCE
63.
Bodies.

79
Mutual Action between

Changes of Velocity due

to

When two bodies act on one another the changes

are equal in magnitude
;

of

momentum produced

hence
If the

the changes of velocity are inversely as the masses.

bodies undergo equal changes of velocity, their masses are

equal.
If the

changes of velocity are unequal, the masses

are inversely as the changes of velocity.

These statements

might be taken as definitions of equality of masses and They are in reality the same the ratio of two masses.
as the
definitions

supplied by Newton's Second

Law

( 52).

This way of defining the ratio of two masses

leads at once to an experimental

method
it is

of ascertaining

the ratio of the masses; and while

not an accurate

practical method, an attempt to carry it out will help to

make

the meaning of mass more definite.

Exercise XIII.

Transference and Conservation of

trays or carriers are suspended

Momentum
so as

Two
aside

light

wooden

by threads
If

to be free to vibrate while remaining always horizontal.

drawn

and released simultaneously, they

and

collide perpendicularly at their

lowest positions and two needle-points attached to one of them stick

into the other
so prevent separation.

Small scales are mounted

on a bar below the carriers and pointers attached to the carriers move
along the scales as the carriers swing.

parallel to the line of the scales

The threads should be carefully adjusted so that each carrier moves and so that the carriers just come into contact when hanging at rest. A convenient method of adjustment is to provide the ends of each thread with small rings. One
ring
is

attached to a hook on the carrier, the other

is

fastened to the
all

upper surface of the top-board by a thumb-tack.

After

the threads

have been carefully adjusted side-strips on the top-board are screwed

down so as to prevent the threads getting out of adjustment. The carriers can be released simultaneously by means of a thread

80

DYNAMICS
is

that passes through four screw-eyes (see Fig. 33) and

attached to

both

carriers.

The

carriers

having been drawn aside to any desired

^1

Fig. 33.

positions

by means
;

of the thread, the latter is attached to the table

is

by a pin

when

the pin

pulled out the carriers are released.

if

The

reader will have no difficulty in showing that

be the

radius of the circles in which the carriers swing and x the horizontal

FORCE

81

distance of the starting point of a carrier from the lowest part of the
arc, its velocity at the lowest point is

= x^^'

Hence

-v/^

may be

calculated once for all; then v can be found for any observed value of x.

Measurement of Mass.

First Method.

The body of unknown mass

rest

(a cylinder of wood) is placed in one carrier and known masses (" weights " from a box of weights) are placed in the other carrier
until the carriers, falling
colliding.

from the same height, come to

aiid

on
fall

This should be repeated several times, the height of

being varied and the

known

unknown masses

interchanged.

accuracy of the result should be tested by placing the

The unknown and

known masses on

the pans of an ordinary balance.

Measurement of the Mass of a Carrier. Let a known mass be placed in one of the carriers and let the carriers be released from such heights
that they

come

to rest

on colliding.

Then

let

the

known mass be
several careful

placed on the other carrier and the experiment repeated to ascertain

whether the masses of the

Measurement of Mass.

carriers are equal.

Make

determinations of the mass of each carrier.

Second Method.

Suppose

only a single

in one and the known mass in the other and find the heights from which the carriers must be released so that they shall come to rest
is

known mass
carrier

available.

Place the body of

unknown mass

on impact.

Interchange and repeat.

Third Method.

Measurement of Mass.
in

Place the unknown mass

Allow the carriers

one carrier and a known mass in the other.

collision.

to fall

from equal heights and find the velocity of the combined

mass after
rest.

Next

let

one carrier impinge on the other at

Other combinations of

initial velocities

may be

tried.

From

each the miknown mass

is calculated.

DISCUSSION
(a) Sources of error.
(h) (c)

Meaning Meaning

of equality of mass.
of ratio of

two masses.
v.

(d) Proof of formula used in calculating

(e)

Is the present

method
is

of

comparing masses independent of the

assumption that weight

proportional to mass?

82

DYNAMICS

(/) On what ground is it assumed that the carriers, if released at the same time, always meet at the lowest points of their swings ?
(g)

Measurement
is fired.

of the velocity of a bullet

by attaching the gun

to a

heavy pendulum and noting the deflection of the pendulum when

the gun

64. The Force required to

make a Body

revolve in a Circle.

We have already seen ( 33) that when a body revolves

in a circle of radius r with linear speed
s it

has an accelacceleration,
to
it.

oration

toward
r

the centre.

To

give

it this

a force directed toward the centre

must be applied

Since
centre

F= ma,
is

and a

the necessary force toward the

To
(ilie

this force there

is

an equal and opposite reaction

This reaction of a revolv-

to the inertia of the body.

ing body against acceleration toward the centre is called " centrifugal force." It must not be thought of as a force
acting on the body; the only force acting on the body is /X toward the centre, the " centrifugal force " is the reaction
j

of the

body

in a direction
is

away from the

centre.

Thus

when

a stone

whirled around at the end of a string, the

force applied to the

I

body
;

is

a pull toward the centre prois

\ duced by the hand ward pull the body exerts on the hand.
Exercise XIV.
Apparatus.

the " centrifugal force "

the out-

Acceleration and Force in Uniform Circular Motion

horizontal spiral spring connects a

tates in a horizontal circle to a vertical steel axis supported

points.

The weight

of

body that roon needlethe rotating body, a lead block, is borne by a

cord attached to a horizontal rod that passes through the steel axis.

FORCE
The cord
the body.
is

88

given the form of a V in order to keep the body from

in the arc of the circle described

swaying backward and forward

by
ia

When

the vertical

axis rotates steadily, the spring

in a circle.
If

stretched and the lead block

moves

the plane of the

Fig. 34

cord be vertical, the horizontal central force acting on the lead block
will equal the tension of the spring.

The

rotation of the axis

;

is

produced by a

silk

thread that

is

wrapped around the axis

a weight.

the thread passes over a pulley and carries

The thread

is

attached to a collar that

is

adjustable along

84
the axis
;

DYNAMICS
a small ring attached to the thread hangs on a peg attached

to the collar, so that

when

the thread

is

wholly unwrapped

it

becomes

detached and then the axis rotates at a constant rate (except for the
small effect of friction).

For recording the speed of rotation

at

any time the axis

is

carries a

horizontal circular disk around which a strip of paper

fastened.

fine-pointed camel's-hair brush attached to the knife-edge of a short

adjustable
vibrates
;

pendulum sweeps
strip of paper.

across the strip of paper as the

pendulum

when inked

the brush recoi'ds the vibrations of the pendu-

lum on the

Adjustments.

After
is

the weight has been

is

hung

in position

and

before the spring

of the lead block.

attached, a pin
is

fixed vertically in the bottom

that rests on the table just below the lead block.

wooden block The wooden block is placed on the table so that the pins are in the same vertical line. The spring is then attached. It should be horizontal when so
Another pin
fixed in the top of a

stretched that the pins are opposite one another.

This adjustment

can be made with

sufficient

accuracy by holding the spring stretched

and testing

it

by a small

level held

above

it.

The length

of the pensec-

Mulum

should be carefully adjusted so that the pendulum beats

in

onds as tested by counting the vibrations

Until the pendulum
of the vertical
is

two or three minutes.

it is

to be used for obtaining a record,

held out

length that
floor.

it

by a small lever. The silk thread should be of such a becomes detached just before the pendulum reaches the
this is

As

the weight descends and the speed of the axis increases,

;

the spring lengthens until the pins come opposite one another

the

moment

at

which the thread should become detached.

is

After a
in-

few

trials the

proper height from which to release the weight (as

readily ascertained.

dicated by a vertical metre-stick)

Measurements.
pleted, the

When
is

the preceding adjustments have been com-

weight

allowed to descend.

The brush

is

then inked,
is

and as soon

as the thread

becomes detached the pendulum

is

released.

After one vibration the pendulum

arrested so that the record

lines

may

not be confused.

The order

in

which the two

slope.

on the paper

were made can be ascertained from their

This record should

be numbered in lead pencil and then several subsequent records

may

FORCE
be obtained in the same
confusion.

85

way on

the same strip of paper without any

When

a sufficient number to give a good average have

been obtained, the brush should be allowed to inscribe a complete

circle

on the paper, the pendulum remaining

at rest.

The paper may

then be removed.
tion

little

thought will show

how

the speed of rot>

may

be deduced from the records.

If the spring
its

has been calibrated,

its

tension can be deduced from

length and the calibration curve.

stretched
is

If

not yet calibrated,

it is

its

length
cali-

when

carefully measured

and

then removed and

:

brated.

Or

the following procedure

may

be adopted

attach a cord
to

to the block so as to stretch the spring

and allow the cord

is

hang

over a pulley clamped to the framework, so that the part of the cord

between the lead block and the pulley

horizontal and then place

such weights in a pari carried by the cord that the pins come into
line.

While the apparatus

is

in this position, the radius of the path

described by the centre of the block

may

be obtained by means of the

beam-compass, measurements being made of both the inside and the

outside distances of axis

and block and the mean taken.

From

the speed of rotation (in radians per second)

and the radius

of the

of the circle described

by the centre
is

of the block, the acceleration

this

toward the centre

the spring.

is

calculated.

From

and the mass

block the central force

deduced and compared with the tension of

The same
stiffness,

process should be repeated with a spring of different

again with a block of different mass, and again with a

different radius of rotation (obtained

by slipping the horizontal arm

through the vertical axis).

Second Method.

An

interesting variation of the above that gives

disk,

good

results

and dispenses with recording

briefly sketched.

pendulum, and thread

and weight may be

slight impiilses

the axis.
that

is set into rotation by from the thumb and forefinger on the lower end of By the same means it is kept in rotation at such a rate

The

axis

when

the

as possible in line.

moving pin passes the stationary one they are as nearly Only very slight impulses are needed, as the fric-

tion of the bearings is very slight.

When

the right speed of rotation

has been obtained and can be kept up, the speed of rotation can be

86

DYNAMICS
in a given time, say

found by counting the number of revolutions

two or three minutes.

difficulty.

If a stop-watch is used, this will present

no

If a clock or chi'onometer circuit * is

used for time, each

first

minute

may

be regarded as beginning and ending at the

tick

after a silence.

Begin counting passages after the tick that indicates

the beginning of a minute, call this the zero passage, and continue
until the

end of the two or three minutes.

To

obtain a good mean,

this should be repeated several times.

DISCUSSION AND PROBLEMS

(a)
(J) (c)

Meaning and deduction of formula. Meaning of " centrifugal force." Force acting on vertical axis.

(d) Effect of spring not being horizontal.

(e) Effect of supporting cord not being vertical.

(/) How the mass of the rotating body could be deduced from this experiment.
(g) Direction

and magnitude

of whole resultant force on rotating

body.
(h)

stand
(i)

if

At what inclination to the vertical would the supporting cord the body rotated at the same speed but the spring were absent? What angular velocity must a boy give to a sling of 80 cm.

length in order that the stone

highest point?
(j)

may
is

not

fall

out

when

it

is

at the

The

centre of the

moon
and

about 60 times the earth's radius

revolves once in 27 days 8 hours.

from the centre

of the earth,

it

Compare

its

acceleration with that of a

body allowed

to fall near the

surface of the earth.

Test the law of gravitation.

{k) State the formula for "centrifugal force" in gravitational

units.

65.

The Conical Pendulum.

A
is

ball is attached to the

end, P, of an arm,
*

AP,

that

pivoted at J. to a vertical

circuit containing a relay or

sounder and connected with a chro-

nometer or clock but fails to sound

in such a

way

that the relay sounds once per second,

at the completion of each minute.

FORCE
axis that rotates with an angular velocity
in a circle of radius r,
o).

87

and

P revolves AP describes a cone of height

morh' directed

hence

P is acted on

by a force

toward

(7,

the centre of the circle.

The

tension in

AP
f^

may be

resolved into a vertical component that

supports the weight, w^, of the ball, and

a horizontal component that supplies the
force mcd^r in the direction

PC.

Hence

from the triangle

PCA
mg
O)

we get

marr

=Vf.
is

mg
Fro. 35.

Watt's governor for a steam engine

steam valve.
Exercise

essentially a

double conical pendulum applied to the regulation of a

XV.
is

The

Conical

Pendulum

The same apparatus

that the cross-arm V-cord
is is

used as in the preceding exercise, except

carries the
its

removed and the short bar that

end of the pin

placed in a hole in the vertical axis.

The block with

floor

vertical pin is adjusted until the

in the revolving ball

just

comes above the fixed

pin,

when the weight reaches the

little
is

and

the thread becomes detached from the axis.

This adjustment having

pressure of

been made, the apparatus

is

brought to rest by a
axis, the

thumb and

rewound and the weight again allowed to descend from the same height, and when the weight reaches the floor the pendulum is released and a record of speed obtained. Or the second method of procedure of the preceding
forefinger

on the vertical

thread

exercise (dispensing with the recording disk)

may be

employed.

The value
duce
A.

of h cannot readily be

found by direct measurement.

Perhaps the best way

is to measure AP and PC (Fig. 35), and deThese distances must be measured from centre of ball to

88
centre of steel axis.

DYNAMICS

Hence for each distance two measurements must be made with the beam-compass, an inside measurement and an outside measurement, the ball being meanwhile held by a cord that passes round it and is attached to the wooden support. The value of <D, calculated from h and g, should agree closely with the
experimental value.

By changing

the initial height from which the weight descends,

different values of

w may be

tried.

DISCUSSION
(a) Sources of error.
(b)

What

is

the length of a simple

pendulum that
if

vibrates once

during a revolution of the conical pendulum ?

(c)

What motion
The

does the ball seem to have

viewed from a great

distance in the plane of revolution?

(c?)

vertical distance of a governor-ball

below the pivot varies

inversely as the square of the velocity of revolution.

(e)

Calculate the tension of the suspension.

how would they hang when

(g)

(/) If several pendulums of different lengths were attached to A, the rotation became steady ?

At what angle does a

bicyclist tilt his bicycle in

going around

a curve ?
(h)

How
all

strong must the spokes of a fly-wheel be to be able to

stand
(i)

the strain without aid from the rim? strong must the rim be to be able to stand
all

How

the strain

without aid from the spokes?

66.

Friction.

"When the surfaces of two

If a force

solids are in
is

contact there is a resistance to sliding.

called friction.

This resistance

tending to produce sliding be

applied to one of the bodies, the other being kept at rest,

sliding will not take place unless the force be above a cer-

tain value.

For forces

less

than this

critical value, the

friction just equals the applied force

and no sliding takes

is

place.

The

force just necessary to produce sliding

measure of the

maximum

static friction

between the sur-

FORCE
faces.

89
static friction is

So measured the maximum

found

to be proportional to the perpendicuUir pressure

tlie

between

surfaces, at least

throughout a considerable range of

pressure.

The

ratio of the

maximum

static friction, F^ to
is

the perpendicular pressure, P, between the surfaces

called the coefficient of static friction^ w, or

F = -.
it is

When

sliding has once

begun

found that a smaller

force will suffice to continue the motion.

will just maintain the
friction

The

force that

motion

is

a measure of the kinetic

ratio that it bears to

between the surfaces, and the

is

the normal pressure

called the coefficient of kinetic friction

between the surfaces.

on
the
kinetic
friction

The general

results of experiments

may

be

summarized as
is

follows
i.e.

(1) the ratio of the kinetic friction to the pressure,

coefficient

of kinetic friction^

practically constant

through a wide range of variation of pressure, (2) the ratio is also practically independent of the speed of sliding
provided the latter be not very small, (3) when the speed is very small and decreases toward zero, the friction
increases

and approaches more and more the magnitude of

the

maximum static friction and at indefinitely small speeds

the two are equal.

The coefficient of kinetic friction between surfaces of wood depends on the materials, varying between .25 and
.50.

In the case of metal surfaces

.20.

it

lies

between

.15

and

67. Motion on an Inclined Plane.

A body on an inclined
If

plane

is

acted on by two forces, gravity and friction.

90
the mass of the body
to the horizontal
is
i,

DYNAMICS
is

and the inclination

of the plane

the weight, mg, of the body

may

be

resolved into the component

mg sin i

parallel to the plane,

and the component mg

If i is

cos

perpendicular to the plane.

such that the body just begins to move when

released,
friction
;

mg sin i

is

just

equal to the

maximum

static

and since the pressure between the body and the

plane
is

mg cos i,

the coefi&cient of

static friction is

n=

mg sm t mg cos t

tan

I.

From
If

this

n may be determined.
a,

i is

such that the body slides

downward with an acceleration

the whole force parallel to the

^ plane must

equal ma.

This force consists of the com-

ponent of gravity down the plane,

of friction in the opposite direction, or n'

mg sin ^, and the force mg cos i, n'

being the coefficient of kinetic friction.

Hence

mg sin i n'mg cos i = ma.

.. n'

= tan i
9
n'

sec

i.

Hence
,

if i

and a be measured,
w' will,

can be deduced.
its

The

value obtained for

of course, be

value for the

particular speed at which the

acceleration
is a.

body

is

moving when the

Exercise
(1)
is

XVI.

Friction

The

coefficient of static friction of a pine block

on a pine board
different

found by adjusting the

latter to

such an inclination that the block

just slides

when

released.

The same should be done with

FORCE
weights placed on the block to show

91
far the coefficient
is

how

inde-

pendent of the pressure.

consistent

The

results of different trials will be

are.

more

the

more uniform the surfaces

Surfaces that have

results.

been freshly sandpapered and well brushed will give good

Fia. 37.

(2)

To

find the coefficient of kinetic friction of the

same

surfaces,

adjust the board to a high inclination (about 60 to the horizontal),

and attach a

strip of glass coated

with soap (bon ami) to the block

by means

of thumb-tacks.

Place a tuning-fork with stylus (as in

Exercise VI) so that the stylus will

draw a curve on the

it

glass as the

block descends.

second stylus attached to the inclined plane should

will

be adjusted so that, as the block descends,

straight) line that passes exactly

trace a (nearly

through the middle of the waves

styli

traced

by the

first stylus.

The two

should be as close together

92
as practicable,

DYNAMICS
and placed so
that,

when both

are at rest, they trace

but a single line on the glass as the block descends.

To

find the acceleration of the block, measure, along the line traced
stylus, the length of several successive

by the fixed
waves each.

groups of four

The measurement may be made by

scale (the tape of Exercise

inverting the glass

on a millimetre

will do),

and the

read-

ings should be as exact as possible.

from the frequency of the fork. group is readily found, and a value of the acceleration may be deduced from each two successive groups.
culated from the average.

The time for each group is known Thus the mean velocity in each
different values as possible
cal-

As many

should be obtained and averaged, and the coefficient of friction

DISCUSSION
(a)

How

far did the results

show that the

coefficient

of static

friction is
(b)

independent of the pressure?

results indicate

Did the
?

any variation of

coefficient of friction

with velocity
(c)

Why did

the straight line need to be drawn exactly through

the middle of the

(d) If the block

wave line? and board were

far

horizontal,
its
it

and the former were

acted on by a horizontal force equal to

tion

weight, with
in 10

what

accelera-

would

it

move and how

would
if

go

sec?

(e) If the force in (d) act at the centre of the block at

an angle a

with the horizontal, what will a be

the force
is

the block just start, (1)

when

a pull

(2)

(/) A body sliding same velocity as if it fell

is

when the force is a push ? down the length of a smooth plane

rough.

attains the
;

vertically the height of the plane

but this

not so

if

the plane

is

68.

Dimensions of Force and Momentum.

is

The
of

unit of

momentum

the

momentum
velocity.

of

body

unit mass

moving with unit

as the unit of

It therefore varies directly as the unit of velocity

mass and also directly

or (mow)oc(iff)(F); but ( 26)

(F) oc(i/^-i); hence

cc,

(mom)

cc

(^MLT~^^.

Instead of the sign of variation,

FORCE
we may use the sign
dimeimons^ and, as this
shall hereafter use
it.

98

of equality,
is

meaning

equality of

the more

common method, we

The unit
of mass,

of force
;

is

the force that gives unit of mass

unit acceleration

it

therefore varies directly as the unit

and also directly as the unit of acceleration, or

(F)

(i/)(-4)

= iMLT-^.

It is

evident that these dimensional relations can be

derived directly from equations connecting the quantities

unknown dimensions and other quantities of known Thus from momentum = ma we get (worn) = dimensions. (MLT-^), and from F= ma we get (F) = (MLT-^}. In deriving dimensional relations by this method we neglect
of

numerical constants, since they do not depend on the

fundamental units or are of zero dimensions.

REFERENCES FOR CHAPTER V

Mach's " Science of Mechanics."
Macgregor's "Kinematics and Dynamics," Part
II,

Chapters I

and

II.

Lodge's " Pioneers of Science " (historical).

CHAPTER VI
MOMENT OF FORCE
69.

In the preceding chapter we have considered the

motion of translation produced by forces acting on a

particle.

When

a force produces rotation of a body, the

effect

magnitude of the

depends on something more than

the magnitude and direction of the force and the magni-

tude of the mass moved.

Every one knows

possible.

that, to set a

heavy wheel in

rotation, the force should be applied as far

from the axis of rotation as

The importance

moment * of the force as it is called, depends on the magnitude and direction of the force, and also on its distance from the axis of rotation.
of a force as regards rotation, or the

The opposition offered by the inertia of the wheel is greater,

the farther, on the whole, the mass of the wheel the axis of rotation.
is

from

In other words, the importance of

inertia as regards rotation, or the

is called,

moment

of inertia as it

depends on the distances of the parts of the body

In the following sections
definitions of

from the axis of rotation.

shall arrive at

we

more precise
inertia.

moment

of force

and moment of
70.

Moment

of Force

and Moment

of Inertia.

Consider

a particle P, of mass w, free only to rotate about an

* The word moment, in the sense of importance^ occurs in such phrases
as " a matter of

no moment."
94

MOMENT OF FORCE
axis,
-4,

96

in

a circle whose centre

is

and radius
the circle

r.
(7,

Let a force

act on

then the only part of

P F

in the plane of

that can aifect the motion

of

is

the component

tangential to the circle.

Let the

direction of

F
Fig. 38.

make an angle 6 with

the tangent to the circle

then the

efifective

com-

ponent of
of

equals

be

a,

F cos 6. If the F cos u = ma.

TT
/)

linear acceleration

acts.

From C drop a perpendicular, p, on Then the angle between p and

the line in which

the radius through

-> P is also 6 and cos 6 = P r

.'.

Fp = mr

a.
it is

Since this

is

a case of rotation only,

more properly

stated in terms of the angular acceleration a of the particle

P.

Now

a=:ar
.'.

Fp = mr^

'

a.

Hence the effectiveness of the force F in producing The product of the force F rotation is measured by Fp. by its perpendicular distance from the axis is called the moment of the force about that axis.
If

F be not perpendicular to the axis, it may be resolved

component
parallel to the axis

into a

and a component perof

pendicular to the axis.

The only part

F that
of

will tend

to produce rotation about the axis will be the

component
the

perpendicular to the axis, and the

moment

F about

96
axis will be the
tiplied
If,

DYNAMICS
component perpendicular to the axis mulby the distance of this component from the axis.
free, the

instead of being attached to the axis A, the particle

be entirely

components of

parallel to

and along
changed.

CP

will cause accelerations in those directions,

but the result as regards rotation about

will not'be

The

multiplier of a in the above equation, namely mr^,

depends on the mass of the particle and the distance from

the axis.

The product mr^

is

called the

moment of

inertia

of the particle

about the axis.

71. Rotation of a Rigid Body.

As the

simplest case of

a rigid body, imagine two particles m^ and m^ in the plane

of the paper connected together

by a rod whose mass may

be neglected, and suppose that they are only free to rotate

about an axis through
paper.

perpendicular to the plane of the

particles

Then

at

any moment the

must have the

same angular velocity and angular acceleration about 0. Let forces F^ and F^ act in the plane of the paper on the particles m^ and m^ respectively, and let perpendiculars on J\ and F^ be p^ and p^ respectively. Let the from on the perpendicular from
connecting

rod

be p.

Then
the rod

since the stress

acts

in

in

opposite directions on

the particles,

^iPi

+ Tp = m^r^a^ ^iP'i- Tp = m^r^a.

+ ^2^2 =
C*^!**!^

Hence,
'

Fia. 39.

F^Pl

+ ^^2^2^) '

MOMENT OF FORCE
Evidently

97

we can extend

number

of particles rigidly connected together

fore to a rigid body.

method here used to any and thereHence for a rigid body

the

2my^, or the
cles

sum

of the

moments

of inertia of the partiaxis, is called the

of the

body about a particular

moment

body about that axis. It evidently depends only on the mass and form of the body.
of inertia of the
'^Fp, or the

sum

of the

moments
is

of the various external

forces about a particular axis,

the total

moment

of force

about that axis.

Denoting the moment of inertia of the

body about a certain axis by

force about the axis

/ and

the total

moment

of

by

C,

C=J.
and F^ do not act in the plane of rotation, the only parts of them we need consider are their components in the plane of rotation, and these are the
If the forces jPj

only parts that contribute to the

the axis of rotation.
7i

moment of
result
is

force, C,

about
If

Hence the

unchanged.

and

7^2

rotate about the axis in

two

different planes

perpendicular to the axis, the only difference in the above

proof will be that the stress

T will

be inclined to the axis;

but since
axis will

its
still

component

in a plane perpendicular to the

be a pair of equal and opposite forces acting

still

on Wj and m^ respectively, the proof will

hold good.

Hence the formula 0= la applies to a body of any shape. The analogy between the formula for rotation and the formula, F= Ma, for translation should be noted.
72.

Moment

of Inertia of a TTniform Rod.

Let the length

of the rod be

and

its

mass M.

We

shall suppose that

98
the rod
is is

DYNAMICS
and that
its

of constant cross-section
its

thickness

small compared with

length.*

Let the length, L, of

iV,

the rod be divided up into a large number,

of short

equal parts each of mass

and
at

"l" """"""'lll"
l

llll

"

length

:|.

The nth

part reckis

^^'
'

oning from one end

its

distance

from that end, and

is
(

moment

of inertia

about that end

all

-^
iV,

Hence, summing up for

values of n from 1 to

the total

moment

of inertia is

:i)(fT=(^)-'

If iV be supposed indefinitely large,

.-.

= 0.

1=1 MI?.
of inertia of a rod about its centre
this

To deduce the moment we have only to apply

the rod.

formula to the two halves of

imhim
is

*
lus

The student who

familiar with the differential

and

integral calcu-

may
Let
f)

substitute the following

be the mass of unit length of the rod.

its

The mass of a short length

is pr^dr.

dr

is

pdr and

moment
.:

of inertia about

one end of the rod

I=:j^\rHr =^pP

MI?.

MOMENT OF FORCE
73.

99

Moment

of Inertia of a

Uniform Eectangnlar Disk.

a.

(1) About an axis in the plane of the disk and bisecting the Suppose the whole rectangle disides whose length is a.

vided up into narrow strips parallel to

the

sides

Applying to these the

for-

mula

for the

moment
we get

of

inertia of a rod

and adding

for all the strips,

7i

""

J5

Ma\
bi-

(2) About an axis in the

plane of the disk and

secting the sides whose length

FiQ. 41.

(3) About an axis through the centre perpendicular

disk.

to the

The moment

of inertia of a particle, w,
is

whose

dis-

tance from the centre

tances of

is

mr^.

If r^

and

r^

be the dis-

from the axes considered in (1) and (2),

,\

= r-^ + r^. mi^ = mr^ mr^.

r^
-\-

Hence

if

ticles in

we sum up both the disk, we get

sides of the equation for all par-

Note.

It

is

obvious that the method here used for finding the

moment

of inertia about an axis perpendicular to the plane of the

If its

disk applies to a disk of any form.

moment

of inertia about

any

two rectangular axes in the plane of the disk be /, and /j, then its moment of inertia about a third axis passing through the intersection of the first two and perpendicular to the planes of the disk is / = /j + /j.

100
74.

DYNAMICS
Moment
of

Inertia

of

a Rectangular Block.

The

block

may be divided up into disks parallel to one face. The moment of inertia of each disk about an axis, through
centre and perpendicular to
its

its

plane,

is

given by (3)
all

of the preceding section.

Hence, adding for

b^),

the disks

we

get

I=^\M(:a^ +
of the block,
is

M being the mass

75.

and a and

h the sides of

the face to which the axis

perpendicular.

Moment

of Inertia of a

Uniform Circular Disk.

its

Let

the radius of the disk be ^, and

mass M.^

Suppose
of con-

the disk divided up into a

large number,
iV,

centric rings, each of

width

The

area of the wth

is

ring

from the centre

l-r^n^--

irm. N %= N 2^. IP
7r^2
is

Now

the area of

the whole

disk.

Hence
is

the area of the ring

Fig. 42.

the

fraction

of the

area

of the

whole disk.

Hence,
2n
is

M being the mass

The moment

of the disk, of inertia of

the mass of the ring

-^ M.

By

calculus method.

mass

of a

narrow ring of radius

Let p be mass of the disk per unit area. The r, and width dr, is 2 7rr dr p, and its

moment

of inertia about the axis of the disk

is

2irrdrp'

r^.

.-.

1=

(^2Tpr^dr=iTrpB*

= iMBK

A
MOMENT OF FORCE
this ring

101

about an axis through the centre perpendicuhir

the disk
is

to the plane of

2n

rrzzM1 to
3

{!
j

Summing

up

for all values of

n from

iV,

we get

2Mm^
* ,1

(^4)

Hence, supposing iV indefinitely great,

It is readily seen

from the note

in 73 that the

of inertia of the circular disk about a

76.

moment diameter is ^ MR^.

Moment

of Inertia of a

Right Circular Cylinder.

may be divided up into circular The preceding formula applies to each disk. Adding the moments of inertia of all the disks, we get for the moment of inertia of a right circular cylinder of mass
right circular cylinder
disks.

about

its

geometrical axis

It will

be shown later that the

moment

of inertia of

a right circular cylinder about an axis parallel to its

geometrical axis, and at a distance d from the latter,

is

77. Radius of Gyration.

The
is

radius of gyration,

^, of

a body about a certain axis

a length such that,

if

the

102

DYNAMICS

whole mass were supposed concentrated at that distance from the axis, the moment of inertia would be unchanged,
or

/= Mk^.

For a rod about the middle,

k^

= -^^ L^.

For

a circular disk about the axis of figure

78.

P = J R^, and so on.

Angular Momentum.

If a

velocity, ,

and a moment
is

of inertia, /, about

body have an angular any axis,

the product la
axis.

called the angular

momentum about

that

Supposing
is

J to

remain constant, the rate of change

the rate of change of ,
i.e.

of Id)

I multiplied by

la.

But Q=Ia., hence the moment

that axis.
If the
is

of force about an axis

equals the rate of change of angular

momentum

about

moment

of force is zero, the angular

momentum

constant.

Exercise XVII.
Apparatus.

Moment

of

Force and Angular Acceleration

horizontal circular disk of

wood

is

carried by a
disk.

vertical steel axis

steel axis is

which passes through the centre of the

The

mounted

in cone bearings, the bearing points being steel

is

needle-points so that the friction

reduced to a minimum.

silk

thread

is

wrapped around the

axis

and passing over a pulley

carries a

weight the position of which can be observed by a vertical

the axis so as to increase the
part of the apparatus
axis
is

scale.

Lead

cylinders are placed on the disk at equal distances on opposite sides of

moment

of inertia.
it.

stamped on

The mass of each The diameter of the steel

be measured by a micrometer caliper (3). A metre and a simple beam -compass (3) are used for measuring the diameter of the disk, the diameter of the lead cylinders and the dis-

may

scale

tance of the latter from the axis.

Calculation of Time of Descent of Weight. From the dimensions and masses of the various parts their moments of inertia about the axis of rotation are calculated. The moment of the force exei'ted by

the silk thread on the axis

is

deduced from the tension of the thread,

MOMENT OF FORCE
1111(1

103
from

the radius of the axis.

The

ang^ilar acceleration is derived

the total

moment

of inertia and the

moment

of the force.
is

The time
levelled

required for the weight to descend to the floor

Observation of Time of Descent of Weight.

then calculated.
is

The disk

by

means

of a spirit level.

To prevent

tangling the length of the thread

Fro. 43.

should be such that the weight will just reach the

overlapping of the windings of the thread,
it

floor.

To

prevent

should be attached to
it

the axis at a point slightly higher or lower than the point at which tends to

wind when the disk

is

turned.

With

this adjustment the

thread will always be very nearly at right angles to the axis.

The

104

DYNAMICS
is

upper bearing should be adjusted until the axis

loose in the bearings.

just perceptibly

The

disk

is

then rotated and the thread wound on the axis without

overlapping until the weight rises to the height desired.

at a tick of the clock the disk is released

Then

exactly

and the number

ten.

of

whole
is

seconds and fifths of a second before the weight strikes the floor
carefully noted.
effort

This should be repeated

times and a strong

as

possible.

made to have the separate determinations as independent The average of these is taken as the time of descent.

(The changes
cise

of energy that take place will be studied in Exer-

XXIV.)
DISCUSSION

(a)

Meaning and proof

of formulae used.

(6) Is it necessary that the axis

be vertical or the thread horizontal

or

is it sufficient

that they be at right angles?

(c) Effect of

using a thread whose thickness

is

comparable with

the radius of the axis.

(d) Effect of stretching of thread
(e)

and overlapping of thread.

Was the
exactly ?

tension just equal to the weight?

How

could

it

be

^ound

(g) Is there

(/) Effect of bearings not being quite central. any reason to suppose that the acceleration

is

not

quite constant?
(h)
If,

after the weight has reached the floor, the disk be allowed

to continue in rotation
rise to its original

and rewind the thread, why will not the weight

height?

(i) What would be the effect if the cylinders were made of the same mass as before but of twice as great diameter ? (j) An iron cylinder, 3 ft. in external diameter and 2 ft. 10 in.

in internal diameter, rolls

down a plane 20

ft.

long inclined at 30 to
?

the horizontal.

What

linear velocity does

it

acquire

79.

Centre of Mass of a Body.*

is

The centre of mass (or

italics
is

of inertia)

a point of great importance in the study of

* The part of this section preceding the definition in

may
it

(if

thought advisable) be omitted.

involve the assumption that,
if

The only
a point

objection to this

that

will

fulfil

the condition of being the

MOMENT OF FORCE
a group of particles or of a rigid body.

