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Helen Verstraelen
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TRANSPORTATION
Full pressure method: pressurised at normal temperature. Cargo holds are spherical or cylindrical Full refrigerated method: low T and pressure just above atmospherical pressure. Material strength at low temperature is important Semi-refrigerated (semi-pressurised) method: at the boiling temperature and corresponding pressure
TRANSPORT
TRANSPORT
METHANE
CH4 Most important component of LNG Transported at -165C (boiling temperature) / 1.04 kg/cm S.G. liquid: 0.474 S.G. gas: 0.554 Explosion limits: 5.3 - 14% Flashpoint: low Self ignition temperature: 595C
LNG TRANSPORT
Safety and Risks of LNG Transportation LNG shipping so far has an excellent safety record No shipboard fatalities over the life of the industry associated with cargo No major losses of cargo and only one minor LNG on board fire (lightning strike near vent riser, cargo tanks not affected) Two groundings resulting in major hull breaches without cargo loss BUT you should never rest on your laurels. R&D programs should continue to search for improvements.
PROPANE
C2H8 Transported at -43C / 1.04 kg/cm S.G. liquid: 0.583 S.G. gas: 1.55 Explosion limits: 2.1 - 9.5% Flashpoint: - 105C Self ignition temperature: 470C
BUTANE
C4H10 Transported at - 1C / 1.04 kg/cm S.G. liquid: 0.602 S.G. gas: 2.9 Explosion limits: 1.8 - 8.5% Flashpoint: - 60C Self ignition temperature: 406C
LPG
Mixture of gases, gases, mainly propane and butane Stored under pressure to keep it in a liquid state Boiling point of LPG varies from about 44C to 0C, so the pressure required to liquefy it is considerable LPG is an attractive fuel for internalinternalcombustion engines because it burns with little air pollution and little solid residue, residue, it does not dilute lubricants, lubricants, and it has a high octane rating.
ETHYLENE OXIDE
C2H4O Transported at -11C / 1.04 kg/cm S.G. liquid: 0.913 S.G. gas: 1.52 Explosion limits: 3 - 100% Flashpoint: - 57C Self ignition temperature: 429C
AMMONIA
NH3 Transported at -32C / 1.04 kg/cm S.G. liquid: 0.683 S.G. gas: 0.597 Explosion limits: 14 - 28% Flashpoint: Self ignition temperature: 652C
VINYLCHLORIDE
C2H3Cl Transported at -14C / 1.04 kg/cm S.G. liquid: 0.965 S.G. gas: 2.20 Explosion limits: 4 - 22% Flashpoint: - 78C Self ignition temperature: 472C
GAS FIRE
Molecules of gas collide => energy is liberated The higher the temperature, the more energy => molecules fall apart into atoms and free radicals => combine with new combustible molecules .... Chain reaction Accelerated or branched chain reaction leads to an explosion
GAS FIRE
EXPLOSION
Can be mechanical, chemical or nuclear
Mechanical: no chemical reaction. Ex: breaking of vessel containing compressed gas Chemical: fast exothermic chemical reaction. Ex: polymerisation, decomposition, fast burning, nuclear..
