N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3. Final Report On Archaeological Investigations at Site 34 in The Townland of Newrath, Co Kilkenny Volume 1

Project Code: NWB03
Client: Waterford Co. Council
Date: May 2009

N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3.
Final Report on archaeological Investigations at Site 34
in the townland of Newrath, Co Kilkenny
Volume 1

By: Brendon Wilkins, Scott Timpany and Mick Drum.
Excavated under Licence 04E0319
Director: Brendon Wilkins
Chainage: 670
NGR: 25921 11446

Project Code: NWB03
Client: Waterford Co. Council
Date: February 2009

N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3.
Final Report on archaeological Investigations at
Site 34 in the townland of Newrath, Co Kilkenny
Volume 1

By: Brendon Wilkins, Scott Timpany and Mick Drum.
Excavated under Licence 04E0319
Director: Brendon Wilkins
Chainage: 670
NGR: 25921 11446
Headland Archaeology Ltd: N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3, Site 34 Final Report Volume 1

CONTENTS

1 Summary

2 Introduction

3 Site location and description

4 Archaeological Background

5 Aims and methodology

6 Summary of results by area

7 Stratigraphy

8 Description of archaeological and paleoenvironmental results by phase

Later Mesolithic (5500 – 4000 cal. BC)
The Neolithic period (4000 – 2200 cal. BC)
The Bronze Age (2200‐600 cal. BC)
The Iron Age period (600 – cal. AD 400)
The Medieval period (AD 1169‐1540)
The Early Modern period

9 Discussion

10 References

2
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS

Figure 1 Site Location
Figure 2 Extract from Register of Monuments and Places
Figure 3 Area 1 features and structures
Figure 4 Area 2 structures
Figure 5 Area 3 features
Figure 6 Area 4 structures
Figure 7 Area 4b structures
Figure 8 Brick kiln
Figure 9 Position of Mesolithic features and finds in relation to overall
site
Figure 10a Position of Early and Middle Bronze Age structures in
relation to overall site
Figure 10b Position of Late Bronze Age structures in relation to overall
site
Figure 11 Position of Iron Age structures in relation to overall site
Figure 12 Position of Iron Age structures in relation to overall site
Figure 13 Archaeological zones, structures and section locations
Figure 14 Area Sections
Figure 15 Generalised stratigraphy derived from engineering borehole
data cross referenced with site section from trench 19
Figure 16 Mesolithic reconstruction
Figure 17 Neolithic reconstruction
Figure 18 Early Bronze Age reconstruction
Figure 19 Later Bronze Age reconstruction
Figure 20 Iron Age reconstruction
Figure 21 Medieval reconstruction
Figure 22 Late Mesolithic artefact illustrations
Figure 23 Partially modified stone, hour‐glass perforation
Figure 24 Selection of Alder roundwoods, Area 4, Structure 341501 and
341512
Figure 25 Alder roundwood, Area 1, 34007
Figure 26 Felled ash log, Area 2
Figure 27 Notched timbers, Area 1
Figure 28 Rectangular edged jam curve, Area 2
Figure 29 Alder stake, Area 1

LIST OF PLATES

Plate 1 Area 1, Cutting A. View north of south facing section
Plate 2 Area 1, Structure [34007] facing north
Plate 3 Area 2, indicating cuttings G, H and I
Plate 4 Area 2, Cutting I, indicating silt filled channel [341512]
Plate 5 Area 2, Cutting I, north facing section
Plate 6 Area 3, timber lined trough [341077] facing north
Plate 7 Area 4, showing trackway [341501] in foreground
Plate 8 Area 2, medieval structure under excavation
Plate 9 Area 4, Bronze Age structure under excavation
Plate 10 Area 1, Iron Age hurdle bridging tidal creek
Plate 11 Area 1, Iron Age structure being drawn
3

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1 Idealised stratigraphy for Area 1
Table 2 Bronze Age Structures
Table 3 Iron Age Structures
Table 4 Medieval Structures
4

Appendices

1. Context registers

• Site 34 ‐ Area 1 structure register
• Site 34 ‐ Area 1 Extension/Mesolithic context register
• Site 34 ‐ Area 2 Extension context register
• Site 34 ‐ Area 3 context register
• Site 34 ‐ Area 1,2 ,4 and 4B (wetland areas) deposit register
• Site 34 – Brick kiln context register

2. Finds registers

Site 34 – all finds registers except the brick kiln.
Site 34 – brick kiln finds register

3. Sample registers

Site 34 – sample register for all areas except brick kiln areas.
Site 34 – sample register for brick kiln area

4. Wood sample register

Site 34 – Bulk and individual wood sample registers for all wetland areas (1, 2, 4 and 4B).

5. Deposit depths

Deposit minimum, maximum and average depths for wetland areas 1, 2 and 4.

6. Archive quantities

7. Radiocarbon dates

8. Integrated Wood Report (Volume 2)

9. Paleoenvironmental Report (Volume 3)

5

1. Summary

This report presents the final results of archaeological and paleoenvironmental investigations
carried out on behalf of Waterford City Council as part of Contract 3 Archaeological
Investigations prior to construction of the N25 Waterford Bypass. The work was undertaken
under Excavation Licence number 04E0319, covering site 34 and 35, in the townland of
Newrath, Co. Kilkenny. The licence to excavate Site 34 and 35 was issued by the Department
of the Environment, Heritage and Local Government to Brendon Wilkins of Headland
Archaeology Ltd.

On this site testing identified a potential brushwood platform and trackway (licence no.
03E0435: Wren 2003) and as a result archaeological investigation was carried out from June to
December 2004. Five separate areas were excavated at Site 34 containing 21 individual
structures with distinct areas of activity ranging from the Mesolithic to the nineteenth
century. Site 34 was located on the eastern edge of an area of deep Holocene sediments that
accumulated in response to a progressive rise in relative sea level.

The archaeological deposits were located in an area where these sediments are no more than
2‐3 m deep, on a probable shelving terrace now covered by estuarine deposits. They were
grouped into five main phases of activity: later Mesolithic flint scatters on a dry land surface
predating the accumulation of organic peat deposits; Bronze Age trackways and informal
brushwood platforms accessing the main river channel from the dryland margin; Bronze Age
burnt mound on the eastern shore of the wetland area; Iron Age hurdles intended to cross
tidal creeks for salt marsh grazing; late medieval brushwood structures to aid access across
the salt marsh; and a 19th century brick kiln making use of the abundant alluvial clays. A
multi‐proxy investigation was undertaken on two monoliths collected from Area 1 of the site,
including: pollen and non‐pollen palynomorphs, plant macrofossil, wood identification,
foraminifera and diatom analyses. These results have been combined with the archaeological
results to give an insight into the specific human response to the changing landscape at Site
34 and the surrounding area in general. The following report is structured to present this
information in an integrated format. A summary of the archaeological material identified in
each area is followed by a detailed description of the archaeological and paleoenvironmental
results in a phased sequence.

2. Introduction

Waterford Co. Council proposes to construct an 18 km bypass around Waterford City, with
associated link roads. The route forms part of the N25 and runs from Kilmeaden in Co.
Waterford to Slieverue in Co. Kilkenny. This report is preceded by a preliminary report of
archaeological investigations at Site 34 and 35 in the townland of Newrath, Co. Kilkenny,
undertaken as part of pre‐construction archaeological investigations of the N25 Waterford
Bypass. The work followed the identification of several possible archaeological structures
during Contract 2 Archaeological Testing in 2003 (Licence no. 03E0435; Wren 2003).