105

The
m^

centre of
at P^, is a

mass of a particle
point Qi in

wij

at Pj,

and a

particle

P1P2

^^^^^ *^^*^

or

Wi

WI2

: :

Q^F^

(^iPj.

If a third particle

Wg

at

Pg be added, the
^gPg
P,

centre of mass

of all three

is

a point ^2 ^^ ^1-^3 ^^^^ ^^^*

Wj

+ Wg

TWg

Q^Q^,

Fia. 44.

and 80 on for any number of

rigid body.

particles,

and hence

for a

The

centre of mass can be

more

briefly defined in

terms

of the distances of the particles

from any plane.

,

Let the

perpendiculars from Pj, Pg, Pg,

plane,

Q^,
c?g,

Q^-,

on any

LMNB,

be respectively

c?^,

d^,

5j, d^, ,
it

and

centre of
fulfil

mass as regards distances from any three planes,

will also

the condition as regards distances from any other plane.

The proof

of this proposition

would require more knowledge of analytical geometry

than we assume in this book.

106
let the feet of the
-Bg,
,

DYNAMICS
perpendiculars be A^^ A^,
ylg,
,

B^^

respectively.

Produce P^P^, and A^A,^ to meet in

0.

Then
Q1P2

^1^1 '-OP^- OQ,

::

OQ,

- OPy

P^A^-Q,B,:Q,B,-P,Ay

or
It can be

(mj + ^2)3^

= mjC?j + 7n2?2*

shown
'

in the
'
'

same way that

Q2P3

Q2Q1

A^3 - Q2B2
: : :

QA - QiBv

Hence

^2 ^2 5^. + W2 Wig (Wj + m^ + m^d^ = (m^ + m^d^ + WgC^g, = WjC^j + m^d^ + m^d^.
Wj
c?3
:

The

process can evidently be extended to any

di particles,

and so

to a continuous body.
:

number Hence we may

define centre of mass thus

If Wj,

m^.^

are the respective

masses of the particles constituting a body (or group of particles)

of total mass

M, and if the respective

d^, d^
,

distances of these

particles from

any plane are

the centre of

mass

is

point whose distance from the plane

is

_m-^d-^-\-m2d^+

'

_'2md

mi
If
Jj,

+ m^+
is

-'

Wp

wig

are all equal, 9

7/I2

the

mean

of the distances

d^'".

If Wj,

are unecjual, 9

is still,

in a sense^

the

mean

distance, but, in taking the

is

mean, the distance

of each particle

given an " importance " measured by

the mass of that particle.

In applying the definition to

a plane that passes through the group of particles or body,

MOMENT OF FORCE
distances on one side of the
positive
If

107

plane must be considered

and those on the other side negative.

etc.,

rfj, rfj,

be the distances of the particles Wj,

wtj,

etc., from a plane that passes through the centre of mass,

=
80.

and therefore

^md = 0.

Coordinates of Centre of Mass.

The position of the

its

centre of muss can be specified definitely by

distances

(with proper signs) from any three planes at right angles.

If in

any problem three intersecting

lines at right angles

have been chosen as axes of rectangular coordinates, then

the distance of any particle
the X and

from the plane containing

t/

y axes
a;,

is z, its

distance from the plane of the

and

z axes is

and

its

distance from the plane of the x

if x, y^

and

2 axes is y.

Hence,

be the coordinates of

the centre of mass,

= 2ma;

; '

= 2rwv

; '

= '^mz

81.

Centre of Mass in Simple Cases.

M When a homoge.

neous body has a geometrical centre, the body can be supposed divided up into pairs of equal particles, each pair
lying in a line through the geometrical centre and one of
the pair being as far on one side of the centre as the other
is

on the other

side.

the centre of mass.

rod, a

Hence the geometrical centre is also Hence the centre of mass of a uniform
is

uniform circular disk, a sphere, a right circular

in each

cylinder, a parallelogram, a parallelepiped, etc.,

case the geometrical centre.

When

a body can be divided

up into a number of parts

the masses and centres of mass of which are known, the

108

DYNAMICS

centre of mass of the whole body can be found by means

of the expressions for x, y^ z in 80.
82.

Moment

of Inertia of a

Body about any Axis.

Let I

be the

moment

of inertia of a to

A perpendicular

body about an axis through the plane of the paper and I^ its moment of inertia about a parallel axis
through the centre of mass
Q.

Let

w be

a particle at a point P.

From

P draw perpendiculars PA
to the

and

PQ

two axes. Join AC and from draw a perpendicular PI) on AQ.

Denote

CD

by

d.

Then

1= "ImPA^ = trnQPC^ -\-CA^-2PC.CA cos POA) = SwP(72 + CA^tm -2CA- ICmPCcos PCA). But "^(mPC cos PCA^ = ^md= since d is the distance of m from a plane through the centre of mass O and perpenHence if we denote the distance AC dicular to AC (^ 79).
between the two axes by a and the mass of the body by

I=I^ + Ma\
As an example of the usefulness of this proposition consider the moment of inertia of a circular cylinder of mass
ikf,

length X, and radius

about an axis through the

centre of the cylinder and perpendicular to the geometrical

axis.

Divide the whole length of the cylinder into a large

of equal disks

number
771

by planes perpendicular

to the axis

of the cylinder.
at a distance x

The moment

of inertia of a disk of

mass

from the centre

\

of the cylinder is ( 75)

mB^ +

mx^.

MOMENT OF FORCE
The sum
of the first term for all the disks
is

109
\

MR^.

The

summation
( 72).

of the second term has been performed already

in finding the

moment

of inertia of a rod about its centre

Hence

83.
lar

The Conservation

of Angpilar

Momentum.

The angu-

momentum of a body about an axis is constant if the moment of force about that axis is zero ( 78). A similar statement may be made with regard to the total angular momentum of a group of bodies (e.^. the solar system)
about an axis or line in space, even
different angular velocities
if the bodies have and are not at fixed distances

from the
is

axis.

The moment
of the

of each force about the axis

it

equal to the angular

if is

momentum

produces per second,

and
axis

the

sum

moments

of all the forces about the

zero the total change of angular

zero.

momentum

in

any

time

is

Internal forces, that

is

forces which the

of pairs of equal

bodies exert on one another, are

made up
axis.

and opposite forces (Newton's Third Law), and have therefore zero total

moment about any

If the external

forces that act

on the system have also zero total moment

about the axis, the angular

be constant.
angular momentum.
a particular case.
Exercise XVIII.

momentum about
is

the axis will

This principle

called the conservation of

The following

exercise will illustrate

Conservation of Angular

Momentum
known angular
by calculation

A number of
velocity,

bodies, rotating about an axis with a

;

and

also

move to greater distances from the axis by experiment the new angular velocity.

find

no
A
slide.

DYNAMICS
vertical steel axis supported

on needle-points carries a hori-

zontal steel cross-bar, along which two cylindrical iron blocks can

The

axis

is

set into rotation

by a thread that

is

wrapped

Fig. 46.

around the
at the
or,

axis, and, passing over a pulley, carries a weight.

is

By
axis,

a simple device, a cord that restrains the sliding blocks

released

moment when

the thread

is

wholly unwrapped from the

by a slight change in the arrangement, the thread can unwrap

(The cord and the thread loop over

without releasing the weights.

MOMENT OF FORCE
a small peg,
it

111
if

;>;

if

the cord be outside

If

it

will be released;

inside,

will not be released.

the cord and thread he placed on the hook,

k,

the thread will not be detached from the axis, and the cord will be
is

released or not released, according to whether it

outside or inside.)
in the cross-bar,

The initial positions and when the blocks

by other pins in the
any time
is

of the blocks are fixed

slide

by pins

out they are arrested in definite positions

cross-bar.

ascertained by

The speed of rotation of the axis at means of the recording disk, pendulum,

and brush described in Exercise

XIV

(p. 84).

Weigh

blocks, rods,

and disk before setting the apparatus up.

Several records of the final speed should be obtained, the apparatus

Iwing so arranged that the blocks are not released.

the cord
is

For each record

wrapped up anew, and the weight

have been released.

is

allowed to descend

from the same height.

after the blocks

Again, several records should be obtained

thread should be placed on the peg, p, so that

For these experiments the it will become detached

and not retard the motion to be measured.

Each record should be

from the centre
of the

numbered as soon as obtained.

The

distances of the centres of the blocks

axis in both positions of the blocks should be

measured very carefully

by means of the beam-compass. The length of the cross-bar, the diameter of the disk, and the diameter of the axis should also be
measured, the last by means of the micrometer caliper.

From these
and
after the

measurements the
angular

total

moment
as

of inertia, both before

change of position of the blocks, can be calculated.

initial

Taking the
angular

velocity

known, calculate the

final

velocity.

With a view

to facilitating Exercise

XXVIT, which
is

is

a continua-

tion of the above, record the total distance of descent of the weight,

the height to which the

it

reascends

when the thread

not detached and

to

moment of reascends when

inertia is not changed,

and the height

which

it

the

moment

of inertia changes.

DISCUSSION
(a) Sources of error.
(b)

Meaning and proof of formulae used.

both positions.

(c) " Centrifugal force " of the blocks in

112
(<?)

DYNAMICS
At what speed
Does the
friction

of rotation (given the coefficient of friction)

if

would the blocks

(e)

just begin to slide

released?
affect the result ?

between block and cross-bar

(/)

How

could data be obtained for drawing a curve to show the

way

in

which the speed increases with distance of descent of the

weight, and

how could a more

accurate value of the final speed be

thus obtained ?
(g) Is the to

motion of the blocks affected in any way by force applied

cross-bar ?
it

them by the
(h)
(i)

Why How

does water in a wash-basin rotate as

of the earth,

runs out ?
affect the

length of

must shrinkage the day ?

due to cooling,

84.

Velocity and Acceleration of Centre of Mass.

is

The
from

velocity of a particle in any direction

of its distance
direction.

the rate of change

from a fixed plane perpendicular to that

m^-,

Let the distance of the particles w^,

d^, d^,

a plane be
*^

respectively,

and

let the distance of

the centre of mass from the plane be

8,

then ( 79)

(m^ + m^-^-

.)5=^7WiC?i

-fW2C?2+

After a short interval of time,

B'

t, let
'

these distances be

'

'

...

then

(mj -\-m^+

...)8'

= m^d^' + m^d^' +
t,

If the first equation

be subtracted from the second, and

both sides of the result divided by

indefinitely short,

and t then supposed

we

get

V being the velocity of the centre of mass in the direction

in

which the distances are measured and Vj, cities of mj, Wg, respectively, in the same

v^,

the velo-

direction.

Applying the same method to changes of velocity we

MOMENT OF FORCE
can show that
if

113

a be the acceleration of the centre of

a^, ag,

mass

in

any direction, and

rwj,

the accelerations of the

particles

m^,
4-

respectively,

(Wj

Wj

= %i + ^Wg^a +

These two equations may also be written in the forms

Xm(y
Here (u v)
for

v) =

and 2w(a a) =

0.

any

particle

is its

velocity, in

any

direction, relatively to the centre of mass, and a similar

statement applies to (a

a).
Mass
of

85. Acceleration of the Centre of

by External Forces.
particles

The

forces acting

a Body acted on on a group of

In-

may

be classified as internal and external.

ternal forces are

due to the actions and reactions between

External forces are the forces be-

particles themselves.

tween the

particles

and outside bodies.

The

internal

forces on a bridge are the stresses in the various parts,

the external forces are gravity,

of supports, etc.

wind

pressure, reaction

Let the component, in any given direction, of the resultant of the external forces on a particle m^ be J\ and let
the component in the same direction of the resultant of
the internal forces on the particle be /j ; for a second particle m^ let the corresponding components be F^ and f^

and so on.
Second

If the accelerations in that direction of the

a^, agi

various particles be

respectively, then

by Newton's

Law
-^2
.-.

+/2 = ^2%'

etc.

'LF+'2f='2ma.

114
If a

DYNAMICS
be the acceleration of the centre of mass and
ilf

the

whole mass, then by

84

Ma= '2ma.
By Newton's Third Law
equal and opposite pairs,
.-.

the internal forces occur in

2/=0.

Hence

^F = Ma.
mass in any direction
is the

Thus

the motion of the centre of

same as if all the mass were concentrated at the centre of mass and all forces were transferred, with their directions
unchanged,
applies to
to

the centre of mass.

Since this statement

any group of

particles, it applies also to a con-

tinuous body.

The motion

of the centre of

mass of a body

is

not affected

by internal forces. When a rocket explodes, the position and motion of the centre of mass are not affected by the
explosion.

Similar statements

may be made with

refer-

ence to attracting and colliding bodies.

86.

Translation and Rotation.

If the linear

motion of

the centre of mass

of

the body about

is

C of a body and the angular motion O are known, the whole motion of
To
learn

the body

applied to

known. the body

how any number

of forces

affect its motion, it is only necessary

to find the linear acceleration they impart to

angular acceleration about

of these

and the which they produce. Each

For the former deon their

may be

calculated separately.

pends only on the magnitudes and directions of the forces

and not on their points

of application, that
latter

is,

moments about

Q.

The

depends

only on the

MOMENT OF FORCE
moments
changed
rest, for

115

of the forces about axes through

if

C
to

and

is

unit

additional forces be applied to

keep

at
C,

such forces would have no moments about

translation of the centre of
tlie

Thus we may consider

two independent
87.

it

mass

and angular acceleration about

centre of mass as the

effects of the forces applied to

a body.

D'Alembert's

Principle.

The

equation proved in

85
is

is

very important.

Written in the form

2^ 2wia = 0,
Since

sometimes called D'Alembert's Principle.

ma

equals the force that would give the mass

tion a, it

the accelera-

was sometimes ing on the particle and

2J^
is

called the " effective force " act-

ma
the

was

called the "reversed

effective force."

sum

in a certain direction of

the components of the external forces, and

"Lma

is

the

sum

in the same direction of the components of the " re-

versed effective forces," and since these sums of components added together equal zero, the whole of the external
forces

and the whole of the reversed

effective forces

may

be considered as a system in equilibrium.

bert's Principle is usually stated

thus

Hence D'Alem" The external

forces with the reversed effective forces of a system of

particles constitute together a

system of forces in equi-

librium."
Exercise XIX.
Friction.

D'Alembert's Principle
clean, freshly

Four rectangular blocks of the same wood with plane,

sandpapered surfaces are placed on one another as in Fig. 47, the

lower one resting on another block of like material and finish.

What
third

force, F, applied horizontally to one of them, for example the from the top, will pull it free of the others ? Let the masses be Afj, M^, M^, M^ respectively and the respective
a^,

accelerations

a^

a^, a^.

The

reader will find

little difficulty in

show-

116
ing that a^ must be zero.
in
If

DYNAMICS
The
force

must be such

as to produce

Mg an

acceleration, Og, greater than the acceleration, a^, of Afg.

/u,

P be

the pressure between two of the blocks and

the coefficient

of static friction, the greatest horizontal force one

can exert on the other

force
If

is Pfi.

Hence the

greatest

possible

between

no slipping takes

M^ and M^ is M^g/j.. place between M^ and M^,

less

the force between

them will be

than M^g/i, say

M^gfx8, 8 being either zero or a positive quantity. We can by D'Alembert's Principle write down
the equations for the following systems
alone, (2) 3/,
:

(1) Afj

and

M^

together, (3) M^, M^,

and
(1)
(2)

Mg

together.

- 8 - Mifli = 0. (M,a, + M^a,) = 0. (ilfi + M^)g^ F-(M, + M^ + M,)g,M - (iJ/iO, + M22 + -^s^.s) = 0Migfi
^

(3)

Subtracting (1) from (2),

we

get
0.

M^fi +

M^Or,

e?7-

Hence a^ ^ gfi. Hence when slipping between il/j and Mg just takes place, a^^ g/i.
Subtracting (2) from (3),

we

get
0.

F-

(2M, + 2M2 + Ms)gfi-Mgag =

.-.

F^2(M^ + M2 +

M,)g,x.

writing

The student should also solve the problem by down Newton's Second Law for each one of the blocks. This will make it clear to him
D'Alembert's
Principle
is

that

equivalent

to

Newton's Laws of Motion.

To

find the least force, F, that will cause slip-

ping between
spring to
il/g

M^ and

Afg,

attach a calibrated
of the

and fasten the other end

spring to an upright by means of a string of adjustable length (a

bracket screwed to the table will do for the upright, and the string

may be

passed through a hook in the bracket).

;

The

spring should be

horizontal

it

should be attached to the middle of the end of AI^ and

MOMENT OF FORCE
its

117
Afj.

direction should be perpendicular to the

end of

Several trials

will be necessary in order to find the length to

which the spring must

be stretched so that when 3i,

it

is released,

slipping takes place between

and M^.

The following two simple

vations.

devices will greatly facilitate the obser-

lever attached to the

end of

passes through a screw-eye in the end of

M^ and carrying a stud that Mg is convenient for releaspaper index fastened by a

ing

JI/3

promptly and uniformly.

A small

pin to the side of 3/3 and pressing against a pin on the side of
will
is

M2
and

be displaced

if

any slipping between Afj and

slip.

Afj takes place,

it

convenient for recording any actual

slip of 3/2 at start of Afg, slip

Without

a slight back-

ward ward

being compensated by an equal for-

when

3/3 stops,

would sometimes pass unnoticed.

When

the desired adjustment of the length of the spring has been obtained,
the length of the spring

must be measured with great accuracy by

mirror-scale.

means

of the

beam-compass or

The

coefficient of friction

between

M, and

Af, is

found from the

to

force (applied

by the spring) necessary

to cause

M^

move on M^.

If the surfaces of

the blocks have been freshly sandpapered, the

coefficients of friction

between the blocks

will be

found appreciably

equal.

To obtain

the value of the coefficient as accurately as possible,

find the friction

tion,

between Afg and

M^ when

all

four blocks are in posi-

then when 3/j has been removed, and finally when Afj and A/j

have been removed.

By

plotting the various values of the friction

against the corresponding values of the pressure of Afg on M^, a very

reliable estimate of the coefficient of friction should

be obtained and

at the

same time the constancy

if

of the ratio of friction to pressure will

be tested.
be tried
cise,

Other arrangements of these positions of the blocks

time permit.

may

(Instead of a spring in the preceding exer-

a cord that passes over a pulley and carries a pan and weights

might be used.
inertia of the

This would complicate the calculation, owing to the

friction of the pulley,

pan and weights and the

and on

the whole gives less satisfactory results.)

DISCUSSION
(a)

K sliding

of A/j

were prevented, what force would just

start

AfjV

118
(b) (e)

DYNAMICS
What
Try
free

force

would

just cause Afg to slide

on M^'i
the force required to
is

to state in general language

why

pull

ik/g

from

M^ and

M^, as in the exercise,

greater than that

calculated in (a).
(rf)

(e)

Why does not M^ move ? Has M^ any tendency to

slide

on

M^

in the experiment

and

why?
(/) In what respect would the solution of the problem of the exercise be different if the coeiBcients of friction

between the various

pairs of blocks were different?

(g)

At what angle
have to be

to the horizontal

would the platform on which

slide

M4 rests
(h)

tilted so that

M^ would

downward ?

If the platform

were

tilted as in (g),

between what pair of

produce

blocks would sliding

(i)

first

begin ?
tilted,

If the

platform were

but not

sufficiently to

sliding,

what amount

of force

would be

called into play

between

each pair of blocks ?

REFERENCES
I, Chapter IV, Macgregor's " Kinematics and Dynamics," Part II, Chapters

Gray's " Treatise on Physics," Vol.

V and

VI.

CHAPTER

VII

RESULTANT OF FORCES. EQUILIBRIUM

88.

Resultant of Forces acting on a Body.

The

forces

acting on a particle

may

be reduced to a single equivalent

force called the resultant of the forces.

at different points of a hody^ they

When

forces act

may

in certain cases

be

reduced to a single equivalent force.

single force will produce the
forces.

In other cases no

same

results as the actual

For example, suppose the centre of mass of a body

has a linear acceleration in a certain direction, while the

body has an angular acceleration about an axis in that A little consideradirection through the centre of mass.
tion will

show that no

single force could produce exactly

the same linear and angular accelerations.

The

resultant of the forces acting

on a body

is

the single

force or the simplest set of forces that will give the body

the same accelerations, linear and angular, as the actual

Hence we get the following conditions that the resultant must satisfy (1) The resultant must give the centre of mass of the body the same linear acceleration in any direction as the actual forces produce. Hence the component of the resultant in any direction must equal the sum of the components of the
forces produce. actual forces in that direction.
It
is,

however, not necesequivalent to

sary to consider

all

directions through the centre of mass.

a,

For an acceleration,

in

any direction
119

is

120
three accelerations,

DYNAMICS
a^, a^, a^,

in directions at right angles,

such that

a2

a^^

+ a^ + a^.
Hence
it is

A force that will

The

cause these component accelerations will

give rise to a and will satisfy this condition.

sufficient to consider three directions at right angles.

must give the body the same angular acceleration about any axis as the actual forces produce. Hence the moment of the resultant about any axis must equal the sum of the moments of the actual forces about that axis.
(2)
resultant

For a reason precisely similar to that stated in (1), it is only necessary to consider three rectangular axes through
a point.

Moreover,

it

is

not actually necessary to con-

sider rectangular axes through all points. For ( 86) the two independent motions of a body are linear motion of the centre of mass and angular motion about an axis through the centre of mass. Hence it is sufficient to consider rectangular axes through the centre of mass

only.
89.

Resultant of

Two

Parallel Forces.

(1)

Let the forces

P and

be in the same direction and let their points of

application be
respectively.

and

Consider

a single force
parallel

^=P+ Q
P
and Q
at a point

to

and applied

AB such that P.AO=Q-BC. We

C
in
shall

show that the force

the
condi-

B
FiQ. 48.

satisfies

tions for being the re-

RESULTANT OF FORCES
sultant of

121

and Q. Since li is in tlie same direction and Q and equals their sum, the component of M as in any direction equals the sum of the components of

and Q

in that direction.

Hence

satisfies

the

first

condition of 88.

Let an axis perpendicular to the plane of

that plane in 0,

from

on P,

Q,

and and

let

P and Q cut 00' be perpendiculars OA'^ OB',

M respectively.

B'0C'=(P+Q-)0O' :=P'00' + Q'00' = P(PA' - A'O'-) + Q(OB' + 5'(7') = P'OA' + Q'OB' + Q'B'C' -P' A'C.
If 6 be the angle

AB and A'B', Q-B'0'-P'A'0' = iQ- BO- P-AO) cos = 0.

between
.'.

R'OO' =P'OA' + Q'OB'.

Hence the moment of R about this axis equals the sum It is readily seen that the of the moments of P and Q. same is true for any axis perpendicular to the first, that is, for any axis in a plane parallel to the plane of P, Q, and R. Hence R satisfies the second condition of 88. Hence R is the resultant of P and Q.

The point

of application of the resultant,

(7,

is

some-

times called the " centre " of the parallel force.

Its posi-

tion is evidently independent of the actual direction of

the parallel forces and

would not be changed

if

they were

turned in some other direction, while

parallel.

still

remaining

(2) Let the forces

and Q be in opposite directions

and

let

be

> ^.

Consider a force

R=P Q

parallel

122
to

DYNAMICS
in

and Q and applied at a point C beyond A such that P AC= Q BO.

>

BA

produced

will evidently

satisfy the first condition required of

the resultant of
Q.

and

Let an axis perpendicular to the plane of

P and
in 0, to
FiG. 49.

cut that plane

let

and
Q^

OA',

0B\

OC^ be perpendiculars
P,

and

respec-

tively.

Then

R' OC' = (P-Q}00'

= P(OA' + A' O'} If 6 be the angle

+ B' 0') = P- OA' -Q' OB' + P-A'0' - Q'B'O'.

Q( OB'
between

and A' (7',

'

P'A'0'-Q'B'0' = (P' AV- Q BO)

.-.

cos ^

= 0.

R'00' = P'OA'-Q-OB'.

Hence the moment of R about the axis equals the sum moments of P and Q and the same is evidently true for any axis parallel to the plane of P and Q. Hence R is the resultant of P and Q.
of the

Since

P-AO=Q-BO
=^Q{BA + AO)
Afi- Q-

or

BA

it

follows that the less the difference between

and Q

the farther

O is

from

or B.

RESULTANT OF FORCES
(3) Let
If in the

123

P and

be equal and opposite.

preceding we suppose

P = Q^ then R=
an
fiction.

and

AC
tance.

CO or the resultant in

a zero force at

infinite dis-

This, however,
;

is

not a force having any real

existence

it is

merely a mathematical
is

No

single

force can be found that

of,

equivalent

to, i.e.

the resultant

a pair of equal and opposite parallel forces.

is

Such a

pair of forces

called a couple.
in the

Parallel forces

same direction are sometimes

opposite directions, unlike

called
forces.

like

forces; those in

90.

Resultant

of

a Number of Parallel Forces.

If

Let

Pj, Pg' be parallel forces.

direction,

they are

all in

the same

Pj and P^

are equivalent to a single force i^j

that

may

be found as in 89, R^ and

Pg

are equivalent to

a single force R^^ and so on.

single force

The

final result will

be a

R which is therefore the resultant.

not
all

Evidently

R = 1.P.
If the forces are

in one direction, those in one

direction are equivalent to a single force

the opposite direction to a single force

are unequal, their resultant
is

a single

R^ and those in If R^ and R^ force R = 2P. If

R,^.

R^ and R^

are equal, that

is if

2P =

0,

their resultant is

a couple (or else zero).

From
that
its

the

way

in

which
is

is

found above

it is

evident

point of action

independent of the actual direc-

tion of the parallel forces.

second method

is

to

employ the principle that the

moment of the resultant about any axis must equal the sum of the moments of the components ( 88). Let the

124

DYNAMICS
them

distances of the forces from an axis perpendicular to

be
is

j?j,

p^,

respectively.

If

2P is
and
If the

not zero, the resultant

a single force equal to

is

2P

its distance, r,

axis

given by

Rr =

'LPp.

from the same method be applied

to a second axis, perpendicular to the forces

and

to the first

axis, it will give the distance of the resultant

from the
in

axis

and these two distances

If all the forces are in
it

will give the line of action of

R.

one plane, the resultant

is

that plane and

will be sufficient to consider

moments

about a single axis perpendicular to that plane.

third method gives the point of action,

(7,

of

R if
and

the

points of action of the forces are known.

Let the disi,

tance of

from any plane be

let

the distances of the points of action of

the forces from that plane be
respectively.
rr^, ojg,

Since the position of

O is

independent of the actual direction of

the parallel forces,
all

we may suppose them

about any
axis,

turned parallel to the plane referred

to.

Now take moments

new

A^ lying in the plane and perpendicular

to the

direction of the forces.

distance of the

new
is

line of action of
^iid so on.

from that axis

distance of

is x^,

that of

P^

2^2'

The Pj The
is

R from

the axis

is x.

Hence,

Rx = IPx, and
The same
x,
i/,

this gives the distance of

O from

the plane.

true for any plane.

angles,

Hence, taking three planes at right

spectively,

and denoting distances from it by we have for the position of O

-

and

z re-

l.Px

2Pz

RESULTANT OF FORCES
If

126
fail
;

IP = 0,

the second and third methods

first

but in

that case

we may

omit one of the forces and find the

resultant of the others.

This with the omitted force will

therefore, the resultant of all the

form a couple, which

forces.

is,

Exercise

XX.

Composition of Parallel Forces

(1) Forces in the same direction.

sisting of

A very

light

framework, cona cross-

two wooden rods

crossed, is supported in front of

section board
rods.

by an axis that passes through the intersection of the Masses are suspended from the ends of the rods by means

of long threads so tliat they

hang below the board.

Each thread

is

attached to the rod by means of a thumb-tack, and hangs over the

end

of the rod, so that the point of application of the force is sharply

defined by an edge of the end section.

(There

is

a small projection
is

on each end of the rear face of the front rod, and the thread
attached to
strings
it,

so that

it

may hang

clear of the other rod

and

all

the

may

be in the same plane.)

One

of the masses is

are adjusted until the

a scale pan carrying weights. The weights framework hangs in equilibrium, with all the
Instead

threads at considerable distances from the axis of suppox-t.

of the scale

pan a calibrated spring may be used. The resultant is then found by the first method of 90, the forces being taken in order around the quadrilateral formed by their points of action.

The second and

third methods are then applied to find the position

of the resultant.

and point application

All the results should be

represented in diagrams.
(2)

Forces in opposite directions.

Forces acting vertically upward

to pegs at the top of the
is

are produced

by calibrated springs attached

board.

Care should be taken that the board

properly levelled and

that the lines of action of the springs are truly vertical.

is

diagram

drawn as before and the resultant found by

all

three methods.

126

DYNAMICS
DISCUSSION

(a)

How
What

would the

results

have differed

if

the forces had been

all?

at

some
(b)

inclination to the vertical, the

same for

should be the relative position of the point of action

of the resultant
(c)

in of

and the supporting knife-edge ? Compare the methods of finding the resultant of parallel forces the same direction and the methods of finding the centre of mass a number of particles.
(d) If parallel forces proportional to their masses be applied to a

number of particles, where will the point of action of their resultant fall? (e) How would the framework begin to move if one thread broke ?
(/) Suppose
in (2) the
initial

supporting knife-edge were not used.

if

What would
91.

be the

motion

one thread broke ?

Couples.

The moment
is
if

of a couple about an axis

is,

perpendicular to the couple

of the position of the axis.
8ttiy

constant, that
let

independent

For

be the projection of

axis.

Then

be between
is

P
Q

and

Q, the
-

moment
If

of the couple about

0A-\not

0B = P AB.
between

*-

be

and
is

Q^

P'OA-Q'OB=P.AB.
the

Hence
the

moment

of the couple

product of either force by the disoQ tance between the forces and
the same about
^'

is

all

axes at right

angles to the plane of the couple.

If the resultant of all the forces acting

on a body

is

couple, the motion of the centre of mass will not change

( 85), but the couple will produce an angular acceleration

about the centre of mass proportional to the moment of

the couple.

Hence
if

it

follows that

all

couples in a plane

are equivalent

they have equal moments.

RESULTANT OF
Any
to the

FOIiCES

127

length perpendicular to a couple and proportional

moment

of the couple
is

may

be used to represent

the couple and

It is

called the axis of the couple.

shown in more advanced works that the resultant of any number of forces applied to a body is a single force and a couple the axis of which is parallel to the
line of action of the force.

In particular cases either the

force or the couple

may

be zero.

(Macgregor's "Kine-

matics and Dynamics," 479-482.)

Centre of Gravity.

92.

If to the particles of a

body

parallel forces, proportional to the

masses of the particles

and
if

all

in the

same

direction, be applied, the point of

action of the resultant will be at the centre of mass.

For

be the force on a particle m,

;

P = km

where k

is

constant

and

if

be the resultant force and

M the

some

whole mass,
resultant
90.

R=k

M.

To

find the point of action of the

we

substitute these values in the formulae of

On

doing so the k cancels out and we get formulae

of the particles of a

identical with those defining the centre of

mass in 80. body are forces proportional to the masses of the particles and they are practically parallel, provided the body be of moderate size.

The weights

The

point of action of the resultant

It follows

is

called the centre of

gravity of the body.

from the above that the

its

centre of gravity of a body coincides with

It should,

centre of mass.

however, be noted that, in general, only a

body

of

moderate dimensions can be said to have a centre

of gravity, although bodies of certain particular forms

have centres of gravity, no matter what their magnitudes.

Every body has a centre

of mass.

128

DYNAMICS

93. Equilibrium of a Body.

A
is

body

is

in equilibrium

when

its

motion

is

constant, that
is

when

the linear velocity

of its centre of

mass
is

constant and
If
;

its

angular velocity

about any axis

it

constant.

no forces acted on a body,

would be

in equilibrium

but a body
it.

may

also be in

equilibrium

when

forces act on

They must, however,

satisfy certain relations called the conditions of equilibrium.

Given that a body

is

in equilibrium

we may conclude

that

(1) 7^e sum of the components, in any direction, of the

forces acting on the hody
tion of the centre of
is zero,
is

since the linear accelera-

mass

zero.

(2) The sum of the moments, about any axis, of the forces acting on the body is zero, since its angular acceleration

about any axis

is

zero.
briefly stated thus
:

These conditions may be

^F = ^Fp =
Conversely,
if

in

any direction.

about any axis.

satisfied,

both these conditions are

the

body

is

evidently in equilibrium.

A body suspended by a cord

the tension of the cord.

94. Experimental

Method

of finding the Centre of Gravity.

is

acted on by two forces,

gravity, acting vertically at the centre of the body,

and

For equilibrium these two forces must be equal and opposite and in the same line. Hence
the centre of gravity
lies in

the line of the cord produced.

By
two

suspending a disk by a cord attached in succession to

different points in the

margin of the disk and finding

the point of intersection of the lines in the disk that coincide in succession with the line of the cord, the centre of

gravity of the disk

may be

located.

RESULTANT OF FORCES
Exercise XXI.

129

Equilibrium of a Body
in a vertical

disk of

wood

is

suspended

plane in front of a vertitiie

cal cross-section

board by means of a knife-edge driven into

board

"

\\
s.

f\

/
'

N\

_/

/
\

/
S

\ 7 b
)

/
"
?

\/ d\
1

^ r

>^y^

^^^

Fia. 52.

and passing loosely through a hole in the disk. Forces are applied to the disk by springs attached as in Exercises XI and XII and by cords

130

DYl^AMICS
The
springs

hanging vertically from the disk and carrying weights.

should be calibrated before they are used.
it

From

previous experience
will suffice.

will be obvious that

two points on the calibration curve

Since the force of gravity on the disk must be taken into account,
the position of the centre of gravity of the disk should be determined

by the method of
section board.

94 before the disk

is

mounted

in front of the crossall

In setting the apparatus up see that the lines of

the forces are at considerable distances from the axis.

The

distance of each force from the axis

may be

obtained by

stretching a long thread very accurately along the line of action of

the force.

The

inclination of the thread to the (positive) horizontal

should be measured by a protractor.

The length of the springs may be

found by the beam compass or mirror

the
the

scale. From these data calculate sum of the moments of the various forces (including gravity) about axis of rotation. The accuracy of the result should be estimated

by the percentage difference of positive and negative moments. The magnitude R and direction 6 of the reaction of the axis on the disk can be found by equating to zero the sum of the components of
all

the forces (including the

unknown

reaction of the axis)

vertical direction,

first

in

V[ie horizontal direction

and then in the

R cos 9 +
The
reaction of the

"^F cos a

^sin^ + 2Fsina = 0. axis may also be found experimentally by removit

ing the axis and replacing

by a peg occupying the same hole

in the

disk and then attaching to the peg, by a small ring, a cord that passes

over a pulley and carries a scale pan. Weights are placed in the scale pan and the position of the pulley adjusted until the disk comes to rest
in
its

former position.