DEFLAGRATION / DETONATION
Deflagration most common
Speed of flames 1 to 1000 m/s (compared to stationary observer) Pressure: some bars
Detonation:
supersonic (compared to speed of sound in non combusted gas in front of the flames) 1500 - 2000 m/s Shock wave 15 20 bar
DETONATION
Probability of detonation depends on type of fuel Very reactive products like hydrogen acetylene or ethylene might explode when an accident occurs Detonation of a pure mixture methane / air is not known
POSTPONED IGNITION
Depending on dispersion of gas cloud
SPECIFIC GRAVITY
Gases transported by ships:
Liquid: lighter than water Gaseous: often heavier than air, except for methane, natural gas and ammonia
SPECIFIC GRAVITY
gas specific gravity liquid to water (at 25C) or boiling point 0.464 at 164C 0.823 0.873 0.599 0.568 at 104.C 0.915 at 60C 1.458 at 10 C 1.562 at 34C specific gravity gas to air
Methane - CH4 / natural gas Ammonia - NH3 Benzene - C6H6 Butane - C4H10 Ethylene (Ethene) C2H4 Hydrogen sulfide - H2S Sulfur Dioxide - SO2 Chlorine - Cl2
0.5537 / between 0.6 and 0.7 0.596 2.6961 2.0061 0.9683 1.1763 2.264 2.486
DISPERSION OF GAS
DISPERSION OF GAS
Near deckhouses
DISPERSION OF GAS
Near deckhouses
CONTRIBUTING FACTORS
The consequences of a gas fire/explosion depend on:
Type of fuel and atmosphere Dimensions gas cloud and concentration Mixture Place of ignition Power of ignition Dimension, position and type of venting Position and dimension of equipment and structural elements
42 % explosion of gas clouds (inside and outside) 35 % fire 22 % explosions (uncontrolled reactions, BLEVES, mechanical explosions, explosions in equipment 1% evaporation / dilution in air (by wind)
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POOL FIRE
Fire of pool of liquid gas pool fire
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POOL FIRE
Refrigerated transport About 30% of the leaked product will evaporate; whats left will form a pool Low temperature may give cracks in the vessels construction: Spray water to protect the metal and to avoid heating of the construction Gas fire: speed of flames 3 x speed of fuel fire
POOL FIRE
The flames will be blown away by the wind Methane: height flames approximately 3x to 4x diameter pool Important: reduction of heat effect Heat will be dangerous over 100C (electrical isolation will melt at 130C)
POOL FIRE
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POOL FIRE
Pay attention for convection heat (air or water) Pay attention for radiation heat:
Near seat of fire 170 kW/m Skin problems at 4.7 kW/m Second degree burns at 6.2 kW/m Most flammable products catch fire at 12 kW/m
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FIRE FIGHTING
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FIRE FIGHTING
FIRE FIGHTING
FIRE FIGHTING
Water monitors
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FIRE FIGHTING
Powder extinghuishing
FIRE FIGHTING
DO NOT EXTINGUISH !!!!! Except when the seat if the fire is isolated and the surface is reducing OR
To safe human life When the outpouring of the gas can no longer be controlled by water fog When fear for expansion exist
FIRE FIGHTING
Goal of fire fighting is the cooling down of:
Seat of fire Dangerous zone downwind (turning of the vessel might be necessary Equipment exposed to radiation heat
Determine in advance the areas that need cooling Attack the fire from the weather side
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WATER
Seldom used for extinguishing, more for protection. Never to be used on a liquefied gas pool (spreading) Use large jet Spray a water film on the surfaces that need protection Good housekeeping of the installation is essential (corrosion, ice, salt,...)
EFFECT OF WATER
Extinguishing effect on fire:
Cooling: very limited when flashpoint is lower than the water temperature Suffocating: volume steam = 1700 x volume liquid Emulsification: when not soluble in water Dilution: when soluble in water. Use 8 20 l/min/m
EFFECT OF WATER
Control of combustion:
Even when the fire can not be extinguished, it can be controlled Continuous supply of water is necessary: 20 l/min/m of the surface on fire
Protection of surfaces:
containers: > 10 l/min/m exposed surfaces superstructure: > 4 tot 10 l/min/m cables: 12 l/min/m others: > 10 l/min/m
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EFFECT OF WATER
Prevention of expansion of the fire:
Depending of type of fuel: about 10% of what is necessary to extinguish the fire Use the fog position of the nozzles Immediate availability important Closed valves need also be cooled Try to direct the gas cloud and avoid contact with sources of ignition.