6
3. Site Location and Description (Figure 1)

Site 34 was located at NGR 25921/11446 and Chainage 600‐710. It was situated immediately
east of the existing Newrath road in the townland of Newrath, Co. Kilkenny. All of the
excavated areas were located between Ch. 600‐710, at the southern portion of the wetland
area, within the CPO line (fig 2). The site was generally flat, with a slight rise towards the
eastern boundary. It was poorly drained agricultural pasture, reclaimed in recent years as a
result of significant landscape changes including the construction of the railway and
canalised Strangsmill stream.

4. Archaeological Background

The first clearly identifiable phase of archaeological activity was represented by 3 later
Mesolithic Bann Flakes, struck flint and potential negative cut features. Extending from the
high ground on the eastern shoreline out to the open channel of the river Suir, the gradient of
the underlying terrace was the key factor influencing the location of these archaeological
deposits.

As mean sea levels rose, the Mesolithic land surface was colonised by reed swamp vegetation,
creating the conditions for the steady accumulation of peat deposits. This was then colonised
by Alder Carr, and probably because tree cover was impenetrable, no archaeological material
dating to the Neolithic was recovered from Site 34 at this time. Significant Neolithic remains
were identified at Site 35 and Site 37 (Site 35: NGR 259210, 114460; height 15 m OD;
excavation licence no. 04E0319; Site 37: NGR 259260, 113500; height 18 m OD; excavation
licence no. 04E288.). Two Neolithic plank‐built structures were excavated at Site 37,
approximately 150 m south‐east of Site 35 (Wren 2005), and an axe hoard was excavated at
Site 35, approximately 100m to the east of Site 34 (Wilkins 2005).

In the Bronze Age, subsequent rising sea levels and the formation of a brackish zone resulted
in the need for people to cross a peat bog in order to reach the water’s edge. Wooden
trackways (Area 4) and brushwood platforms (Area 1 and 2) were constructed at considerable
distance into the estuarine deposits, creating access routes from the eastern shore out towards
the main river channel.

The archaeology present in Area 3 was located at the wetland/dryland margin. A single burnt
mound with a timber lined trough, burnt mound spread and arrangement of possible
structural stakeholes were excavated on the eastern shoreline above the highest extent of the
peat. In the Iron Age, the peat was inundated by estuarine silts, with the land becoming a salt
marsh environment. This was both an erosional and depositional environment, with tidal
creeks draining the rising and receding waters. Brushwood hurdles intended to cross tidal
creeks for salt marsh grazing have been identified in this phase (Area 1), and in the medieval
period (Area 2). In the early modern period, the marsh was drained and reclaimed, and the
alluvial clays used as raw material for a brick kiln.

7
5. Aims and Methodology

Estuarine landscapes have been the focus of extensive research in the UK and mainland
Europe, but this was one of the first times such a site had been excavated on a road scheme in
Ireland. As a consequence of no major work having been undertaken previously in similar
conditions, the starting assumption was that this type of landscape was archaeologically
marginal and would not reward extensive investigation. Nonetheless, the wetland area was
subject to extensive test trenching, revealing a potential brushwood structure in what would
late be designated Area 1, and a possible trackway in what would become Area 4.

The excavation of Area 1 was initially undertaken to investigate potential brushwood
structures encountered during Contract 2 works. The objective of the work was to preserve
by record any archaeological features or deposits that would be adversely affected by the
proposed road construction. A programme of additional testing was also conducted across
the rest of the wetland area. The subsequent discovery of more worked wood led to the
excavation of three additional areas under an extended licence (Areas 2, 3 and 4). Area 1 was
then extended still further when later Mesolithic finds, associated with negative cut features,
were encountered below the accumulated alluvial and organic deposits.

The excavation and recording strategy focussed on relating distinct cultural events, like the
construction of a trackway, with natural changes in the depositional record, such as the onset
of peat formation. Areas were divided into cuttings, with each cutting excavated in spits.
Successive phases of superstructure and substructure were exposed, recorded and sampled,
with individual worked wood specimens sampled for tool mark analysis, and bulk samples
taken for species identification and dating. Section baulks were left in‐situ, and a consistent
description of the appearance, composition and boundary distinctness of sediments obtained.
Samples suitable for radiocarbon dating purposes were collected from all the main
stratigraphic sequences, in addition to monolith samples for more detailed analysis. A multi‐
proxy investigation was undertaken on the two monoliths collected from Area 1 of the site,
including: pollen and non‐pollen palynomorphs, plant macrofossil, wood identification,
foraminifera and diatom analyses.

6. Summary of results by Area

Estuarine landscapes have traditionally been conceived as neutral environments ripe for
exploitation, with archaeological remains explained in terms of cultural adaptation to a rich
wetland resource. These perspectives have been challenged by recent moves to consider the
ways that aspects of social identity such as status, kinship, ethnicity or gender, may have
influenced and been influenced by living and working in wetlands (Van de Noort and
O’Sullivan 2006). If people define their sense of self by what they do, then the movement into
estuarine salt marshes and fens would have had a powerful structuring influence. Daily life
would have been governed by cultural convention relating to the types of work that could be
undertaken by individuals or groups and the specific places it could be done.

Taking this approach at Newrath has enabled us to emphasise the practical, lived experience
of people’s knowledge of the wetland and to situate this within specific cultural and historical
contexts (Figure 8). The structures have provided insights into the choices and decisions that
people made to create route ways for short‐term access to the wetland. Wood species and
tree‐ring studies have demonstrated how people have used materials local to the site, and the
8
multi‐proxy paleoenvironmental study has allowed us to understand the biographies of these
structures in their changing environments. By constructing an onsite history of the human
inhabitation of the landscape from the Mesolithic to the present day, and recording the long‐
term formation processes as the landscape changed over time, we can conceive of Newrath as
a dynamic social stage.

Area 1
An area of 322 square metres was topsoil striped by machine, exposing a series of brushwood
hurdles and trackways associated with natural silt filled channels. These structures were
excavated in 6 cuttings (A‐F) down to the level of the glacial till. In total, 8 brushwood
structures were excavated in Area 1, some of which extended into multiple cuttings. Structure
[34005] was located in cutting B, and was composed of horizontal brushwood, roundwood
and upright pegs with a Bronze Age date of 1680‐1500 cal BC (UB‐6900). It extended in a
north‐south direction for approximately 5 metres, before continuing beyond the limit of
excavation. The more substantial structural elements, consisting of large timbers laid
horizontally in association with upright pegs, were concentrated to the north. The southern
extent of the structure was defined by less substantial sharpened pegs. Structure [34017] was
located in the north of cutting E, consisting of an arc of upright stakes adjacent to the dump of
stony material. All of these stakes were quite small in diameter with an average width of 2
cm, and returned a date of 2112 – 1884 cal BC (UB‐6902).