DISCUSSION
(a)
(b)

Graphical method of finding the reaction of the axis.

Motion of the centre of gravity of the disk

if

the axis were

suddenly removed.
(c)
(c?)

Angular motion of the disk if the axis were suddenly removed, Motion of the disk if the vertical cord were to break.

(e)

How would the position of

the disk alter

if

board and disk were

turned into a horizontal plane, the forces applied remaining unchanged?

RESULTANT OF FORCES
95. Special Cases of Equilibrium.

181

The following special

cases of equilibrium are important

For equilibrium they must evidently (1) Two forces. be equal and opposite and act in the same line.
(2) Three parallel forces.

Any

one must be equal and

opposite to the resultant of the other two.

three

Hence

all

must be
of

in the

same plane.

(3) Three non-parallel forces in the same plane.

The
lines

moments

any two about the point

zero, that
its line

in

which their

intersect are zero.

Hence the moment

is,

of the third about

that point

is

of action also passes

through that point.

pointy

Hence
is

all three act

through a single

and any one

equal and opposite to the resultant

of the other two.

(4) TTiree forces cannot in any case produce equilibrium

unless they act in the same plane.

For consider moments

about any line that intersects the lines of two of the forces.

The moments of these two about any such line are zero. Hence the moment of the third about it is also zero. That is, the third must either be parallel to every such line (which is impossible) or it must intersect any such line,
and the
latter
all

can evidently only be true

if

the lines of

action of

the forces are in the same plane.

Equilibrium of a Body

Exercise XXII.
(1)

From a uniform

iron rod of

mass

and length

I,

a mass
is

is

suspended at a distance h from one end of the rod, and the rod
Fg, applied to the

sup-

ported by a horizontal force, Fj, applied to the lower end and a force,

upper end at an angle of 45 with the horizontal. and the inclination of the rod to the horizontal. This problem is to be solved theoretically, and the result tested experimentally. For the experimental work the rod is suspended in front of

Find L\ and

F^,

132

DYNAMICS
The
springs are attached to small hooks in the end of the rod,

the cross-section board by two springs which apply the forces F^ and
Fj.

the other ends of the springs being borne by pegs inserted in the crosssection board.

The cord

that sustains

M may be fastened
it

to the rod

by a

slip-noose that binds

on the rod, or

may

pass through a hole in

the rod.

The tensions of the springs are deduced from their lengths and calibration curves. (2) The same rod with its attached weight is held at 30 to the horizontal by a horizontal force at the lower end, and an inclined force at the upper end. Find the magnitudes of the forces and the inclinatioTi

of the second to the horizontal.

This

problem

should

also

be

solved

both

theoretically

and

experimentally.

DISCUSSION
(a)

Where would a

vertical line that passes

through the intersec(This

tion of the lines of action of the springs intersect the rod?

might form part of the exercise and be tested experimentally.)

(b)

Solve the problems (1) and (2)

to (a).

by a method indicated by the

answer
(c)

A uniform beam rests on

smooth

a smooth horizontal rail and one end

of it presses against a

vertical wall.

In what position will

it

be in equilibrium ?
(d)

A
if

rod hangs from a hinge on a vertical wall and rests on a

Calculate the pressure on the floor and the force on the

smooth
hinge
(e)

floor.

the mass of the rod be 1 kg.

A uniform

ladder 30

ft.

long rests with the upper end against

is

a smooth vertical wall, and the lower end

prevented from slipping

by a peg.
(/)

If the inclination to the horizontal

be

30, find
lb.

the pressure

on the wall and at the peg, the ladder weighing 100

uniform rod

is

supported by means of two strings which are

attached to a fixed point and to the ends of the rod.

Show

that the

tensions of the strings are proportional to their lengths.

(g)

Three forces acting at the corners of a triangle each perpen-

dicular to the opposite side keep the triangle in equilibrium.

Show

that each force

is

proportional to the side to which

it is

perpendicular.

CHAPTER

VIII

WORK AND ENERGY

96.

Work.

The
is

scientific

conception of work

is

drawn
of the

from many of the most common experiences.

oldest of these

One

the effort put forth in raising a heavy

body to a higher
building a house.

level, e.g.

drawing water from a well in a

in such cases evidently
effort re-

bucket or carrying stone or brick up a ladder or stair in

The work done

depends on at least two things,

the continued
For

quired to sustain the weight of the body and the height to

which the body

is

carried.

In some cases the work done

instance, a

seems to depend on other circumstances.

man can
less

raise a quantity of brick to a certain height

with

expenditure of work when he uses a pulley than

when

he actually carries them up.

But in the latter case he carries the weight of his body up also and the work of carrying his body up is added to the work of carrying the brick up. Again, more work is required to draw a body up a rough plane to a certain height than up a smooth plane to the same height; but when the plane is rough the force of friction has to be overcome also and the work done against friction is added to the work done against
gravity.

consideration of such cases will

ness of measuring the work done in

188

show the reasonablemoving a body by the

134

DYNAMICS
to

product of the force applied

through which
it is

the body

and

the distance

applied.

97.

Work and
the

Direction
is

of

Motion.
is

By

the distance

through which a force

applied

meant the distance

do the
gravity the distance

measured in
work.

direction of the force applied to

is

When

the force overcome

vertically.

must be measured
crane, be

very heavy body can

e.g. when attached to a moved horizontally with only a very slight expenditure of work and the slig^ht amount expended is

under suitable circumstances,

due to the fact that some friction has to be overcome.

there
is
is

If

no vertical motion, the work done against gravity

zero whatever
F

work may be done against other forces. Hence if a force F be C A __

\^
^
N.

exerted

distance

AB
is

not in the direction of the

force,

N^
*''-^^'

the

work done

F-ABco^e,

e being the

angle between the positive direction of

direction of

F and the positive

AB

AB.

But
6-

F-AB cose = Fcos

and

^ cos is the component of F in the direction of AB. Hence the work done by a force may also be measured by 'he product of the displacement and the component of the
iC'Tc in the direction of the displacement.
li
z= 90, i.e. if

the displacement

is

altogether at right

angles to the force, the force does no work.

force

Hence the

towards the centre

in

circular

motion does no

work.

WORK AND ENERGY

98.

135
is

Units and Dimensions of

(lone by unit force

Work.

The unit of work

is

thu

work

when

its

point of application

moves unit distance

in tlie absolute

in the direction of the force.

C.G.S. system the unit of work

it

the

Hence work
This

done by a dyne when

unit
is

acts through a centimetre.

is

called the erg; 10,000,000 ergs

called a joule.

In the F. P.S. gravitational system the unit of

the

work
of

is

work done by a force equal to the weight pound when it acts through a foot and is called a
Since

foot-

pound.

W= F

b^

the dimensions of

work

are

Hence

in the absolute

system

(TT)

= (MLT-^)
Work,

(i)

= (ML^T-^y

99. Rate of doing

or Activity.

The work done by

is

a force depends only on the

magnitude of the force and

independent of the
of

the extent of the displacement, and

time required for the motion.

The amount

work an
is

agent does in a certain time, or the rate of doing work^

a different thing

and
has

is is

a matter of great importance.

(The wealth

man

the same whether

it.

it

took him a

year or twenty years to accumulate

he can gather wealth
is

The

rate at

which

a different thing.)
is

Rate of doing work

called

activity.

The

unit of

activity in the absolute C. G. S. system is the activity of

an agent
watts
unit

tliat

does an erg per second; 10,000,000 ergs

is

per second, or a joule per second,

is

called a watt; 1000

called

a kilowatt.
is

The

F. P. S. gravitational

of

activity

550 foot-pounds per second, and

136
18

DYNAMICS
a horse-power.

called

One horse-power = 746 watts

very nearly.
100.
force
is

Diagram

of

Work.

The work done hy a constant

force,
e.g.

readily calculated from the force and the displace-

ment.

Work

done by a variable

the force

exerted by the piston of a steam engine, can be conveniently represented

by the following graphical method

On

a straight line, which

we may suppose

horizontal,

lengths are laid off to represent the displacements in the

direction of the force in intervals so short that the force

may

be regarded as constant
throughout each interval.

vertical line or
is

ordinate

drawn from

the middle of each dis-

placement to represent
the

magnitude

of

the

force at the middle of

d
Fig. 54.

'

the interval.

A smooth
drawn
area beordi-

curve

is

then

through the upper end of the ordinates.

The

tween the curve, the horizontal

nates represents the

line,

and any two

work done

in the intervening time.

For the work done in one of the short displacements, such

as

d in the

figure, is the
is

product of the force by the

dis-

placement, and

therefore represented
d.

by the area of the

narrow trapezium that stands on

101.

Energy.

A body capable
is

of doing

work

is

said

to possess energy^ or energy

defined as capacity for

WOIiK
doinfjf

AND ENERGY

137

work.

body can, by descending, draw up anit

other body attached to

pulley.

by a cord that passes over a

compressed or extended spring can raise a

at

weight.

Water

an elevation can do work in descend-

ing to a lower level.

These are examples of a body or

a system of bodies possessing energy because of some

peculiarity in its form or position, or, briefl^s because of
its configuration.

The block

of a pile-driver can,

when

in motion, drive a

pile in opposition to the forces of cohesion

and

friction.

fly

wheel in rotation can for a time keep a

pump going
These
of its

and

raise water.

Wind

can propel a ship against the

resistance of the friction

and

inertia of the water.

are examples of a

body possessing energy because

chief forms of energy

ma88 and speed.

Thus we have two

energy of
energy must

motion, also called kinetic energy., and energy of configuration, also called potential energy (potential

not be regarded as merely possible kinetic energy, for

potential energy can do

work without being

first

trans-

formed into kinetic energy).

102. Kinetic

Energy.

The

energy a body possesses

because of

its

mass and speed should be capable of being

expressed in terms of these quantities.

it

should be expressed, let us find

of

To discover how how much work a

rest.
is

body

mass

and speed
it

v can

do in coming to

Suppose that the force

variable,
i
it

exerts on

another body

exerts a force

and that while acting through a short distance Fy Then the work it does is F-^Sy
the force opposing
its

By Newton's Third Law,

motion

is

138

DYNAMICS
is

and therefore its acceleration speed at the end of s^ be v^, by 24 v^

J^i,

XT
-

If

its

= v^ + 2 as^

m
or
F^s^

= ^ mv^ ^ wwj^.
Sj, Sg?

For successive small displacements

8'

*"' ^

^^

where u

is its final

speed.

Adding

these equations,

we get

'LFs = ^ mv^
t.

^ mu^.
if

The

left side is

the total
u,
is

work done, and

it

the final
is

speed of the body,

zero, its kinetic

energy
mv^.

ex-

hausted, and the whole

this

work

has done

is |

Hence
is

was

its initial

kinetic energy.
it

In a similar way

can be shown that when a force

opposed only by the inertia of a body, the work done

equals the increase of ^ mv^ in the body.

The
same

units

as those of

and dimensions of kinetic energy are the work ( 98).

103. Potential Energy.

Quantities
is

of potential energy

are measured by the

work they can

do.

Thus, when the

distance of a
tial

body from the earth

is

increased, its poten-

energy (or more correctly the potential energy of the

increased by the

mass and the earth)

amount

of

work

WORK AND ENEUGY

it

139

can do in returning to

its first position.

is

The
the

increase

of potential energy of a stretched spring

work

it

can do in contracting.

We

can also express the potential energy of the system

Tiie increase of

consisting of the earth and a body in terms of their masses

and distance apart. when a body of mass

potential energy

grams

is

raised a distance h centi-

metres (h being small compared with the radius of the earth) is mgh in ergs, for this is the work it can do in
returning.

The

potential energy of a stretched spring

its

can be expressed in terms of

stants.

length and elastic con-

But there

is

no one general way of expressing

is in

potential energy as there

the case of kinetic energy.

For each body or system we must find by experiment how much work it can do in changing from one configuration to another

and then measure the charge

If the
final potential

of potential

energy by the work so done. energy be J\ and the

decrease
is

initial

potential
Fg,

energy be

the

V^

V^.

If the force exerted by the body or

8^^

system during successive small displacements Sj, ^j, jPj' respectively, the total work done is 2^.

be

Hence

when

a body or system does

2i',

work

at the expense of its

potential energy

= r.-r,.

The

units and dimensions of potential energy are the

of

same as those

work

( 98).

104. Equivalence of Kinetic and Potential Energy.

In the

performance of work energy

is

expended and the energy so

expended

by definition equal to the work performed. But when work is done on a system, the energy of the
is

140 system
is

DYNAMICS
increased.

Confining ourselves for the present to

work is done against friction, or, in other words, supposing the work is wholly performed in produccases in which no

ing kinetic or potential energy, then the energy/ produced

18

equal

to

the

work performed, that

is,

equal

to the

energy

expended.

The statements in preceding sections will suggest to the reader various ways in which energy can be transferred
from one body or system to another, the former doing work on the latter. Moreover the energy in a single system may be transformed from one form of energy to the other form. Thus when a body is allowed to fall towards the earth, the potential energy of the body and the earth is decreased, but their kinetic energy is (if we neglect friction) increased to an equal amount. force affecting the system
is

In this case the only

worh done hy an

an internal force between the

different parts of the system

and

the

internal force results in a transformation of the energy of the

system without any change in

its

amount.
that fric-

In making these statements

tion

we have supposed

may

be neglected.

As

a matter of fact, friction can-

not in any case (except possibly in the case of the motion

of the heavenly bodies) be wholly neglected.

We

shall

consider later the case of

work done against

Energy and Work

friction.

Exercise XXIII.
Apparatus.

A pendulum with
in

a heavy block of iron as a bob

is

drawn

aside

and held

any desired position by a cord ari'anged as

When the cord is released the pendulum falls and impinges on a horizontal rod which is connected to the framework by two horizontal springs. The springs are stretched by the impact and
illustrated in Fig. 55.

WORK AND ENERGY

the

141
it

pendulum

Is

brought momentarily to

rest

when

has just reached

the vertical.

The maximum

stretch of the springs is recorded

by a

Pio. 66.

loop of thread that

is

pushed along the rod by a collar in which

as light as possible
rod.
;

the rod

slides.

The rod should be

in fact, it is

better to use a tube of

aluminium instead of a

The knife-edge

142

DYNAMICS

on which the pendulum swings is carried by two plates, one of which is adjustable by two screws. The necessary readings will be facilitated if a scale is lightly etched on the rod, but this is not indispensable.

The screws that support the knife-edge are adjusted pendulum swings freely without any side motion. The light chains that attach the springs to the framework are adjusted on hooks in the framework until the springs are under slight tension and do not
Adjustments.
until the

vibrate sidewise

when

the rod

is

pushed rapidly by the hand.

it

The
comes
fix

proper height from which to release the pendulum so that

to rest in the vertical

just

must be ascertained by
pendulum, the rod
its
is
is

several trials.

To

the

vertical position of the

held by the hand with the

springs stretched so that

end

just presses against the

pendulum
its

when

vertical

the thread

then pushed up against the collar and

position noted (or

marked

in pencil

on the rod

if

there

is

no

the rod).

This
if

is

the position to which the thread must be

on moved by
scale

the impact

the pendulum comes to rest in the vertical.

Before

readings are

made

the rod should be lubricated with vaseline or

machine

oil.

Measurements.

(1)

The length
(2)

of the

pendulum from the

falls.

knife-

SSge to the centre of the bob.

The

length of the cord of the arc

(-3)

through which the centre of gravity of the pendulum

initial length of the springs

The

and the extreme length

For

to

which they are

stretched

the latter

is

obtained from the movement of the thread.

this purpose the springs

(4) Calibration of the springs.

may be
by

removed and calibrated

the experiment.

in several steps through the range covered

Th^

calibration

may

also

be performed without

removing the springs, by attaching

pulley and carries a

to the rod a cord that passes over a

pan and weights.

is

From

the calibration of the springs a diagram of work done by the

in stretching the springs

pendulum

constructed on cross-section

paper and the work calculated.

(The

scale of the

diagram must be

taken into consideration as in Exercise IV.)

This should nearly

equal the loss of potential energy of the pendulum as calculated

from

its

mass and

vertical descent,

but there will be some difference

caused by friction and impact ( 113).

WORK AND ENERGY

DISCUSSION
(a) Sources of error.
(b)

143

Changes that take place in the energy of the pendulum and of

the springs.
(c)
(rf)

Energy of rotation of the bob of the pendulum,

The

total

energy of the system.

(e)

Are the

results affected in

any way by the mass of the rod ?

the springs not be large?
rise after

(/) ^Vhy must the

(/)

initial tension of

Explain the failure of the pendulum to

rebound to

its original position.

105.

Stable, Unstable,
is

and Neutral Equilibrium.

A body
uni-

or structure
it is

in equilibrium
is,

when

the resultant force on

zero, that

when

it

is

either at rest or

moving

formly.

A body or structure at rest is in stable equilibrium

displaced
it

when on being
equilibrium

returns

(^e.g.

a pendulum, a
is

sphere in a bowl, a chemical balance);

it

in unstable

when on being displaced it moves farther away (^e.g. an egg on one end, a rigid pendulum inverted); it is in neutral equilibrium when on being displaced it remains
(^e.g.

at rest

a sphere on a horizontal plane, a body that

its

can rotate about an axis through

If
it is

centre of gravity).

displacement causes an increase of potential energy,

evident that

work has been done against

forces oppos-

ing the displacement, and these forces will cause the body
or structure to return.

Hence, a position of

stable equi-

librium

is

a position of

centre of gravity of a
a displacement and
If the
its

minimum potential energy. The pendulum or a balance is raised by

potential energy
is

increased.

displacement produces a decrease of potential

energy, the forces acting must have aided the displace-

ment, and they will therefore

still

further increase the

144
displacement.

DYNAMICS
Hence, a position of unstable equilibrium is If an Q^g be supenergy.
its

a position of

maximum potential

posed balanced on one end,

centre of gravity will be

lowered by a displacement, and therefore the potential

energy will be decreased.
Finally,
is
if

when

body or structure
energy.,

is

displaced there

no change of potential

then the forces acting

assist the

on the body neither oppose nor

motion, and

hence the equilibrium will be neutral.

Fig. 56.

The energy

criterion of equilibrium

may

be illustrated

by the apparatus represented

jointed parallelogram
is

in the diagram.

light

attached to an upright post by

horizontal axes passing through the centres of two opposite sides.

Equal heavy weights are movable along rods

fastened at right angles to the vertical sides.

ratus
is

The appais

in neutral equilibrium

no matter where the weights

is

may

be on the rods, for no work

done, and there

no

change of potential energy during a displacement.

106. Kinetic Energy of a Rotating Body.

When a body
cd,

rotates about a fixed axis with angular velocity

a par-

WORK AND ENERGY

tide, m, at a distance,
a>r,

146

r,

from the axis has a linear velocity

is

and therefore
since

its

kinetic energy

J mcoh-^.

The

ki-

netic energy of the whole

body

is

therefore

U=1^ morh^.

But

(o is

the same for all the particles,

I
I

being the

of rotation.
Twv^,

moment of inertia of the body about the axis The similarity of this formula to the formula,
energy of translation of a body

for the kinetic

should be noted.

Exercise

XXIV.

Kinetic and Potential

Energy

In Exercise
in 80

XVII

a mass descended losing potential energy, and

doing

it

set into rotation a disk

which acquired kinetic energy.

kinetic energy.

The descending mass

also gained

some

stances were such that the resistance of friction

The circumwas very small.

calcu-

Hence, the gain of kinetic energy should be (at least very nearly)
equal to the loss of potential energy.
lated

These quantities can be

It

from the observations then made.

may, however, be well to

repeat the measurements of distance and time of descent with all the
care possible.

To

calculate the kinetic energfy the final angular velocity

must be
dis-

known.

This can be deduced from the time of descent and the

tance of descent.
twice this
is

For these give the mean velocity of descent, and

the final velocity.

From
all

the final linear velocity of

descent and the radius of the axis, the final angular velocity of the
disk
is

deduced.

Thus we have
of

the data necessary to test the

equality of loss

and gain of energy.

Exercise

(The apparatus

XVIII may

also be used for this

experiment, the final velocity of rotation being obtained directly by

means

of the recording disk.

On

account of the greater air friction

the results will probably not be

found as satisfactory as those

obtained by the method described above.)

146

DYNAMICS
DISCUSSION

(a) Sources of error.

(b)

Is the friction necessarily

assumed

to be zero in the

method

of

finding the final velocity?

(c)

Find an expression

for the final kinetic energy that does not

contain the final linear velocity; also one that does not contain the
final

angular velocity.

(d)

What would
Given the

the final angular velocity be

?

if

the thread were

wrapped around the disk

(e)

coefficient of friction

between the cylinders and the

if

disk, at

what angular speed would

If the friction

the former slide

not restrained

by pegs ?
(/)
(g)
slipping, at

between the cylinders and the disk prevented what angular speed would the cylinders be overturned? What form of cylinders would render slipping and overturning
?

equally probable
(h)

Method
If the

of

measuring the

coefficient of static friction suggested

by

this exercise.
(i)

thread remained attached to the axis and the weight just

"touched the

floor,

how much would the angular velocity decrease when

?

the thread began to rewind

(j) If the thread remained attached to the axis

and the weight did

not touch the

floor,

how much would

the angular velocity decrease

when

the cord began to rewind ?

107. Simultaneous Translation and Rotation.

We

have

already seen that the motion of a body

may

be considered

as consisting of velocity of translation of the centre of

mass, and velocity of rotation about the centre of mass,

and that these two motions may be regarded as independent, and

larly the as

may

be calculated separately ( 86).

Simi-

whole kinetic energy of a body may be considered

If

consisting of

motions.

M
\

two parts corresponding to these two is the whole mass of the body, and V

WOIiK

AND ENERGY

147

the velocity of the centre of mass, the kinetic energy

of translation
velocity,
<,

is

^MV\
moment

If

the body has an angular

about an axis through the centre of mass,

the
of inertia about that axis, the
is

and
is

if

is

kinetic

energy of rotation

IIqj^.

The

total

energy

the

sum

of these two.

Thus

the kinetic energy of a

locomotive wheel Qan be calculated

of its centre,

when

the velocity

are

and its angular velocity about its centre, known. The same principle applies to the motion of any group
if

of particles, but,

the particles are not connected rigidly

together, they have

no angular velocity

their kinetic energy, relatively to

common, and the centre of mass, must

in
particle,
all

be found in a different way.

Suppose that any

m, has, relatively to the centre of mass of

a velocity

the particles,

V;

its

kinetic energy of motion, relatively to

is

the centre of mass,

particles,

\mV^.

Summing up

for all the

we

get the expression

S^wF^

for the kinetic

energy of
of the

all,

relatively to their centre of mass.

This,

together with

\MV^^ makes up

the whole kinetic energy

group

of particles.

Since internal forces do not affect the motion of the

centre of mass of a

body or group

of particles ( 85), they

cannot change the part of the kinetic energy that depends on the motion of the centre of mass.
The
propriety of dividing kinetic energy into these two parts needs,

in reality,

somewiiat more proof than has been given.

of the centre of
tJ,

Suppose the

velocity

V
u,

mass

to

be resolved into rectangular com-

ponents

to.

Also

let F,

the velocity of any particle, w, relatively

v,

to the centre of mass, be resolved into components, u,

w.

Then the
com-

whole velocity, relatively to the origin, of the

ponents u

particle, m, bias

+ u,

+ y, w +

w,

and

its

square

is

therefore equal to the

148

DYNAMICS
of the squares of these components:
is

sum

Hence the whole

kinetic

energy

= 2im(u2 +
The
last three

i;2

^2)

+ 5 1^ (u2 ^.
^mu =
l,mv

j,2

+ 1^2)

terms are

all

zero since

= 5mw =

( 84).

The

first

term

is

readily seen to be ^ MV^, since

is

u, v,

w, are the

com-

ponents of V.

The second term

5 J mV^, and in the case of a rigid

body

this is equal to | Iw"^ (106).

108.

Work
axis,

done by the Moment of a Force or Couple.

force, F, acting at a point,

P, of a body

free to rotate

about an

A^ will produce a displacement of

P

P and will
Let

therefore do work.

/
of

be the component of

in the direction of motion

P, and
If

let r

be the disthe axis

r~
^^- ^^-

tance of

A.

P from F be of

constant

magnitude and
also

if its

direction with reference to

AP

be

maintained constant, then

will

be of constant
6,

magnitude.

When

the body turns through an angle

r0,
is

P
A

move through a distance by F will be frO. But since / of F that has a moment about A,
will
is fr.

and the work done

the only component

the

Denoting

it

by

0, the

moment of F about work done by C in an

If

angular displacement 6 will be 00.

the

force

be

entirely exerted in producing kinetic energy of rotation

about A, then
being the
angular velocity, and
the final angu-

CO

initial

co^

lar velocity.

WORK AND ENERGY

If J^

149

be not constant or
also

if its

direction with reference to

AP vary, then /and

the

will be variable.

In this case
of the

work done

will be 2(7^,

being the

moment

force during a small displacement 6.

Exercise
In Exercise

XXV.

Elinetic

and Potential Energy

IX no

account was taken of the mass of the wheel

nor of the force required to overcome the friction of the bearings of

the wheel.
It is

now proposed

to take account of these

and

treat the

problem from the point of view of gain and

loss of energy.

The
is

observations described under "distance and acceleration" in Exercise

IX may
is

be repeated;

or, if

exactly the

same apparatus

used, the results obtained in that exercise

may

be used; but the

former

preferable, since

doubt would remain as to whether the

all respects.

apparatus was in exactly the same condition in

Loss of Potential Energy.
is

The resultant

loss of potential

energy

readily calcuLited

from the

loss of potential

energy of the total

descending mass and the gain of potential energy of the ascending

mass.

The items should be

stated in ergs or joules.

Kinetic Energy of Masses.

final velocity of the

From the acceleration and distance the

masses can be calculated and thence the kinetic

energy deduced.
Friction.

The friction of the bearings of the wheel varies someposition of the wheel.
It

what with the

may

be measured though not

very accurately by finding what additional weight placed on one of

the masses will just keep the (equal) masses in steady motion

when

once started.

This should be repeated for several different positions

of the cord on the wheel

friction equals the

and the mean taken.

The work done

against

product of the

moment

of the force that will over-

come the

friction

and the
its

total angle

through which the wheel turns.

Kinetic Energy of Wheel.

The kinetic energy gained by the wheel

inertia
is

can be calculated from

moment of

and

final

angular velocity.

The

final

angular velocity of the wheel

readily deduced from the

relation

between the angular velocity of the wheel, the linear velocity

150
of a point on
its

DYNAMICS
circumference (which
is

the

same

as the linear veloc-

ity of the cord),

and the radius of the groove on the wheel.

of inertia of the

The moment
the wheel.

the angular acceleration that a

wheel may be found by observing known moment of force will give to

Remove

the large masses

and the wire and wrap a

light

cord around the wheel, fastening one end to a spoke.

To the

free

end

attach a weight and find the height to which the weight must be
raised so that

when

the wheel

is

released on a tick of the clock, the

weight will just strike the

floor after

some exact number of seconds.

To

allow for friction, find as before what small weight attached to

the cord will just keep the wheel in steady motion.

109. Conservative

and Dissipative Forces.

In

stating

the equivalence of kinetic and potential energy during

transference or transformation,
to cases in

we

limited the statement

which energy

is

expended while exerting forces

that are wholly employed in producing kinetic or potential

energy.

In such cases the total quantity of kinetic

is

and potential energy

stated, conserved.

unchanged,

or, as it is

frequently

The forces through whose agency such

Examples are the force
conservative forces,
of gravita-

transference and transformation are effected are called

conservative forces.

tion
If

and the force exerted by a compressed spring.

we examine such

that they have one characteristic in

we shall find common. They are

body
at a

known when
are assigned.

the positions or configurations of the bodies

The
is

force of gravitation on a

same whether the body be at rest or moving in any way. The force exerted by a spring depends only on its length at a certain moment and not
certain height

the

on whether

it is

contracting or expanding.

Why the

energy should remain constant when the only

forces acting are conservative forces can be readily seen.

WORK AND ENERGY

While rising

151

Consider a body started upward along a smooth plane.

it

is

acted on at each point by a force of a

certain magnitude,

and so does work and therefore

the

loses

kinetic energy to an extent depending only

on the force
exactly the
it

at each

point and
will act

displacement.
at each point
it is

same force

on

it

But when

descends,

and therefore while rising

gaining power of doing

work

or potential energy

equal to the work done or

kinetic energy lost in rising.

Hence

its total

energy

re-

mains constant.

But now suppose the same body started up a rough Then a second force, friction, acts on it. This opposes its rise and will also oppose its descent. Hence the resultant force on the body will be less at any height during the descent than it was during the rise. Therefore, in rising it does not accumulate power of doing work in the form of potential energy equal to the loss of
plane.

kinetic energy.

Friction

is

thus a non-conservative,
It

or,

as

it

is

fre-

quently called, a dissipative force.

the body on which

depends on the

direction (and often on the magnitude) of the velocity of

it acts.

Other dissipative forces more

be met with in the

or less analogous to friction will

special branches of physics.

called positional forces,

For an obvious reason conservative forces are sometimes and dissipative forces are some-

times called motional fqrces.

110. The Conservation of Energy.

that neither does

A system

of bodies

done on

it

work on outside bodies nor has work by outside bodies is an isolated system. While

152

DYNAMICS
is

no system

completely isolated,

many

are nearly so,

isolated.

and

may

for

most purposes be regarded as

is

The

whole solar system

perhaps the best example.

Except

for the atmosphere, the earth

and a

projectile

might be

treated as an isolated system.

The

earth, a projectile,

and the atmosphere

system.

is

still

closer approach to an isolated

spring or tuning-fork vibrating in a

vacuum

would be almost an isolated system. When an isolated system does work against internal dissipative forces, the amount of work so done represents
an equal amount of kinetic or potential energy subtracted

from the system.

Hence,

if to the

sum

of the kinetic

and

potential energies of an

isolated system

we add

the

work

done against dissipative forces, the whole sum

is constant.

What becomes
"wholly annihilated.

of

the energy spent in doing

?

work
to be

against dissipative forces

It

was long supposed

Newton was aware of the constancy of the sum of what we now call kinetic and potential energy and work done against dissipative forces, but it

was nearly two centuries before it was recognized that the work done against dissipative forces gives rises to a store of energy equal to that expended in doing the work. It was then found that such work produces an amount of heat, that, measured in heat units, is in all cases exactly
proportional to the energy expended,
that heat
is

or, in
is

other words,

equivalent

to

energy and

therefore itself a

form of

energy.

Previous to that time, heat was supcaloric.

fol-

posed to be a very light form of matter called

The new view

heated,

naturally suggested that,

if

we could

low the motion of the

particles of a body that becomes

we would

find that each particle has a store of

WORK AND ENEliOr

kinetic

153
moreover, in the

and potential energy, and

tliat,

changes from one form to the other and from particle to

particle only conservative forces

come

into play.

When

a body slides

down

a rough plane, the change of some of

the energy of motion of the whole

body

into energy of

motion of the separate particles of the body and of the

plane

may

be effected by conservative forces between the

particles.

From

this point of

view the distinction be-

tween conservative and dissipative forces would disappear. But the belief that heat is a form of energy is not
founded on any view as to the state of the particles of a

body that

is

heated.

The

belief is

founded on the fact

that heat and other forms of energy are interchangeable

and numerically equivalent. Including heat as a form of energy and also other forms of energy that will be treated
in the special branches of physics

the Conservation of Energy thus

we may " The

state the
total

law of

energy of

any material system

of the system^ though

is

a quantity which can neither be

increased nor diminished by any action between the parts

it

may
is

be transformed into any of

susceptible " (Maxwell).

the forms of which energy

111. The Dissipation of Energy.

We

have seen that

from one point of view the distinction between conservative

and

dissipative forces seems to disappear.

But from

another point of view there seems a more permanent distinction

between them.

Work

done against conservative

forces produces forms of energy that can be confined to

definite portions of matter.

For example, the potential

energy of the earth and a heavy body seems to remain

definitely associated

with them, and the potential energy

154

DYNAMICS

of a distorted spring seems to have no tendency to escape.

On

the other hand,

work done against

dissipative forces

gives rise to forms of energy that tend to diffuse without

limit.

The heat produced by work

against

friction

spreads from molecule to molecule of the bodies in contact

and from them

to other adjacent bodies.

This

diffuis

sion of energy wherever dissipative forces are in action

called the dissipation of energy.
It
is

a process always

going on, for dissipative

forces are

present wherever

changes of any kind are taking place in Nature.

The

principle of the dissipation of energy

must not be

regarded as at variance with the law of the conservation

of energy.

The former

refers

merely to the distribution

of energy, the latter to the constancy of the quantity of

energy.

112. Impact.

"When

two spheres moving

in the line

joining their centres impinge, there are two stages to the

impact

(1) they compress each other until they come

rest;

relatively to

(2) they then recover partially or

During both stages they repel one another with forces that are by Newton's Third Law equal and opposite. Hence they suffer equal
wholly and push one another apart.

and opposite changes of momentum, or tum is unchanged by the impact. A simple relation between the relative
mentally by Newton.

the total

momen-

velocities of the

spheres before and after impact was discovered experi-

Let us suppose that the spheres

is,

are of the same material, are homogeneous, that

have

the same properties at all parts of their mass, and are

isotropic or

have

at

any point the same properties in

all

WORK AND ENERGY

directions.

165

Then
is, is

the ratio of

tlie

velocity of separation

after impact to the velocity of approach before impact is

constant, that

independent of the
velocities,

sizes of the splieres

and their separate

and depends only on the

This law has been shown

material of which they consist.

by others

to hold true only within certain limits of velocity.

The

ratio of the velocity of separation to the velocity of

is

approach
material.

called the " coefficient of restitution " of the

If the spheres are

not homogeneous, the coefficient of

restitution depends

on the properties of the spheres at

If they are not isotropic
(^e.g.

the points of contact.

wood),

the coefficient depends on the direction of the grain relatively to the line of impact.

