Hydroprocessing:Hydrotreating &Hydrocracking

Chapters7&9
Light Naphtha
Crude
Oil
Desalter
Atmospheric
Distillation
Vacuum
Distillation
Gas
Separation &
Stabilizer
Solvent
Deasphalting
Coking
Visbreaking
Fluidized
Catalytic
Cracking
Hydro-
cracking
Naphtha
Reforming
Isom-
erization
Sat Gas
Plant
Polymer-
ization
Alkylation
Naphtha
Hydro-
treating
Treating &
Blending
Coke
Fuel Gas
LPG
Aviation
Gasoline
Automotive
Gasoline
Solvents
J et Fuels
Kerosene
Solvents
Heating Oils
Diesel
Residual
Fuel Oils
Lubricant
Greases
Waxes
Asphalts
Heavy
Naphtha
Kerosene
Distillate
AGO
LVGO
HVGO
Vacuum
Residuum
Cat
Distillates
Gas Oil
Hydro-
treating
DAO
Isomerate
Gas
Alkyl
Feed
Alkylate
Polymerization
Naphtha
Gases
Butanes
LPG
Reformate
Naphtha
Fuel Oil
Bottoms
Distillates
Distillate
Hydro-
treating
Cat
Naphtha
Cycle Oils
SDA
Bottoms
Coker
Naphtha
Heavy
Coker
Gas
Oil
Light Coker
Gas Oil
Sulfur
Plant
Sulfur
Naphtha
Fuel Oil
Solvent
Dewaxing
Lube Oil
Waxes
2
Purpose
Hydrotreating
Removeheteroatoms&saturatecarbon
carbonbonds
Sulfur,nitrogen,oxygen,&metals
removed
Olefinic &aromaticbondssaturated
o Convertbenzeneingasolineblend
stocks
Minimalcracking
Minimalconversion 10%to20%typical
Productssuitableforfurtherprocessing
orfinalblending
Reforming,catalyticcracking,
hydrocracking
Hydrocracking
Severeformofhydroprocessing
Breakcarboncarbonbonds
Drasticreductionofmolecularweight
Reduceaveragemolecularweight&
producehigheryieldsoffuelproducts
50%+conversion
Productsmoreappropriatefordieselthan
gasoline
3
HydroprocessingObjectives
Feedstocks DesiredProducts ProcessObjectives
Naphthas Catalyticreformerfeed RemovalofS,N,&olefins
LPG Hydrocracking
Atmosphericgasoils Diesel RemovalofS,aromatics,&nparaffins
Jet RemovalofS&aromatics
Ethylenefeedstock Removalofaromatics
Naptha Hydrocracking
Vaccumgasoils LSFO RemovalofS
FCCfeed RemovalofS,N,&metals
Diesel RemovalofS&aromatics
Hydrocracking
Kerosene/jet RemovalofS&aromatics
Hydrocracking
Naptha Hydrocracking
LPG Hydrocracking
Ethylenefeedstock Removalofaromatics
Hydrocracking
Lubeoilbasestock RemovalofS,N,&aromatics
Hydrocracking
Residuum LSFO RemovalofS
FCCfeedstock RemovalofS,N,CCR,&metals
Cokerfeedstock RemovalofS,CCR,&metals
Diesel Hydrocracking
4
HandbookofPetroleumRefiningProcesses,3
rd
ed.
Ed.RobertA.Meyers,McGrawHill,2004
TypicalHydrogenUsage
5
RefiningOverview PetroleumProcesses&Products,
byFreemanSelf,EdEkholm,&KeithBowers,AIChE CDROM,2000
CharacteristicsofPetroleumProducts
6