Structure [34007] was primarily located in cutting A and was composed of both horizontal
and vertical roundwood elements, returning an Iron Age date of 173 cal BC to 4 cal AD (UB‐
6903). It extended north‐south for 4.5 metres before changing direction at its northernmost
point. A small brushwood structure [34006] was excavated in cutting E. it was 2 metres in
length and was dated to 344‐48 cal BC ((UB‐6901). Adjacent to this structure in cutting F,
[34015] was constructed from small horizontally laid brushwood dating to 256 – 414 cal AD
(UB‐6904). Small fragments of animal bone were recovered from between the timbers of this
structure. Structure [34014], [34018] and [34029] were similar in character to the Iron Age
structures and recovered from a similar depth.

Area 1 Extension
Mesolithic artefacts encountered at the base of the reed peat deposits led to the extension of
the excavation area. An additional 189 square metres was excavated alongside the north and
western limit of Area 1 and carefully machined down to the depth of the Mesolithic ground
surface. Baulks separating cuttings A‐F were removed by hand and any negative
archaeological features excavated and recorded. Three features cut into the surface of the
glacial till were excavated in this area. Two later Mesolithic Bann flakes and a piece of struck
flint were found at the base of the reed peat deposits in this area, and further investigation
identified four cut features and an upcast mound on the surface of the glacial till. The
morphology of these features made them difficult to interpret; they may have been the result
of human activity, however, they may also have been the result of natural phenomena such as
a tree blowing over.

Area 2
An area of 558 square metres was topsoil stripped by machine, then divided into three
cuttings (G, H & I) to expose 4 substantial wooden structures with distinct platform and
trackway elements. Unlike the wooden hurdles associated with silt filled channels in Area 1,
two of these structures dated to the medieval period and were laid down over a wider area of
9
former reed‐peat beds, and the Bronze Age part distinct substructure of posts and pegs.
Structure [34505] was excavated in cutting G and was the easternmost structure excavated in
Area 2 returning a date of 1488‐1309 cal BC and 2034‐1780 cal BC (UB‐6464). It adjacent to
structure [34519] composed of substantial upright pegs and posts that had been driven
through the peat into the glacial till.

Structure [34504] was excavated in cutting H and extended in a north‐south direction for 10
metres, before continuing south beyond the limit of excavation. It was composed of
horizontally laid timbers and brushwood and returned dates of 1324‐1441 cal AD (UB‐6906)
and1298‐1421 cal AD (UB‐6465). Structure [34507] was 8 metres in length and located in the
eastern quadrants of cutting I and was dated to 1316‐1436 cal AD (UB‐6907). A total of 18 bulk
samples were taken from these structures to assess for species identification and dating
purposes, and 43 individual worked wood samples.

Area 3
An area measuring 445 square metres was machine stripped to determine the limits and
extent of the burnt mound deposits identified in the additional testing. A timber lined trough,
burnt mound spread and possible structural features were identified, situated on a distinct
rise of higher land on the eastern margin of the site. Alluvial silt and re‐deposited gravels
partially covered some of the site, explained by the presence of a relict streambed identified
along the southern boundary. This stream flowed from the higher dry land area into the
former wetland and was closely related to the location of the trough.

Area 4
An open area measuring 636 square metres was machine stripped around a timber trackway
identified during Contract 2 testing. Two related round wood trackways were identified,
extending from brushwood platforms on the eastern shoreline. Each trackway was recorded
in full and lifted timber by timber, with the same process repeated for the substructure. Bulk
samples were taken across brushwood structures and sections drawn. Worked wood was
seen to continue to the south beyond the excavation area, truncated by a modern drainage
ditch. An area measuring 187m square m was machined on the southern side of the ditch
(Area 4B) but no significant structures were encountered.

The main timber trackway, [341501], was orientated in an east‐west direction and was dated
to 2133‐1901 cal BC (UB‐6466). The central section was 3 metres in length and composed of
parallel roundwood timbers laid side by side. At the western end, the structure changed
direction and continued beyond the limit of excavation to the south. Upright posts had been
constructed in this area in marked contrast to the other portions of the trackway. Structure
[341512] was orientated east‐west and was 4 metres in length and dated to 2200‐1980 cal BC
(UB‐6908). It was constructed of thin round wood rods laid side‐by‐side and secured by a
number of upright pegs. It was considerably wider than [341501] and possibly represented a
platform accessed by a designated trackway. Structure [311514] was composed of a
superstructure of small brushwood fragments laid on top of a single round wood timber,
orientated north south and dated to 2855‐2488 cal BC (UB‐6909). It extended for 2.5 metres
and continued beyond the limit of excavation to the south and was truncated by the modern
drainage ditch.

A number of structures were also excavated in the eastern part of Area 4 in what was likely to
have been a contemporary shoreline. These included structures [341507], [341508], [341509],
10
[341510] and [341511]. These structures were constructed to consolidate the shoreline and
enable access to the main trackways. They were of similar dimensions and character,
aapproximately 3 m long, composed of small brushwood pieces assembled into a ‘birds nest’
structure. 11 bulk samples were recovered from Area 4 for species identification and dating.
66 individual samples were recovered for tool mark analysis.

7. Stratigraphy

During the excavation section baulks were left in‐situ, and a consistent description of the
appearance, composition and boundary distinctness of all sediments obtained (see Appendix
1 for extensive description). Further analysis of stratigraphy was undertaken during the
palaeoenvironmental assessment of material collected from two monoliths in Area 1.
Material was sub‐sampled from the monoliths for pollen, foraminifera and diatom analysis,
together with plant macrofossils to be used as radiocarbon dating material. The stratigraphic
sequence from each monolith was also recorded. The results of this investigation are
presented below (Section 8) and discussed in terms of the general palaeoenvironmental
history of the site and how this relates to the archaeological finds.

On examining and recording the cores during sub‐sampling, within laboratory conditions it
was observed that they contained more stratigraphic boundaries than were originally
recorded in the field. This was particularly the case for Monolith 2, which was found to have
16 stratigraphic boundaries compared to the section drawing for the site, which contained 7.
It has been possible to cross‐match the monolith stratigraphy to the section drawings and
produce an idealised stratigraphy for Area 1, which is given in Table 1.

Unit Stratigraphy description Context Dates Depth (cm)
numbers
IX Top soil 34008 Modern 0‐10
VIII Series of estuarine silts – 34001 10‐100
base of which is probable 34002
erosion surface 34003
34045
34035
VII Estuarine silt/reed peat 34034 1870±35 BP (GU- 100‐125/150
transition 34013 13996; 60-240
34038 Cal. AD)
VI Reed peat 34033 B 2360±35 BP (GU‐ 125/150‐165
13999; 540‐370
Cal. BC)
V Reed/wood peat 34004 B 165‐175
transition (possible non‐ 34031
sequence here)
IV Wood peat – with 34004 A 4150±35 BP (GU‐ 175‐230
intercalated silts* 34003 A 13997; 2880‐2620
34021* Cal. BC)
34046
4765±35 BP (GU‐
14000; 3430‐3380
Cal. BC)
11
III Fen peat 34046 4850±35 BP (GU‐ 230‐235

13998; 3710‐3620
Cal. BC)
II Glacial till with clay/silt 34021 235‐?
matrix
I Bedrock? ? ?

Table 1 Idealised stratigraphy for Area 1.