Let the masses of the spheres be m^ and Wg, their respective velocities before

impact Wj and

Wg,

and after impact

Vj

and

t>2

then from the constancy of the total

mjVi + m^v^

momentum
(1)

we have

= wfcjMi + m^u^'
is

Consider the case in which m^

ahead before impact

and both m^ and m^ are moving in the positive direction. The velocity of approach is u^ Wj, and of separation,
Vj

Vj.

Hence, by definition of the coefficient of

resti-

tution,

(M2-W1)
or
Vj

- V2 = - e(u^ - M2).
and
v^

(2)

From

(1) and must be taken

(2), Vj

can be calculated.

Care

to give the numerical values of Mj

and u^

their proper signs.

166
If the impact of
if

DYNAMICS
two smooth spheres be oblique, that is, moving before impact in the line of then, since the pressure between the spheres
velocities

the spheres be not

their centres,
is

altogether in the line joining their centres, only the

components of their
affected,

along that line will be

will apply to those

and the above equations

com-

ponents only.

The components perpendicular

to the line

of the centres will be unchanged.

113. Dissipation of Energy on Impact.

The forces that

is

come

into play during impact are not wholly conservative.

If the material of the

impinging bodies
small.

plastic, as in

the case of putty or lead, the forces tending to produce

separation are small, and
of the system
is

e is

The

kinetic energy

partly spent in deforming the materials,

friction.

doing work against cohesion and internal

if

Even
still,

the materials recover wholly from deformation,

is

during the deformation and recovery, work

internal friction,

done against

energy
is less

and heat and sound are produced. Thus and the kinetic energy after impact than that before. The amount so dissipated can
is

dissipated

be found from the masses and their velocities.

Exercise
Apparatus.

XXVI.

Impact

ivory or wood forming the bob of a pendulum impinges on another baU suspended similarly and initially at rest. Each supporting cord is in the form of a V, in order that the motion of the ball may be confined to a vertical plane. The imping-

A ball of

ing ball should be dropped from some definite position without any
jar at starting.

To

facilitate this, the

is

apparatus
;

is

provided with a

rod, in the

end of which a needle

thrust

over the end of the needle

is

a small loop of thread attached to the ball has come to

rest,

passed.

When

the ball

the loop of thread

is

gently pushed off the needle,

WORK AND ENERGY

and so the
ball is released

167

with very

vertical wires (or knitting needles)

little jar. A block carrying two and movable along a horizontal

Fio. 68.

metre stick

is

used to measure the horizontal distances through which

each ball moves.

Adjustments.

The

wires should be

made

vertical

by a square.
line joining the

The supporting cords are adjusted until the imping-

ing ball

is

moving, at the moment of impact, in the

158
centres of the

DYNAMICS
two
balls

and the second

ball

moves

The

distance between the upper ends of the cords

off in the same line. nmst be made equal

to the

sum

of the radii of the balls so that

when

the pendulums are

at rest the balls just touch without pressing against one another.
Observations.

The velocity of each ball before impact and also

falls or

its
if

velocity after impact are to be found.

The velocity can be deduced

the height to which
it

the height from which each ball

rises is

known.
degree of

The height
accuracy;

is

too small to be measured directly with any

but the horizontal distance traversed can be

measured with considerable accuracy by means of the movable block and the horizontal scale and, from the horizontal distance and the
;

radius of the circle of motion, the height can be deduced.

In the case of the impinging ball the measurement of the horizontal distance is

tangential to the plane of the upright wires, (1)

its

elevated

made by adjusting the movable block until the ball is when the ball is in position, and (2) when the ball is at rest in its lowest
of the block

position, position.

and reading the position

on the
it rises

scale in each

To

obtain the height to which each ball rises after impact

is

the movable block

adjusted until the ball as

just

seems to

touch the plane of the wires.

Several trials will be needed in each

case to accomplish this adjustment.

In this

way

the velocity of the impinging ball before impact and

the velocity of each ball after impact are measured.

velocities

From

these

and the masses

of

the balls (which can be obtained by

weighing) the total

impact and the total

ar calculated.

momentum and the total kinetic energy before momentum and total kinetic energy after impact

The coefficient of restitution should also be calculated. The experiment should be performed both with balls of equal

masses and with baUs of unequal masses.

DISCUSSION
(a)
(J)

Meaning and derivation

of formulae.

Sources of experimental error.

(c)

Deduction of the ratio of the masses of two bodies from the

Distinction

changes of velocity when one impinges on the other.

between mass and weight.

WORK AND ENERGY

(rf)

169

What becomes

of the energy lost

on impact?

(e)

How

is

the motion of the centre of gravity of the

two

balls

affected by tin' impact?

(/)
is

50-gm. bullet

is fired

into a ballistic
is

pendulum whose mass

is

50 kg.

If the velocity of

the bullet
of the

300 m. per second, what

the velocity and

momentum

pendulum?
ft.

{g) Find the loss of kinetic energy in (/).

(A)

ball falls

from a height of 16
ft.

and rebounds from a stone

slab to a height of 8
(j)

Find the

coefficient of restitution.

A Maxim gun
gun

fires

5 bullets per second each of mass 30 g.

and

having an

initial velocity of

500 m. per second.

What

force

is

neces-

sary to hold the

at rest?
is

{j)

To what

extent

Exercise

XXIII a

case of impact?

114. Dissipation of Energy of Rotation.

Exercise XVIII,
of a system

on the constancy of

tlie

angular

momentum
If the
Jj

whose moment
inertia before
tively,

of inertia changes, affords

an illustration of

the dissipation of energy of rotation.

moments

of

and

after the

change be

and
to^

I^ respec-

and the angular

velocities Wj

and

respectively,

then the corresponding values of the kinetic energy are

\
IiOi>i

and ^
a>y

/202^.

Since

/i<i>i

I^o^i^

the ratio of the

kinetic energy after the change to that before the change

is
o>2
:

The energy

lost is

between the sliding

work against the friction blocks and the cross-arm and in the
expended
in

production of heat and sound on the impact of the blocks

on the

stops.

To draw

the blocks back again to their

original positions, thus increasing the angular velocity

and

restoring the lost kinetic energy,

work would have

to be

done equal to the energy dissipated.

force

To

accomplish this a

would have

to be applied to the cord equal, at each

stage, to the

sum

of the centrifugal force

and

friction

and

160
the total

DYNAMICS
work done by the
force applied

would equal the

increase of kinetic energy.

If

during the outward movement of the blocks they

if the weight were magnitude that the blocks just reached the stops without impinging, the total kinetic and potential energy of the system including the weight would be unchanged

were compelled to draw up a weight and

of such

except for the energy expended against friction.

Or

the

blocks might be compelled to stretch springs attached to

the vertical axis, and then the potential energy of the

springs would (neglecting friction) be equal to the loss of

kinetic energy.

Exercise

XXVII.

Angular Momentum and Kinetic Energy

Rotation

of

The change

of kinetic energy that accompanied the change of mo-

ment

of inertia in Exercise
final

XVIIl can be
and the
It can also

calculated from the initial

and the

moment

of inertia

initial

and the

final

angular

velocity as indicated above.

be found by the following

experimental method.

Let the kinetic energy before the change of

moment

of inertia be
it

Ey
the

Attach the thread (see Fig. 46) to the axis so that

will not be

detached

when wholly unwrapped and arrange the cord that restrains blocks so that the moment of inertia shall not change. Then the
This will be
less

thread after unwinding will be rewound on the axis and the weight

m
If

will rise finally to a height h.

than the height H,

from which

originally descended

owing

to the effects of friction.

W be the work done against friction dm-ing the ascent of m, E^ =

+ W.
If the

mgh
h',

experiment be repeated, the cord having been

ar-

ranged so that the moment of inertia changes,

place

will rise to a height,

much less than h owing when the moment of

to the decrease of kinetic energy that takes

inertia changes.

Moreover, the work done

against friction will be less in this case since the total

amount

of ro-

WORK AND ENERGY

tation will be less.

161

But suppose that

at the lowest point of its detlie

scent

is

replaced by a smaller mass m', such that

is

moment of

inertia
total

having changed, m'

rotation being the

finally raised to the height h.

Then, the

same

in the

two cases of ascent

to the height h, the

if

work done against

have E^
tn

friction will

be the same, namely W. Hence,

the

kinetic energy after the change of

moment

of inertia be E2,

we

shall

m'yh

+ W.
of

m' being the

Hence E^ E^ = mgh - m'gh = (m m')(jh, amount by which m was supposed decreased.

The magnitude
ari-angement.

m'

can be ascertained by the following

Let
in

be replaced by two scale pans, one attached below the other

such a

way
is

that the lower one becomes detached

it.

when

it

touches

a platform placed below

(The method of
Let
the
let

attachment

indicated in Fig. 59.)

weights be placed in both pans and

total

mass (including the pans) be m.

so that, the lower

The

proper distribution of weights between the

two pans

having become
can

detached at the lowest point of descent, the

upper one will

rise

again to the height

trials.

h,

be found after a few

will

little

thought

show how
trial
still

after but one trial the desired

distribution

can be roughly predicted.

second
give a

with this predicted value will

closer approximation,

and so on.
Fio. 59.

Four or

five

such trials will suflSce to accom-

plish the object sought.

To compare
from the

this experimental value of J?j

<t>i

E^ with
These

the calculated

value, the values of

and Wj must be known.

may

be taken

results of Exercise

XVHI

provided the apparatus and condi-

tions be the same.

To
if

test the latter the various heights

it

H,

h, h'

should be tested and

found the same

will not

be necessary to
is

re-

determine w, and
culty in putting
it

wg.

(It

may be

noted that there

very

little diflB-

up the apparatus

for all practical purposes exactly as

difference to be feared
is

was

in Exercise

XVTIL
and

The only

in the

friction of the bearings

this friction is in reality very small

com-

162

DYNAMICS
The times
of

pared with the ah* -resistance on the rotating parts.)

ascent and descent sliould also be ascertained and noted.

In the above the

tally,

loss of

kinetic energy has been found experimenof the kinetic energy can also be

but the

initial

found.

First for

and final values Ey we have

E^
E^^

= mgH FH (descent), mgh + Fh (ascent), = 2mg

Hence
i?2

E^

^
if

can be found in a similar

it

way

the height H' from which

h'

must

descend in order that

perimentally

may

reascend to the height

be found ex-

E^ = mgH' H' (descent), E2 mgh' + F'h' (ascent),

.'.

H'h' 77 = o 2 mq E ^ ^

H'+h'

Other points that might be examined experimentally will be suggested below.

DISCUSSION
^

(o)
(6)
(c)

Sources of error.
Suggestions for the improvement of the apparatus.

{d)

What weight could the blocks raise while sliding out? What becomes of the kinetic energy lost on change of moment
Is
it

of inertia ?
(e)
justifiable to

assume

F and F'

equal

(/) Can
(^)

F and

F' be found directly

by exjieriment?
second's

What

percentage error would there be in the calculated values

the

of

E^ and
(/)

E.^ if

pendulum were not exactly a

pendulum ?

Calculate w, from m, the time of descent H, and the radius of

the axis.

Account for the calculated value not agreeing exactly with

no
difficulty in

the experimental value.

(i)

There

is

arranging the apparatus so that the

half of the thread has

sliding blocks are released

when only

unwound.

This being done, what will the velocity be when the whole thread
has

unwound?
Analogy between
this exercise

(y)

and the one on impact.

WORK AND ENERGY

In Fig. 60
is

163

shown an apparatus

for illustrating qualitatively

the conservation of angular

momentum when moment

of inertia

and

angular velocity change and the associated changes of kinetic energy

Fia. 60.

and centrifugal
horizontal rod
is

force.

The

vertical brass tube that supports the

carried by a ball-bearing
is

and the cord attached

to

the sliding weight

connected to another piece of tubing which

supports a spring balance by a ball-bearing (both bearings

may

be

164
made from a

DYNAMICS
bicycle pedal).
If

the sliding blocks are massive

compared with the horizontal

centrifugal force

rod, the changes of kinetic energy

and

may be

stated very simply.

Let

be the mass of

each block and

angular

r its distance

from the axis

Since

of rotation.

The

total

momentum M=2mr^w,

the total kinetic energy iJ

= m?-W,
If r

and the centrifugal force

r changes,

F = mwlh:

M remains constant when

,

by eliminating w we find that

Ex

and Fee.

be

reduced to one-half by downward pressure on the ring of the balance,

will

be increased eightfold, as will be fairly well shown by the

balance, provided the horizontal rod be well lubricated.

scale

A horizontal

with a movable pointer

may

be attached to the framework just

below the rotating arm in order

to indicate the position of the blocks.

The sudden changes

are very striking.

of angular velocity

and

of centrifugal force

115. Notes on Some

Difficulties.

Kinetic

and potential
into the other.

energy are equivalent.

One can be changed

But while
4kis

kinetic energy involves motion, potential energy

energy of bodies which

difficult to

may

be relatively at rest.

It is

somewhat

understand

how

the energy of some-

thing at rest should be equivalent to energy that depends

on motion.
kinetic
visible.

Some

progress

is,

however, being made in the

direction of explaining potential energy as being really

energy of particles too small to be separately

Thus the heat energy

of a

body

is

believed to

be kinetic energy of the particles of the body.

potential energy of a spring

The

may

also at basis be kinetic

energy of particles separately

definite explanation

invisible,

but attempts at a
fruitless.

have hitherto been

That the potential energy of an elastic solid may conceivably be energy of " concealed motion " may be illustrated by the apparatus

shown
be

in Fig. 60.

Suppose the rotating parts covered up so as to

" stretch " the apparatus

invisible.

To

by pulling on the

cord,

WORK AND ENERGY

work
is

165

requirod,

and the apparatus

will

do the same amount of work

in " contnicting," thus imitating to a certain extent the action of a

spring.

A person ignorant of the mechanism might have to be content

whereas
it

to descrilte the energy of the apparatus as potential energy,

i

n'uUy kinetic energy of the rotating masses.

This must not be under-

stood as anything more than a crude illustration of the statement that

all

potential energy

may be

really kinetic energy of invisible parts.

The

kinetic energy of a
velocity.

body

is

calculated from

its
its

mass and

Now

the velocity of a

body means

velocity relatively to

some point taken

as origin ( 6, 18),

Thus by we can never mean anything but energy The choice of a point on of relative motion of bodies. Would it affect the surface of the earth seems arbitrary. our calculation if we should choose the centre of the earth or the centre of the sun or a star as origin ? To answer this we may note that it is in reality only with changes of kinetic energy that we are concerned. Consider for example the impact of two bodies (Exercise XXVI). Their kinetic energy before impact may be considered as conusually a point on the surface of the earth.
kinetic energy

two portions ( 107), E^^ or the energy of their motion relatively to their centre of mass C and E^^, or the
sisting of

energy due to the motion of

as origin.

The impact
is

C relatively to the point taken does not change the motion of C

alter E^.

( 85)

and hence does not

Thus the
is

loss of

kinetic energy

the decrease in E^ which

independent

of the choice of origin.

Similar considerations apply to

other cases.

REFERENCES
Balfour Stewart's " Conservation of Energy." Maxwell's " Matter and Motion."
Daniell's " Principles of Physics," Chapter IV.

CHAPTER IX
PERIODIC MOTIONS OF RIGID BODIES
116. Angular Simple Harmonic Motion.
is

Linear
may have

S.

H. M.

a vibration in a line according to the law a

= constant
a closely
of a

XX.

A rigid body
first

free only to rotate

analogous motion.

For instance, the balance-wheel

in one direction
is

watch rotates

and then in the opposteady)

site direction, its

excursions (when the motion

being confined to a certain angle.

Angular

S.

H. M. may be defined
is

as the

motion of a

body that vibrates through an angle

the angular acceleration a
portional to the angular displacement

in such a

way

that

always opposite to and pro0,

or so that

a==-A'e,

(1)

remaining constant throughout the motion.

The meaning

of the constant

can be found by con-

sidering the motion of a point

the projection of the axis of rotation.

vibrations in
of radius
r.

P in the body. Let be Then P performs

an arc of a
If
circle

be the angular

displacement of the body at any

P
FlG. 61.
X-

moment, the arc through which is displaced from its mean posi

tion
If a

IS

a;

D = ra.

be the angular acceleration of

166

the linear acceleration of

P at any moment, P along the arc is a = ra ( 30).

PERIODIC MOTIONS OF

lilGID

BODIES
of

167
are con-

Hence the acceleration and displacement

nected by the relation

a r

^ A'-t
A

or

a = A' X.

Now let us suppose that

line,

a point, Q, vibrates in a straight

the same displacement from

and has

at each

moment

a point in the straight line as

vibration,
line as

has along the arc of

and the same acceleration along the straight

along the arc.

P has
a

Then

for the

motion of

we have

= Ax^

or the motion of

is

S.

H. M.

The

period of vibration of Q^ of P, and of the rigid body are evidently equal, say T.

But the period

of ^'s

motion

r=27rV-^ a

= 2^/1^ ^
= 2ir>pof the rigid

ra (2)

Hence the angular acceleration and angular displacement body are connected by the relation
/2 7rY '\e.
If a

(8)

body has an angular acceleration opposite to and proportional to its angular displacement, its motion is angular S. H. M., and the period of vibration can be found by means of (2) or (3).
117. Torsional Pendulum.

If a

body attached
it

to a wire

be turned through an angle and released,

will

perform

; ,

168
angular vibrations.

DYNAMICS
The motion
is

due to the fact that

the twisted wire, tending to untwist, exerts a couple on

the body and so sets the body in rotation, and the body,

when once started, tends its moment of inertia.

to persist in its motion

owing to

Let the length of the wire be

then the angle,

I,

and

let the couple

applied to the free end be C, the other end being fixed

6,

through which the wire

is

twisted,

is,

by
it

Hooke's
is is

Law of

Elasticity (see 57), proportional to C;

Z,

also proportional to the length

for each unit of length

cc

twisted to the same amount.

is

Hence

CI, or
is

C=
if

where r

a constant for the same wire, and r

called its

constant of torsion;

may

also be defined as the couple

per unit length per unit angle required to twist the wire.

The couple exerted by

site to

or

it

equals

the twisted wire

-

is

equal and oppo-

Let the torsional pendulum be displaced through an

angle
6,

and

let the
a,

angular acceleration imparted to

it

by the wire be

then (71)
re
J

and

= 0,
pendulum.

/being the moment

a given pendulum,

of inertia of the
is

Now

for
is

a constant.

Hence the motion

angular

S.

H. M., and the period

of vibration is

T=2 7r\j^'

PERIODIC MOTIONS OF RIGID BODIES

169

118. Comparison of Moments of Inertia by the Torsional

two bodies are hung in succession from the same wire, and if their respective moments of inertia are /and /j, and their periods of torsional vibration T and 2\, then
Pendulum.
It follows
last section that if

from the

If the period is
is

T when
when
t,

a body of

moment
is

of inertia

attached, and 2\

to this

body

attached another

of

moment

of inertia

then

This suggests an experimental method of finding the

moment of inertia may be in form.

Exercise

of a body,

no matter how irregular

it

XXYIII.

The Torsional Pendulum. Moments of Inertia

Comparison of

The upper end

end
is

of a vertical wire is held in a clamp,

and the lower

attached to an axis that passes through the centre of a rightis

angled block of wood and

block.

perpendicular to one pair of faces of the

To

fix

the position of the block

when

it is

at rest, fasten a pin in

in

the under surface near an end,

and adjust a support

which
Ls

is

an

upright pin until the two pins are in line

when the block

at rest.

Find by means of a stop-watch, or by counting the ticks of a clock or

chronometer, the time required for a number of oscillations of the

pendulum.

If a

chronometer circuit (foot-note

p. 86) is used,

begin

counting seconds after a silence of the relay, and note the nearest
second and fifth of a second at which the block passes
its

position of

170

DYNAMICS
and

rest; count the oscillations until the next silence of the relay,

again note the time, to a

when the block passes through its position of rest. The observations of the time of vibration should be repeated a number of times Then place two equal lead and the average taken. cylinders of known mass on the block so that the
fifth of

a second,

centres of the cylinders are at equal distances

from

the axis of oscillation, and find the time of oscillatibn

as before.

From
and

these observations, together with the masses

radii of the l6ad cylinders

and

their distances

from
of

the axis of oscillation, the

moment

of inertia of the

block can

be

calculated

( 118).

The moment

inertia should also be

found by direct calculation from

the formula proven in 74.

The

constant of torsion of the wire can be readily

results,

deduced from the above

of inertia of
Fig. 62.
it

and then the moment

of vibration.

any other body can be found by attaching

to the

same wire and finding the time

This method

may be

applied to find the

moment of
its

inertia of a circular

cylinder about an axis at right angles to

will afford a test of the

geometrical axis.
82.

This

inertia of a sphere of
tested.

Or the moment of wood may be found and the formula / = | MR^

formula proven inN

DISCUSSION
(a)

Meaning and proof

1.

of formula used.

(b) Effect of errors in

adjustment

If the line of the

2.

If the block

wire be 2 mm. from the centre of the block. be inclined at 2 to the horizontal.

(c)

How much

error
if

would

result

from supposing that the lead

cylinders acted as
(c?)

concentrated at their centres ?

In the case of an ordinary pendulum the arc of vibration must

be small.
(e)

Need this be so in the case of a torsional pendulum ? Might a bifilar suspension (two parallel vertical cords) be used instead of a wire, without any change in the calculation ?

PERIODIC MOTIONS OF RIGID BODIES

119. The Compound Pendulum.

171

A rigid body vibrating

under the
axis
is

iiilluence of

gravity about a tixed horizontal

called a

compound or phydcal penthe projection of the axis

dulum.

Let

S be

of suspension

on a vertical plane through

Let

the centre of gravity C.

SO be

denoted

by

A,

and let the

pendulum be displaced
line
if

through an angle 6\ then the perpendicular

from

on the vertical
6.

through
is

is

equal to h sin
tical force of

Hence,

mg

the ver-

gravity acting at the centre of

gravity of the body, the

mgh
If

sin 6^ negative

moment of gravity about S is when 6 is positive, and vice versa.

pendulum about the

is
S-t

the

moment
its

of inertia of the

axis

and a

angular acceleration,

mgh sin 6 = /a.

or
if

a=-(^)e.
^ be a small angle.
is

Hence, for small angles of vibra-

tion the motion

angular S. H. M., and the period of

vibration

is

( 116)
^

mgh
is ^q,

If the radius of gyration

about an axis through the

centre of gravity, parallel to the axis of suspension,

and

T=2'rryj^

+ h^
gh

(a) Equivalent Simple Pendulum.

If the

above

for-

mula be compared with the formula

for the time of vibra-

172
tion of a simple

DYNAMICS
44),
it

pendulum ( compound pendulum vibrates pendulum whose length is

h
(5) Centre of Oscillation.

will be seen that the

in the

same time

as a simple

'

It follows

from the above

if

that the

compound pendulum

vibrates as
in

its

whole

mass were concentrated

at a point

SQ

such that

The

point

is

called the centre of oscillation, correspondis

ing to S, which

called the centre of suspension.

Since

l>h,
(c)
able.

S and

are on opposite sides of C.

The

Centre of Suspetision

and

Oscillation Interchange-

equation for

may

also be written

h^^=h(l-K)=SC- 00.
If the

pendulum be suspended

so as to vibrate about an

axis through 0, parallel to the original axis of suspension

through S, then the new centre of

these

oscillation,

S\

will be
If

found by a similar equation, namely,

= 0(7 ^o^

aS" (7.

two equations be compared, it will be seen that S' must coincide with aS'. Hence a pendulum vibrates in the same time about an axis through any centre of suspension, and about a parallel axis through the corresponding axis
of oscillation, or briefly,

any centre

of suspension

and the

corresponding centre of oscillation are interchangeable.

QoT)

The Reversible Pendulum.

A form

of
is

pendulum
rod pro-

used for very accurate measurements of g

the principle just stated.

founded on

It consists of a rigid

vided with two parallel axes of suspension in the form of

PERIODIC MOTIONS OF RIGID BODIES

knife-edges.

173

These axes are at right angles

to the rod,

on opposite sides of the centre of gravity, and in a plane

passing tlirough the centre of gravity.

The

position of

the centre of gravity can be varied by one or two weights

movable along the rod.

If the positions of the

weights be

adjusted so that the times of vibration of the pendulum

about the two axes are equal, then the length of

valent simple pendulum
is

tlie

equi-

the distance between the knife-

edges (provided they be not equidistant from the centre

of gravity

see

below).

Thus, as in the case of the

I

simple pendulum, only two quantities,

and

T^

need be

determined.

(Poynting and Thomson, page 12.)

Times of Vibration The radius of gyration about a certain axis
the
Atq,

(e) Parallel

Axes about which

are Equal.

through the centre of gravity being

what

is

the dis-

tance from the centre of gravity of a parallel axis about

which the pendulum vibrates

length 11

as a simple

pendulum
Z

of

To answer
The

this

we must
is

find the value of h

that will satisfy the equation h^

hl-\- k^ = 0,

and

k^

being given.

solution

Hence^

if I is

greater than 2

Atq,

there are

that satisfy the conditions, and their

two values of h sum is I. But nothis

ing has been specified as to the direction in which A be measured from the centre of gravity.
parallel axes

to

Hence

all

the

about which the pendulum vibrates in the same time pass through two circles, and the sum of
the radii of the circles equals the length of the equivalent simple

pendulum.

But the length

of the equivalent

simple pendulum also equals the distance between a centre

174
of suspension

DYNAMICS
and the corresponding centre of
oscillation.

Hence, as the centre of suspension travels around one of the

circles,

the centre of oscillation travels around the other.

(The reader should interpret the solution of A^ Ih -\. k^ =0 when Z = 2 k^, and when Z < 2 ^q. ) At various points along a line (/) Curve of h and I.

AB (Fig.

64), passing through the centre of gravity of

the pendulum, suppose parallel axes of vibration fixed in

the body perpendicular

to
Z,

AB.

Let the length,

of the equivalent sim-

ple

pendulum
axes

corre-

sponding to each one of

these

be

deter-

mined
axis
S'

experimentally.

Then assume
of

AB

as an

abscissae,

and

SCO'
FiQ. 64.

the centre of gravity as

origin,

and plot a curve

with the values of h as

and the corresponding values of I as ordinates. This curve will show at a glance the general relation between h and I. The form of this curve could have been For, corresponding to any value of I (above a predicted.
abscissse,

certain limit 2 k^),

two values

of h can be

found on each

side of the centre of gravity, the

two smaller values being larger values. Hence for any equal, and likewise the two given value of I there are four points, P, Q, B, S, on the
curve, and

PB = QS =

I.

On (^) Crraphical Method of solving k^=h(l K). the line AB^ referred to in (/), erect at the centre of

PERIODIC MOTIONS OF HIGH) BODIES

gravity a perpendicular,
passes find the point

175

with

P as centre,
0.

draw

CK= k^. With a pair of comAB such that KP = \U and, through K a circle cutting AB in
on

8 and

Since

represents the required value of

CK^ = 08-00 and 08+00 = either 08 or 00 h. Two circles can be

I,

drawn according
four points on

to the above directions.

AB, about which

I.

the

Hence we get pendulum vibrates as

diagram be rotated
circles referred

a simple pendulum of length

If this

about OK,
to in (e).

8 and

will describe the

two

By
CO)

reversing the construction

if

we

can find k^
are

h and

(i.e.

08 and
.

known.

All the circles like

those in the diagram,

drawn with

known corresponding
and
*S^,

positions of

should pass through K.

(A) Oentre of Percussion.

If the

\V-1^

pendulum be at rest, at what point must a horizontal force be applied

to
it

so that

it

will

start

without
Fro. 66.

exerting any side-force on the sup-

Here we are concerned only with horizontal forces and motions. Hence we may neglect gravity and suppose the body free in space. The
port?

176

DYNAMICS
is

problem then
that

to find

where

F must be
from S.

applied in order
if

when motion begins S may remain The moment of F about S is Fl\ if V is

JP,

at rest as

fixed.

the distance of 0\

the point of application of

Hence

if

k be the

radius of gyration about S, the body will start rotating

about

S with

an angular acceleration a

= FVmk^

( 71).

But

a force
of

F applied to a free body of mass m starts the centre F mass with a linear acceleration a = ( 85). Since 8
rest,

remains at

= Aa

( 30).

Hence
or

F_ FVh m mk^^
V=
2

+ A2
A

'

Thus the point

0, called the centre of pereuasion^ coincides

oscillation.

with the centre of

Exercise

XXIX.

The Compound Pendulum

will suffice for the

simple form of
is

compound pendulum that

present purpose

a brass bar pierced by several holes and swinging

holes.

on a knife-edge that passes through one of the

the length of the equivalent simple

For finding

pendulum a simple pendulum of adjustable length is hung from the same knife-edge. The centre of gravity of the bar may be found by balancing it across the knife-edge. The point should be marked by a lead pencil.

To prevent
other.

confusion one end of the bar

may

be lettered

and the

other B, and the holes

The

distance, h,

numbered from one end of the bar to the from the centre of gravity to that point on

the circumference of each hole which will be in contact with the

knife-edge should be carefully measured and the results tabulated.

Suspend the pendulum on the knife-edge and find the length

of

the equivalent simple pendulum for each position of the axis of sus-

PElilODIC MOTIONS
pension and tabulate the results.
for axes outside of the bar

OF RIGID BODIES
may
be

177

Similar observations

made

by attaching a cord to the end of the bar and swinging the bar from the end of the
cord.

To
tive

represent these results graphically, draw a

curve with values of h (positive toward

A and nega/

toward B) as abscissae and values pf

as ordi-

iiates.

Test the curve by measurements between

the two branches as indicated in (/) the results.

and tabulate

Some

observations of the length of the equiva-

lent simple

pendulum

for axes that

do not intersect

the axis of the bar

may

be made by tying the ends

of a cord to holes in the bar

and hanging the cord

I

over the knife-edge.

Values of

should be ob-

tained for three or four such positions of the axis

of suspension

and the statements

in {g).

in (e) verified.

Finally k^ should be deduced graphically by the

method suggested

DISCUSSION
(a)
(6)

Meaning and proof

of formulae.
yiq. 67.

Minimum

length of equivalent simple pen-

dulum.
(c) Position of axes
(rf)

Use

of a

about which the time of vibration is a minimum. compound pendulum for accurate determinations of g.
ball strike the bat to cause

(c)

Where should a base

no

jar

on

the hands ?

120. Effect of an Angular Velocity about One Axis and an

Angular Acceleration about an Axis at Right Angles

to the First.

The Gyroscope.
of an analogy

We have already

liad several illustrations

between the motion of translation of a particle and the motion of rotation of a rigid body ( 30, 71, 116).
This analogy between rotation and translation extends
still

178
further and

DYNAMICS
we
shall consider

one interesting example.

The motion

of a particle that has a constant speed

is

and a
a uni-

constant acceleration at right angles to the speed

What is the effect of a form circular motion ( 33). constant angular speed about one axis and a constant angular acceleration about another axis at right angles to
the
first ?

By

analogy we should expect the result to be

a constant revolution of the axis of rotation.

This
plest

is

the problem of the Gyroscope which in

of a
(w).

its

sim-

form consists

heavy wheel (of mass w) rotating

about a horizontal axis (0(7) and
supported at a point (0) in the
axis of rotation.

with angular speed

A full discussion
and interesting

of this instructive

apparatus would be far beyond

::^2,
\

tli6

scope of this book.

The

fol-

lowing brief and incom2)lete account will at least suggest the chief
characteristics of the motion.

^-^

Let us
its

first

suppose that the wheel, while rotating about

w, is

axis

00

with a constant angular velocity

kept
oo'

revolving about the axis

V with
of force

an angular velocity
is

and inquire what moment

the revolution about OV.

necessary to keep up
of force
is

That some moment

necessary

is

evident, for, while the angular

momentum

about OF' is constant in both magnitude and direction, the

angular

momentum

Ico

about

00 is

constant in magnitude

but changes steadily in direction as

pare the change of direction of
revolves in a circle.)

00 revolves.
t,

(Com-

momentum

as a particle

After a short time

turned into a position

OB

where the angle

00 will have OOB =

co'f.

PERIODIC MOTIONS OF RIGID BODIES

If the

179

angular raomenturn of the wheel be represented by

OC

\n its first position

time ^

OC

and

parallelogram

and by OR in its position after OR will be equal in length and, if the OCRZ be completed, OZ will represent the

change of angular momentum.

about
V\

(The angular momentum

This change

being constant, suffers no change.)

will require a

moment
is

of force, say i, about OZ, and,

t, the angular momust equal Lt. Hence OZ Lt and J<b respectively. Now

since the change

produced in time

mentum

represented by

OZ

and 0(7 are proportional to

the small angle

COR
-i-

or

co't
'

may

be taken as equal to

CR

-^

OC

or

OZ

OC.
.

Lt

or

L = I(ocJ
for steady revolution about

Hence

OV the wheel
OZ

must be

acted on by a force that has no

moment about OVov

OC

but has a
angles to

moment

laxo'

about an axis

always at right
for centrifat'

OF and
is

OC.

(Compare the formula

ugal force, 64, written in the form

or V
-j-

F = mvo)' where
mv
its

the rate at which the direction of

rotates.)

Now

the weight of the wheel acting at

centre of mass

at a distance h

from

supplies precisely such a

if

moment,

mgh, about OZ.

angular velocity

Hence

the wheel be started with an

^^
1(0

about

OV it
is

will,

under the action

of gravity, continue to revolve about

lar velocity.

OF" with that anguIf the

Such a motion

called precession.

rotating wheel be merely released without any angular

velocity about

OV being

imparted to

it,

gravity will at

180
first

DYNAMICS
cause a
fall of

the centre of gravity, but, since this

will be

accompanied by angular

momentum about

OZ,

precession will set in and will continue at a rate given by

the above formula but oscillations similar to those of a

badly thrown quoit will accompany the precession.

The
plies

necessity for an initial impulse about

V may

also

be stated in the following way.

Precession about OF" imIf

an angular

momentum about OV.

by

this be not

supplied, the start will be opposed

of

inertia in the
V.

form

moment

of inertia of the wheel about

of inertia will be equivalent to that of an opposing

The effect moment

of force about an axis

drawn

vertically

downwards,

and the
same

effect of this will

effect follows

be to depress the axis OC. The any attempt to oppose the precession of
started,

the wheel

when once

whereas an attempt to ac-

celerate the precession causes an elevation of

If

00.

be the period of precession,

V,

i.e.

the time of one

complete revolution about

Tco'

then

= 2'Tr.
mgh

Hence

^=27r^.
dynamo on
a ship that
is roll-

The

rotating armature of a

ing or pitching acts like a gyroscope.