RefiningOverview PetroleumProcesses&Products,
byFreemanSelf,EdEkholm,&KeithBowers,AIChE CDROM,2000
Hydrotreating:justenoughconversiontoremoveundesirableatoms;
hydrogenadditionforatomremoval
CharacteristicsofPetroleumProducts
7
RefiningOverview PetroleumProcesses&Products,
byFreemanSelf,EdEkholm,&KeithBowers,AIChECDROM,2000
Hydrocracking:hydrogenadditiontominimizecokeformation
HydroprocessingTrends
Hydrogenisubiquitousinrefinery&expectedtoincrease
Produceshigheryields&upgradethequalityoffuels
Thetypicalrefineryrunsatahydrogendeficit hydrogenshortvs.hydrogen
long
Ashydroprocessing becomesmoreprevalent,thisdeficitwillincrease
Ashydroprocessing progressesinseverity,thehydrogendemandsincreasedramatically
Drivenbyseveralfactors
Increaseduseofhydrodesulfurization forlowsulfurfuels
Heavier&highersulfurcrudes
Reductionindemandforheavyfueloil
MorecompleteprotectionofFCCUcatalysts
Demandforhighqualitycoke
Increasedproductionofdiesel
8
SourcesofHydrogeninaRefinery
Byproductfromotherprocesses
CatalyticReformer
Mostimportantsourceofhydrogenfor
therefiner
Continuouslyregeneratedreformer:90
vol%
Semicontinuouslyregeneratedreformer:
80vol%
FCCUOffgas
5vol%hydrogenwithmethane,ethane&
propane
Severalrecoverymethods(canbe
combined)
Cryogenic
Pressureswingadsorption(PSA)
Membraneseparation
Manufactured
SteamMethaneReforming(SMR)
Mostcommonmethodofmanufacturing
hydrogen
90 95vol%typicalpurity
Gasification/PartialOxidation
Producesynthesisgas(syngas)
Hydrogenrecovery
Pressureswingadsorption(PSA)
Membraneseparation
Moreexpensivethansteamreformingbut
canuselowqualitybyproductstreams
9
HydroprocessingCatalysts
Hydrotreating
Desiredfunction
Cobaltmolybdenum sulfurremoval&
olefinsaturation
Nickelmolybdenum nitrogenremoval&
aromaticsaturation
Reactorconfiguration
Downflow fixedbed temperatureto
controlfinalsulfurcontent
Firstbedmayguardbedfornickel,
vanadium,&arsenic
o Cheapercatalysts
o Mostremovalofhetereo atomsin
subsequentbeds
Selectivecatalystsforsulfurremoval
withoutolefinsaturation
Maintaininghighoctanerating
Hydrocracking
Crystallinesilicaaluminabasewitharare
earthmetaldepositedinthelattice
Platinum,palladium,tungsten,and/or
nickel
Feedstockmustfirstbehydrotreated
Catalystsdeactivate&cokedoesformeven
withhydrogenpresent
Hydrocrackersrequireperiodic
regenerationofthefixedbedcatalyst
systems
Channelingcausedbycokeaccumulationa
majorconcern
Cancreatehotspotsthatcanleadto
temperaturerunaways
Reactorconfiguration
Ebullientbeds pelletizedcatalystbed