The stratigraphic sequence shows that [fen] peat (Unit III) initially developed on glacial till
within a clay/silt matrix (Unit II) at approximately 4850±35 BP (GU‐13998; 3710‐3620 Cal. BC).
This suggests that a rise in ground water occurred at this time, possibly caused by rising sea‐
level and marks the beginning of fen development and expansion of wetland. At around
4765±35 BP (GU‐14000; 3430‐3380 Cal. BC) the fen peat is colonised by carr‐woodland, which
is shown by the change to wood peat (Unit IV). The carr‐woodland period lasts for c. 600
years to approximately 4150±35 BP (GU‐13997; 2880‐2620 Cal. BC). During this period there
is evidence for a possible marine incursion with a band of silt within Monolith 2 (see Figure
B). A retrogressive succession back to reedswamp then occurs ending at approximately
2360±35 BP (GU‐13999; 540‐370 Cal. BC), shown by a reed peat layer (Unit V). It is possible
that there is a hiatus in peat development between the wood to reed peat phase (Unit IV to
Unit V) where dating shows a gap of c. 1790 years, suggesting that the record for the early
Bronze Age is absent for the site. Above this reed peat (Unit V) is a transition layer of reed
peat to silt (Unit VI), which ends at around 1870±35 BP (GU‐13996; 60‐240 Cal. AD) with the
deposition of silts (Unit VIII) signalling a marine transgression of the site. The base of the silt
layer can be seen within stratigraphic drawings to undulate through the sequence as a series
of peaks and troughs, suggesting active erosion of the reed peat/silt layer (Unit VII) occurred
during the initial transgression of the site. The uppermost layer of top soil (Unit IX) reflects
modern soil development of the reclaimed wetland.

8. Description of archaeological and paleoenvironmental results by phase

Later Mesolithic 5500 – 4000 cal BC.

The lowest stratigraphic unit encountered in all excavation areas at Site 34 and first
archaeological phase was glacial till (34021) with inclusions of well‐rounded rocks and
boulders. It sloped gradually from east to west and formed a terrace shelf beneath the soft
sediments. Phase 1 was also represented by glacial till (34021) in Area 4, and an alluvial clay
deposit (34060) possibly related to traces of a relict watercourse was identified in the eastern
past of this area. Three Bann flakes were recovered from section cuttings in Area 4 but the
presence of associated cut features in the contemporary ground surface could not be
determined. These artefacts were contained within deposits (34060) and (34021) and were
approximately 1.35 m below the present ground surface. No Mesolithic artefacts were
recovered from Area 2 suggesting that it was either too far out into wetland area to have
provided a useable surface or considerable variation in the morphology of the contemporary
shoreline.

Directly above the glacial till in Area 1, a thin layer of sandy loam (34042) was deposited as a
result of surface water runoff eroding material upslope. Two later Mesolithic flakes and a
piece of struck flint were found at the base of the accumulated organic deposits in Area 1.
12
Two of the three pieces are characteristic of the Later Mesolithic. Find 04E0319:34100:106 is a
classic example of a piece that had been obliquely retouched across its distal end while
04E0319:34100:103 is a typical example from the later part of the Later Mesolithic. A Bann
Flake/ Butt Trimmed Form (04E0319:34100:103) and a distally trimmed flake
(04E0319:34100:106) were also recovered.

Mixed silt and clay deposit (34043) was also recorded above the glacial till. These deposits
could have been the result of alluvial deposition by freshwater runoff and were associated
with the first archaeological evidence for later Mesolithic activity. Four cut features and an
upcast mound were recorded on the surface of the glacial till associated with these artefacts.
The morphology of these features made them difficult to interpret; they may have been the
result of human activity, however, they may also have been the result of natural phenomena
such as a tree blowing over.

An irregular, oval shaped pit [34115] measured 1.7 m north/south by 1.2 m east/west and was
0.26 m deep. It was steep sided and had a sharp break of slope at the top becoming more
gradual towards the base. It was interpreted as a tree bole on account of the irregular
dimensions and fill. The basal fill was a mid brown grey mix of fine sandy silt and peat
(34114), moderately compact containing occasional small round pieces of limestone. This was
interpreted as a mixture of peat and redeposited glacial till, with peat accumulating in‐situ as
a result of increasing wetter conditions. Above this deposit was mid brown grey fine silty clay
(34113) containing very occasional flecks of charcoal and occasional small rounded limestone
pebbles. It was 0.2 m deep and was interpreted as redeposited natural glacial till to take
account of the high proportion of silt in this deposit.

A small shallow pit feature [34102] contained two fills and was 0.6 m long, 0.5 m wide and
0.10 m deep. It had slightly concave sides and an irregular, but predominantly flat base, and
was filled by grey brown firm sandy clay (34104). This included flecks of organic material and
was 0.05 m deep. Above this was a blackish brown loose peat (34103) with frequent charcoal
inclusions. It was 0.04 m deep and small stones were lodged into the natural. It continued
under the balk and was visible in section.

Linear feature [34111] was defined by a shallow cut grading out into a shallow bowl in the
north‐west, where the break of slope was barely identifiable. It was broadly orientated
north/south but this was slightly curved towards the east. Along the eastern edge of the
feature there was an under cut, which was less pronounced in the west. The sides were
steepest in the east, below the undercut and barely recognisable towards the north. It
measured 4.0 m in length, 0.75 m in width and 0.25 m deep and had a rounded base to the
south and a flat base in the north.

A dark grey brown silty clay loam deposit (34117) containing frequent charcoal inclusions,
both flecks and small fragments. It was 4 m long, 0.50 m and 0.08‐0.16 m deep. There were
also inclusions of small rounded pebbles in the southern end and large rounded stones in the
north. Potentially, this deposit was the same as layer light grey brown silty clay (34100) with
some organic content below the peat and above the natural. This relationship was particularly
observed around the northern edge of the feature. Above this a mid to pale grey brown
deposit (34118) with a pinkish hue was observed. It was 0.5 ‐0.10 m deep, 2‐5 m long and 0.75
m wide and was a compact silty loam and contained a large number of stone inclusions.
These inclusions varied between 0.05 m and 0.20 m and increased towards the north.

13
Above this deposit a dark brown moderately loose peat silt loam deposit (34125) contained
moderately frequent inclusions of decayed bluish stone, becoming much more frequent in the
south. A concentration of charcoal was localised towards the centre of the feature and was
0.30 m in diameter, 2‐5 m in length, 0.90 m wide, and 0.10 m deep. This deposit was formed
in‐situ and represents the earliest phases of peat formation contemporary with similar peat
deposits in adjacent features.

Linear feature [34111] was complicated and difficult to interpret as either natural or
anthropomorphic. The south end of the feature clearly looked like a deliberate cut, but the
northern end was less defined. This could have been the result of a water channel, and the
well‐rounded stones at the base of the feature are indicative of a shallow stream. Wood
remains were also clearly visible and the potential for root action should not be discounted.
This could have been the result of a natural cut feature being eroded by later water action.

A subcircular pit [34101] with an irregular shape in plan and steep concave irregular sides
was identified adjacent to this linear feature, associated with an upstanding mound of upcast
material. It was 1.7 m north/west and 1.5 m east/west and it had a flat base. The primary
deposit was grey light brown peat and silt mix (34110) moderately well compacted, 0.25‐0.10
m deep and 1.3 m in diameter. It had most likely formed as a result of the sides of the feature
collapsing. Immediately above this deposit was peat layer (34110), 0.10‐15 m in depth and 1.4
m in diameter, which contained occasional stones and was full of tree roots.