If the axis of the

armature be

at right angles to the length of the ship

co'

and

the ship be rolling with an angular velocity

while the

armature of moment of inertia

velocity , then the bearings

I is

revolving with angular

must supply the horizontal

between the bearings be

couple

laco'.

If the distance

a,

the horizontal pressure on each bearing will be

PERIODIC MOTIONS OF RIGID BODIES

Exercise
ApparattM.

181

XXX. The
is

Gyroscope

A
;

steel

rod

attached by a double nut to the axle of

a bicycle wheel

this rod passes loosely

through a hole

in the verti-

cal steel axis used in previous exercises, being carried by a pin that

Fio. 69.

passes through rod

and

axis.

The

pin

fits

tightly into the rod

and

its

ends, which are ground to knife-edges, rest loosely in the holes in the
vertical axis so that the rod is free to vibrate in

a vertical plane.

weight to counterpoise the wheel can be clamped on the rod and a

smaller movable weight can be clamped at any desired point on

182
the rod so as to produce a
knife-edges of the pin.

DTMAMIC8
moment of force about the line of the The wheel is started into rotation about its
is

own
The

axis

by means

of a thread that

wrapped around the hub

of the

wheel

aijd carries a weight, the

end of the rod being meanwhile held.

given with the hand, but a more

necessary initial impulse

may be

satisfactory

means

is

the simple starting device

shown
axis
is

in the

accom-

panying

figure.

A hinge turning about a vertical

shown

attached by a

cord to a spring the tension in which can be varied.

in the position

The hinge being

in the figure, a loop of wire attached to the If the

hinge encircles the end of the rod.

will rotate
it

hinge be released the spring

and

start the gyroa^jope

with an impulse that depends on

The hinge can be clamped by means of a hook and released by a jerk on a cord attached to the hook. When drawn aside by the spring the Mnge will not be in the way of the rod
the tension of the spring.
as
it

returns after a precession of the gyroscope.

is

The block on which

in order to start the

the hinge

mounted can be turned through 180

gyroscope precessing in the opposite direction.

While the counterpoise and the small weight

greatly varying the action of the gyroscope,
it

afford a

will be well in

means of making
its

first

quantitative test to discard both and use the instrument in

simplest form.

What

immediately follows applies to this

case.

Calculation of T.
duct,
7(1),

To

calculiate the period of precession, the promgh.,

and the moment

of the

must be known.
of the hub,

The angular momenm', of the

tum,

/o),

wheel can be calculated from the mass,

r,

descending weight, the radius,

for
if

and the time

of descent

a be the angular

acceleration of the wheel,

m'gr

= 7a,
is

and

if

be the time during which the thread

m'grt = IM =
7a).

attached to the wheel,

This

is

on the assumption that the

is

frictional resistance to the rotation

is

of the wheel

negligible.

This resistance

small, but a rough esti-

mate of

it

can be

made by

finding what small weight

m" attached
Before

to

the thread will keep the wheel in steady rotation.

calculated,

7a) is

m" must be

subtracted from m'.

The time
possible.

of descent of m! should be ascertained with all the care

This should be done several times, m' being always started

PERIODIC MOTIONS OF
from the same height.
111'

lilGID

BODIES

183

Ttie length of the thread should be such that

will reach the floor as nearly as possible at the

the thread becomes detached from the wheel.

released exactly

moment when The wheel should be

ticks should

on a

tick of the clock.

The succeeding

be counted, and the time at which m' strikes the floor estimated to
une-flfth of a second.

strong effort should be

made

to have the

separate determinations as independent as possible.

The value

of

readily measured.

mgh cannot be calculated directly since h is not A simple and accurate method is to hang a weight
is

from the axis by a thread with a loop that slips on the axis and adjust
the position of the thread until the vrheel

counterbalanced.

The

moment
equal to

of the weight is readily found

it

but with the opposite sign.

and that of the wheel is For accuracy the distance of

the thread from the knife-edge should be large.

Observation of T.

The

period of precession should next be ob-

served several times with similar care.

The mean should agree with

one or two cases with

the calculated value within a fraction of a second.

The above method should

also be applied to

the counterpoise and small weight on the axis.

The

effect of

attempt-

ing to accelerate or retard precession or

tilt

the axis, and also the

nature of the oscillation that accompany precession as well as other

points suggested by 119 should be examined.

DISCUSSION
(a)

Why is the axis of the

What What
effect

wheel gradually depressed as precession

continues?
(6)

does the frictional retarding force of the air and

of the bearings
(c)

on the wheel produce ?

?

determines the direction of precession

(d) Is the period of precession influenced in any

way by the
it

tension

of the spring and the strength of the initial impulse

(c)

produces ?
less

Why is the
is

impulse required of the spring

?

much

when the

counterpoise

discarded

(/) Does gravity do any work during the motion ? (g) Does the impulse due to the spring in any way determine the
period of oscillation of the gyroscope?

184
(h) Explain the
(i)

DYNAMICS
motion of a
top.

Precessional motion of the earth.

(Young's " General Astron-

omy," ?05-212.)

method of finding (J) as a compound pendulum.

(k)

I experimentally by swinging the wheel

mass of
(I)

method of finding to (/ being found separately) from the and its distance of descent.
the force of gravity not change the angular velocity

Why does
If the

of the

body about

OCi
?

(m)

wheel be not quite symmetrical about OC, what will be

of a

the nature of the motion

(n)
axis
is

The armature
is

dynamo on a ship weighs 500

armature
is

kilos.

Its

at right angles to the length of the ship,

and the radius

of

gyration

50 cm.

If the

running at a speed of 500

revolutions per minute,

and the distance between the centres of the

is

bearings
ship

is

50 cm., what

the pressure on the bearings

when the

is rolling at

the rate of | of a radian per second ?

REFERENCES

Mach's " Science of Mechanics," Chapter

Perry's " Spinning Tops."

11.

Worthington's " Dynamics of Rotation."

ELASTIC SOLIDS AND FLUIDS

CHAPTER X
MECHANICS OF ELASTIC SOLIDS

12L
definite

Solids

tend to

body that has a shape even while it is acted on by forces which produce a change of shape. A fluid is a body
and Fluids.
solid is a
its

that continues to change

shape so long as

it is

sub-

jected to forces which tend to produce a change of shape.

The
of

definition of a solid does not imply that the shape

is

a solid

invariable.

Some change

of shape always to a solid

it

occurs,

when deforming

forces are applied

but the solid assumes a

so

new

shape,

which

maintains
slight

long as the forces remain constant.

(Some

qualification of this last statement is necessary, but, for

convenience,

we

shall postpone it.)

122. Strain.

Any

change of

shape
is

or

volume or

change of both shape and volume

a shear.

called a strain.
is

change of shape without any change of volume

called

For example, when a rod

is

twisted through a

small angle a small part of the rod that was originally

cubical assumes a

new

shape, but suffers no change of

volume.

change of volume without any change of

;

shape has usually not received any special name

185

but, to

186

MECHANICS

avoid the repetition of the phrase " change of volume without change of shape,"

we

shall call it a squeeze.

It is

illustrated by the compression of a cube into a smaller

cube or a sphere into a smaller sphere.

a negative squeeze.

dilatation

is

Shears and squeezes are called simple strains.

Strains

which involve changes of both shape and volume, e.g. the strain of a stretched wire or a bent beam, can be resolved

and squeezes. Any strain which is of the same kind and magnitude at all points throughout the strained body, is called homointo shears

"

geneous strain.

All parts of a stretched uniform wire are

similarly affected

and the

strain is
is

homogeneous.

When

a rod

is

twisted, the strain

greater near the surface

is

than near the axis and the strain

non-homogeneous.
In such a case the

The same

is

true of a bent beam.

strain in a very small part of the

body may be regarded

as homogeneous.

123. Numerical Measure of a Squeeze.

is

"When a squeeze
or,

homogeneous,

it is

measured by the proportion in which

v^

the whole or any part of the body changes in volume,

if Vj

be the original volume of any part of the body and

is

the volume to which that part

the squeeze
is (y^

reduced, the measure of

v^)

-^ Vj.
its

If the squeeze is

not homogeneous, to find

Vj to

measure at

any point we must suppose

at that point
is

be the volume of a small

part surrounding that point, and the measure of the squeeze

the value approached by (Vj
is

Vg) ~^ ^i ^s

the part considered

limit.

taken smaller and smaller without

ELASTIC SOLIDS
124. Numerical Measure of a Shear.

187

First consider how

,
^

a shear

may

be produced.

Between two horizontal boards

^
,

place a large cube of firm jelly (a calf's foot

jelly containing

some glycerine

will

do admir-

ably).

Give the upper board a horizontal

a ^^^-

displacement in a direction parallel to one

vertical face
parallel

d
'^^

ABCD of the cube. Any plane to ABCD is called a plane of shear.

becomes a rhombus.
to the boards of the shear

Each square
and

in a plane of shear

All planes in the

body parallel the measure

move
is

parallel to the boards,

the relative displacement of

any two of these

between them.

parallel planes divided

by the distance
is

In the figure the shear

Bh

-i-

AB.

If

is

the

amount by which a
<f)

right angle in a plane of

shear,

shear changes tan shear

is

= Bb

-i-

AB = the

small,

<!>

may

be taken as

its

and if the measure instead

of tan 0.

125. Elasticity.

The property that enables a body to

is

recover from strain

called elasticity.

When
is

the strain

recovered from

is

a shear, the elasticity

is

called elasticity
is

of form; when
elasticity

it

a squeeze, the elasticity

called

of volume.

to the various forms of

Forms of elasticity corresponding compound strain have not, in

general, received special names.

strain is said to

body that recovers completely from any form of have perfect elasticity of that form if the
;

recovery is incomplete, the elasticity is said to

fect.

be imper-

Probably no solid has, in

;

reality, perfect elasticity

of

any kind

but

many

solids are so nearly perfectly elas-

tic,

when

the strain does not exceed a certain

amount

188

MECHANICS

called the elastie limit, that they

may

for

many

practical

purposes be regarded as perfectly elastic.

solid,

such as putty or lead, that has a very small

elastic limit

when sheared

is

said to be plastic ; a perma-

nent change of form of such a body can be produced by

comparatively small forces.

126.

Stress.

When

an

elastic

body

is

in a state

of

strain, there are internal forces, actions

and

reactions, be-

tween contiguous parts of the body.

As

somewhat
leaf,

rough

illustration consider the state of a

book when press-

ures are applied normally to the covers.

presses against a contiguous leaf,
jB,

Any

A,

with a certain force,

and

B presses

back against

with an equal and opposite

force.

If the forces applied to the cover be tangential in-

stead of normal, the leaf

will exert a tangential force

on the

leaf

B, and

B will

exert an equal and opposite tanof a pillar that supto that of the

gential force on A.

ports a weight

is

The condition somewhat similar

book

in the first case,

and the condition

of

any small part of

a twisted rod
case.

is

similar to that of the

book

in the second

The

action and reaction between the contiguous parts

body constitute a stress. The measure of the stress is the magnitude of the force (action or reaction) per unit of area. In some cases the stress is equal to
of a strained

the external force, per unit of area, applied to the body.

When
is

a solid

is

immersed

in a liquid to

which pressure
the solid

applied, the pressure per unit area within

equals the pressure, per unit of area, exerted on the solid

by the

liquid.

When

a wire

is

stretched by a weight

ELASTIC SOLIDS
attached to
it,

189

the tension per unit area of cross-section

of the wire equals the weight sustained divided

cross-section.

by the

In

many

cases the stress cannot be measured directly

by the external force. This applies to a beam that is bent by a weight if the weight is increased, the stress at any
;

particular point

is

increased in the same proportion

but

the stress

is

different at different points,

and so

it

cannot

be measured by the magnitude of the weight.

There

may
is

be a stress within a body to which no external force

applied.
stresses

An

iron casting,

when

cool,

has internal strains

it,

and

even when no external force acts on

and

a glass vessel
to the

when heated

irregularly

may

break, owing
stresses.

magnitude of the internal strains and

127.
that, so

Hooka's Law.

Careful

experiments have shown

is

long as the strain in an elastic body

within the

elastic limit, the ratio of the

measure of the

stress to that

of the strain

is

constant.

This law was

first

stated

by
law

Robert Hooke (in 1676) in the words ut

stress is proportional to strain.

tensio sic vis^ or,

Hooke

illustrated this

by the stretching

of a spiral spring, the twisting of a

wire, the bending of a plank, etc.

shall consider later.

Some

of these

we

Striking evidence of the correctness of Hooke's

Law

is

afforded

by the vibrations
quency of a
S.

of an elastic

body such as a tuning-fork.

The

fre-

H. M. depends on the ratio of the restoring force to the

displacement ( 57), and if this ratio changed, the frequency would change, and the pitch of the note given by the tuning-fork would also
change.

But the pitch

of a tuning-fork remains constant although

the amplitude of the vibrations decreases.

Now, the displacement

of

190
a point on the fork
force
is is

MECHANICS
proportional to the strain, and the restoring

proportional to the stress, and the fact that the pitch remains
die

constant as the vibrations

Hooke's Law.

A tuning-fork

of definite pitch

away shows that the 'fork obeys may be made of any

ordinary metal, even lead, and this shows that, within the elastic
limit, all ordinary metals

obey Hooke's

Law

with great,

if

not perfect,

accuracy.

128.

Moduli of Elasticity.

The

modulus^ or measure,
of

of the elasticity of a

body corresponding to any form

measure of the
stress to that

strain, is the ratio of the

strain.

of the

There

is,

therefore, a

modulus

for each possible

form

of strain,

but only a small number need be specially

that

considered.

Two

may be

considered as the principal

called

moduli are the

rigidity')

shear

modulus (also

the simple

and the bulk modulus.

is

The
Jto

bulk modulus

the ratio of the squeezing stress

of the squeezing stress
is

the squeeze.

The measure

If the the pressure per unit of area, p, within the body. squeeze is due to liquid pressure applied to the body,

the squeezing stress also equals the pressure per unit of

area, jo, in the liquid.
is

The measure

of the squeeze ( 123)

k,

v^) (j)^

-T-

Vj.

Hence, denoting the .bulk modulus by

Vi

V.

t>o

The
in

reciprocal of k

is

called the coefficient of compressiIt evidently equals the proportion

bility of

the substance.
is

which the volume

decreased

when

unit pressure

is

applied to the body.

The

shear modulus

is

the ratio of the shearing stress

ELASTIC SOLIDS
to the shear.

191

The shearing
T,

stress is

measured by the

tangential force,

per unit of area within the body.

Denoting the measure of the shear by ^ ( 124) and the

shear modulus by n,

T
129. Torsion of a Wire or Rod.

The strain

at
is

any point
a shear.

of a wire or rod subjected to a slight twist

Consider a very small cube one edge of which

is

parallel to the length of

lies

the wire, while a

le
I

second edge

along a radius of the section of

is

the wire, and a third

part of the circum-

ference of a circle coaxial with the wire.

consideration of Fig. 71 will

strain of the cube
is

show that the

similar to that of the cube

of jelly referred to in 124.

The

stress is also

a shearing stress.
stress

The shear and the shearing

^'' ^^'
it

may
is

be found by considering the dimen-

sions of the wire

and the twist

undergoes when a known

couple

applied to one end, the other end being clamped.

between the twist of a wire, the dimensions of the wire, and the couple that produces the twist
relations

The

can be found by experiment or calculated by theory.

The following

exercise will, in a rough way, illustrate

the experimental method.

Exercise

XXXI.

The Torsion

of

a Wire
carries a horizontal

vertical wire is
is

clamped at both ends and

disk which

clamped to the middle of the wire.

The recording
is

disk

of Exercise

XIV may

be used for the purpose, the aperture being

used in
elec-

reduced by the insertion of a " connector " (such as

192
trical circuits), the set

MECHANICS
screw of which will serve to clamp the wire.

A protractor, or graduated

paper

circle, is

fastened to the upper side of

the disk, and a bent wire attached to a cross-bar serves as an index in

measuring the rotation of the centre of the wire.

are applied to the disk by

Tangential forces
pulleys,

means

of threads

which pass over

Fig. 72.

attached to the framework, and carry scale pans and weights.

stead of the scale pans, weights, and pulleys, calibrated springs

(In-

may

be used, though not as readily.)

We may

first

inquire whether the angle,

is

6,

through which the

being some constant

middle of the wire

twisted

is

proportional to some power, p, of the

If so, ^

couple, L, applied to the wire.

=c

i**,

(?

ELASTIC SOLIDS
that does not cliange as
If couples
Z,,,

198
c

L and

6 vary.

Hence log 6 = log

tfj, tfg,

+p log L.
the values

Ag, Lj,

produce twists

0^, ,

and

if

of log A,, logZ,^-*- plotted as ordinates against the value of log^,,

log dp

as abscissa) give a straight line,

it

will

show that 6

is

prod,

portional to

some j)ower

of L.

From

the values of Zj, Lg, and

d,,

a value of
stated

p may

be obtained by substituting in the equation last

c.

and eliminating log

logg,-logg,
log

L,- log Z,*

Other values of p may be obtained from pairs of corresponding values of L and 6. These values of p should agree as well as could be
expected,

when
its

the unavoidable errors of observation are considered.

In a similar

way we may
length,

find the relation

between the twist of

the wire and

being kept constant.

The length may be

it is

changed by altering the position of the bars to which

Finally,

clamped.

by using three or more wires of the same material and

length, twisted

by the same couple, we may

In
-this

find the relation

between

twist

and

radius.

case, unless carefully selected wires are

chosen, the results will probably not be so satisfactory as in the pre-

ceding cases.

In

fact,

the results

may be

considerably affected by a

serious error of method (in addition to the errors of observation); namely,

the use of wires that do not consist of the same material in the same
state.

It is well

known

that the process of wire drawing has consider-

able effect on the physical state of the material.

Divergences between
;

the results amounting to several per cent

may be found

but, as their

causes are' understood, their existence need cause no dissatisfaction

with the results.

Allowing for errors both of observation and of method, the results

will

show that

DISCUSSION
(a)
(b)

Do
o

the observations confirm Hooke's

Law?

Describe the nature of the strain in the wire.

194
(c)

MECHANICS
Does the magnitude of the strain at a point depend on the
dis-

tance of the point from the axis ?

(d) Is the strain everywhere the

same

at equal distances

from the

axis?
(e)

Where will

fracture begin

if

a uniform glass rod be twisted too

much ?
(/)

From

the twist of the free end calculate the twist of any other

cross-section.
(51)

Did the tension on the wire

affect the

experimental results
in

(h)

What
What

is

the

nature

of

the

strain

a stretched spiral

spring?
(i)
is

the magnitude of the shear of a cubical part of the

the side of the cube
is

wire ( 129), wire 1 m., and

if its

0.01

mm., the length

of the

radius 1 mm., supposing the centre of the cube halfto the surface of the wire

way from the axis whole wire 30?

and the twist

of the

130. Theory of Torsion of a Uniform Wire.

ness

For

definite-

we

shall suppose that the

ends of the wire are sections perpento disks, one disk being

dicular to the axis

and are cemented firmly

is

held fixed while the other

turned about the axis of the wire through

I

an angle
sider

6.

Let the length of the wire be

and

its

radius R.

Con-

two normal
-^
I

sections unit distance apart.

One

is

turned through

an angle 6
nrO

relatively to the other.

-f-

Hence
1,

at a distance r

from the

axis the measure of the shear is rd

and that
is

of the shearing stress

I.

Suppose the area of the end which

to be divided

attached to the rotated disk

Sj, S2' "'

up

into a large

number
-4-

of small areas
rj, rg, .
-f-

their

respective distances

from the axis being

nr^s^O
Z,

To

these the disk

applies tangential forces

nr^<fi

1,

The
area.
is,

tangential

force applied to each small area

is

perpendicular to that radius of the

end section that passes through the centre of the

Hence the
the couple

sum

of the

moments

of these forces about the axis, that

is

applied to the free end,

C = "^i^^i^ + nr^\0 ^

...

_ !i^2sr2.

ELASTIC SOLIDS
Nuw
moment
Sxr'
is

195
same form as

the

moment

of inertia of a disk of the

(it is

the end section and of unit mass per unit area

of inertia of the section).

often called the

Denoting
.

it

by

7,

C-
For a
circular wire

7=

J ir7J

72

i irR* ( 75),

and therefore

C = imeR*
21

To
and
/

get the constant of torsion of the wire or the couple per unit

length per unit angle required to twist the wire ( 117),

we put

6=1

1.

Hence
T

i vnR*.

(From the
131.

results of the last exercise calculate n.)

Kinetic Method of finding n.

The

last

formula of

the preceding suggests a

method

of

measuring the shear

modulus of a wire.
of inertia
is
is

To the

wire a body of

known moment

attached and the time of a torsional vibration

observed ( 117 and Exercise XXVIII). This gives the value of t, and that of n is found from t and M.
(Calculate from the results of Exercise

XXVIII

the con-

stant of torsion

and the shear modulus

of the wire.)

132.

Stretch Modulus.
I

When

a wire of length

is

stretched to a length

+ x,

the measure of the strain

is

is -,

or the proportion in which the length

increased.
is

If the

whole force applied to stretch the wire

of cross-section of the wire
is ,

F^ and the area

the measure of the stress,

is

or the tension per unit of cross-section,

stretch

Hence the
modulus
is

modulus

is

F
8

s-

X - or Fl
I

8X

The

stretch

196
also called Young's
cist,

MECHANICS

modulus from the name of the physiThomas Young, who first defined it (1807). The definition of the stretch modulus suggests a direct method of measuring it. The length and radius of the wire
are carefully measured, and then the stretch produced by

hanging a known weight to the wire

is

carefully observed.

When
thrust
stress.

a rod

is

shortened by longitudinal pressure, the

strain is a negative stretch.

The

stress is in this case a

which may be considered as a negative stretching The value of Young's modulus obtained from the

strain

and

stress in the

compressed rod

is

not appreciis

ably different from the value found

positive stretch.

when

the strain

133. Poisson's Ratio.

The stretching of a wire involves

a change of shape, or a shear, since the length increases

-also

and the diameter decreases. Whether a change of volume occurs can be found by careful measurements of the changes of length and diameter. Let the initial radius be r^ and the final r, and let Iq and I be the corresponding lengths. If no change of volume took place, TT t^Iq would equal irr^l^ or r and I would be connected by the relation

^'Experiment shows that for no substance

true, but that in all cases
is this relation

The smaller q is, q being a constant for each substance. decreases for a the radius the smaller is the ratio in which

ELASTIC SOLIDS
given stretch
less tlian
;

197
all cases
is

and since

it is

found that in

is

J (see Table in

Appendix), a stretch

always
explain

accompunied by an increase of volume.

The

constant q

is

called PonsorCs ratio.

To

why

it is

called a ratio let us suppose that the stretch is

I

very small, so that

very small.

= Iq-\- x^

Substituting in
r

and r = r^ 2, a: and (1) and expanding,

being

squares and higher powers oi x-i-l^ being neglected.

Hence

5'

s-

(2)

Thus

may be

defined as the ratio of the fractional

decrease of radius to the fractional increase of length,

both being supposed indefinitely small.

Exercise

XXXII.

Young's Modulus and Poisson's Ratio

A rubber
zontal bar.

cord about 3

mm.

in

diameter

is

clamped in the

slitted

end of a long by turning a

vertical screw

which turns

in a

nut attached to a hori-

Any
lever

desired

number
fine

of turns can be given to the screw

on the top of the screw.

sewing needles are thrust, and the
dis-

Through the cord two

tance between them
is

read on a vertical mirror scale.

of the cord

is found by observing the movewind around the cord as the screw ia turned. Each thread is attached to the cord by a small loop that passes over one end of the upper needle. The direction of the thread is at first horizontal, but at a distance of 1 cm. from the cord it passes

The mean diameter

of

ments

two

silk threads that

through a small screw-eye and hangs vertically in front of the mirror

198
scale.

MECHANICS

small bullet suspended from the thread keeps the thread

under

definite tension

and

also serves as

an index.

of the bullet can

be read to about

The movement .2 mm. The

use of two threads eliminates errors which would

enter
if

the cord were

tension of a single thread.

drawn sidewise by the Allowance must be

from

made
cord.

for the slope of the thread on the rubber

The angle

of slope can be calculated

the pitch of the screw.

The screw should be

given three or four turns before readings are

begun.

About 200

g.

are placed

in a scale

pan

attached to the cord.

The

positions of both

ends of each needle are observed on the scale

and

also the positions of the lowest part of each

bullet.

The screw

is

then given ten or more

the above readings

complete turns, and

repeated.
its

all of
is

The screw
position

next turned back to

initial

repeated.

The

load

is

and the readings again then increased by 100 g.

tain the

and the above operations are repeated to obnew length and diameter. From these readings Young's modulus can
For the value of the
of
its

be calculated.
section,

cross-

the

mean

values
g.

before

and

after the

addition of

the 100

should be

taken.

To obtain Poisson's ratio,

of

take the logarithms

both

sides of (1) of 133.

log ro

log r

9 (log

log

Q.
several

Both constants should be obtained

by steps
of

times with different loads on the pan, increasing

Fig. 73.

100

g.

until the rubber shows a

set.

decided permanent

In calculating Young's
of its values before

modulus, use for the cross-section the

mean

and

ELASTIC SOLIDS
after the last addition of 100 g.
for r^

199

In calculating Poisson's ratio, take

and

/q

their values before the first 100 g.

were added.

DISCUSSION
(a)
(6)
(c)

Do

the observations confirni Ilooke's

of Young's

Law ?
ratio.

Meaning

modulus and Poisson's

an incorrect value for q be obtained if it were calculated from the experimental results with the aid of equation (2) of

Why would

Would this apply to measurements of a metallic wire? What do your results show as regards changes of volume rubber when stretched ? (e) Do the results indicate anything as regards the elastic limit
13;3?
((/)

of

of

rubber ?

134. Flexure of a Uniform Bar.

is

When a uniform

bar

bent, longitudinal lines of particles

on the convex side

=

are lengthened, while those on the

concave side are shortened.

Lines

^
If the

-=^tr:7

on a certain intermediate surface,

called the neutral surface^ are not

changed

in length.

plane con-

&iFiQ. 74.

taining any one of these

curved

lines is called a plane of bending.

bending

is slight,

the extensions and compressions are similar to those of a

rod which

is

stretched or shortened by a longitudinal

force, as in the

measurement

of

Young's modulus.
di-

The

relations

between the amount of bending, the

mensions of the bar, and the force applied to the bar

be found by experiment or calculated by theory.

may
The

following exercise will illustrate the experimental method.

Exercise XXXIII.

Flexure of a Bar
cross-section are supported in

Uniform brass bars of rectangular

succession on two knife-edges and various weights are

hung from the

200
centre of each bar.
of

MECHANICS
The
depression
is

measured by a

lever,

one end

which

rests

on the bar by means

is

of

two needle

points, while a point

near that end

supported on a cross-bar of the framework by means

of a single needle point.

needle in the farther end of the lever

moves down along a

the brass bar
is

vertical millimetre mirror scale as the centre of

depressed.

Thus the movement

of the centre of the

bar

is

read on a scale enlarged in proportion to the ratio of the arms

of the lever.

To

find

how

the depression,

ar,

of the centre of the bar thus loaded

/,

depends on (1) the

force, F, applied to the bar, (2) the length,

6,

of

the bar, (3) the width,

of the bar,

proceed as in Exercise

XXXII.

and (4) the depth, d, of the bar, The method is so entirely similar

Fig. 75.

that

it

need not be restated.

;

The

actual value of x

is

not needed for

the present purpose

of X

the scale readings are proportional to the values

But for another purpose the actual values of Hence the lengths of the arms of the lever should be measured. The full length of the lever from the single needle point to the end of the index needle may be measured by an ordinary scale. The length of the short arm may be found by a micrometer caliper or by placing the lever on a finely divided scale. (For this exercise bars should be supplied, three or more of which
and are
sufficient.

X are required.

have the same thickness and length but different widths, while three

more have the same width but different thicknesses. Thus at least be needed. Bars of the same thickness may be sawn from the same sheet of brass.)
or
five bars will

ELASTIC SOLIDS
DISCUSSION
(a)
(6)

201

Do

the results agree with Hooke's

Law ?

Regarding the bar as made up of jmrallel wires, how are the various wires changed in length ?
(c)

Would change

in length of the wires account for the

change

of shape of the bar?

(d) Is there any change in the cross-section of the bar ?

What relative motion of two ad jacent cross-sections takes place? (/) What kind of vibrations would the loaded bar i)erf orm ?
(e)

(g) It can be
of the bar is
late

shown by mathematical methods that the depression

pia

From

this

and the observations made calcuin (g) a

M.
Deduce from the formula
formula for the depression
is

(A)

produced by a weight attached to one end of a bar that

horizontally at the other end.

clamped

135. Relation between Elastic Moduli.

of a wire

Since the stretch

and
and
n,

and the flexure

it is

of a bar involve both shears

squeezes,

evident that there must be a relation be-

tween the stretch modulus, M, the shear modulus,

the bulk modulus,
k.

This relation (the proof of which

we must omit)

is

9kn M= Sk +n
The value
rubber,
is

some substances, such as indiavery small compared with that of k, and is,
of

for

therefore, nearly equal to 3 .

If

M and n be
direct

carefully measured, k can be deduced.

of k
is

The

measurement

difficult.

136. Potential Energy of Strain.

Work

is

done in
It

strain-

ing an elastic body, and the strained body has an amount

of potential energy equal to the

work done.

can be

202

MECHANICS

shown that the amount of this potential energy per unit volume of the strained body is one-half the product of the
stress

hy the strain.
s

As an example,
I

consider a wire of

cross-section

and length

initially

under no tension, and

Since

suppose that
to a length
Z

it is

stretched by a gradually increasing force

the force at this length being F.
is,

a;,

the force

at each stage of the stretching,

proportional to the extension (Hooke's Law),

the diagram of
STRETCH

^j^^ total

work ( 100) is a triangle, and work done or potential energy produced is, therefore, | Fx. If the amount of
small (as in the case of a metallic wire

the stretch

is

stretched within the elastic limit), the volume of the

stretched wire
unit volume
area, that
is,

is

si.

Hence the
I

potential
is

energy per

1
is

Now,
is

F
s

the force per unit

the stress, and -

the stretch per unit length,

that

is,

the strain.

137. Imperfections of Elasticity.

of a

So long

as the strain

body

is

within the elastic limit, a curve, plotted with

stresses as ordinates

and

strains as abscissae, is (at least

very nearly) a straight

three exercises.
increase

line, as

we have

seen in the last

Further stress will cause the strain to

more rapidly than the stress, and the curve will become concave downwards. Finally, a point, called the yield point, will be reached at which the strain will increase very rapidly
solid

and the material

will cease to act as a

and begin

to flow.

If the stress

be then relaxed, a
of a coin

large permanent set will remain.

is

The stamping

a striking illustration.

ELASTIC SOLIDS
In

203
indefinite,

many
tlie

cases the elastic limit

is

somewhat
is
is

and

curve of stress against strain

everywhere con-

cave downwards.

When

the stress
is

gradr

ually decreased, the curve

not retraced, but

is

another curve, concave upwards,

obtained.

This

is

called elastic hysteresis.

^
*'"*'*

In other cases (glass, for example), when a

stress
is

produced and kept constant, the

strain does not reach its full value at once, but continues

to increase for

some time.

When

the stress

is

relaxed,

the strain nearly disappears, but a slight residual strain

remains, which only slowly disappears.
elastic lag.

This

is

called

some way compelled to keep vibrating for a long time and be then left to vibrate freely, the vibrations will die away more rapidly than they would have if the body had not received such preliminary treatment. Lord Kelvin found that the torsional vibrations of a wire that had been kept in torsional vibration for a long time and was then set free died away to one-half in
If an elastic

body be

in

44 or 45 vibrations, while the vibrations of a similar wire,

started " fresh," took 100 vibrations to fall to one-half.

This

is

called fatigue of elasticity.

REFERENCES
Tait's " Properties of Matter," Chapters

VIII and Poynting and Thomson's " Properties of Matter."

Gray's " Treatise on Physics," Vol.
Article
I,

XL

Chapter XI.

on

" Elasticity," Ency. Brit.

Johnson's " Materials of Construction."

CHAPTER XI
MECHANICS OF FLUIDS
138.

fluid
;

is

a body that yields to the smallest

is

deforming force

while there
it

any shearing

stress,

howthe

ever small, in a fluid,

continues to flow; that

is,

amount

of shear continues to increase.

In other words,

the shear

modulus of a fluid

is zero.

Fluids are divided into liquids and gases according to

the magnitude of their bulk moduli.
lus of a liquid
is

The bulk modu-

large, that
;

is, it

takes a large stress to

'doubled,

when the pressure on water is volume is decreased by only one part in 20,000. The bulk modulus of a gas is small when the pressure on a gas is doubled, its volume is decreased by one-half.
produce a small strain
its
;

The

difference between liquids

and gases seems

to

depend

on the distances between

are widely separated.

particles, the particles of a liquid

being comparatively close together while those of a gas

liquid can have a definite "free surface," that

is,

a surface not confined

by a

solid or

whereas a gas expands so as

by another liquid to occupy the largest space

open to
139.

it.

Direction of Force on the Surface of a Fluid.

is

When
surface
not,

a fluid

at rest, the resultant force exerted

on

its

must be perpendicular

to the surface
204

for if

it

were

FLUIDS
it

205

would have .1 component parallel to the surface, and this would cause a flow of the fluid. Against any force exerted on it a fluid exerts an equal and opposite reaction hence
;

a fluid at rest presses perpendicularly against any surface

in contact with
it.

These statements apply not only to

the contact of a solid and a liquid, but also to that of two

liquids,

such as
is

oil

when

a fluid

in

and water, which do not mix. But motion, the force between it and the
it

surface of a
the surface
;

body
it.

in contact with

may

be inclined to

a fluid flowing through a pipe tends to drag

the pipe with

140.

Pressure in a Fluid.