expandedbyupflow offluids
Expandedcirculatingbed allows
continuouswithdrawalofcatalystfor
regeneration
10
ReactorBedConfigurations
11
PetroleumRefiningProcesses
J.G.Speight&B.zm
MarcelDekker,Inc.,2002,pg.452
HydrotreatingTechnologies
12
Provider Features
CDTECH Hydrotreating.CDHydro &CDHDS
ChevronLummusGlobalLLC Hydrotreating.ISOTREATING
DuPont Hydrotreating
HaldorTopsoeA/S Hydrotreating
UOP Hydrotreating
Axens Hydrotreating,diesel
GTCTechnology Hydrotreating,pyrolysisgasoline
UOP Hydrotreating/desulfurization.SelectFining
ChevronLummusGlobalLLC HydrotreatingRDS/VRDS/UFR/OCR
Axens Hydrotreatingresid
Axens Hydrodearomatization.2stageHDS/HAD
Axens Hydrotreating,gasoline,1or2stage,HDS
Hydrodesulfurization
Sulfur
Sulfurconvertedtohydrogensulfide(H2S)
Addedhydrogenbreakscarbonsulfurbonds&saturatesremaininghydrocarbonchains
Formofsulfurbonds
Sulfurinnaphthagenerallymercaptans(thiols)&sulfides
Inheavierfeeds,moresulfurasdisulphides&thiophenes
Lightends
Heavierdistillatesmakemorelightendsfrombreakingmorecomplexsulfurmolecules
Unsaturatedcarboncarbonbonds
Olefinssaturated onehydrogenmoleculeaddedforeachdoublebond
Olefinsprevalentincrackedstreams cokerorvisbreakernaphtha,catalyticcrackercycleoil,catalyticcracker
gasoline
Aromaticringshydrogenatedtocycloparaffins(naphthenes)
Severeoperation
Hydrogenconsumptionstrongfunctionofcomplexityofthearomatics
prevalentinheavydistillatehydrotreating,gasoilhydrotreating,hydrocracking
Selectivecatalystsavailableforhydrotreatingcatgasolineforsulfurremovalbutnotsaturateolefins
Maintainhighoctaneratings
13
HydrogenConsumption
Chemicalconsumptionduetohydrogenationreactions
Crackingreactionsofcarboncarbonbondsminimalinhydrotreating,evenduring
aromaticsaturation
Olefinicbondseasiertosaturatethanaromaticbonds
Straightrunstockshaveessentiallyzeroolefins
Hydrogenislostinequilibriumwithlightgases
Amountissignificant &maydoubleamountrequiredforsulfurremoval
Hydrogenabsorbedinliquidproducts
Usuallysmallcomparedtosulfurremovalneeds 1lb/bbl
Hydrogenremovedwithpurgegas
Usedtomaintainahighpurityofhydrogen lightendsdilutethehydrogen
concentration
Usuallysmallcomparedtosulfurremovalneeds
14
YieldEstimates
Difficultpartlybecauseconversionoffeedstockisrelativelylow
Liquidproductsgenerallyhavegravity+1API
Generalrelationshipofhydrogenrequiredvs.sulfurcontent
15
0
40
80
120
160
200
240
280
320
360
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0
WeightPercentSulfurinFeed
S
C
F
B