Above this was mid brown clay peat mix (34108) which contained occasional stones, 0.5‐0.10
m deep and 1.3 m wide. A mid greyish brown deposit (34107) localised around the southern
edge of the feature, was moderately compacted silty clay with a small quantity of peat. It
contained occasional pebbles and medium angular stones; it was 0.40‐0.02 m deep and 1.65 m
in diameter. A layer of peat (34109) had accumulated adjacent to this and was 0.15 m deep,
0.70 m wide. It was moderately well compacted and contained occasional pebbles.

A mid brown, moderately well compacted slump deposit (34105) contained frequent fine
angular pebbles. The depth was 0.37 m in the middle of the feature. It was 1.45 m north/south
and 1.37 m east/west and it abutted deposit (34108). Deposit (34116) was on the eastern side
of the feature. It was more precisely part of the mound material, [34124]. It was a brownish
grey, moderate compaction, silty clay 0.10‐0.40 m in depth and 1.15 m north/south and 0.3 m
east/west.

A mound of redeposited natural was excavated adjacent to pit [34101]. It was composed of
deposit layers (34119), (34121), (34120), (34122) and (34123), and was possibly the result of
upcast material from both pit [34101] and linear feature [34111]. The primary deposit was
light grey, loosely compacted deposit (34119) composed of fine sand clay. It contained no
significant inclusions and frequent roots and looked to have been colonised by vegetation. It
was 0.5 m in length east/west and was 0.06 m deep. Above this was a light brown grey mix of
sandy silty clay (34121) that contained very few inclusions other than roots. It was 0.5 m long
and 0.07 m deep and was so similar to deposit (34119) that the interface between these two
deposits was difficult to determine. A light brown grey mix deposit (34120) was above this. It
was 0.15m deep, and 0.60m east/west and was very mixed sandy silt and contained root
inclusions. A dark brown loosely compacted deposit (34122) consisting of peat mixed with
sand followed this. It was 0.15 m wide and 0.80 m deep and roots could be seen throughout.
The final deposit capping the bank of upcast mound material was a light grey mix of very
hard, compact, fine sandy clay (34123) 0.35 m deep and 2.4 m long. It was the final and
uppermost deposit in the sequence.
14

The two rhyolite pieces (04E0319:341513:14 and 04E0319:341512:21) can, in spite of their
weathered condition, be attributed to the Later Mesolithic indeed find 04E0319:341513:14 may
be quite early. It is probable that the flint blade is of the same age. The three retouched
artefacts are an elongated Butt Trimmed Form (04E0319:341513:14), and the large rhyolite
blade (04E0319:1043:4) could date to either the Later Mesolithic or Neolithic.

Paleoenvironmental data is not available from the Site 34 pollen core for this period, but has
been reconstructed from cores taken from Woodstown approximately 0.5 km away on the
adjacent shore of the river Suir (Farrell and Coxton 2004). The assemblage was dated using
the presence of alder (Alnus glutinosa) which, based on the alder rise, an event witnessed in
pollen diagrams from across Ireland, provides an earliest possible date of c. 7500 BP (ibid).
This suggests that woodland containing both oak and hazel was present within the Waterford
area.

Although the oak‐hazel woodland is likely to have been the dominant dryland vegetation
community, the pollen data from Woodstown also shows that other tree types such as pine
(Pinus sp), ash (Faxinus excelsior), elm (Ulmus sp) and yew (Taxus baccata) were also
components of this woodland. Evidence that the area was wet locally is also reflected in the
herbaceous taxa present with high values of sedge (Cyperaceae) pollen. This carr‐woodland
would have been more open that the oak woodland described above, with alder trees
generally growing in clumps on and around sedge tussocks. The pollen evidence shows that
there was a mosaic of woodland types across Waterford during the Mesolithic.

The Neolithic period (4000 – 2200 cal. BC)

No archaeological finds or features were identified on Site 34 relating to this period. It is
associated with stratigraphic Unit III (34046) recorded in Area 1, 2 and 4, 2.30 – 22.35 m below
the present surface, and pollen zones NWB1a‐c, and NWB2a‐c. The palaeoenvironmental
results from the Area 1 monoliths (Quercus dominated pollen) indicate that the landscape was
originally dryland woodland.

At around 4850±35 BP (GU‐13998; 3710‐3620 Cal. BC) a change in the hydrology of the area
took place, related to rising sea level causing the area to become wetter and the initialization
of peat. This led to the development of carr‐woodland on the wetland largely comprised of
Alnus with Quercus, Betula, Crataegus and Salix also present. Pollen and plant macrofossil
evidence indicates that this woodland would have had a field layer of tall‐herb fen
communities with Rubus fruticosus also prominent. This period of woodland lasted for a
period of around 850 years until c. 3995±35 BP (GU‐15498; 2620‐2450 Cal. BC).

The initiation of peat development during this time at Newrath highlights an increase in
wetter conditions which were probably taking place as a result of a change in hydrology, with
the River Suir swelling in size to resemble the current water system, and increasing the areas
of wetland at the river margins. The pollen data and waterlogged plant macrofossil data from
Newrath indicate that this carr‐woodland although dominated by alder also contained other
trees including birch, willow and hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna). No archaeological material
dating to the Neolithic was recorded from Site 34 during this phase, although significant
remains were identified from adjacent sites 35 and 37, including three Neolithic structures
15
and an axe hoard. The lack of archaeological material on Site 34 may be due to the extensive
tree cover on the site at this time.

The floor of this woodland would have been very boggy, as is indicated by the presence of
plants such as sedges, meadowsweet (Filipendula sp), ciniquefoils (Potentilla sp), ivy
campanula (Wahlenbergia hederaceae) and birds‐foot trefoils (Lotus sp) which are suggestive of
tall‐herb fen vegetation (Rodwell 1995). High numbers of bramble fruits (Rubus fructicosus) at
Newrath indicates it was frequent within the field layer of the woodland. Occasional pooling
of water on the ground of the woodland is also signalled by the presence of species such as
pondweed (Potomogeton sp), water sedge (Carex aquatilis) and green algae (Zygnemataceae sp).

Within Unit III there is evidence for a possible marine incursion with a band of silt within
Monolith 2 at 190‐200 cm. This band has been radiocarbon dated to have been deposited
between 4540±40 BP (SUERC‐14690; 3370‐3090 cal BC) and 4580±40 BP (SUERC‐14691; 3380‐
3260 cal BC). This narrow date range suggests a rapid period of deposition likely to have been
caused by a short‐lived event such as a tidal surge. Following this initial deposition of silts in
Monolith 2 cereal pollen of Hordeum‐group begins to appear at 198 cm (Zone NWB2b). The
appearance of cereal pollen in Monolith 2 at this level follows a sharp decline in Quercus
pollen at 200 cm when silts begin to be deposited. It is noticeable that cereal pollen of
Hordeum‐group and Avena‐Triticum‐group appears consistently during the phase of silt
deposition but disappear as [wood] peat again begins to accumulate. This transgression phase
has been interpreted as a period of increased storminess, causing storm surge, high winds
and leading to tree fall. The increase in micro‐charcoal following the dip in arboreal pollen is
suggested to represent the burning of deadwood on the ground. This would have removed
dead standing trees and assisted in maintaining the clearing for arable planting.