At any point

in a fluid the

part of the fluid on one side of an imaginary, dividing

plane through the point presses against the fluid on the

other side.
If the fluid

on one side of the plane be supremainder of the

fluid.

posed removed and a solid surface substituted, the latter

will sustain the pressure of the

The whole

force of fluid pressure on

called the thrust (or total pressure^ on the surface,

any plane surface is and the

thrust on any plane surface divided by the area of the surface

is

called the average pressure on the surface.

The
is

value to which the average pressure on a small area sur-

rounding a point approaches as the area

is

diminished

called the pressure (or pressure intensity) at that point

this is otherwise expressed as the thrust per unit area at

the point.
surface, surface.
it

If the pressure is the

same at

all

points on a

equals the thrust on any unit of area of the

Pressure in a fluid
fluid, as in

is

due either to the weight of the

the case of water in a tank, or to force applied

206
to

MECHANICS
of the surface of the fluid, e.g. force applied

some part

to a piston that closes a cylinder containing the fluid.

effect of attractions

(The

between

particles of the fluid

need not

at present be considered, for the pressure thus caused does

not act on a body immersed in or exposed to the fluid.)

141.

Pressure at a Point.
it

In defining the pressure

be the point and let
A-^

at a

point

is

not necessary to specify any direction, for at

the pressure has the

any particular point

in all directions.

same magnitude

For, let

and
it.

A^O

be any two directions through

describe

Around

a small

triangular

prism, two sides passing through ac and

ah being at right angles to A-^
respectively, while a third
side

and A^
passing

through he

is

equally inclined to

A^O and

the ends are parallel to the

A^O and plane of A^O

and A^O. The fluid within the prism is at rest. Hence the whole force on it in the direction he is zero. But
the only forces in this direction are components, in the
direction
he,

of

the

thrusts

faces through ah and ae respectively.

P^ and P^ on the surNow Pj and P^ P^ and P^

are equally inclined to

ho,

and, since their components in

the direction he must be equal and opposite,

must also be equal in magnitude. The faces through ah and ac are also equal in area. Hence the average pressIf the ures on these faces must be equal in magnitude.
dimensions of the prism be supposed diminished without
limit, the

average pressures on ah and ac become the pressin the direction A-^

ure at

and
are

A<^ 0.

Hence

these are

also equal.

But A^O and A^O

any directions through

FLUIDS
0.

207
is

Hence the pressure

In the above

at a point

the same in

all direc-

tions.

we have

neglected the force of gravity on the prism

of fluid; but since this is proportional to the

is,

volume of the

fluid,

that

to the

cube of the dimensions of the prism, while the thrusts on

the faces are proportional to the squares of the dimensions,

when

the

prism

is

reduced without limit the force of gravity vanishes in com-

parison with the thrusts.

142.

Pressure at Different Points in a Fluid.

(1)

Let

A
be

and

be two points in a horizontal

fluid.

line,

and

let ^4

wholly in the

Around

AB

as

axis describe a cylinder with vertical

ends.
is

The

fluid within the cylinder

AE

3B

at rest.

Hence the

resultant hori-

zontal force on

it is zero.

Since

its
FiQ. 79.

weight acts vertically and the thrusts

on

its sides

are perpendicular to

AB,

the only forces in

the direction

AB

are the thrusts on its ends,

and these

must therefore be equal in magnitude Hence the pressure per unit direction. equal that at B. Thus the same at all points in the same
in the fluid.

and opposite in area at A must

pressure
is

the

horizontal plane

(2) Let

and

B be two points in
the fluid.
is

the same

vertical line

AB in

Around
at rest

AB as
and the
be

axis describe a cylinder with horizontal ends.

The fluid within

Fig. 80.

the cylinder

resultant vertical force on

it is

therefore zero.

Therefore,

if

the thrust on the end

P^

and that on the end B be F^, and if A be above B, P^-Pi must equal the weight of the cylinder. If the density of

208
the fluid (or
its

MECHANICS
mass per unit volume) be
its
/o,

and
its

if

the

length of the cylinder be h and

cross-section be a, the
is

volume
is Tiapg.

of the cylinder is Aa, its

mass

hap,

and

weight

and

a
a

-=

hpq. ^^

The pressure on the end

therefore the pressure,
jDj,

is

a uniform pressure and

Similarly,

the pressure,

-p^^

at

at A equals P^ -^ a. B equals P^ a.
-r-

Hence

'Pi~'P\

^99-

(3) Any two points nected by a broken line

A and B in the fluid can be conACD " B consisting of horizontal

steps.

^^
f-r,

and

vertical

step there will be no change of pressure

Along each horizontal and

the difference of

H^ ^^^^
^^^^^^
Fig. 81.

the total change of pressure along the vertical

steps will be hpg^ h being
level of

and B.
all

Jn the above we have assumed that the denthe same at points in the fluid.
it is

sity

is

This
far

is

practically true for small bodies of fluid, but

from

true for large bodies such as the atmosphere and the ocean.

The
in

density of a gas

is

so small that, unless h be very

jOj

large, hpg is

very small compared with

or p^.

Hence
be con-

moderate volumes of a gas the pressure

may

sidered as everywhere the same.

143.
Surface of Contact of

Two

Fluids.

The surface

of

contact of two fluids of different densities which are at

rest

and do not mix

is

horizontal.

For, take two points

FLUIDS

209

and

Q on

through through

the surface of contact, and lot a vertical meet a horizontal through Q in a point A in
p,

the fluid of density

while a vertical
p
^ p

Q meets

a horizontal through
in the fluid of den-

q
'b

P at
equal,

the point

^,
'

sity p' .

The

pressures at

and the pressures at equal. Hence the increase of pressure from A to equals that from Q to B^ or, denoting the common length of AP and QB by A, hpg=:hp'g, and therefore h(p p'}=0. Hence, since p and /?' are unequal, h must be zero, or

and Q are and B are

and ^ must be in a horizontal line. It follows from the above that the free surface of a liquid at rest is horizontal. This is also readily seen by
considering that,
tical force of
if

the surface were not horizontal, the ver-

surface,

gravity would have a component parallel to the and this would cause motion parallel to the surface.

If the pressure
is

on the horizontal free surface of a liquid

is

P, the pressure jo at a depth h below the surface greater than by gph, or p = P-^gph.

144.

Transmissibility of Fluid Pressure (Pascal's Principle).

fluid of constant density

In a

and

at rest, the difference of

pressure between two points depends only on the difference

of level of the points

and the density.

is
is

Hence, an increase

of pressure

at

any point
This

accompanied by an equal

increase at all points.

(first
it
is,

known

as Pascal's principle

stated by Pascal in 1653).

It will

be noticed that

applies strictly only to a fluid of constant density, that

.an

incompressible fluid.

If

an increase of pressure
it

affected the

density to an appreciable extent,

would

210

MECHANICS

cause a change in the difference of pressure between two

points not at the

same

level.
is

Liquids are so nearly

practically true for all

incompressible that the principle

liquids.

Gases are more compressible, but, on account of

their small density, the pressure

all

points,

same at provided the volume be not enormously great.

is

practically the

Hence the

principle

is

also practically true for gases.

In the hydraulic press a small cylinder containing a piston is in communication with a large cylinder containing
a

correspondingly large

&
^^^'

piston, both cylinders being filled

with a liquid.
the liquid be
^"

If the pressure in

p and
s

the areas of
respectively,

the pistons be

and

*S'

the thrust on the small piston will be ps and that on the

large piston pS.

A force ps applied
pS
is

to the rod of the small

HJston will produce a force

piston.

on the rod of the large

thus produced by a water

(In the forging press of the Bethlehem Steel

a force of 14,000 tons

Works

pressure of 8000 lbs. per square inch.)

145.
Thrust on a Plane Surface immersed in a Liquid.

Let
...

the area of a plane surface immersed in a liquid be A, and

suppose

divided up into a large number of parts

it

a^, a^^

each so small that the pressure over

uniform.
parts,
If Aj, h^^
if
-

may be

regarded as

are the respective depths of these

and

P.

is

the pressure on the surface of the liquid,

and

F the thrust on the immersed surface,

= ^(i + 2 + "0 +^/3(Vi + V2 + = P^ +9P(.h^i + V2 + )

FLUIDS
If the

211
(i.e.

depth of the centroid of the surface

ff ( 79),

the

centre of mass of a thin uniform disk having the shape

of the surface)
is

A
.'.F^^iP + gpH^A.
Hence the thrust on a plane surface
is

the same as
its

if

the

surface were horizontal and at the depth of

centroid.

146.
fluid at

Archimedes' Principle.
rest

The

resultant force which a

it

exerts on a

body immersed in

equals the

weight of the fluid displaced and acts vertically

upward
was
dis-

through the centre of gravity of {he fluid before

placed.

it

For, call the immersed body

>S^.

B and
S

the fluid disrest

placed

Before

it

was displaced

was at

and

it

must, therefore, have been sustained by a force equal to

its

weight and acting upward through

its

centre of gravity.

When B

is

introduced (the level of the liquid being kept

its

the same), the pressure on any part of

surface

is

the

same as the pressure that acted on the corresponding part of the surface of S. Hence B must be buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of S acting through the centre
of gravity of S.
fluid
is

The

centre of gravity of the displaced

called the centre of buoyancy of the

body immersed.
its

When

the immersed body

is

homogeneous,

centre of

buoyancy coincides with its centre of gravity. If the volume of the body immersed is v and its density
(supposed uniform)
is

p, its

weight

is vpg.

If p' is the
is

density of the fluid, the weight of the fluid displaced

vp'g

and

this

is,

therefore, the apparent loss of weight of

the immersed body.

Hence the

ratio of the

weight of the

212

MECHANICS
:

its apparent loss of weight when immersed is p p'. Thus by weighing a body in air and in a liquid, the density of the body can be found if that of the liquid be

body to

known, or the density

the solid be known.

of the liquid can be

found

if

that of

147. Specific Gravity and Density.

is

The

specific

gravity

of any substance its density to that of water at 4 C, or the ratio of the mass or weight of any

the ratio of

volume
water

of

the substance to that of an equal volume of

at 4 C.

Since the mass of a

c.c. of

water at 4 C.

may
1,

and therefore in the C. G.

is

be taken as 1 g. ( 53), the density of water at 4 C. is S. system the specific gravity of

the same as
its density.
is

a substance

In the F. P.
ft.),

S.

system the density of water

the density of

62.4 (lbs. per cu.

and

any substance equals

its specific

gravity

multiplied by 62.4.
148. Hydrometers.

The
It is

common hydrometer
is

(or hyfind-

drometer of variable immersion)

an instrument for

ing the specific gravities of liquids.

made

of glass

and

consists of a

I]
_..i
I

body, in the form of two bulbs, with a

tube or stem attached.

The lower

bulb

is

weighted with mercury so

.1

that the instrument will float stably

with the stem vertical.

liquid
cates,
Fig. 84.
it

When

in a

sinks to a depth that indiscale

by a

on the tube, the

specific

gravity of the liquid.

for

To
any
in.

construct a suitable scale

hydrometer the depth

is

noted to which

it

sinks (1)

FLUIDS
water,

218
specific

(2)

in

a liquid of

known

gravity

j.

This gives the water mark and the mark on the scale
for a density
j.

Let the distance between them be

d and

let

the distance

from the water mark to the

t;

mark should be put be a:. If is when floating in water, the volume it displaces when floating in liquids of specific gravities i and respectively must be
place where the

the volume the instrument displaces

and

- respectively.

Hence,
if 8

if

is

the area of cross-

section of the stem and

and

8^

are both greater than 1,

V
V
8

= ady

az,

1-1
whence

(If

and

be less than

1,

the minus signs must be

replaced by plus signs.)

Exercise
(1)

XXXIV.

Archimedes' Principle

To
is

the inner wall of a straight glass tube (a shade for a

scale

Welsbach burner) a millimetre

the scale

on thin paper

is

fastened, so that
to

parallel to the axis of the tube

and the paper reaches

is

about 2 cm. of one end of the tube.

This end

closed

by a thin

cork pushed a small distance into the tube and covered by a layer of
paraffin

wax that just fills the end of the tube. The tube is then floated in a jar of water and
The depth

disks of lead slightly

smaller in diameter than the tube (or lead shot) are dropped in until
the tube will float stably.
of the tube
is

read on the scale

jar.

by glancing along the under surface of the water in the

The

214
tube
is

MECHANICS
then removed, dried, and weighed with
is
its

contents.

The

volume of the tube immersed

weight.
of immersion.

calculated

and compared with the

These operations should be repeated with different depths

The same observation should be repeated with some other

calculated.

liquid,

such as a strong brine, instead of water, and the density of the brine

(2)

Find the

specific gravity of

weighing a block of the metal,

of a calibrated spring

first in air

aluminium (or other metal) by and then in water, by means

scale.

and a mirror

Then

find the specific

gravity of the brine used in (1) by weighing the block in the brine.

Air-bubbles clinging to the block

may be removed by

a bent wire.

(3) Construct a scale for a hydrometer.

First weight the instru-

ment with shot

immersed.

so that it will float in water with the stem nearly

Slip a paper millimetre scale (a strip of cross-section

is

paper will do) into the stem (which

closed

by a cork) and note the

This gives

reading in water and in the brine used in (1) and (2).

148).

Then
by
.05

calculate the values of x for specific gravities

^to the millimetre scale.

off on a strip of paper precisely similar Having placed this in the instrument, test it Then make two mixtures, the first conin water and in the brine. sisting of two pai'ts (by volume) of brine and one part of water,

increasing

and lay them

the second with these proportions reversed.

gravities of these

Calculate the specific

of the hydrometer.

and

also find

them by means

DISCUSSION
(a)
(V)

Why are
The

the divisions of a hydrometer not equally spaced

is

density of ice

.92.

What

part of the volume of an

iceberg
(c)

is under salt water of density 1.026? Archimedes weighed the crown of Hiero in water and found a
-j^^

decrease of

of its weight, while a block of gold

air as the

and a block of

silver,

each of the same weight in

respectively of the
(rf)

crown,

lost in

water /^ and

common

weight.

Of what did the crown consist?

oil of

block of metal of specific gravity 9.3 floats partly in

.9

specific

gravity
its

and partly
is

in

mercury

of

specific

gravity 13.5.

What

part of

volume

in each?

FLUIDS

215

(e) Explain as fully as possible the difficulty found in getting the

tube in (1) to

float stably

when not

sufficiently weighted.

149. Equilibrium of Floating Bodies.

Two

forces act

on a floating body: (1) the weight of the body acting at

the centre of gravity O^ of the body

(2) the resultant upward pressure of

the liquid acting at
the
centre
of

gravity

of

the
is

liquid

displaced.

When

the body
in the

at rest, Q-

and
Let

must be
tains

same

vertical line.

^^ be the line
If the

in the

body which conis

G and Cwhen
body be

the body

at rest.
Fio. 85.

slightly displaced, the

centre of gravity of the liquid displaced will be at some

point

C.

We

shall consider only the case in

which
plane.

(r, (7,

and
point

lie

in a vertical
in

The
line

M
C

which

vertical
tlie

through

cuts

AB is called

meta-

eentre of the body.

if

It is evident that

M be above G (Fig.
and the equilibrium
if

85), the couple

acting on the body will tend to right

it,

will be stable

but
Fia. 86.

M be

below

(3^

(Fig. 86), the

equilibrium will

be unstable.

The

two cases are illustrated by a rod or a long cylinder A ship has two (1) on its side, (2) on end, in water. metacentres, one for rolling and one for pitching

motion.
150.

Flow

of Liquid

from an

Orifice.

Liquid flows from

is

an

orifice in

a vessel because the pressure in the liquid

216

MECHANICS
air.

greater than that in the

kinetic energy, while

the whole

The escaping liquid gains body of liquid in the

and so
loses

vessel falls to a lower level

potential energy.

Suppose the

orifice to be

opened long enough for a small mass

escape.
If
its

to

velocity be

v,

its

kinetic

energy will be ^ mv^.

^-r~

The

state of the liquid

if

in the vessel

is

the same as

the mass

m had

been removed from the surface and lowered

Fig. 87.

to the orifice.

Thus the decrease of

potential

energy

is

mgh, where h

is

the depth of the orifice below

the surface.

Hence
1 mv^ = mgh

or

v
is

= V 2 gh.

by a body in falling If the freely a distance h this is called Torricelli's Law. escaping jet were turned vertically upward, it would rise
This
also the velocity attained
;

to the level of the surface,

if

friction could be neglected.

The quantity
orifice,

of liquid that escapes in

any time cannot

be calculated from the value of v and the area of the

owing

to the fact that just outside of the orifice

If,

the jet contracts somewhat.

however, a

is

the area

of the smallest cross-section of the jet (called the vena

contractd)., the

volume that escapes

in time

t is

vat.

The

ratio of a to the area of the orifice

depends on the form of

it

the orifice and the velocity of escape, and

may be

altered

by the insertion
Exercise

of a tube (or ajutage) in the

of Liquid

orifice.

XXXV. Flow

from an

Orifice

tin

tank (12" x 4" x 2")

is

mounted

at the upper left-hand

corner of a cross-section board as in Exercise III.

The tank

is filled

FLUIDS
nearly to the brim, and an aperture in the tank
is

217
oj)ened

by preuing
is

a lever on the side of the tank.

The

out-flowing liquid

caught in

another tank attached to the board.

The parabola
III.

of descent is ob-

tained by slightly turning the tank, so that the water leaves a streak

on the board, or by the method of Exercise

is found as For this calculation the values of x'-^y obtained from points within a foot of the tank are to be preferred, since the

From

the parabola the velocity of the escaping liquid

in Exercise III.

stream breaks up, and, owing to impacts and air

friction, the

paths

of the particles do not continue to be true parabolas.

mental values of the velocity will in

will vary with the

all

cases

The experibe somewhat less than

the velocity calculated from Torricelli's Law, and, as the difference

depth of the water in the tank, several determinaIn making each determination the aperture not change appreciably.

tions should be made.

should be open for as short a time as possible so that the level of the

water in the tank

may

DISCUSSION
(a) Explain the difference between the experimental results

and

the values given by Torricelli's Law.

(h)

What

additional force acts on the tank

when the
in

orifice is

opened ?
(c)

How

high would the jet rise

if

it issued

some oblique

direction ?

(d) Calculate the kinetic energy of the liquid in the tank during

the outflow.
(e)

Why does the

more
definite

jet

break up at a distance from the

orifice ?

(/) What would

get a

be the result of inserting an outflow tube to

stream?

151. Flow past an Obstruction.

When a stream meets

from
in curves.

an

obstacle, the particles of the fluid are deflected

straight lines

and travel past the obstacle

The

obstacle suffers a pressure in giving curvature to the paths

of the particles just as the outer rail of a curved track
suffers pressure in curving the path of a train.
If the

218

MECHANICS

obstacle be a vertical disk or board symmetrical about a

vertical axis, the pressures on opposite sides of the vertical

axis will be equal provided the disk be at right angles to the stream.
If it

be inclined to the stream, the " up

stream" side

will deflect the fluid,

which

will flow

along the disk, and there will therefore be a

down moment of

force tending to set the disk across the stream.

The

effect

may
air

through the
Fig. 88.

by sweeping a frame covered with paper and

be illustrated

free to rotate about

an

axis, as illustrated in

The

stability of a kite

depends partly
is

on the same principle.

horizontal rib backward.
figure that a
tilt

(Additional stability

given to a Japanese (or tailless) kite by curving the

It
is

readily seen

from the
*

from the normal position

will greatly increase the pressure on the for-

j^ard side and decrease that on the other.)

>A
is

similar effect takes place

moved through
zontal,

a fluid at

when a Thus rest.

air,

disk

a sheet

of paper or a leaf, falling

through

tends to become hori-

and the same is true

of a coin sinking

through water.

152. Speed and Pressure.

in

If the cross-section of a tube

is

which liquid flows steadily

not uniform, the speed of

the particles of the liquid must

increase as they

come

to a

narrow
through

part of the tube, since the same

amount

of liquid passes

Hence there all cross-sections. must be a resultant forward force

acting on the liquid, or the pressure behind in the wider

FLUIDS
cross-section
traction.

219

must be greater than that ahead in the conThus the pressure decreases as the speed inFor a similar reason, when air is creases, and conversely. forced out between two plates, the pressure
between the plates
is less

than that outside and

the plates are pressed together.

ratus sketched in Fig. 91,

(The appaconsisting of two

is

"^^
j

corks and a glass tube through which air

blown, will illustrate this.)

The same

prin-

ciple is applied in the atomizer, the ball nozzle, etc.

steam injector, the

From

the change of pressure in a liquid

as

it

passes through a throat in a tube the speed can be

this is the

deduced;
for

method used

in the

Venturi metre

gauging flow of water.

" cun'e " of a rotating tennis-ball or baseball
is is

The
same
is

due to the
not moving

cause.

Suppose, for simplicity, that the ball

is

forward, but

rotating about a vertical axis, and that a current of air

it.

blowing horizontally toward

The

rotating ball is carrying a

whirl of air around with

it.

On one side, A, the effect

is

11

of the rotation of the ball

to cause a decrease ia

the velocity of the air blowing past the ball, while on

Q,
FiQ 92

/ic~^ \

the other side, B,

pressure at

it

causes an increase.

Hence the
is,

is

greater than that at B, and there

therefore, a force acting

on the

ball in the direction

^^'

^^

^^^

*^ rotating ball has a motion of

translation in air otherwise at rest, the effect will

be the same and the ball will have an acceleration in the direction

AB and will,

therefore,

represented in the figure.

move in a path curved to the left in the case (The " curve " of a ball may be illustrated

by " serving " a toy balloon with a " cut " from the hand.)
153. Viscosity.

A body of
is

fluid continues to

change in

form so long as there

the smallest shearing stress acting

220

MECHANICS
;

on

it

but the rate of change of shape for a given shearing

stress is different for different fluids.

liquid flows

down an

inclined plane,

For example, a however slight the

inclination, but the rate of flow is different for different

liquids; the shearing stress

is,

in this case, due to the

component ments have shown that

of gravity

down

the plane.

Careful experi-

in all cases the rate of chansre

it

of shape or rate of shearing, after

has become steady,

is

accurately proportional to the magnitude of the shearing

stress.

Hence the
must
and

internal

frictional

resistance,

which

just counterbalances the external force and so prevents

acceleration,
also

be proportional to the rate of

is

shearing.
of the fluid

The
is

internal resistance

called the viscosity

the ratio of the shearing stress to the rate

of shearing

called the coefficient of viscosity of the fluid.

this definition of the coefficient of vis-

For clearness
cosity

may

be interpreted as follows: Suppose the space

between two large plates

"^^

be

filled

by

a fluid.
is

Let

A and B to B be kept at
v.

rest while

A
i,

kept moving parallel

to
**
'

with a steady velocity

In a
vt^

short time

travels a distance
is
<?,

and

if

the distance between the plates

is vt
-f-

the shear

produced
plate

d.

Hence the

rate of shearing is v-^d.

If the area of each plate is a

is

F^ the measure of the shearing stress

and the force applied to each is F-^a.

/a,

Hence, denoting the coefficient of viscosity by

^F_^v^Fd
a

d d

av

and therefore

F = fi^

FLUIDS
This equation
them.
is

221
/a,

frequently taken as the definition of

the other letters having the meanings already assigned to

Taking the case

in

which

a, v,
fi

and d are
:

all unity,

we

get the following definition of

is

the coefficient of
tangential force on

viscosity of a viscous material

the

unit of area of either of two horizontal planes at the unit

distance apart, one of which is fixed while the other moves

with the

ufiit

of velocity, the space between them being filled

by the viscous material (Maxwell).

Exercise

XXXVI.

Viscosity
is

vertical steel rod (1.5

cm. in diameter)

held between needle

points,

one of which
is

is

in a horizontal bar (clamped to uprights)

while the other

in

a plug that closes the lower end of a brass tube

(about

1.7

cm.

in internal di-

ameter) containing glycerine.

p-T

The tube

rests

on the table

and its upper end is steadied by an adjustable clamp attached to a second horizontal
bar.

I^

A cord that passes over

is

a pulley and carries a scale

pan
rod.

wrapped around the (The pulley should be

kept well oiled.)

Weights are placed in the

pan and the time required
for the ffl

pan

to descend

from
is

a definite level to the floor

observed several times with

care, the

FiO. 94.

pan being released exactly on a tick of the clock. The velocity of rotation of the rod becomes constant almost immediately after the release of the pan (it is just perceptible that there is a momentary acceleration which

222
'

MECHANICS

produces a velocity too great to be maintained steadily and that the

velocity falls at once to the constant value).

From

the distance of

descent and the time the velocity

is

calculated.

The observations

should be repeated with various weights in the pan.

The
line.

various velocities should then be plotted as abscissae with

weights as ordinates.

The result should be a very

satisfactory straight

This line will cut the vertical axis at a distance from the origin
Subtracting

that represents the friction of the bearings and pulley.

this friction

from

all

the ordinates, a line through the origin showing

the constancy of the ratio of shearing stress to rate of shear will be

obtained.

The friction of the bearings and pulley may be found directly by removing the glycerine and finding what weight attached to the cord will keep the axis in steady rotation (the lower bearing should be lubricated with glycerine as in the preceding).

To find the coefficient of viscosity

eter of the tube

of the glycerine the internal diam-

must be known. It may be determined by weighing the tube (and plug) empty and then when filled with water. The
value of a ( 153)
ctf

may be

calculated

from the mean

of the diameter

the rod and the internal diameter of the tube.

The

ratio of

F to w

is

taken from the line through the origin.

(The plug may be made

so as to screw in, but this is not essential

is sufficient.

a well-turned brass plug that can be forced in

For the

lower bearing use a large, thick-pointed needle forced into a hole

drilled

through the plug.)

DISCUSSION
(a)
(b)

Meaning and

definition of viscosity.
fall

Why

does the weight not

with an acceleration as

if

the

resistance were ordinary friction?

(c)

Why should the velocity become for a moment too

what way would the motion
differ if the

great to be

maintained?
(d) In

rod carried a disk

of considerable
(e)

moment

of inertia?

What becomes of the potential energy of the descending weight ?

(/) Why does a body (e.g. a raindrop or a parachutist) falling a long distance through the air attain a steady velocity ?

FLUIDS
154. Flow through a Capillary Tube.

228

When a fluid flows

i,

without eddies througli a capiUary tube (that

a tube of

very small bore), each particle moves in the direction of the length of the tube. All particles in a cylindrical layer

move with

the same velocity.

Hence the flow

There
is

consists in

a sliding of layer over layer.

very complete

evidence that the fluid in contact with the surface of the

tube does not

ing
this, it
I

slip

on the

solid,

but adheres to
if

it.

Assum-

can be shown that,

is

the radius of the tube

and

its

length,

and

if

the difference of pressure in the

is
jt>,

fluid at the

ends of the tube

is

the volume that flows

out of the tube in unit time

Tr_

jPTTT*

Numerous experiments have

of different lengths

verified this formula for tubes

and
is

radii

and

for different pressures.

This shows that there

no slipping of the liquid on the

surface of the tube, for such slipping

would allow an out-

flow not included in the formula.

From

the rate of outflow of a fluid through a tube of

measured dimensions, the value of /a for the fluid can be deduced, and this is the most common method of measuring the coeflScient of viscosity of a
fluid.

SURFACE TENSION AND CAPILLARITY

155. Intermolecular Forces.
ticles of

Many facts show that parbecome

any form of matter attract one another with very

great forces

when they

are very close together, but these

forces decrease so rapidly with distance tliat they

negligible

beyond a certain distance

cidled the range of

224
molecular forces.

MECHANICS
Fracture of a brittle body consists in

slightly separating the particles of the

body

so that they

cease to attract.

Two

metallic surfaces

may

be brought
if

quite close together without showing any attraction, but

brought very close by pressure or welding, they will adhere.

sheet of glass brought toward a water surface

it

is

not
the
air,

attracted sensibly until

latter adheres to
it.
fill

touches the water,

when
from

If water, carefully freed

be heated so as to
is

a tube with a very fine stem which

then sealed

off,

the water will sometimes continue to

its

cling to
tract as

and
it

fill

the tube in spite of

tendency to con-

cools.

The range
but there
is

of molecular forces is not yet well ascertained,

reason to believe that

is

it is

about .00005

mm.

sphere of this radius

called the sphere of influence of

the particles.

156. Surface Layer of a Liquid.

particle

in the

liquid at a greater distance from the surface than the

range of molecular forces r

directions,

is

equally attracted in
of attraction

all
is

and the resultant force

^_,^^

on
jPj

it

zero.

But
is

a particle

at a

^gg^^J^^%%^ pj^m
^i^^^^
M.

distance less than r from the

surface

^l^^^^^^^E
\

more

attracted

'^^^^^^^zZ':^^rz=: inward than outward.

with
Fig. 95.
jt?j

For,

as centre, describe a

sphere with r as radius.

That

part, dbc^ of the sphere

which

is

out of the liquid contains

only a relatively very small number of particles of air or

vapor.
face,

Let ed be a plane through p^ parallel to the surand let fg be another plane parallel to the surface

FLUIDS
and cutting
tions on
jt>j

226

off a

of tlie particles in acde

segment fgh equal to ahc. The attracand defy will neutralize

in fyh will

one another, and the attractions of the particles

constitute an unbalanced force inward acting on the particle

py

particle,

such as

jOj,

in the surface will be

attracted inward by the resultant of the attractions of all

the particles in a hemisphere of the sphere of influence.

157. Tendency of Surface to Contract.

The

effect of the

inward attractions on the particles near the surface of a liquid is a tendency of the surface to contract to the form
of smallest area possible

under the circumstances.

is

For a

given volume the form of smallest surface

this is accordingly the

a sphere, and

form that a body of liquid assumes

when

other forces, such as gravity, do not interfere.

is

For
prac-

example, a small drop of mercury on a glass plate

tically spherical
;

its

weight and the pressure of the plate

are too slight to cause any appreciable flattening.

of

A drop
is

any

liquid descending slowly through a liquid with

which

it

does not mix

is

spherical,

and the same

practi-

cally true of a falling raindrop.

soap-bubble consists
surfaces.
falling

of a thin film of liquid with

shot, solidifying
air,

two spherical

Lead

from the liquid form while

through

are spherical.

The round form

is

of the melted

end of a

stick of sealing-wax

due to an attempt to assume the

plunged
in water,

spherical form.

The

hairs of a camel's-hair brush stand

is

apart

when
is

the brush

but as soon as
it

the brush

drawn out the

film of water

on

draws the

hairs together.

158. Surface Tension.

Many examples of

this

tendency

of the surface to contract Q

show the existence

of a contrac-

226
tile force,

MECHANICS
the direction of which
is parallel

to the surface.
is

A loop

of silk placed

on a film of a soap solution

drawn

out into a circle as soon as the

part of the film inside of the loop
is

ruptured.

of the film
Fig. 96.

The unbroken part shrinks to a minimum,

and

so causes the loop of thread

to enclose the largest area possible for a loop of given

length.

To

accomplish

this, it

must pull on the loop with

a force parallel to the surface of the film.

As another example,

consider a film of a soap solution

cd, is free

on a rectangle of wire abed, one side of which,

to slide parallel to itself.

To keep

cd at rest, a force
j

away from ab must be applied to it. Hence there must be a tension in the film tending This tension to draw ab and cd together. exists only in the two surfaces, for the force

j<i

F is

found to be the same whether the film

(This stateF Fig. 97.

be a thick one or a thin one.

ment

is

not quite exact in the case of the

thinnest films possible, for in this case the

thickness of the whole film
is less

than the range of molec-

ular forces, and this produces complications which cannot

be considered here.)

Thus the tension in a liquid film does not increase when the film is stretched, whereas the tension of an elastic membrane is increased by stretching. The tension or contractile force across each unit of
length on the surface of a liquid
tension
distilled
is

called the surface

of

the liquid.

The

surface

tension of pure

water at 0

is

75 dynes per centimetre, of ether

19 dynes per centimetre.

FLUIDS
159. Surface Energy.
of liquid
is

227

When the surface of a quantity

particles are

increased,

more
tliis,

brought out into

the surface layer, and, since the inward attraction han to

be overcome in doing

the surface area of a liquid.

work is necessary to increase Thus an increase of surface

liquid, the

must

result in

an increase of energy in the

increase of energy being proportional to the increase of

and therefore called surface energy. amount of this energy per unit surface be E.
surface,

Let the

For an

increase

in

the surface the increase of energy will

be Es.

Consider again the last example of

158.

Suppose that
the wire cd
is

by the application

of the force

^ or
ah.
is

2TI

moved
to

a distance
this is

away from

The work necessary

the increase in each

do

2 Tim.

Now

Im

surface,

and 2lm is the whole increase of both surHence the increase of energy is Ta^ and faces, say . this must be equal to Es. Hence T= E, or the surface
tension
is

equal to the surface energy per unit area.

various other ways ( 167).
also a

Surface tension can be calculated from the force required

to

stretch a film,

and

in
is

Each such measurement

energy.
It

measurement of surface

should be noticed that the reasoning of the

first

paragraph of

this section applies also to solids, so that in a solid also there

must be
a

a certain amount of energy located in the surface and proportional to

the surface.

solid probably also has a surface tension, that

is,

force along the surface that has to be overcome in increasing the surface, e.g. in stretching a wire,

but

it

cannot be measured owing to the

fact that the force required to stretch the internal parts of the solid
is

incomparably greater, and the two forces cannot in measurement

be separated.

228

MECHANICS

160. Angle of Contact.

Where
is 0,

the surface of a liquid

it

meets that of a solid

the angle of contact.

it

forms with

a definite angle called

The angle

of contact of clean water

and clean
surface
is

glass (Fig. 98)

that

is,

the curved water

tangential to the glass.

If the surfaces are

not

clean, the angle

may

be large.

For clean mercury and

Fig. 98.

Fig. 99.

Fig. 100.

clean glass (Fig. 99) the angle of contact

is

about 145,

but varies considerably with slight contamination.

ways.

The angle of contact a can be measured in various The simplest (but not the most accurate) is to tilt
is

Jbhe surface of the solid until the surface of the liquid

horizontal (Fig. 100) right

up

to the solid surface

and then

measure the angle of

deduced.

tilt.

From

this a

can be readily

that

Our knowledge of the forces between molecules is so imperfect we cannot yet give a full explanation of the curvature of the
;

surface of a liquid in contact with a solid

face energy ( 159) affords
potential energy,

but the existence of suris

some
is

help.

