Electron Current Flow - current flow from negative to positive potentials Conventional Current Flow - current flow from

positive to negative potentials The combination of materials within a battery is used for the purpose of converting chemical energy into electrical energy. The armature coil cuts across the magnetic field to produce a voltage output. Rotating the armature one-half turn in the clockwise direction causes the contacts between the commutator segments to be reversed.

The one-line, or single-line, diagram shows the components of a circuit by means of single lines and the appropriate graphic symbols. One-line diagrams show two or more conductors that are connected between components in the actual circuit. The one-line diagram shows all pertinent information about the sequence of the circuit, but does not give as much detail as a schematic diagram. Normally, the one-line diagram is used to show highly complex systems without showing the actual physical connections between components and individual conductors.

A closed circuit (Figure 13) is an uninterrupted, or unbroken, path for current from the source
Figure 13 Closed Circuit

(EMF), through the load, and back to the source. An open circuit, or incomplete circuit, (Figure 14) exists if a break in the circuit occurs; this prevents a complete path for current flow. A short circuit is a circuit
Figure 15 Short Circuit

which offers very little resistance to current flow and can cause dangerously high current flow through a circuit

A voltage divider is used to obtain different values of voltage from a single energy source. Current division is used to determine the current flowing through each leg of a parallel circuit.

Where the electron current enters the load, the voltage is negative. Law 1: The sum of the voltage drops around a closed loop is equal to the sum of the voltage sources of that loop (Kirchhoffs Voltage Law). Law 2: The current arriving at any junction point in a circuit is equal to the current

leaving that junction (Kirchhoffs Current Law).

Since voltage and current can be related to energy and charge, then Kirchhoffs laws are only restating the laws governing energy and charge conservation.

The current flow at any element in a DC circuit can be determined using loop equations. The voltage at any point in a DC circuit can be determined using node equations.

A short circuit is said to exist if the circuit resistance is so low that current increases to a point where damage can occur to circuit components. With an increase in circuit current flow, the terminal voltage of the energy source will decrease. This occurs due to the internal resistance of the energy source causing an increased voltage drop within the energy source. The increased current flow resulting from a short circuit can damage power sources, burn insulation, and start fires. Fuses are provided in circuits to protect against short circuits.

DC Circuit Faults Summary

An open series DC circuit will result in no power being consumed by any of the loads. The effect of an open in a parallel circuit is dependent upon the location of the open. A shorted DC circuit will result in a sudden and very large increase in circuit current.

Inductors in parallel are combined like resistors in Inductors will store energy in the form of a magnetic field. When an inductor has a DC current flowing through it, the inductor will store energy in the form of a magnetic field. An inductor will oppose a change in current flow by the CEMF induced when the field collapses or expands. Inductors in series are combined like resistors in series. Inductors in parallel are combined like resistors in parallel. The time constant for an inductor is defined as the required time for the current either to increase to 63.2 percent of its maximum value or to decrease by 63.2 percent of its maximum value.
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A capacitor is constructed of two conductors (plates) separated by a dielectric.

A capacitor will store energy in the form of an electric field caused by the attraction of the positively-charged particles in one plate to the negativelycharged particles in the other plate. The attraction of charges in the opposite plates of a capacitor opposes a change in voltage across the capacitor. Capacitors in series are combined like resistors in parallel. Capacitors in parallel are combined like resistors in series. The capacitive time constant is the time required for the capacitor to charge (or discharge) to 63.2 percent of its fully charged voltage.

If the electrolyte is a paste, the cell is referred to as a dry cell; if the electrolyte is a solution, it is called a wet cell.

Specific gravity is defined as the ratio comparing the weight of any liquid to the weight of an equal volume of water.

Amperehours are normally used to indicate the amount of energy a storage battery can deliver.

A voltaic cell is a combination of materials used to convert chemical energy into electrical energy. A battery is a group of two or more connected voltaic cells. An electrode is a metallic compound, or metal, which has an abundance of electrons (negative electrode) or an abundance of positive charges (positive electrode). An electrolyte is a solution which is capable of conducting an electric current. Specific gravity is defined as the ratio comparing the weight of any liquid to the weight of an equal volume of water. An ampere-hour is defined as a current of one ampere flowing for one hour.

The decrease in specific gravity on discharge is proportional to the ampere-hours discharged. While charging a lead-acid battery, the rise in specific gravity is not uniform, or proportional, to the amount of ampere-hours charged

Since specific gravity of a lead-acid battery decreases proportionally during discharge, the value of specific gravity at any given time is an approximate indication of the batterys state of charge.

The purpose of a battery is to store chemical energy and to convert this chemical energy into electrical energy when the need arises. A voltaic cell develops a potential difference when electrodes of two different metals are immersed in an electrolyte. One electrode accumulates a positive charge. The potential difference is due to the difference in charge between the two electrodes. The chemical equation for a lead-acid battery during discharge is: PbO2 + Pb + 2H2SO4 discharge 2PbSO4 +2H2O The chemical equation for a lead-acid battery during charge is: PbO2 + Pb + 2H2SO4 charge 2PbSO4 + 2H2O When a lead-acid battery is discharged, electrolyte and the active material on the plates of the battery are consumed to produce water and lead sulphate. When a lead-acid battery is charged, electrical energy is added to the battery, causing the water and lead sulphate to be consumed and produce electrolyte and active material. Since specific gravity of a lead-acid battery decreases proportionally during discharge, the value of specific gravity at any given time is an approximate indication of the batterys state of charge.

The shelf life of a battery is the time which a battery may be stored and not lose more than 10 percent of its original capacity. The charge of a battery may refer to as one of two things: (1) the relative state of capacity of the battery, or (2) the actual act of applying current flow in the reverse direction to return the battery to a fully-charged state. Discharge, simply stated, is the act of drawing current from a battery.

The output voltage of a battery connected in series is equal to the sum of the cell voltages. A battery that is connected in parallel has the advantage of a greater currentcarrying capability. Secondary cells can be recharged; primary cells cannot be recharged.

The unit for battery capacity is the ampere-hour. Internal resistance in a battery will decrease the battery voltage when a load is placed on the battery. Shelf life is a term that is used to measure the time that a battery may sit idle and not lose more than 10 percent of its charge. The charge of a battery may refer to one of two things: (1) the relative state of capacity of the battery, or (2) the actual act of applying current flow in the reverse direction to restore the battery to a fully-charged condition. Discharge refers to the act of drawing current from a battery.

If the electrolyte is a paste, the cell is referred to as a dry cell. If the electrolyte is a solution, the cell is called a wet cell. The advantage of a carbon-zinc battery is that it is durable and very inexpensive to produce. The alkaline cell has the advantage of an extended life over that of a carbon-zinc cell of the same size. The nickel-cadmium battery has the advantage of being a dry cell that is a true storage battery with a reversible chemical reaction. The edison cell has the advantage of being a lighter and more rugged secondary cell than a lead-acid storage battery. The mercury cell has the advantage of maintaining a fairly constant output under varying load conditions.