POWDER
3 types often used:
Sodium bicarbonate Potassium bicarbonate Urea potassium bicarbonate
Very effective for small LNG and LPG fires Use the powder until all the flames are extinguished Keep cooling down after extinguishment
POWDER
Gas codes require fixed dry powder system which can deliver powder to any part of cargo area with fixed monitors and hand held hoses Also jetty manifolds often protected with portable or fixed dry powder systems Effective for
Gas fires on deck Jet fires on holed pipes Used for vent mast fires
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POWDER
Every powder has its own properties When used with foam: make sure that the powder does not degrade the foam When used with water: make sure that the powder does not disolves in the water
MECHANISM
FIRST:
inhibiting chain reaction (absorption of free radicals in combustion process)
Start the reaction by the generation of active radicals CH2, OH, O and H Na en K salts combine with H and OH to make them rare Ammonia salts provoke an endothermic polymerisation reaction
MECHANISM
SECOND:
Decrease evaporation by reducing the radiation heat Inerting by reducing the oxygen level and with the production of CO2 Slowing down the fire due to the formation of a surface film
Negligible cooling effect. Beware for re-ignition. cool down hot surfaces with water before extinguishing with dry powder.
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POWDER ON BOARD
Never change the type of powder without consulting the constructor / designer Never mix deferent types of powder Powder can not always be used (not almighty): not for metal fires, cellulose nitrate, class A fires if the complete surface can not be covered with the fire (no cooling effect)
DISADVANTAGES
When used on electronically equipment, an almost irremovable membrane can be formed at higher T (above 127C) of humidity > 50% Erosion is possible Visibility almost zero while using powder Powder can cause breathing difficulties. When used on large surfaces, evacuation is needed Exercises are necessary for the correct use of powder
FOAM
Mostly used on surface of pool fires (when confined in bunded area):
Reduces vaporisation rate Intensity of the pool fire is limited Foam depth at least 1 or 2 meter is needed High expansion foam of about 500 to 1 expansion rate has proven to be the best for this purpose
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FOAM
Used on un-ignited pool fires:
Reduces extend of gas cloud Stable foam can freeze at the interface of the foam-gas cloud and will so reduce vaporisation rate. Make sure the right foam is used. If it breaks down into the liquid, it may increase the vaporisation rate.
Foam will not extinguish a liquefied gas fire. Needs to be applied to substantial depth. This is not easy on ships and therefore only found on terminals and not on gas carriers.
INERT GAS
Preventional measures with IG generator:
Permanently inerting of interbarrier spaces or cargo related spaces METHANE
CO2
High pressure bottled CO2 in case of fire in enclosed space
Ventilation stopped, space closed Evacuation needed CO2 injection produces electrostatic charging (be aware when used as precautionary measure in flammable atmosphere)
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CO2
Used into safety relief valves or vent mast fires (after shut down) CO2 is not a cooling agent. Boundaries must be cooled with water as re-ignition is possible with the introduction of oxygen.
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EMERGENCY PROCEDURES
Ship procedures, communication is vital
Plans should deal with:
Missing or trapped personnel Collision Grounding water leakage into hold or interbarrier space Cargo containment leakage Cargo connection rupture, pipeline fracture or cargo spillage Fire in non cargo areas Fire following cargo leakage Fire in compressor or motor room
EMERGENCY PROCEDURES
Terminal procedures:
Less standardised than on ships Command of an on-site incident controller, often overtaken by port authority Incident plans
Cargo spillage or fire on board a ship alongside a jetty Cargo spillage or fire while loading or receiving cargo Cargo spillage or fire not associated with loading or receiving cargo
EMERGENCY PROCEDURES
Emergency shut down (ESD) ship/shore link
Exist on all gas carriers and large terminals Communication is essential Loading: first terminal ESD, then ship Unloading: first ship ESD, then terminal
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EMERGENCY PROCEDURES
Emergency release systems (ERS)
Hand arms
First alarm between predetermined limits (movements of ships): safe shut down Second alarm outside these limits: disconnection with limited spillage
2 ball or butterfly valves close in 5 seconds release coupling opened arm swings by counter balance
EMERGENCY PROCEDURES
EMERGENCY PROCEDURES
Removal of ship from berth
Burning ship alongside is less a hazard if kept alongside where shore services can provide assistance In case of an emergency within the terminal, safe practice to remove ship to prevent involvement Consultation master, terminal, port authority
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EMERGENCY PROCEDURES
Ship-to-ship transfer
Communication between ship masters vital One ship can use emergency resources of other Sometimes separation better option to minimise overall risks and allow unobstructed access by fire tugs and salvage services
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