Surface energy

a form of

and bodies

free to

move

are not in stable equilibrium

( 105).

unless their potential energy

in contact with a solid will

minimum

Hence a liquid

show a tendency

to spread over the latter,

as in Fig. 98, if the energy of the surface of the solid is less

when the

surface

is

covered by the liquid than

is

when

it is

not covered.

When

the opposite
solid

the case the liquid will tend to recede

99.

and leave the

uncovered as in Fig.
is

The extent

to

which the liquid curves

in either case

limited

by the

fact that curvature increases the free

FLUIDS

229

surface of the liquid and so produces au increase of the total energy

iu that surface.

161.
elastic

Pressure

on a Curved Surface of a Liquid.

An
oir its

cylinder,

baud stretched around a cylinder presses on tlie and the cylinder presses back on the band with

an equal force.

To

support the band the pressure

its

concave side must exceed that on

convex

side.

A
for

curved liquid surface

is

also in a state of tension,

and

equilibrium the pressure on

its

concave side must exceed

its

that on

convex

side.

The

difference of pressure on the

two

sides of a curved liquid

TIC

surface can be stated in terms

of the curvature of the surface

and

its

surface tension.
shall con-

For simplicity we

sider first the case of a surface curved like the surface of

a circular cylinder (this

liquid between
in the liquid

is

the shape of the surface of a

see Fig. 102).

two

parallel plates standing close together

Let a plane perpendicular

to the length of the cylinder cut the liquid surface in

ABC

Consider a and the axis of the cylinder in 0. form of surface in the the strip of short and very narrow a curved rectangle of which ABO is one edge and denote
the small angle

AOC hy
is

6.

The

thrust on each ipinute

part of the strip

along the radius.

Since 6

is

small

these thrusts are practically parallel and their resultant

equals their

sum and

acts along the bisecter of 0.

If i2 is the radius of the cylinder, the length of the

230

MECHANICS

strip (in the direction of

is

ABC)
If

is

R^, and

if its

width

w,

its

area

is

Bdw.

the pressure

on the con-

cave side exceeds that on the convex side by

area), the resultant thrust on the strip
is

(per unit

pJRdw.

The

surface tension

^ exerts a force Tw on each end of the strip.

lines

must intersect in a point D ( 95), and the sum of the components of the forces Tw along BO must be equal and The component of opposite to the resultant thrust.
For equilibrium the
of

these

three forces

each force

Tw
is

along 1)0

is

Tw

But since 6 Hence

or

very small,

cos | ADC, or Tw sin ^ 6. we may put \6 for sin^^.

pEew=2Tw^e T p=b;
Two
or
Plates,

162. Level of Liquid between

Liquid

in

contact with a plate meets the latter at a definite angle,

!tnd
is,

therefore, curved
is

upward
and

downward.
the
plates

The same
are
close

true of a second plate close to the

if

first,

together,

the two

curvatures

join

together to form a cylindrical surface of radius

R.

If the surface is

concave upward, the pressure on the

upper side
Sw-4

is

atmospheric pressure
at a point
is

P, and the pressure

just

beneath the curved surface

Fig. 102.

P- B
as

The
of

pressure at a point
plates
is

A
at

in

the free surface

outside

the

P, and

the pressure at a point

between the plates and

also

the

same

level

must

be P.

Hence the

FLUIDS
pressure at
fore,
is

281

less

than that at 5, and

be

must, there-

be at a higher level than B.

Let the difference

the
pressure at

of level of

and

B
plus

h.

Then

equals that at
liquid.

(/ph,

p being the density of the

Hence

P-^+gph^F.
. .*.

A n

= ^

gpR

radius of the cylinder through a point in the line of

contact makes with a line perpendicular to the two plates

an angle equal to the angle of contact

the distance between the plates,

a.

Hence,
df,

if rf is

R cos a = ^

and, there-

gpd

The same formula

is

is

obtained

if

a case in which a liquid

considered.

depressed between the plates

is

is

For such

a liquid, a > 90" and cos a

negative.
measured to the bot-

It has been supposed in the above that h is

tom

of the curved surface between the plates.

Some

of the liquid

is

and it can be shown that for greater accuThis correction is, rf if a = 0. racy h should be increased by about
actually at a higher level,

however, usually negligible.

163. Liquid between

tical

Two

Inclined Plates.

If

two vertouch

rectangular

plates,

standing

in

liquid,

along a vertical line and are inclined to one another at a small angle
^,

the separation of the plates at any disis

tance X from the line of contact

so nearly parallel that

x6^

and the

plates are

we may apply

the formula of 162

232

MECHANICS
between them.
Denoting the

to find the rise of liquid

elevation at a distance x by y,

I/

= 2ycosrt
gpxd

xi/

= 2 T cos a
9P^

The right-hand
This
is

side of this equation is a constant for a

given inclination of the plates.

the characteristic
this is the curve

Hence xy

is

constant.

of

a rectangular hyperbola.

Hence
liquid.

formed by the surface of the

Surface Tension

Exercise

XXXVII.

Two

sheets of plate glass are prepared for a study of the rise of

water between them, as explained in 163.

One should be somewhat

than the other, and a

larj^er

tank should be formed by

cementing
(Strips

strips of glass to

the bottom of the

of

larger.

adhesive

paper
the

such as are

used

for

edges of lantern slides

may

be used to bind the edges together.

These

strips

should

be then covered by a thin

film of paraffin

wax, applied

melted, to prevent wetting

by the water, and the tank

should be
Fig. 103.

made

water-tight

by coating the inside edges

with
paraffin

wax.)

The
it

edge of the smaller glass plate that

plate should be

is

to

be in contact with the other

ground very smooth and straight (by rubbing

on

a sheet of sandpaper, tacked to a board and wet with turpentine).

FLUIDS

288

Fasten a sheet of cross-section paper to the vertical board, taking care that the lines are truly vertical and horizontal.
of this

In front

mount the

larger glass plate, allowing

it

to rest

on a small

platform clamped to the board.

Wash
and

both plates and the inside

distilled water.

of the tank clean with chromic acid

Then stand
clij>s

the smaller plate in the tank and level the supporting platform until

the line in which the plates meet

is vertical.

The spring

shown

in the figure are for the purpose of keeping an edge of the small plate
tight against the large plate.

small strip of steel of definite

thickness (about 1
plates.

mm.)

is

used to separate the other edge of the

After
plates to

filling

the tank nearly full with distilled water, allow the

come closer together than they are intended to remain, and then separate them cautiously until the strip of steel can be inserted. Push the latter in some distance, and the result will be a. clear, smooth curve, formed by the surface of the water between the plates. Find the abscissae and ordinates of various points on the curve, and calculate the values of ry. The value of 6 is found from the thickness of the steel strip and its distance from the edge of contact of the plates. The observations should be made as quickly as ix>ssible in order that a (which is while the plates are well wet) should not
markedly change.
xy.

should be calculated from the

mean

value of

(Cross-section lines etched

on the front of the larger plate are

better than the cross-section paper, but are not indispensable.)

DISCUSSION
(a)
(6)
(c)

Why does the liquid

rise

between the plates ?

Explain the force that urges the plates together.

Calculate the pressure where

x= 5 cm.

and y

=2

cm.

(d) Sources of error in the value of T.

(e) Is the value

found for

T more

probably too high or too low?

(/) How high would the water rise if the smaller plate were placed with its lower horizontal edge in contact with the other
plate?
(g)

(This might be tried and the value of

deduced.)

How

could the quantity of liquid that rises between the

plates be calculated?

234

MECHANICS

164. Pressure of Curved Liquid Surfaces.

surface of radius
.

A
T M

cylindrical

and tension

T exerts
is
it is

a pressure

on the concave

side.

Such a surface
If to a

produced by bending a plane

called a surface of single curva-

surface once, hence

ture.

small part of a cylindrical surface a second

it

curvature be given by bending

in a direction at right
it

IZilS^

angles to the

first

direction of bending,

will

become

t-^

part of a surface of double curvature, such as a sphere,

spheroid, etc.
directions,
(It will also
is

be curved in intermediate
the second curva-

but this

merely a consequence of the two

If the radius of

principal curvatures.)
Fig. 104.

ture be R', the tension will cause a second pressure ^ ^i, 1, , -n u and the whole pressure will be

T ^

--(l-i)In the case of a sphere

ellipsoid, etc.,

R = R'.

Hence ^

For a spheroid

and R' are unequal (except

at certain particular

points).

There are

surfaces, such as a saddle-back or spindle, at

any

point on which the two curvatures are in opposite directions, and

and R' therefore

differ in sign.

A spherical

soap-bubble consists of a thin sheet of liquid between

two contractile spherical surfaces of practically equal radii R and Hence the pressure inside must exceed that under a tension T.
outside

by

T
it
|

R
\^

If
is

a soap-bubble be formed between two glass

not spherical, the excess of internal pressure
)

funnels so that

must be2T'(

If the small

ends of the funnels be open to

R' /

the atmosphere, there can be no excess of internal pressure, and

therefore

-I

= 0,
R'

or

R=

R'.

This accounts for the spindle

shape of such a film.

165. Level of Liquid in a Capillary Tube.

The surface of
a tube of very

liquid in a vertical capillary tube (that

is,

FLUIDS
small bore) of circular cross-section

285

is spherical. Plence the pressure on the concave side must exceed that on the 2 T convex side by is the radius of the spherical , where

surface.
level
if
if

Therefore the liquid will

the concavity
is

rise

above the ordinary

will be depressed

is

upward, and

it

the concavity
is

downward.

The

elevation or depres-

sion

found exactly as

in 162, in fact, it is only necessary

to substitute

IT for T -

Hence
h=

IT
gpR'
and
if

If the angle of contact is a

is r,

the radius of the tube

then

cos a =

r.

Hence
j^^

2Tco^a
gpr

166. Other Effects of Surface Tension.

another.

Two

bodies, float-

ing close together on a liquid that wets both, apparently attract one

The

liquid rises

the elevated liquid between

between them, and while the pressure in them is less than atmospheric pressure
level

P, the pressure

at the

same

on their other faces

is

P.

Hence

P-

P+
Fio. 106.

_y
Fio. 107.
is

Fio. 105.

they are urged together.

liquid is depressed

If neither

body

wet by the

liquid, the

between them.

Thus

for a certain space

between

them the pressure

pressure
is

is

P, while at the same depth on their other faces the

due to liquid below the free surface, and therefore exceeds

together.
If

P.

Hence they are pushed

is

one

is

wet by the liquid while

is

the other

not, the

form of the liquid surface

and

it is

readily seen that each plate is urged

as shown in Fig. 107, away from the other.

236

MECHANICS
of

A piece

camphor dropped on clean water begins

to dissolve.

At

some points the solution proceeds faster than at other points. At places where the water is most polluted by the camphor the surface tension is most weakened, and thus the camphor is drawn away by the stronger tension on the opposite side. Hence rapid and erratic motions
of the

camphor ensue.

A very slight film of

much

oil in

the water weakens

the surface tension so

that such motions do not take place.

167. Methods of measuring Surface Tension.

The most

common method
capillary tube

is

to observe the rise of the liquid in a

and use the equation of 165. Other methods that have been used depend on the downward pull of the liquid on a thin plate partly immersed in the
liquid, or

on the pull required to draw a plate away from

of a drop (of

the liquid, or on the size of drops falling from a tube, or

on the form
plate.

mercury) resting on a glass

is

Probably the most accurate method

tion of the ripples

wave length and frequency

of small

by observawaves or

on the surface of the

liquid, for the propagation of

such waves depends on surface tension.

168. Diffusion; Osmosis.

When

two liquids that can

is

mix

are placed in contact, the particles of each begin to

pass into the other.

This process

called diffusion.

If

a vial filled with a solution of

tion
of

some

salt (^e.g. blue solu-

copper sulphate) be wholly immersed beneath

salt will

water in a beaker, the

vial.

slowly diffuse out of the

The quantity
and
it is

of salt that leaves the vial depends

on the time, the strength of the solution, and the temperature, also

markedly

different for different salts or

is

dissolved substances.

The

rate of diffusion of one salt

practically independent of

the presence of other

action.

salts,

provided there

is

no chemical

FLUIDS

237

Substances can be rouglily classified according to their

rates of diffusion into crj/stalloids, such as mineral salts

and

acids,

which diffuse rapidly, and

colloids,

such as

starch, albumen,

and caramel, which

diffuse slowly.

The

difference

is

probably due to the fact that the molecules

of colloids are larger and, therefore,

move more slowly

than those of crystalloids.

jellies,

Colloids in water tend to form which apparently consist of a more or less solid framework, through which the liquid is dispersed.

Through such

a jelly, or colloid membrane,

?^-

crystalloids can diffuse, while colloids cannot.

Wet parchment
(^e.g.

or bladder

is

a colloid, and

a mixture of crystalloids and colloids in water

the contents of the stomach in cases

of poisoning) can be separated

by placing the

mixture in a tube closed below by parchment

and dipping

it

in a vessel of water.

When

a colloid membrane separates water and an

aqueous solution, the pure water passes more

readily than the water of solution.
If,

for
FiG. 108.

example, a tube closed below by parchment

be partly
filled

with a sugar solution, and be dipped in

level, the level
;

water so that both liquids are at the same

will continue for
ticles pass

some time

to rise in the tube

in

water par-

through the membrane

both directions, but

more pass

into the tube than in the reverse direction.

Certain membranes, called semipermeable membranes,

allow water, but not dissolved

salts, to pass.

layer of

ferrocyanide of copper deposited chemically in the pores

of a porous earthenware plug that closes the lower

end of

a tube

is

an example.

If the tube be filled

by a

salt solu-

238
tion

MECHANICS
and be immersed
in water, the water will continue to

enter the tube and will rise until the pressure of the col-

umn

in the tube prevents further inflow.

salt,

The height

in

the tube depends on the particular the solution, and the temperature
;

the strength of

the pressure of the

is

column
action
is

(^gph)

when

it

ceases to rise
salt.

called the osmotic

of the

pressure of the dissolved

The explanation

not yet certain,

but one interesting law has been

salt in a

arrived

at,

namely, that the osmotic pressure of a

is

very weak solution

particles

equal to the pressure which the

if

would exert

the water were supposed absent

state.

and the

particles

were in the gaseous

GASES
169. Gases.

The shear modulus of a

Hence
all

gas, like that of a

liquid, is zero.

the properties of fluids that

depend on the absence of elasticity of form are possessed by gases. Thus the pressure of a gas on any surface is perpendicular to the surface ( 139), the pressure at any point is the same in all directions ( 141), and an increase of pressure at any point in a gas at rest is accompanied

by an equal increase
principle ( 146)
is

at all points ( 144).

Archimedes'
balloon
is

also true of gases.

A
is

susit

tained by a force equal to the weight of the air which

displaces.

When the weight of

body

to be

found with
weight

great accuracy, allowance must be

made

for the

of the air displaced by the body and also for the weight of the air displaced

in a gas also increases with the depth,

by the weights used. The pressure and the law of

All

increase

is

the same as in the case of a liquid ( 142).

gases are viscous, and the definition of the coefficient of

FLUIDS
viscosity of a gas
is

289

exactly the same as that of a liquid

( 153). 170. Pressure of the Atmosphere.

An important case of
is

pressure due to gravity aud depth

the pressure of the

atmosphere.

If a

very long tube were supposed to ex-

tend from the surface of the earth to the outer limit of

the atmosphere (200 miles or more), the pressure at the

bottom of the tube would equal the weight of the

the tube.
directly

air in

We
is

cannot calculate the pressure

by means of the formula p'=gph^ since

different at different heights.

the density

We

can, however, find the pressure directly

it

by balancing
mercury.

against the pressure produced

fluid

by a column of some dense

such as

pressure-gauge for measuring the pressis

ure of the atmosphere

called a barometer. of a

One form (Bunsen's)

consists

U-tube

having a long closed arm occupied only by

mercury and a shorter arm partly occupied by mercury and open to the atmosphere. If
the long

t
Fio. 109.

arm

is

of sufficient length, there will be a

vacuum

above the mercury, and the pressure at the level of the

surface will consequently be zero.
If

the difference of
is

the level of the surfaces in the two arms

h and the

density of mercury
face in the short

is p,
is

the pressure in the mercury surgph,

arm

and

this for equilibrium

must

also be the pressure of the atmosphere.

Another form

of barometer, called the cistern barometer^

consists of a straight tube filled with mercury.

The

press-

240

MECHANICS
is

ure at the surface of the pool

atmospheric pressure and

is

the equal pressure at the same level in the tube

that

due to a column of mercury equal to the difference of

level of

the two mercury surfaces, or gph.

When

the

atmospheric pressure increases, the level of the mercury

in the tube rises

on a scale

and that in the cistern falls. By reading etched on the glass tube or on a separate scale

placed beside the tube, h

may be

found, but this will re-

quire a reading of each of the two mercury surfaces.

Fortin's barometer this double reading
is

In

avoided by using
;

a cistern with a flexible leather bottom

by adjusting a

screw that presses on the leather the level of the mercury

in the cistern

may be brought
is

to the zero of the scale.

The

aneroid barometer
of air
;

a shallow, cylindrical, metal

box exhausted

the top rises and falls with changes

of atmospheric pressure,

and

its

motion

is

communicated,

by a magnifying system

of levers, to

an index that indigraduated by com-

cates the pressure on a scale

which

is

parison with a mercury barometer.

171. Corrections of Barometer Reading.
it is

For many purposes

variations in
is

necessary to compare the atmospheric pressure at different times

at different places.

and

To

do. this it is

not sufficient merely to com-

pare the heights of the barometer,

for, since
for.

P = gpH,

the values of p and g should be allowed

Moreover,

measured

on a
ture.

scale,

the length of each unit of which depends on the temperaallow for these differences
it is

To

customary to calculate from

if

H what the height, say H^, of the barometer would have been,
and the
scale,

(the

actual pressure remaining the same) the temperature of the mercury

scale

had been that

of melting ice, or zero

on the centigrade

and g had been equal

^^o-

to the acceleration of gravity at sea-level

in a latitude of 45, say

actual temperature

C.

and

0 C. po its density at

Let p be the density of mercury at the also let each unit

;

FLUIDS

241

of the scale equal n true units of length (centimetres or inches) at

t

C, and

rig

trne units at 0 C.

Since the pressure

may be

expressed

either as

gpHn

or as

5'oPo//o"o

9o

Po

"o

Now

if

is

the latitude of the place of observation

and

its

height

above

sea-level in

metres ( 56),

- = 1 - .0026 C032 X - .0000003

9o
It is

1.

shown

in

works on Heat that (assuming the

scale to be of brass)

-^ Po

(1

.000181

and

- = (1 + .000019 0"o

Multiplying these factors together and neglecting the products of

small quantities,

we

get
(1

Ho=(l- .000162
This value of
at 0

- .0026 cos 2 X - .000000 3 /) H.

If the scale is correct
if it is

ff^ is in scale units at 0 C.

C, no further

correction

is

required

not, H,,

must be

multiplied by the ratio of the scale unit at 0 C. to the centimetre

or inch.

unit sometimes employed in stating pressures

is,

is

the standard

atmosphere, that

the pressure of a column of mercury 76 cm. high,

at 0 C. at sea-level in the latitude of 45.

Another source
barometer
is

of error in estimating the pressure

by a

cistern

curvature of the surface of mercury in the tube.

curvature being downward, the surface tension causes a

pressni-e

on the mercury column, thus causing

it

to

The downward be somewhat

The
more

depressed.

To

get the true barometric height, the observed height

of this depression.

must be corrected by adding the amount

maj^nitude of this correction
in diameter.
is

negligible for tubes of 2.5 cm. or

of various sizes has been

amount of the depression for tubes drawn up from comparisons of various barometers with a barometer the tube of which is so large that the

table giving the

depression

is

negligible.

(See the Smithsonian Tables,

p. 124.)

242
172. Pumps.

MECHANICS

In the common
A

lift

pump water

is

raised

by atmospheric pressure.
der C, which
well.
is

piston

P
Q

moves
to the

in a cylin-

connected by a pipe

water in the

valve V^ at the bottom of the cylinder and a valve V^ in the piston open upward.

When
Air

is

raised,

Vi opens and V^
0,

closes.

from Q passes into

and the pressure in Q

water
rises

being diminished, the

in

Q.

When
and

the piston

is

forced down, V\ closes

air is forced

out through F^.

rises into
(7,

After a

few strokes, water

and when

descends the water passes into the part of

the cylinder above P.

Thereafter at each

stroke water flows out through the spout M.

Fig. 110.

If

the length of the tube

rise in the

Q be

too great,

water will not

cylinder.

Since

mercury
cury
is

will rise to about 76 cm. in a

vacuum, and mer-

13.6 times as dense as water, water will rise in a

to a height of about 76

vacuum
or 33.9

x 13.6 cm. or 1034 cm.,

for,

ft.

As

a matter of fact, the suction

;

pump
even

fails at
if

a height less than this

is

there

no leakage between the

piston and the cylinder, the water itself

contains some air in solution, and the air

separating out causes a pressure above the

column

of water.

By means
there
is is

of the force

pump

water

be raised to a great height.

In this

may pump

no valve

in the piston,

and water

forced up a side tube

descends.

valve in

R M

as the piston

prevents the

fig. hi.

FLUIDS
return of the water to

248

C as

the piston rises.

The outflow

R takes phice only during the downward motion of P, but if an " air chamber " A be inserted in J?, the air, being
through
constantly under pressure, will cause a continuous outflow.
173. The Siphon.
of liquid be closed

If the

ends of a U-shaped tube

full

and the tube be then inverted, and one

liquid, the liquid will flow

end be immersed in
out

when
air

f:=^h

the ends are opened, provided the

end in

be at a lower level than the surface

of the liquid in the vessel.

tlie

Let the depth of

open end

below the surface of the liquid

Before

in the vessel be h.

was opened the

Ati.k

was greater than atmospheric pressure by gph^ and when A was opened the
pressure in the liquid at

opposing pressure was only atmospheric pressure.

The

siphon can be used on a large scale for drainage, provided

no part of the tube need be at a greater distance above the

level of the liquid than the height to
in a

which water

will rise

vacuum.

174. Boyle's Law.

Let

be the pressure and v the

is

volume

of a

mass of gas the temperature of which

separately change.
in

kept

constant.

The product pv = a constant^ no matter how much

This law, discovered by

p and

may

Robert Boyle

1662 and verified by him both for pressures

less, is

greater than atmospheric pressure and for pressures

called Boyle's

Law.

(The apparatus used by Boyle was not

from that used in the next exercise.)

essentially different

It is evident that Boyle's

Law may

also be stated as

follows

the pressure
its

varies inversely as

of a gas at constant temperature For a greater mass at the volume.

244

MECHANICS

same pressure the volume will be proportionally greater. Hence ^^ _ ^^^

being the mass and k a constant.

Now

m-i-v

is

the

density p of the gas.

Hence, for a constant mass of gas,

p = kp.
Exercise

XXXVIII.

Boyle's

Law

Two glass tubes A and B (Fig. 113) are mounted on blocks that can be clamped at
various positions along a vertical scale. Between

each tube and block

is a. strip

of mirror glass.

rubber tube connects the lower ends of the

glass tubes.

In the upper end of

stopper

is

a per-

forated

rubber

which

is

shellacked

before being inserted.

The

perforation in the

stopper can be closed by a round nail coated

with a mixture of beeswax and vaseline to

make

it air-tight.

The frame

of the apparatus
is

can be levelled until the scale

indicated

vertical as

by a plumb-line.
level

The
the
it

glass tubes are first brought to about

same

and mercury
fills

is

poured in until

about half

each tube.

A
is

drying tube

(containing calcium chloride)

into the perforation in A,

then inserted
is filled

and

with

dry air by alternately raising and lowering

several times.

The

nail

is

then inserted in

B A

so that the lower

end

just appears

below the
than

cork.

The

pressure in

is

less or greater

atmospheric pressure according as

or lower than B.
Fig. 113.

is

higher
in

The

level of the

mercury

and

in

is

read on the scale by means of

is

a small T-square, one arm of which

pressed

FLUIDS

245

against Die framework at such a level that an edge of the other

(horizontal) una,
it.s

rotlection

in

the mirror, and

the surface of

the mercury seem to coincide;

the position of the horizontal

arm

on the scale (which

care.

it

touches) should be read with the greatest

The

level of the lower

end of the stopper

in

is

found ia
the

the same way.

From

these readings the

pressure in

A and

length of the column of air in

of the air) are deduced.

(which

is

proportional to the volume

These readings should be made with A at

the top of the scale and

at the bottom,

and then with

with

and

in various intermediate positions,

and

finally

at the

bottom of
C0Q>

the scale and

at the top.

From

the readings thus

made the

stancy of pv can be tested.

DISCUSSION
(a) Sources of error.
(b)
(c)
(rf)

Do

the tubes need to be of the same diameter?

Why Why

should

not be of very small bore ?

aifect the result?

Does the stretching of the rubber tube

should the air be dry?

(e)

Does

it

need to be perfectly dry?

What would he

the effect of a film of water on the mercury in

(/) How could the volume (and density) of a quantity of a powder (gunpowder, sugar, salt) be found by placing it in a vessel
suspended in

175. Deviations from Boyle's Law.

as oxygen, hydrogen,

For many gases, such

Law is so nearly
be

and nitrogen, Boyle's

it

exact that for most purposes

may
it

taken as perfectly accurate.

Careful
is

study has, however, shown that

in

no

case

perfectly
of

exact.

The
is

general nature

the

deviations

shown by Fig. 114.

line

The continuous
"

pressure
cai'ef ul

shows the connection between and volume as found by

experiment, while the dotted line indicates what

246
the connection
followed.

MECHANICS
would be
if

Boyle's

Law were

accurately

These two curves intersect in two points

Consider the case of
air,

and B. the mass

point A^

and suppose that when

of air is in the condition represented

its

by the
it is

pressure

is

one atmosphere.

When
if it

brought to the condition represented by B, the product

of its pressure

and volume

is

the same as

had per-

fectly followed Boyle's

Law,

its

pressure being 152 atmos-

pheres and

its

volume

-j^g ^^ ^*^

volume

at one atmosphere.

pv between these limits occurs at about 78 atmospheres and is .98 of the product pv at A and B. Other gases show similar deviations, but the
smallest value of
details are different for different gases.

The

shown that the relation between the pressure and volume of a gas is more accurately represented by the formula (due to van der Waals),

Very

careful experiments have

ip
a and

-f

4 )(v

5)

a constant,

being small numbers the magnitudes of which are

different for different gases.

176. Modulus of Elasticity of a Gas.

While the

shear

modulus

of a gas is zero ( 138), the

it is

bulk modulus has

is

a definite value, and

accordingly the latter that

always meant when the modulus of elasticity of a gas is referred to. Let the pressure and volume of a mass of
gas be

p and

v,

and suppose that a small increase

of press-

ure a produces a decrease

Boyle's Law,

in the volume.

Then, by

FLUIDS
Neglecting the product
a/S of

247

the two small quantities a

and

^, the above reduces to

va

pfi =

0.

the bulk modulus is the ratio of the increase of pressure to the fractional decrease of volume, that is, the
ratio of a to -,

Now

and from the above

of elasticity
is

this is equal to p.

Hence the modulus

the pressure.
is

numerically equal to

It should be noticed that the

temperature

supposed to be constant.
177. Kinetic Theory of Gases.

The properties of gases

by the
on the walls of the
1
it

are consistent with the view that a gas consists of particles

moving with great

velocities in the space occupied

gas, that the impacts of these particles

containing vessel produce the pressure of the gas, and

that the coefficient of restitution at each impact
( 112).
is

The evidence

for this theory

is

the fact that

and as an illustration we shall show that it leads to Boyle's Law. Let a rectangular vessel of edges a, 5, and e contain a
will explain the chief properties of gases,

single gas,

and

let

the mass of each particle be w, and let

the

number
in

of particles in unit

volume be

w, so that if

N
the

is

the whole
vessel,

number
nabc.

of

particles

JV=

For

brevity denote the two faces perpendicular

by A and A'. Resolve the velocity V ^of any particle into components u, v, and w respectively. in the directions of a, 6, and
to a
<?,

^^-

The

depends only on the w-components of After striking A with the velocities of the particles.
pressure on

248

MECHANICS
u,

a velocity w, a particle rebounds with a velocity

and

its change of velocity

is

is

2w.

Hence

its

change of

momentum
received

2 mu,

and

this is therefore the

momentum
distance

by A.

The

particle

traverses

the

a between

and A'

in time -,

and

after rebounding

from

A'

it

again strikes
it

Hence
total

^ at a time 2 after the first impact. impinges on A -^ times per second, and the
it

is

momentum

imparts to J. in a second
particle

is,

therefore,

^^.
a

For any other

different,

but

and a
to

are the same.

Hence the
is,

total

momentum imparted
J., is

A
p

in a second, that

the whole force on

Sw^.
-abc.

Divid-

ing this by the area Ic of

we get

for the pressure

on
p

the expression -^Sw^.

Now
is

1^=71

Hence
of v? for

= mn = mnu%
the particles.

where u^

the
-{-

mean value
-{-

all

But V^

= u^

v^

w\ and,

since the

number

of particles is very large

w^^

and they are moving at

v^,

random, the mean values of

and w^ are equal.

F^^,

Hence, denoting the mean value of V^ by

V^

u^.

Hence

P = ^^ ^^
-5

since

mn
V^

is

the whole mass in unit volume, that

is,

the

density p of the gas.

that
is

Now

there

is

reason to believe

constant, provided the temperature does not

see that at constant temperature the

change.

Hence we
is

pressure of a gas
Boyle's Law.

proportional to

its

density,

which

is

'

FLUIDS
Since

249

p and p
From

can be measured experimentally, V^ can be

this the

deduced.

the square root of the

mean velocity (or more accurately mean squared-velocity) can be

at 0 C. it is

deduced.

For hydrogen

1843 metres per

second, and for carbonic acid 392 metres per second.

If several

different gases be present in the

same en-

own separate pressure, and the total pressure p will be the sum of the separate or partial pressures p^, J2' '* ^f the different gases. The
closure, each will exercise its

statement, which like Boyle's

is

Law

is

not perfectly exact,

called Daltona

Law.

178. Air-pumps.

For

removing gas from a

vessel,

pumps
suction

are used, which are identical in principle with the

pump

used for water (Fig. 110).

The

efficiency

of such
defects.

pumps is limited by a variety of Some gas leaks in between the

piston

piston and the cylinder, and the

cannot be brought to such close contact

with the bottom of the cylinder as to expel

all

the gas between them.

For these and

a different

other reasons,

when

a very high degree of

exhaustion

is

required,

pumps on

principle are used.

In the Geissler-Toepler pump, mercury

in a glass tube is

used instead of the piston ^

the

and
tube

cylinder

of
its

mechanical

pump.

Fig. 116 shows

is

general principle.

The
Fio. 116.

connected with the vessel to be

exhausted.

The long

flexible

rubber tube

connects

the mercury reservoir II to the glass bulb A.

When

250

MECHANICS
raised,

is

mercury enters

J.,

jB,

and

(7,

and
is

seals

the connection between

raised, the gas in

and

Q.

As

H
i>,

further

is

driven out through

and escapes

from beneath the mercury in the vessel E. When I is lowered, the mercury rises in and prevents the entrance of air, and gas is drawn in through Q and fills

the bulb A.

When
i),

is

raised again, the gas in

is

is

expelled through

and so the process

little

continued.

When

nearly

all

the gas in the vessel connected with

has been removed, there will be very

pressure in

Hence the mercury will rise to nearly barometric height in i>, which must be 76 cm. or more in length. To completely expel the gas from A^ B^ and i>, must be raised to such a height that the mercury will pass over into D and to prevent mercury passing out through (7, the latter must be very long. The -purpose of B is to prevent danger of A being broken by the sudden inrush of gas through (7 as S" is lowered. Mercury pumps are used to exhaust incandescent lamp
it.

and the tube connected with

bulbs.

By
a;

such pumps

it is

possible to reduce the pressof mercury.

ure in

vessel to .00001

mm.

For measuring

such low pressure a special gauge (the Macleod gauge)

is

used.

179. Effusion of Gases.

The motion of
true
its

a gas escaping

through a tube

is

opposed by the friction or viscosity of

is

the gas, and the same

when the escape

is

through
it

an aperture so narrow compared with

length that

may be regarded
is

as a tube.

But when the escape

is

through an aperture in a thin wall, the

very small and

effect of viscosity

may

for

many purposes be

neglected.

FLUIDS

251

In this case the kinetic energy gained by the escaping gas

is

equal to the work done by the pressure in the vessel in

causing the outflow.

it

will

would not affect the motion and simplify the problem if we suppose that a frictionIt
is

less

tube of the same cross-section as the aperture

con-

nected to the aperture, and that the

escaping gas drives
piston along the tube.

weightless
If the piston

C
1

p
F*in

moves from

to

C
if

in

a second,
117

BO

equals the velocity v of the

is

escaping gas, and

the cross-section of the tube

and aperture, the mass of gas that escapes in a second is BC- 8 p or V8p, and its kinetic energy is ^ vsp v^. The work done by the pressure p that causes the outflow
'

(that

is,

the excess of the pressure in the vessel over the

is

external pressure)

psBC

or psv.

Equating the work

done and the kinetic energy gained, we get

=v^. p
Hence under equal pressures the
densities.

velocities of escape of

different gases are inversely as the square roots of their

This

is

the basis of Bunsen's

method of com-

paring the densities of gases.

If the pressure

p were supposed due

to the weight of a

column of the gas of uniform density p and height A, we would have p = gph. If this be substituted in the above
formula,
it

will be identical with the formula for the out-

flow of a liquid ( 150).

180.
Diffusion of Gases.

If

two equal

bottles contain-

ing different gases be placed mouth to mouth, each gas

252

MECHANICS
and
after a

will pass into the other at a very rapid rate,

short time each gas will be equally divided between the two
bottles.

The

result

is

independent of gravity and

is

the

same whether the

carbonic acid)
is

bottle containing the heavier gas

(^e.g.

above or below that containing the lighter

This process of diffusion accounts

gas

(e.^.

hydrogen).

for the fact that the proportions of

in the atmosphere are practically the
Diffusion also takes place

oxygen and nitrogen same everywhere.

when two

gases are separated by a porous

partition such as unglazed earthenware.

Lighter gases pass more

rapidly than heavier gases through such a partition, but the

final result is

the same as

if

the partition were absent.