o
f

H
y
d
r
o
g
e
n
PetroleumRefineryProcessEconomics,2nded.,
byRobertE.Maples,PennWellCorp.,2000
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0
SulfurinFeed[wt%]
S
C
F
B

o
f

H
y
d
r
o
g
e
n
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
m
o
l

H
2

m
o
l

S
Naphtha,54API
Kerosene,40API
GasOil,24API
T
y
p
i
c
a
l

G
a
s
o
l
i
n
e
T
y
p
i
c
a
l

K
e
r
o
s
e
n
e
T
y
p
i
c
a
l

G
a
s

GeneralEffectsofProcessVariables
Reactorinlettemperature&pressure
Increasingtemperatureincreaseshydrogenationbutdecreasesthenumberofactivecatalyst
sites
Temperaturecontrolisusedtooffsetthedeclineincatalystactivity
Increasingpressureincreaseshydrogenpartialpressure&increasestheseverityof
hydrogenation
Recyclehydrogen
Requirehighconcentrationofhydrogenatreactoroutlet
Hydrogenamountismuchmorethanstoichiometric
Highconcentrationsrequiredtopreventcokelaydown&poisoningofcatalyst
o Particularlytruefortheheavierdistillatescontainingresinsandasphaltenes
Hydrogenquenchalsocoolsreactortominimizecoking
Purgehydrogen
Removeslightends&helpsmaintainhighhydrogenconcentration
16
TypicalProcessParameters
Feedstock
Naphtha 160 340 570 700 100 450 250 1500 5 8 36 48 500 1200
Kerosene 320 465 625 700 150 500 500 1500 4 6 36 48 300 600
GasOil 465 660 645 750 150 700 1000 2000 2 6 36 48 200 400
VacuumGasOil 660 1200 680 750 450 800 1000 4000 1 3 36 48 50 350
Residua 650 EP 700 840 750 2250 1500 10,000 0.5 2 12 24 2 50
ProcessConditions
LHSV Months bbl/lb
BoilingRange Temperature HydrogenPressure HydrogenRate CatalystLife
F F psi scf/bbl
17
RefiningOverview PetroleumProcesses&Products,
byFreemanSelf,EdEkholm,&KeithBowers,AIChECDROM,2000
http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/servicerpt/ulsd/figd3.html
PetroleumRefiningProcesses,
byJamesG.Speight&Baki zm,MarcelDekker,Inc.,2002 LHSV=ReactantLiquidHourlySpaceVelocity
NaphthaHydrotreating
Naphthahydrotreated primarilyforsulfurremoval
Mostlymercaptans (RSH)&sulfides(RSR')
Somedisulfides(RSSR'),&thiophenes (ringstructures)
Mostcommoncatalystcobaltmolybdenumonalumina
Chemicalhydrogenconsumptiontypically50to250scf/bbl
Fordesulfurizationcontainingupto1wt%sulfur 70to100scf/bbl
Significantnitrogen&sulfurremoval 250scf/bbl
18
NaphthaHydrotreatingProcess
Reactortypicallyat200psig&700F
Temperatureincreasestocompensate
fordecreaseincatalystactivity
Liquidspacevelocity~2perhour
Hydrogenrecycle~2,000scf/bbl
Acidgasremovalmaynotbedirectly
incorporatedintorecyclegasloop
Overheadvaporfromfractionator to
saturatesgasplanttorecoverlight
hydrocarbons&removeH2S
Productfractionation
Pentane/hexaneoverheadeitherto
blendingorisomerization
Bottomstoreformer
19
Haldo Topse processflow
2011RefiningProcessesHandbook
HydrocarbonProcessing,2011
DistillateHydrotreating
Ingeneral,allliquiddistillatestreamscontainsulfurcompoundsthatmustbe
removed
Saturateolefinsindieseltoimprovethecetanenumber
Hydrogenationatthehighpressureproducessmallamountsofnaphthafrom
hydrocracking
Requiredtogetattheembeddedsulfur
Dieselhydrotreaterstabilizerwillhaveanuppersidestreamdrawproducingthenaphtha
whichisrecycledtomotorgasolineprocessing
20
DistillateHydrotreatingProcess
Reactortypicallyat800F
Hydrogenrecyclestartsat2,000scf/bbl;
consumption100to400scf/bbl
Conditionshighlydependentupon
feedstock
Distillate(jetfuel&diesel)with85%
95%sulfurremoval
300psig
hydrogenconsumption200 300scf/bbl
Saturationofdieselforcetane number
improvement
over800scf/bblhydrogen
upto1,000psig
21
Haldo Topse processflow
2011RefiningProcessesHandbook
HydrocarbonProcessing,2011
BoilingPointRangesforProducts
22
Kaes's Example Distillate Hydrotreating Problem
-
500
1,000
1,500
2,000
2,500
3,000
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800
BPT [F]
I
n
c
r
e
m
e
n
t
a
l