Charred grain excavated from a ritual pit at Site 35 was radiocarbon dated to 4827±39 BP (UB‐
6639; 3695‐3523 cal BC), while charred nutshell fragments, also from the pit produced a near
identical date of 4821±38 BP (UB‐6640; 3694‐3521 cal BC) indicating the material is
contemporaneous (Wilkins 2006). This charred grain from adjacent to Site 34 puts the
monolith cereal grains into context. From approximately 4150±35 BP (SUERC‐10125; 2880‐
2620 cal BC) to 3935±35 BP (SUERC‐14689; 2500‐2290 cal BC) a retrogressive succession begins
to take place with the stratigraphic evidence from wood peat (Unit IV) to a wood‐reed peat
transition (Unit V). With the initiation of wood peat at the site, the indicators for agricultural
activity are brought to an end. The steady increase in arboreal pollen at this point is likely to
indicate the regeneration of woodland and abandonment of this part of the Newrath area for
arable use.

The Bronze Age (2200‐600 cal. BC)

In the Early Bronze Age a change in the local environment then takes place from carr‐
woodland to a reed swamp environment, shown by falling Alnus pollen and a rise in Poaceae
pollen. This change can also be seen in the plant macrofossils with a decline in arboreal
species and increase in aquatic species such as Ranunculus sceleratus. It is during this period
that archaeological evidence for people in the landscape increases with the appearance of
trackways and structures indicating a resource‐rich environment. Pollen evidence also
indicates agricultural activity taking place in this period around 2210±40 BP (GU‐15497; 390‐
180 Cal. BC) with the presence of cereal‐type pollen grains.

16
Pollen evidence from Woodstown and Newrath (Site 34) show a significant change started to
take place in the wetland during the Early Bronze Age, with reed swamp communities
beginning to develop on the fringes of the carr‐woodland as the River Suir began to expand.
This swelling of the river is likely to be due to an increase in marine waters caused by rising
sea‐levels. This is witnessed in the foraminifera and diatom data from Newrath which start
to indicate that the wetland was within the inter‐tidal zone. Foraminifera such as Jadammina
macrescensi, together with diatoms such as Paralia sulcata and Dipploneis interrupta, indicate
that the site inhabited the lower part of the inter‐tidal zone between MHWT (Mean High
Water Tide) and HAT (Highest Astronomical Tides) (Dawson 2008; Haslett 2008).

The rise in sea‐level that drove the vegetational succession in the wetland would have made
this area more open through the loss of areas of carr‐woodland, signalled in the pollen and
plant macrofossil records where species such as alder and birch, together with bramble, begin
to decline. This would have made these areas more accessible to people who no longer had a
sprawling mass of trees and bramble to contend with, however, conditions would still have
been treacherous underfoot. That people were moving through and did utilise the wetland is
particularly evident at Newrath.

Bronze Age structures were identified in all the excavation areas and worked wood
specimens were recorded in all the test trenches in this area. This material was generally
associated with (34035) and was 0.68 m below the present ground surface. Timber structures
were excavated in Areas 1, 2 and 4 which continued beyond the limit of excavation. Wood
identifications from the structures and trackways indicate the use of trees from the local carr‐
woodland, mostly being Alnus, for construction rather than the dryland resource (Lyons,
2006; O’Donnell, 2006).

17
Area/ Radiocarbon Dimensions (m) Associated Interpretation

Structure/ date Deposits
Cutting
1 1680‐1500 cal D 0.5 (34035) Linear brushwood
[34005] BC (UB‐6900) W 0.85 (34013) structure
C and D L 15
1 2112‐1884 cal W 0.02 (34029) Linear brushwood
[34017] BC (UB‐6902) (34013) structure
E
2 2034‐1780 cal W 0.4 (34012) Substructure – upright
[34505] BC (UB‐6464) L 1.25 posts and pegs
G
2 D (34505) Substructure – large
[34519] W up to 0.14 dia (34021) upright posts
G N/A L
3 D 0.3 (341051) Timber lined trough –
[341077] W 0.82 (341024) burnt mound
N/A L 1.65 (341059)
(341971)
(341021)
4 2855‐2488 cal W 0.4+ (34057) Possible trackway
[341513] BC (UB6909) (34063)
(34062)
4 2133‐1901 cal D 10 (34063) Large timber trackway
[341501] BC (UB‐6466) W 0.75
L 0.2
4 220‐1980 cal D 5.6 (341516) Timber platform/trackway
[341512] BC (UB‐6908) W 3.4
L 5.6
4 2855‐2488 cal W 0.6 Fibrous Timber and brushwood
[341514] BC (UB‐6909) L 1.9 peat trackway ‐ partial
4 N/A D 0.1 Fibrous Brushwood structure,
[341507] W 0.9 peat bank consolidation.
L 1.1
4 N/A D 1.6 Fibrous Brushwood platform
[341508] W 1.5 peat
4 N/A W 1 Fibrous Brushwood structure to
[341509] L 3.5 peat aid access to (341501)
4 N/A W 5 Fibrous Brushwood structure,
[341510] L 6.5 peat bank consolidation.
4 N/A W 1.5 Fibrous Brushwood platform.
[341511] L 2 peat
Table 2 Bronze Age Structures

Bronze Area Structures in Area 1

These include structures [34005] and [34007] in Area 1, which continued north and west of the
excavation area respectively. They comprised informal, linear brushwood structures and
were constructed to cross boggy ground.

18

Structure [34005]
Structure [34005] was located in the east of Area 1 within cuttings C and D. It was
approximately 15 m long, 0.85 m wide, 0.50 m deep and was encountered at 0.65 m from the
surface. The structure was primarily composed of brushwood elements laid horizontally on
top of organic deposit, with upright posts and stakes that appeared to secure the horizontal
elements in position and returned a date of 1680‐1500 cal BC (UB‐6900). The main body of the
structure was set within deposit (34035), a silt and peat mixture, with the lower structural
elements set within (34013), also a silt and peat mixture.

It was linear in form and its long axis was orientated north/south. At the northernmost
excavated extent of the trackway large roundwoods were placed horizontally on the ground
surface, with upright posts located to either side. At the southern terminus of the structure
there were a number of large irregular shaped timbers, initially thought to be stakes, but on
further examination these turned out to be natural tree roots. As the excavated area was
extended to the north during the investigation of the Mesolithic level the structure was
indeed seen to extend to the north for a further 7 metres.

Bulk sample number 12 was taken from the southern part of the structure at spit level three.
The material recovered was primarily composed of alder, followed by ash and birch. Hazel,
willow oak and dogwood were also identified. Metal tool marks were identified on the
worked ends of many of the timbers from this structure. Three end types were recorded; the
main one was chisel, followed by wedge and pencil, all cut at very shallow angles. The largest
facet was 55 mm long and 50 mm wide. An ash pencil ended stake from here was blunted at
one end, indicating where it was hammered into the ground.