If

one end of a glass tube be sealed into a small dry earthen-

ware

jar (such as is used in a Bunsen's battery) while the

is

other end

immersed

in,

water in a beaker, and

if

the jar
is

be covered by an inverted beaker into which coal gas

allowed to stream, air will be forced out through the lower

end

of the tube,

owing

to the lighter gas entering

it.

through

the porous jar faster than the air escapes through

the jar has thus

When
if is

become

full of

a mixture of air and gas,

the large beaker be

removed

so that the porous jar

rise in

now

W^i

surrounded by

air,

water will

the tube, owing to the

gas within the jar escaping more rapidly than the air enters.

The
mixed
gases.

difference in the rates of diffusion of different gases

is

through a porous partition

the basis of a

method

of separating

REFERENCES
Poynting and Thomson's " Properties of Matter."
Gray's " Treatise on Physics," Vol.
Tait's " Properties of Matter."
"
I.

The Laws

of Gases " (the original papers of Boyle

" series.

and Amagat),

in " Scientific

Memoirs

Risteen's " Molecules

and the Molecular Theory

of Matter."

Boys's " Soap Bubbles."

PROBLEMS
(The student is recommended to use C. O. S. absolute units when the problem is stated in metric units and F. P. 8. gravitational units when the problem is stated in British units.)
1. Find the magnitude and direction of the resultant of two displacements of magnitude 12 and 15 in directions that differ by 30.
2.

resultant of three velocities, 10 east, 20 north,

3.

Find by the analytical method the magnitude and direction of the and 16 southwest

body

starts with a velocity

ft.

of 20

ft.

per second and has an

acceleration of 32
its

per second ^ in the direction of motion.

1,

What

is

velocity

and distance from the starting-point

3,

and 6

sec. after

starting ?
4. A body starts with a velocity of 50 cm. per second, and in 6} sec. has acquired a velocity of 102 cm. per second. What is its acceleration and how far has it travelled ?
5.

steamship

is

moving due

east with a velocity of 20 mi.

an

hour, and to the passengers the wind seems to blow from the north with

a velocity of 12 mi. an hour. the wind.

6.

Find the actual velocity and direction of

^

A train having A
body
slides

a speed of 70 km. per hour

is

brought to rest in a

distance of 600 m.
7.

What

is its

acceleration ? inclined plane

down a smooth

and

in the third sec-

ond
8.

travels 110 cm.

What

is

the inclination of the plane ?

A
1

carriage wheel, 1

m. in diameter, makes 200 revolutions per

minute.
it

What

is

the instantaneous speed of a point on the tire (1)

;

when

m. from the ground (2) when (3) when it is on the ground?

is

it

is

0.5

m. from the ground

9.

body

velocity of 40
it

rise ?

projected at an angle of 60 with the horizontal with a m. per sec. How long will it move and how high will When and where will it again meet the horizontal plane through
is

the starting-point ?

868

254
10.

PROBLEMS

railway train rounds a curve of 1000

ft.

radius, with a speed

of 60 miles per hour.

What

is its

acceleration

11. How much is the acceleration of a falling body at the equator decreased by the rotation of the earth (assume the radius of the earth to be 4000 mi.)?

12. A flywheel, making 10 revolutions per second, comes to rest in min. Find its angular acceleration and the number of revolutions.
13.

Express 980 cm. per second 2

in kilometres per minute.*

14.

force of 1000 dynes acts

on a mass

of 10 g. for 1 min.

Find

the velocity acquired and the distance traversed.

distance of 50 m. ?

15. In what time will a force of 5 kg. weight moves a mass of 10 kg. a What will be the velocity at the end of 10 sec. ?

16. What force must act on a mass of 50 kg. to increase its velocity from 100 cm. per second to 200 cm. per second while the body passes over

50

m.?
17. Find the resistance

when

body weighing 20
ft.

oz.,

a rough table with a velocity of 48 5 sec.

18.

per second,

is

projected along brought to rest in

What

10 sec. ?

constant force will lift a mass of 50 lb. 200 Find the velocity at the end of that time.

ft.

vertically in

19. What pressure will a man who weighs 70 kg. exert upon an elevator descending with an acceleration of 100 cm. per second 2 ? If ascending with the same acceleration ?
20.

mi. an hour,

One minute what

after leaving a station a train has a velocity of 30

is

the ratio of the resultant horizontal force to the

weight of the train

21.

train

is

moving
it

at a rate of 20 mi.

shut

off.

If the resistance of friction

an hour when the steam is amounts to ^^ of the weight of the

?

train,

how

far will

run up a 5 incline

body weighing 2 kg. rests on a table and is acted on by a force of 8 kg. weight, making an angle of 40 with the horizontal. What is the total pressure on the table ?
22. 23. The diameter of the bore of a gun is 10 in. and the explosion of the powder exerts a pressure of 30,000 lb. weight per square inch on the

end
is

of a projectile

constant, and the projectile

which weighs 372 lb. If the pressure of the powder is moves to the muzzle in j^ of a second, what

the velocity of the projectile ?

PROBLEMS
24.
nail 2

255
and drives a
if

An

iron ball of 40 kg. mass falls 100 cm. vertically

cm. into a plank.

?

What

is

the pressure on the nail

it

be sup-

posed constant

25. A mass of 6 kg. rests on an inclined plane which has a length of 80 cm. and a height of 2 cm. Find the pressure on the plane and the
resistance of friction.

26. The ends of a cord 16 ft long are attached to two pegs at the same and 10 ft. apart. If a mass of 100 lb. is attached to the middle of the cord, what is the force on each peg ?
level

27.

A weight of A

100

lb.

force will deflect the cord 30, and

hangs at the end of a cord. What horizontal what will be the tension in the cord ?

rapid-firing gun delivers in a second 10 projectiles of 1 lb. each 28. with a speed of 2000 ft. per second. What force is required to hold the

gun

at rest ?

baseball weighing 12 oz. and moving with a velocity of 50 ft. 29. per second is struck squarely by a bat and given a velocity of 100 ft. per second in the opposite direction. If the contact lasts .006 sec, what is

the average force

30.

If the train in

example 10 weighs 600 T., what

is

the total out-

ward pressure on the

31.

rails ?

A skater describes a circle of

With what

10 m. radius at a speed of 5 m. per

second.

force do his skates press on the ice ?

32. A rod of 10 kg. mass and 100 cm. in length revolves about an axis through one end, making 10 revolutions per second. Find the pull on the axis.

33.
1800
g.

falling

mass of 200

g.

is

lying on a smooth horizontal table.

connected by a string to a mass of Find the acceleration and

the tension of the string.

34.
second.

At

the foot of a

If it slides

hill, a toboggan has a velocity of 20 ft. per 120 ft on the horizontal, what is the coefficient of

friction ?

35.

Reduce a force of 20

lb.

weight to dynes.

cord passes over two pulleys and through a third movable 36. pulley between them, and is vertical where not in contact with the To one end of the cord a mass of 20 kg. is attached and to pulleys. Fmd the the other a mass of 10 kg. and the movable weighs 6 kg.

accelerations of the masses.

256
37.

PROBLEMS
What
is
if

the period of vibration of a mass of 1

leg.

attached to a

spiral spring

an additional mass

of 100 g. stretches the spring 0.3

cm.

farther ?

38.

man

presses a tool on a grindstone of 1 m. diameter with a

If the coefficient of friction is 0.2,

force of 10 kg. weight.

what force

at

the end of a crank

arm 40 cm.

in length will turn the stone ?

A disk of 500 g. mass and 20 cm. in diameter acquires in 10 a linear velocity of 30 m. per second, in the direction of its axis and an angular velocity of 2 rotations per second about its axis. W))at forces acted on it ?
39.
sec.

40. Find the centre of mass of a square.

41.

20, 30, 24,

and 60

g. at

the corners of

Out

of a circular disk 16 cm.

in diameter a circle
is

12 cm. in

diameter and tangential to the larger

cut.

Where

is

the centre of

mass of the remainder

42. Two cylinders of the same material, each 20 cm, in length and 12 and 6 cm. in diameter respectively, are joined so that their axes coincide. Find the centre of mass of the whole. 43. An iron cylinder 30 cm. in diameter and of 5 kg. mass rolls down a plane 20 ft. long inclined at 30 to the horizontal. What linear velocity ^oes it acquire ?
44.

Find the resultant of

parallel forces 20, 40,

and 30 applied

at the

corners of an equilateral triangle of 10 cm. side.

45.
lb.

body

is

moved from

rest without friction

by a
lb.

force that in-

creases uniformly with the distance traversed from 10

weight.

weight to 80

Draw a diagram

of

work done and

find the kinetic energy

ft.

acquired, the total distance traversed being .10

46.
if

A spiral spring is attached to

a 50 kg. weight.
is

What work

is

done
just

the increase of length of the spring

20 cm. when the weight

is

lifted ?

47.

lever 20

in.

long

is is

used to turn a screw with a pitch of \

applied to the lever,

in.

If a force of 80 lb.

weight

what

force will the

screw exert ?
48.

Two

uniform beams each 24

ft.

long and of 100

lb.

mass are

in

contact at their upper ends, while their lower ends rest on two vertical
walls of the

same height and 36

ft,

apart.

Find the horizontal thrust

on each

wall.

PROBLEMS

257

49. A runner has a record of 10 sec. for 100 yd., Oj sec. for 60 yd., and What can be deduced as to the horae-power at which 4| sec. for 40 yd. he works in running, if he weighs 140 lb. ?

runner can run 100 yards on the horizontal upliill with a rise of 32 ft. in 17.6 horse-power does he work, if his weight is 145 lb. ?
50.
the

In

10 sec. and

same distance

sec.

At what

51. A cable 100 m. long and of 60 lb. mass hangs vertically from a viaduct How much work will be expended in raising it ?
52.
If

the connection of the rod to

the rod

its

axis iu problem 32 should break,

how would
53.

move

much energy

grindstone weighs 75 kg. and has a diameter of 1 m. How is stored in it when it makes 300 revolutions per minute ?
is

54. When a hoop rolls on a rough plane, what energy of rotation to that of translation ?

the ratio of kinetic

(each

55. Calculate the activity of an engine that raises 1,000,000 = 10 lb.) of water in 8 hr. from a depth of 125 ft.
56.

gal.

The top

If the table

of a table a metre square projects 5 cm. beyond the legs. weighs 10 kg., what weight hung from a corner will over-

turn

it ?

57.
is

The

distance between the centre of the

moon and

that of the earth

is

60 times the radius of the earth, and the mass of the earth

82 times

that of the moon.

Find their centre of mass.

58.

What

is

the horse-power of a locomotive that gives a train of 200

ft.

T. a velocity of 30 mi. an hour in a distance of 1000

up an

incline of 1

in 1000, the total resistance of friction being 15 lb. weight per ton ?

59.

What

is

the period of vibration of a disk 20 cm. in diameter susto the disk

pended on a horizontal axis perpendicular the rim ?

60.

and attached to

What

is

the period of vibration of

horizontal axis 10 cm. from one end ?

a uniform rod 1 m. long about a About what other points is the

period of vibration the same ?

will the ship sink in fresh

61. The area of the " water-line " of a ship is 3000 sq. ft. water if 100 T. be placed in it ? 62.

What depth
it

How much

will the

above-mentioned vessel
?
is

rise

when

passes into

salt

water of density 1.020

63.

The density

of a

body

2 and

air of density .0013

it

weighs

100.00 g.

What

is its

true weight, the density of the weights being 9 ?

258
64.

PROBLEMS
When
carried

from the ground

is

to the roof of a building a

barom-

eter falls 1,5

mm.

What

the height of the building ?

65.
air

A mass and 447.5 g.

The
is

of copper, suspected of being hollow, weighs 523 g. in in water. What is the volume of the cavity ?

66.

What

specific gravity of ice is .918 and that of sea water 1.026. the total volume of an iceberg of which 700 cu. yd. is exposed ?

67. A block of wood weighing 1 kg., the density of which is 0.7, is to be loaded with lead so as to float with 0.9 of its volume immersed. What weight of lead is required (1) if the lead is immersed ? (2) if it is not immersed ?

68.

a liquid B.
69.

body A weighs 7.55 g. in air, 5.17 g. in water, and 6.35 Find the density of A and that of B.

g. in

horizontal.

3 m. wide and 40 m. long is inclined at 40 to the Find the total pressure against it in kilogrammes weight when the water rises to the top.

A retaining wall

70. How far will water be projected horizontally from an aperture 3 m. below the level of water in a tank and 10 m. above the ground ?

71. The surface tension of a soap-bubble solution is 27.45 dynes per cm. How much greater is the pressure inside a soap-bubble of 3 cm. radius than in the outer air ?
72.
If

when immersed, how much water would

73.

a submarine boat weighed 50 tons and displaced 3000 cu. it have to take in to sink ?

ft.

A cylindrical diving-bell 2
is
if

m. in height

is

the bell

6 m. below the surface of the water. the height of the barometer

is

rise in the bell

lowered until the top of high will the water 76 cm. ? What air pres-

How

sure in the bell would keep the water out ?

74.

level in latitude 41, at a

Fortin barometer reads 73 cm. at a point 150 m. above seatemperature of 21 C. Reduce the reading to

0 C. at sea-level in latitude 45.

75.

A wire 300 mm.

g.

long and

mm.

in

diameter

is

stretched 1

mm. by

a weight of 3000

Calculate Young's modulus.

76. To a wire 100 cm. long and 0.24 mm. in diameter a disk whose moment of inertia is 400 g. cm. 2 is attached. The period of torsional vibrations
is

8 sec.

Calculate the shear modulus.

77.

A piece of shafting 10 m.
How may

long and of 5 cm. radius

is

twisted 1

by

a certain moment. be 30' ?

the shaft be changed so that the twist will

TABLES
CONVERSION TABLE
1

cm.

1 sq. 1 cc.
1 kg.

cm.

1 gal.

= 0.3937 in. = 0.1550 sq. in. = O.OCIO cu. in. = 2.205 lbs. = 4543 cc.

inch

2.540 cm.

1 sq. in. 1 1

= 6.451 sq. cm. cu. in. = 16.386 cc. lb. = 435.6 gm. litre = 1.7608 pints

ACCELERATION OF FALLING BODY

(In C. G. S. units)

Boston Chicago

980.382 980.264 979.990

980.227

Philadelphia

980.182
979.951

San Francisco
St.

Cincinnati

Louis

979.987 980.058 980.100

Cleveland

Terre Haute

Denver

979.595

Washington

Berlin

981.240
978.070)

Paris

980.960
983.110)

(Equator Greenwich

(Pole

....
.

981.170
982.580

Rome

980.310 980.852

Hammerfest

Vienna

DENSITY
Aluminium
Brass (about)
2.60
8.50
8.92

Iron (cast)

7.40
7.86
11.30

Iron (wrought)
Jje.ad
. . .

Copper Gold .

19.30

Platinum
Silver
. .

.
.

21.50
10.53

259

260

TABLES
ELASTIC CONSTANTS
(Rough averages
;

in C.

G. S. units)

Shear

Modulus

Young's Modulus

Bulk Modulus

Parson's Ratio

Copper
Glass
Iron (wrought)

4 X 10"

11 X 10"

17 X 10" 4 X 10"
15 X 10"

.30
.-23

....

2 X 10"

7 X 10"
.2

Lead
Steel

X 10" 8 X 10"

10" 19 X 10" 1 X 10" 23 X 10"

6 X

.30
.37

4 X 10" 17 X 10"

.29

VISCOSITY
(In C. G. S. units
;

at 20 C.)
8.0

Alcohol

0.0011

Glycerine

Ether

0.0026

Water

0.010

SURFACE TENSION
(In C. G. S. units
;

at 20 C.)

Alcohol

21
17

Ether

Mercury Water

450 74

ANGLE OF CONTACT
Alcohol Ether
0

16

Mercury (about) Water (about)

145
0

....

TABLES

261

TRIGONOMETRICAL RATIOS
Angl6

RadUns

Bine

Tangent

Cotangent

Cosine

0
1

OD

2 3 4
f>

.0175 .0349 .0524 .0698 .0873

.1(V17

.0175 .0840 .0528 .0693

.0873 .1045 .1219 .1392 .1564 .1786 .1908 .2079
.22.'W

6
T

S
'.)

10
11

13
18

14 15
16 17 18 19

SO
21

22
23

24 25 26 27 28 2 80
81

82 88 84

85 86
87 88 39 40
41

42 48 44 45

.1222 .1896 .1571 .1745 .1920 .2004 .2269 .3443 .2618 .2798 .2967 .8143 .8816 .8491 .8665 .8840 .4014 .4189 .4863 .4533 .4713 .4887 .5061 .5286 .5411 .5535 .5760 .5934 .6109 .6283 .&. .6633 .6807 .6981 .7156 .7a30 .7505 .7679 .785*

.0176 .0849 .0534 .0699 .0875 .1051 .1228 .1405 .15*4 .1768
.194,4

67.2900 28.6868 19.0811 14.8006

11.4801 9.5144 8.1448 7.1154 6.8183 6.6718 5.1446

.9998 .9994
.99i>6

.9976 .9963 .9945 .9925 .9908

.9!>77

.9348 .9816
.9781 .9744 .9708 .9659 .9613 .9563 .9511

.2419 .2588 .2756 .2924 .8090 .8256 .8420 .3584 .8746 .8907 .4067 .4226 .4884 .4540 .4695 .4&4S .5000 .5150 .5299 .5446 .5592 .5786 .6873 .6018 .6157 .6298

.Mas
.6561 .6691 .6820 .6947 .7071

.2126 .2309 .2498 .2679 .2867 .8057 .8349 .8443 .8640 .8389 .4040 .4245 .4452 .4668 .4877 .6095 .6817 .6548 .6774 .6009 .6249 .6494 .6745 .7002 .7265 .7536 .7818 .8098 .8391 .8693 .9004 .9325 .9657 1.0000

4.7046 4.8815 4.0103

8.7821

8.4874 8.2709 8.0777 8.9042 2.7475 8.6051 8.4751 8.8659 8.2460 8.1445 8.onn 1.9626 1.8807 1.S040
1.7821 1.6618 1.6008 1.5399 1.4826 1.4281 1.876* 1.8270 1.2799 1.2849 1.1918 1.1604

.9455 .9397 .9336 .9272 .9205 .9185 .9068 .8983 .8010 .8880 .8746 .8660 .8572 .8180 .6887 .8890 .6192 .8090 .7986 .78SO
.7771 .7660 .7547 .7481 .7314 .7198 .7071

1.5708 1.5088 1.5850 1.5134 1.5010 1.4885 1.4661 1.4436 1.4813 1.4187 1.8968 1.8783 1.8614 1.8489 1.8265 1.8090 1.2915 1.2741 1.2566 1.2892 1.2217 1.2048 1.1868 1.1694 1.1519 1.1345 1.1170 1.0996 1.0821 1.0647 1.0473 1.0297 1.0128 .9948

9V>

m
88
87

86 85 84 68
83
81

60
79

78
77 76

75 74 78 73
71

70 69 68 67 66 65 64 68 03
61

60 59 58 67

.9n4
.9599 .9425 .9850 .9076
.8901 .8727 .8652

56
66 5* 58 63
61

1.U06
1.0724 1.0855 1.0000

.8873 .8203 .8089 .7854

50 49 48 47 46 45

Cosine

CoUn^nt

Tangent

Sine

Radians

Angle

262:

TABLES

LOGARITHMS
1

1 2 3

4 6 6

10 0000 0043 0086 0128 0170 0212 0263 0294 0834 0374 4
11

8 12

17 21 25

29 33 37

12
18

14

15
16

0414 0453 0792 0828 1139 1178 1461 1492 1761 1790
2041

0492 0864 1206 1523 1818

0569 0899 0934 1239 1271 1653 1584 1847 1876

0531

0607 0969 1303

1614 1903

0645 0682 1004 1038 1335 1367 1644 1673

1981 1969

0719 1072 1399 1708 1987

1263 2504 2742 2967 3181

0755 1106 1480 1782 2014

2279 2529 2765 2989 3201

4 8 11 3 7 10 3 6 10
3 6

3 6
3 5 2 6 2 5
2 4

9 8

15 19 23 14 17 21 13 16 19 12 15 18 11 14 17
11 10 9 9 8

26 30 34 24 28 31 23 26 29 21 24 27 20 22 25
18 21 24 17 20 22 16 19 21 16 18 20 16 17 19

17 18 19

20
21

2304 2558 278S 3010

2068 2096 2330 2366 2577 2601 2810 2833 3082 3054 8243 3444 3636 3820 3997
3263 3464 3665 8838 4014

2122 2148 2:380 2405 2625 2648 2856 2878 3075 8096

2175 2430 2672 2900 3118 8824 3522 8711 8892 4065 4282 4898 4548 4698 4843 4983 6119 5250 5878 5502
5628 6740 6855 5966 6076 6180 6284 6386 6484 6580 6676 6767 6857 6946 7033
7118 7202 7284 7364

2201 2455 2696 2928 8139

2227 2480 2718 2945 3160

8
7 7 7

13 16 12 15 12 14
11 13 11 18

2 4 2 4
2 4 2 4

6
6 6 6

22 23

24

25
26 27 2S 29

3222 3424 3617 3302 3979

4150 4314 4472 4624 4771

3284 3483 3674 3856 4031

4200 4362 4518 4669 4814

3804 3502 3692 3874 4048

4216
4:378

3346 8365 3541 3660 3729 3747 3909 3927 4082 4099
4249 4409 4564 4713 4857

3385 3679 8766 3945 4116

8404 3598 3784 3962 4133

8 10 12
8 10 12 7 9 11 7 9 11 7 9 10 7 6

2 4 2 3

5
5

14 14 13 12 12

16 18 15 17
15 17 14 16 14 15

30
31

4166 4188 4330 4346 4487 4502 4689 4654 4786 4800
4928 5065 5198 5328 5463 5575 6694 5809 5922 6031
6188 0243 6345 6444 6542 6687 6730
6S21 6911

4538 4683 4829

4969 5105 5287 5366 5490
5611 5729 5843

4265 4281 4298 2 3 4425 4440 4456 2 3 4679 4594 4609 2 3 4728 4742 4757 1 8 4871 4886 4900 1 8
5011 5145 5276 5403 5627

8 10
8 8 7 7 9 9 9 9

5
6

6
6 6

11 18 15 11 13 14 11 12 14

4
4 4
4

10 12 13 10 11 13

82 83 34

35
86 37 38
3i)

4914 5051 5185 5315 5441

5563 5682 5798 5911 6021
6128 6232 6335 6435 6682

4942 5079 5211 5340 6465 5587 5705 5821 5933 6042
6149 6263 6355 6454 6561

4955 6092 6224 5353 5478

5699 6717 5832 5944 6053 6160 6263 6366 6464 6661

4997 5132 5263 6891 5514

6024 5038 5159 5172 5289 5302 6416 5428 6539 5651 6658 5775 5888 5999 6107
6212 6814 6415 6513 6609 6702 6794 6884 6972 7059 7148 7226 7308 7388

1
1
1

3 8 3 3 2

5
5

7 7
6

8
8 8 8 7

4 4 4 4
3 3
8

5 5
5 5 5

6 6 6 6 6

10 11 9 11 9 10 9 10 9 10

12
12 12 11 11

40
41 42 43

5955 6064
6170 6274 6875 6474 6671

5686 5752 5866 5977 6085

5647 5763 5877 5988 6096

5670 5786 5899 6010 6117

6222 6825 6425 6522 6618

2 2 2 1 2 1 2
1 1

7
7
7

8 3 3 8
3 3

4 4
4 4 4

5 5 5 5 5 5 5
5 5

7 6 6 6 6
6 6

8 10 11 8 9 10 8 9 10 8 9 10 8 9 10 7 7 8 9

44

45
46 47 48 49

6191 6201 6294 6304 6895 6405 6493 6503 6690 6699

1 1 1 1 1

2 2 2 2
2

8
8

9
9

7
7 7

4 4 4
4 4 4
3 8 3 8

8
8

9
9

50
51 52 53

6628 6721 6812 6902 6990

6998

6646 6789 6830 6920 7007 7093 7177 7259 7340

6666 6749 6889 6928 7016

6665 6758 6848 6937 7024

6684 6776 6866 6955 7042

6693 6785 6876 6964 7060

6712 1 6803 1 6893 1 6981 1 7067 1

2 2
2 2

8
3 3 3 8 3
2 2 2

7
6

7
7

4 4

5 5 5

8 8

6 6

7
7 7

6
8 8
8

4
4

6
5 5 5 5

6
6 6

54

7076 7160 7243 7324

7084 7168 7251 7382

7101 7110 7186 7193 7267 7276 7348 7366

7126 7210 7292 7372

7135 7218 7300 7880

7152 1 2 7235 1 2 7316 1 2 7896 1 2

7
7

4 4
4

7
7 7

6
6

6
6

TABLES

268

LOGARITHMS
1

ft

9 t 4

8 9

66
ftfi

7404 74S2
7.Vrf>

7412

7419 7497 7574

7427

7485

7448 7520 7597 7678 7746 7818

7889
.

7461

7459

7466 7548 7619 7694 7767 7889

7474

8 2 2
1

8 8 8 8 8 8

8 8 8 8

4 4
4

6 6 5 6
6

^7

7490 7566

58

M
61

60
62 IW

7tW4 7W2 77UU 7716 77b2 7789

7M9
7728 7796

7505 7518 7582 7589 7t)57 7664 7781 7788 7808 7810

7528 7604 7679 7762 7826

7586 7618 7686 7760 7882

7M1
7627 7701 7774 7846 7917 7087

1
1

4
4

8
8

4
4 8 8 8 8 8 8 8

6 6
6

7SM
T24
T'.tiW

7860
T'JHl

7868
TU.is

7875
7!M.'.

7fiS2
7":

MHH)
.>s(t>9

NMIT
NiT.')

MIU
s(W.'

MKV.'

66
66 67 68 69

!>12

8186
8202
<267

8142 8209 8274

stt-^

8149

7896 7908 7910 v.tl6 7978 7980 ': 8041 8048 iii2 8109 6116 109 8176 8188
:;:,

8066 8188 8160

1
1 1

1
1

1 1
1

8 8 9 8 8 8 8 8 8 8
8 8 8

6
6

6 6 6
4

SI 95

8215
8-Js(l

^241

8261

"
7il

70
71

8S25 SH31 8888 S95 i+tSl 8457

85IH 8519 S578 ^579

8401

&t68 8525
s5s,'i
sG-l.'i

S(44 MII7 8470

8531
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$6
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9085 9090 9I8S 9148 9191 9196 9248 9248 9294 9299 9845 9X'i0 9395 94(H) 9445 9*50 9494 9499 9M2 9547

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9804

9106 9159 9212 9268 9815

9112 9165 9217 9269 9880

9117 9170 9222 9274 9825

9122 9176 9227 9279 9880

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9681

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INDEX
Absolute units, 23.
Acceleration, 20; angular, 31,33, 102 ; central, 34, 82 ; of centre of mass,

112 dimensions of, 23 of falling body, 22, 68, 259; in line of motion, 21 in simple harmonic motion, 40.
; ; ;

Centre of mass, 104 acceleration and velocity of, 112 kinetic energy of motion of, 146. Centre of oscillation, 172. Centre of percussion, 175. Centre of parallel forces, 121.
; ;

Centrifugal force, 82, 111, 164.

Circle of reference, 41.

Activity, 135.

Amplitude

of

a simple harmonic

Clock
of

circuit, 86.
j

motion, 41. Analytical method, 13, Angle, units of, 4 ; of

228, 260.

CoeflScient, of compressibility, 190

friction,

89;

of

restitution,

contact,

155.

Component, of acceleration, 21
displacement,
of velocity, 18.
12,

of
,'

Angular acceleration, 81, 33, 102. jugular momentum, 102, 109, 159. Angular simple harmonic motion,
166.

of

force,

70
;

Angular velocity, 31. Archimedes' principle, 211. Atmosphere, 239, 241.

Composition, of accelerations, 21 of angular velocities and accelerations, 33 of displacements, 8-15,

;

of forces, 70

of parallel forcesj
171.

120-126; of

velocities, 18.

Axes

of coordinates, T.

Compound pendulum,
Compressibility, 190.

Axis of couple, 127.

Barometer, 239. Beam compass, 2.

Beam,

flexure of, 199.

Conical pendulum, 86. Coordinates, 7. Conservation, of angular momentum, 109-112 of energy, 151 ; of
;

Blackburn's pendulum, 53. Boyle's Law, 243; deduced from kinetic theory of gases, 247 deviations from, 245, Bulk modulus, 190.
Capillarity, 223, 230-235
;

momentum,

78.

Conservative forces, 150. Couples, 126. Curvature, radius and circle

of, 35.

Curve of speed, Curved path of

29.
ball, 219.

effect

on
D'Alembert's principle, 115. Day, 4.

barometer, 241. Centre of gravity, 127.

264

INDEX
Degree, 4. Density, 207, 259
ity,
;

265

and

specific grav-

212.
23.
;

Derived uuits,
286.

DiflusioD, of gases, 251

of liquids,

Force, 60; and acceleration, 08 conservative and dissipative, 160 dimensions of, 92 effective, 116 external, 100, 113; in simple harmonic motion, 68 intemiolecular, 223 intenial, 1U9, 113, 140 ; unite
;
;

Dimensions of space, 7. of, 61, 03. Dimensions of units, of acceleration Frequency, 31, 66. and velocity, 23 of force, 02 of Friction, 88, 115.
;

kinetic energy, 138

;

of potential

energy, 131) of work, 135. Gases, 238. Displacements, 8-15 in simple Gramme, 62. harmonic motion, 40. Gravitation, 67, 86. Dissipation of energy, 163 of ro- Gyroscope, 177. tation, 159 ; on impact, 166. Dyne, 62. Harmonic motion,
,

39;

angular,

166.

Effusion of gases, 250.

Elastic hysteresis, 203.
Elastic lag, 203.

Heat, 152.

Hooke's Law, 69, 168, 189.

Horse-power, 136. Hydraulic press, 210. Hydrometers, 212.
Impact, 154. Impulse, 60.
Inclined plane, 89.
Inertia, 60.

Elastic limits, 188.

Elasticity,

187

fatigue

of,

Hooke's
190,

Law of, 69,

202
;

168, 189
;

203 ; im;

perfections of,

moduli

of,

201

of gas, 246.
;

Energy, 13.3-164
151
'

dissipation of, 163

conservation of, equiva;

lenceof kinetic and potential, 139 kinetic, 137 potential, 138 of rotating body, 114 of strain, 136 surface, 227.
; j ;

Isotropic bodies, 154.

Joule, 136.

Epoch,

38, 44.

Kilogramme,
;

61.

Equilibrium, of a body, 128, 129 ; of Kinetic theory of gases, 247. floating bodies, 215 of a particle, 73 ; stable, unstable, neutral, Laws of motion, 69, 66, 70. 143. Liquid, 204. Erg, 135. External forces, 109, 113. Mass, 62, 79 ; centre of, 104. Metacentre, 216. Flexure, 199. Metre, 1.

Flow

a liquid, from an oripast an obstruction, 215 218; through a capillary tube,

of
fice,
;

Micrometer caliper, 4. Modulus, of elasticity, 190, 196 of gas, 246 relation between moduli,
;

223.

201.
;

Fluid, 206

pressure, 206.

Moment

of forc^ 04,
148.

102

work

Foot-pound, 136.

done by,

;;

266
Moments
of
inertia,
of,

INDEX
by
94, 97-101 torsional pen-

Rectangular coordinates,

7.
;

comparison dulum, 169.

Momentum,

60, 78; angular, 102, 109, 169; dimensions of, 92.

of Resolution, of accelerations, 21 displacements, 12 of forces, 70 of velocities, 18; of circular mo;

tion, 44.

Rest, 18.

Neutral surface, 199.

Restitution, coefficient of, 155.

Rigidity, 190.
;

Newton,
;

impact, 67 154 laws of motion, 59, 65, 76 pendulum experiments, 62.

gravitation,

Rotation, of rigid body, 96

translation, 114.

and

Scalar quantity, 15.

Origin, 8.
Oscillation, centre of, 172
;

Second,
of gyro-

mean

solar, 4.

Shear, 185.

scope, 180.

Osmosis, 236.

Shearing stress, 191. Simple harmonic motion, 39, 68

angular, 166. Siphon, 243.
Solid, 185.

Parallel forces, 120.

Pascal's principle, 209.

curved path Specific gravity, 212. of ball, 219. Speed, 18. com- Spring, calibration of, 69. Pendulum, Blackburn's, 53 pound, 171 conical, 86 equiva- Squeeze, 186. lent simple, 171; reversible, 172; Strain, 185 homogeneous, 186 po* simple, 46 torsional, 167. tential energy of, 201. Periodic motion, 38 ; of rigid bodies, Stress, 77, 188. 166. Surface tension, 223 ; measurement Phase, 38, 44. of, 236. Poisson's ratio, 196. Surface Energy, 227.

Path of

projectile,

26

Position,

7.

Power, 135.
Precession, 179. Pressure, and speed, 218
;

Thrust, 196, 210.

Torricelli's theorem, 216.

of atmos-

Torsion, 191-195
Translation,
114.

phere, 239;
missibility
Projectile, 26.

of fluid, 205; transof,

10

pendulum, 167. and rotation,

;

209;

on curved

surface, 229.

Triangle, of accelerations, 21 of displacements, 10 ; of forces, 73 ; of

Projection of motion, 49.

a simple harmonic
;

velocities, 19.

Tuning-fork, 46, 189.

for gases,

Pumps,
249.

for liquids, 242

Uniform
in, 82.

circular motion, 30

force

Radian, 4. Radius, of curvature, 35

tion, 101.

of gyra-

Units, of angle, 4 of energy, 138 of fundamental and deforce, 61 of mass, of length, 1 rived, 23
;

Range

of molecular forces, 223.

61

of time, 4

of

work, 135.

INDEX
Vector quantities,
;

267

15.
;

Velocity, angular, 31

instantaneous,

Watt, 135. Weight, 62.

in simple harmonic motion, 10 40 of centre of mass, 112 ; uniform, 18 variable, 19.

; ;

Work, 132; diagram of, 136; dimensions and units of, 125 done by moment of force, 148 ; rate of
;

Vena

contracta, 216. Vernier, 3.

Viscosity, 219.

doing, 135.

Yard, 2. Young's modulus, 196.

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