Y
i
e
l
d

[
b
p
d
]
35-Treated.Distillate
31-Liquids
27-Off.Gas
1-fresh.charge
19,145 bpd Sour Distillate Feed
18,292 bpd Treated Distillate
GasOilHydrotreating
Catalyticcrackerfeedstocks(atmosphericgasoil,lightvacuumgasoil,solventdeasphalting
gasoil)hydrotreatedseverely
Sulfurremoval
Openingofaromaticrings
Removalofheavymetals
Desulfurizationofgasoilcanbeachievedwitharelativelymodestdecompositionof
structures
Gasoilscanbecontaminatedwithresins&asphaltenes
Depositedinhydrotreater
Requirecatalystreplacementwithashorterrunlengththandeterminedbydeactivation
Guardchambermaybeinstalledtoprolongbedlife
Nickelmolybdenumcatalystsystemforseverehydrotreating
Gasoilunitsmoreexpensivebecauseofmoreintensivehydrogenation
Quench
Multistageflash
Morecomplexstrippers
23
GasOilHydrotreatingProcess
Normallytworeactorbeds control
temperaturerise
Hydrogenpartialpressurerelatedto
ringsaturation&amountofsulfur
Forlowringsaturation300psigmaybe
sufficient
1,200psigwillconvert25%ring
saturation&somewhatlessthan95%
sulfurremoval
Pressuresashighas1,500psigcan
achievesaturationof30%ofaromatic
rings
Hydrogenabsorptionof300scf/bbl
couldgiveabout80%sulfurremoval&
onlyrequire300psig
Noringsaturationatthesemild
conditions
24
ChevronLummus GlobalLLCprocessflow
2011RefiningProcessesHandbook
HydrocarbonProcessing,2011
Hydrotreating InstalledCost
Includes
Productfractionation.
Completepreheat,reaction,and
hydrogencirculationfacilities.
Sufcientheatexchangetocoolproducts
toambienttemperature.
Centralcontrolsystem.
Initialcatalystcharge.
Excludes
Feedfractionation.
Makeuphydrogengeneration.
Sulfurrecoveryfromoffgas.
Coolingwater,system,andpowersupply.
25
PetroleumRefiningTechnology&Economics,5
th
ed.
Gary,Handwerk,&Kaiser
CRCPress,2007
SaturationofBenzeneinGasoline
Strategiesforreductionofbenzeneingasoline
Reducebenzeneprecursorsinfeedtoreformer
Hydrotreat/saturatebenzeneinC6boilingrange
fraction
UOPsBenSat
TM
processcanbeusedonalight
reformerstream
Upto30vol%benzeneinfeed
Norecyclegas
Norecyclecompressor
Norecyclecompressionpowerrequirements
Longcatalystlife
Highcatalystselectivity
Pros&cons
NoincreaseinRVP
Mildvolumetricswelling,+1to+6vol%
Doloseoctanerating
26
Hydrocracking
Purpose:processgasoiltobreakcarboncarbonbondsoflargearomatic
compounds&removecontaminants
Hydrogenation(additionofhydrogen)
Cracking(carboncarbonscission)ofaromaticbonds
Typicallycreatesdistillaterangeproducts,notgasolinerangeproducts
27
HydrocrackingTechnologies
28
Provider Features
Axens Hydrocracking
ChevronLummusGlobalLLC Hydrocracking.ISOCRACKING
DuPont Hydrocracking
HaldorTopsoeA/S Hydrocracking
ShellGlobalSolutions Hydrocracking
UOP Hydrocracking
ExxonMobilResearch&Engineering Hydrocracking,moderatepressure.MPHC
ChevronLummusGlobalLLC Hydrocracking,resid
Axens Hydrocracking,residue.HOil
OC
UseofYieldCharts&Equations
29
Volume Mass Density AveBPT WatsonK
Hydrogen
Forcracking A
Sulfur 2mol/molS
Dissolvedin
product
1lb/bblfeed
H2S SulfurinFeed
C3 1.0+0.09*(Y
LN
)
IC4 0.377*(Y
LN
) Calculate Pure
NC4 0.186*(Y
LN
) Calculate Pure
C5to180F Fig.7.3(Y
LN
) Calculate Calculate 131F Fig.7.5
180to400F Fig.7.4 Calculate Calculate 281F Fig.7.5
400to520F A Calculate 460F Fig.7.5
HydrocrackerYieldExample
30
Example
HydrocrackerYieldTrends
Figure7.3
Thelighterthe feedstockthemorereadily
itcracks
Thecurvesforthe10.9WatsonKfactor
are10%lowerthanthecurvesforthe
12.1WatsonKfactor.
Suggeststhecalculationprocedure:
31

(
| |
=
|
(

\ .

12.1
10.9
1 0.1
12.1 10.9
W
K
Y Y
HydrocrackerYieldTrends
Figure7.4
Startovercrackingtheheavynaphtha
fractionwhenthelightnaphthayields
getsabove25vol%.
32
HydrocrackerYieldTrends
33
BoilingPointRangesforProducts
34
Kaes's Hydrocracker Example
-
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200
BPT [F]
I
n
c
r
e
m
e
n
t
a
l