Structure [34017]
Structure [34017] was located in cutting E and consisted of an arrangement of stakes
radiocarbon dated to 2112 – 1884 cal BC (UB‐6902). It was not as substantial as other
structures and was located to the north of the cutting. It was visible as an arc of stakes
adjacent to a dump of stony material [34029] situated to the south of this cutting. All of these
stakes were quite small in diameter with an average width of 0.02 m, and were set within peat
and silt deposit (34013). From the elements sampled for wood identification, alder, ash and
yew were present. Only three worked pieces were recorded with mixed end types. The
largest facet was flat measuring 40 mm wide, 53 mm long and blunted at one end, indicating
where it was hammered into the ground.

Bronze Age Structures in Area 2

In Area 2 structure [34504] continued to the south and was also identified in trench 19 and
[34507] which extended both north and south of the excavation area. This structure was
associated with deposit (34004), organic reed peat deposits with a mixed silt and clay lens
(34034). These structures were composed of substantial substructural elements, with upright
roudwood elements driven into the glacial till. It is likely that the superstructural elements
have been substantially damaged by tidal surge making interpretation problematic.

Structure [34505]
This structure was located in the eastern part of cutting G and consisted of a series of upright
vertical posts and pegs, with concentrations of brushwood and occasional larger roundwood
elements. Two dates were recovered from this structure, 1488‐1309 cal BC, from substructural
elements, and 2034‐1780 cal BC (UB6464), from the upper part of the structure. A lighter
19
coloured grey deposit was located in the west and south of the cutting and a small amount of
this deposit was also localised in the north‐east quadrant. The structure appeared to respect
the edge of this lighter coloured deposit and almost no timbers were found within it. The
lighter deposit contained a much higher percentage of silt in its composition than the darker
peat deposits.

The uppermost elements of the structure were located approx 0.55 ‐ 1.00 m beneath the
modern ground surface and there were three distinct concentrations of brushwood in this
structure. One was located in the northeast quadrant and appeared as a linear structure that
extended beyond the area of excavation to the north. It was approx 0.40 m in width and it
extended south from the baulk for approx 1.25 m before it joined up with the main part of the
structure of upright posts and large roundwoods. The second brushwood concentration,
consisting of approx 20 individual elements, was located in the northeast quadrant adjacent
to the eastern edge of the site. These were all brushwood pieces of equal length of
approximately 0.30 m to 0.10 m in diameter. This concentration was located in a small pocket
of the lighter coloured silt that was present in the north east quadrant and brush wood
elements were laid parallel to and abutting each other. The third concentration of brushwood
was located adjacent to the site edge in the south east quadrant. It consisted of 35 to 40
individual brushwood elements and appeared to extend into the baulk. It was approx 2.15 m
in length and extended into the cutting for a maximum of 0.50 m to the north. No trace of the
brushwood structure was recorded in test trench 19 adjacent to the cutting. There were a
number of upright stakes that were located between this brushwood concentration and the
central part of structure. Alder, oak and ash were mainly used for construction, although
hazel, willow and pomaceous fruitwood were also identified. The predominant end type was
chisel, all cut at shallow angles. Facets were flat, the largest of which was 35 mm wide and 76
mm long.

Structure [34519]
This structure was located in cutting G beneath the structure [34505] and formed a definite
substructure. It was composed of large upright posts that were driven into the glacial till
(34021), some of which were up to 0.14 m in diameter. Alder was the main wood used, with
some hazel. Metal tool marks were identified on several of these pieces, and a variety of
facet types were recorded. These were concave, slightly concave and flat. Some of these were
quite long, one being 82 mm long by 21 mm in width.

Pollen data from Site 34 indicates the continued prominence of hazel and oak across the
dryland suggesting no large clearances of the woodland took place in the vicinity of this site.
The increase in such wild grass types during this period coupled with an increase in grass
pollen at both Woodstown and Newrath. This may hold the key as to why there appears to
have been a general abandonment of the area by people during this period.

The rise in grass pollen is likely to signal a further expanse of reed swamp across the wetland
on the margins of the River Suir. This increase is thought to have occurred as a result of a
further rise in sea‐level taking place. Confirmation of the site being affected by marine waters
is given by the foraminifera and diatom data, which show the site to now be firmly within the
lower part of the upper salt marsh zone. It is unknown whether this hike in sea‐level
occurred gradually or rapidly.

Bronze Age structures in Area 3

20
An area measuring 445m² was topsoil stripped by machine to determine the limits and extent
of the burnt mound deposits identified in the additional testing. A timber‐lined trough, burnt
mound spread and possible structural features were identified, situated on a distinct rise of
higher land on the eastern margin of the site. Alluvial silt and re‐deposited gravels partially
covered some of the site, explained by the presence of a relict streambed identified along the
southern boundary. This stream flowed from the higher dry land area into the former
wetland and was a significant factor in the location of the trough. A small charcoal pit,
identified in additional testing, was also recorded adjacent to this area.

Feature [341077] was the principle feature in Area 3. It was a rectangular cut of a timber‐lined
trough, 1.65 m in length, extending into the edge of an east/west running paleochannel. The
natural in this area comprised the glacial till, a yellow clay deposit, and light grey silty sand
in the area of the paleochannel. The trough was 0.95 m at its eastern end and 0.70 m at the
western end. It was quite shallow and at most the timbers survived to a height of 0.17m above
the base of the cut. The base of the trough consisted of two well made large planks, the larger
of which, located to the north, was doweled into position. This trough was quite shallow and
the fill consisted of a compact mass of small burnt stone fragments, charcoal and silt and sand
that appeared to have been washed in.

Bronze Age structures in Area 4

Area 4 comprised a lower area of silty peat in the west, and a raised area of woody, fibrous
peat in the east. Six brushwood structures were identified in the east of the area on what was
interpreted as a paleo‐shoreline, leading to two substantial timber trackways in the east. A
further structure [341513] was visible in the southern baulk of the area, and potentially
continued to the south. It was not possible to extend the excavation area in this direction due
to the presence of the modern drain. Other worked wood was identified but not properly
investigated to the south of this excavation area. Area 4B was exposed and planned but not
excavated beyond the first spit level. This material was significantly higher than the other
wooden structures and was on average 0.70m below the present ground surface. A small
quantity of worked wood was sampled for tool mark but no significant any variation was
observed between this material and the other excavated structures in Area 4.

A large, circular artefact was recovered from the section adjacent to this structure and was
likely to have been associated with its primary function. The shape of the modified stone
(04E0319:341513:13A) was created by pecking. It was too small to be have functioned as a
quern stone and one quarter of the artefact had broken off in antiquity. Only one of the faces
showed extensive signs of being worked to a regular smooth surface and the other sides were
quite coarse and irregular. One lateral surface had a limited area which was flat. It retained
most of an hour‐glass perforation which was very narrow at the point where the perforations
from either surface met, and it may have been unfinished. If the shape of the object is any
indication of its purpose, then it is possible that this is a discarded unfinished rough out for
something such as an axe hammer or large stone mace head, although it could also have been
reused as a fishing weight.