Y
i
e
l
d

[
b
p
d
]
14
21
20-OffGas
1-oil.feed
HydrocrackingFeeds
Typicalfeeds
Catcrackercycleoil
Highlyaromaticwithsulfur,smallring&polynucleararomatics,catalystfines;usuallyhas
highviscosity
Hydrocrackedtoformhighyieldsofjetfuel,kerosene,diesel,&heatingoil
Gasoilsfromvisbreaker
Aromatic
Gasoilfromthedelayedcoker
Aromatic,olefinic,withsulfur
Usuallymoreeconomicaltorouteatmospheric&vacuumgasoilstothecat
crackertoproduceprimarilygasoline&somediesel
35
GasOilHydrocrackerFeed
Hydrocrackingdoesabetterjobofprocessingaromaticringswithoutcokingthan
catalyticcracking
Hydrogenusedtohydrogenatepolynucleararomatics(PNAs)
Reducesfrequencyofaromaticcondensation
Hydrocrackingnotasattractiveasdelayedcokingforresidshighinresins,
asphaltenes&heteroatomcompounds
Heteroatoms&metalsprevalentinresins&asphaltenespoisonhydroprocessing
catalysts
Highconcentrationsofresins&asphalteneswillstillultimatelycoke
FeedslimitedtoaConradsonCarbonNumber(CCR)of8wt%
Feedsrequirehighpressures&largeamountsofhydrogen
36
GasOilHydrocrackerProducts
Hydrocrackingprimarilytomakedistillates
InUShydrocrackingnormallyaspecializedoperationusedtooptimizecatalyticcracker
operation
InUScatcrackingpreferredtomakegasolinefromheavierfractions
Hydrocrackingcapacityisonlyabout8%ofthecrudedistillationcapacity
Notallrefinerieshavehydrocrackers
Intentistominimizetheproductionofheavyfueloil
Lightendsareapproximately5%ofthefeed.
Middledistillates(kerosene,jetfuel,diesel,heatingoil)stillcontainuncracked
polynucleararomatics
Allliquidfractionsarelowinsulfur&olefins
37
Hydrocracking Chemistry
Crackingreactions
Saturatedparaffins cracked
toformlowermolecular
weightolefins&paraffins
Sidechainscrackedoffsmall
ringaromatics(SRA)&
cycloparaffins (naphthenes)
Sidechainscrackedoffresins
&asphaltenes leaving
thermallystablepolynuclear
aromatics(PNAs)
Butcondensation
(dehydrogenation)also
occursifnotlimitedby
hydrogenation
Hydrogenationreactions
Exothermicgivingoffheat
Hydrogeninsertedto
saturatenewlyformed
moleculefromaromatic
cracking
Olefinsaresaturatedtoform
lighthydrocarbons,
especiallybutane
Aromaticringshydrogenated
tocycloparaffins
(naphthenes)
Carboncarbonbonds
cleavedtoopenaromatic&
cycloparaffins (naphthenes)
rings
HeteroatomsformH
2
S,NH
3
,
H
2
O,HCl
38
Isomerization Reactions
Isomerization provides
branchingofalkylgroupsof
paraffins andopeningof
naphthenicrings
CondensationReactions.
Suppressedbyhydrogen
HydrogenConsumption&Loss
Heteroatomcarbonbonds
broken&saturated
Createslightends
Heavierdistillatesmakemore
lightendsfrombreakingmore
complexmolecules
SulfurconvertedtoH
2
S
NitrogenconvertedtoNH
3
OxygenconvertedtoH
2
O
Organicchloridesconvertedto
HCl
Saturationofcarboncarbon
bonds
Olefinssaturatedtoformlight
hydrocarbons.
Consumptionstoichiometric
onehydrogenmoleculeadded
foreachdoublebond
Aromaticringshydrogenated
tocycloparaffins(naphthenes).
Severeoperation hydrogen
consumptionstrongfunctionof
complexityofthearomatics
Isomerizationreactions
generallynotpresent
Metalsdepositeddirectlyonthe
catalysts
Excessmetalsreducecatalyst
activity&promote
dehydrogenation(produces
coke&hydrogen)
39
Crackingofcarboncarbon
bonds
Severeoperation hydrogen
consumptionstrongfunction
ofcomplexityofthearomatics
Hydrogenmixedwithproducts
Equilibriumwithlightgases
Significant maydouble
amountrequiredforsulfur
removal
Absorbedinliquidproducts
Usuallysmallcomparedto
hydrogenusedforsulfur
removal
Lostwithpurgegas
Severityofoperations
40
Hydrocracking solutionssqueezemoreULSDfromheavyends
E.Benazzi,J.Bonnardot,F.Morel,HydrocarbonProcessing,November2009
SingleStageHydrocracking
41
Haldo Topse processflow
2011RefiningProcessesHandbook
HydrocarbonProcessing,2011
SingleStageHydrocracking withHDS1
st
Step
42
PetroleumRefineryProcessEconomics,2
nd
ed.,
RobertE.Maples,Figure141,2000
UOPTwoStageUnicrackingProcess
43
http://www.uop.com/hydrocrackingunicrackingstage/
UOPsHyCycleUnicracking
TM
Process
44
http://www.uop.com/objects/Hycycle.pdf
Hydrocrackervs.FCCInstalledCost
HydrocrackerstendtobemoreexpensivethanFCCs
50,000bpddistillateFCC $150millioninstalledcost
50,000bpd@2000scf/bbl $350millioninstalledcost
45
PetroleumRefiningTechnology&Economics,5
th
ed.
Gary,Handwerk,&Kaiser
CRCPress,2007