Structure [341501]
Structure [341501] was a large timber trackway approximately 10 m long, 0.75 m wide and 0.2
m deep, and was radiocarbon dated to 2133‐1901 cal BC (UB‐6466). The central part was
composed of 8 large roundwoods that were laid parallel to each other, between 3.4 m and 4.65
m in length and 0.10 m and 0.20 m in diameter. The average overall width of this part of the
21
structure was 0.95 m and it was orientated NNE/SSW. The superstructure was placed on top
of a number of smaller transverse roundwood timbers located under the western end of the
trackway. At the western end of the large parallel timbers the structure changed direction and
extended south for a further 2.4 m, though it was less well defined in this area. Smaller
roundwood elements were used in this part of the trackway with more emphasis on upright
timbers used to secure horizontal elements in position.

The trackway was constructed on top of a silty peat deposit. This deposit appears to have
continued to form after the construction of the trackway and was subsequently burried by
continued accumulation. To the north of the trackway there was a coarse sand and mixed
peat deposit (34063). A freshwater steam was identified directly to the east in Area 3 and may
account for the deposition of coarse sand under high water energy conditions. There were a
number of timbers situated to the east of the trackway, which appeared to be disturbed from
their original position and were scattered over an area of approx 1.5 by 2 m. These could have
been disturbed by repeated flood events that the sandy peat deposit indicates occurred in this
area.

A large number of upright stakes and posts were identified to the east of the structure, and a
line of posts also extended to the south and terminated adjacent to structure [341523]. This
indicated a possible relationship between both structures, although evidence of a direct
relationship could not be determined. Bulk sample number 8 was taken from this structure
and it was primarily constructed of alder, with much lesser evidence for ash, willow and
birch. All of these timbers exhibit toolmarks made by metal axes/ adzes. The worked ends of
all of the timbers were sampled, and were wedge, pencil and chisel. Concave, slightly
concave and flat facets were evident and ranged in length from 93 to 37 mm.

Structure [341512]
Structure [341512] was either a platform located in the west of the cutting adjacent to a large
light coloured silt deposit that may have indicated a channel. The structure was radiocarbon
dated to 2200‐1980 cal BC (UB‐6908) and composed of brushwood and some larger
roundwood elements laid parallel and adjacent to each other, with several upright stakes
driven through the structure to anchor these into position. It was 5.6 m long, 3.4 m wide and a
concentration of upright elements was recorded towards the north side of the structure. The
larger branches and pieces of brushwood had their laterally projecting twigs removed, and
the majority of the elements had at least one clear axe facet. There was no differentiation
between the upper and lower parts of the structure, and it was constructed by placing layer
upon layer of roundwoods on top of each other. It was set within deposit (341516) a peat and
silt layer.

To the east of the structure there were several stakes and some larger timbers including a
large irregularly shaped tree stump. There were a number of other small stakes located
between this structure and structure [341501] located approx 4.5 m to the east. There were
also a number of other small upright posts and stakes located to the north and northeast of
the structure, although they had no apparent pattern and were mostly present as isolated
entities. Worked wood samples were taken from this structure and it was dominated by
alder with some pomaceous fruitwood, ash, oak and yew. All of the end types were wedge
and chisel. Flat facets were present, the largest of which was 60 mm wide and 75 mm long.

Structure [341514]
Structure [341514] was a linear arrangement of parallel roundwood elements that extended in
a north/south orientation from the south edge baulk of the site for a distance of
22
approximately 1.40 m. It was 0.6 m wide, 1.9 m long and extended beyond the limit of
excavation and was radiocarbon dated to 2855‐2488 cal BC (UB‐6909). In addition to the
parallel round woods there was a scatter of brushwood elements that extended to the north in
the direction of the structure for a distance of approx 1.3 m. An arc of four substantial upright
posts was positioned between the north and south limit of the structure.

Structure [341507]
Structure [341507] was located on the raised eastern part of Area 4 and consisted of a small
concentration of brushwood and a small number of upright stakes and pegs. It was a shallow,
oval shaped structure 1.1 m long, 0.9 m wide and 0.10 m deep.

Structure [341508]
Structure [341508] was located in the raised area to the east of the excavated area of Area 4.
The upper part consisted of a dense concentration of small brushwood elements and formed a
platform roughly oval in shape that measured 1.5 m in width and 1.6 m in length. A number
of large sub‐structural roundwoods were excavated beneath this. The largest element was
partially exposed and found to be approx 0.2 m in diameter and 1.75 m of it was visible in the
area excavated. Numerous small upright stakes were found within and adjacent to the
structure.

Structure [341509]
This concentration of brushwood was located approx 1.5 m to the west of brushwood
platform [341511] and consisted of upright posts and a concentration of brushwood and
larger round wood elements. This structure was approx 1 m in width and extended in an east
west direction for approx 3.5 m. The structure consisted of roundwood timbers laid parallel to
each other and extending in a linear manner from east to west in the direction of the trackway
[341501]

Structure [341509]
This concentration of brushwood was located approx 1.5 m to the west of brushwood
platform [341511] and consisted of upright posts and a concentration of brushwood and
larger round wood elements. This structure was approx 1 m in width and extended in an east
west direction for approx 3.5 m. The structure consisted of roundwood timbers laid parallel to
each other and extending in a linear manner from east to west in the direction of the trackway
[341501]

Structure [341510]
This structure primarily composed of a brushwood concentration located in the northern part
of the raised area at the east of the excavated area. A box section was excavated across this
structure that showed that it consisted of a small spread of surface material with no
substructural elements.

Structure [341511]
This was a brushwood platform located in the north eastern part of the site approx 1.5 m in
width and 2 m in length. A less dense concentration of brushwood and upright posts
extended to the west and was truncated during the excavation of an access ramp onto the
lower portion of the site. The structures [341508], [341509], [341510] and [341511] were
situated on a raised area of peat approximately 0.45 m higher than the structures located in
the lower western part of the site e.g. [341501], [341512] and [341513]. The structure was
present primarily on one spit level and the brushwood was present to a depth of 0.10 m.
23
Beneath this there were only occasional pieces of timber and no evidence for a substantial
substructure. Several upright stakes were present in and near this structure, the main
concentration appearing towards the south west in the direction of the structure [341501].

The Iron Age period (600 – cal. AD 400)

The sea‐level driven changes in vegetation witnessed during the Bronze Age with the
expanse of reed swamp continue into the Iron Age. It is during this period that sea‐level rise
changes the morphology of the River Suir to the extent that land begins to be swallowed up
along the river margins. The whole area was inundated due to rising sea level at
approximately 1870±35 BP (GU‐13996; 60‐240 Cal. AD) with diatom and foraminifera
evidence indicating an inter‐tidal environment by this time (Dawson and Haslett,
Paleoenvironmental Analyses, Appendix 1 and 2 ). This increase in sea level led to the
abandonment of the area in the Iron Age.

Diatom and foraminifera evidence from Site 34 indicates that this site was completely
submerged during this period with species indicative of brackish and marine waters both
present. In addition, the site now occupies the MHWST (Mean High Water Spring Tide) to
HAT (Highest Astronomical Tide) tidal zone. This data indicates that Newrath was now very
much an estuarine site and the presence of tidal creeks running through the site into the river
can be seen in the stratigraphy of the site. Such channels are frequent in today’s estuarine
environments (Allen 2000). This estuarine environment which developed in the Iron Age
lasted until relatively recent times, when land reclamation took place in the nineteenth
century to provide pasture land for cattle.

This submergence of areas of Waterford along the river margins, as it developed into an
estuarine environment, would have had a marked impact on the vegetational communities.
This can be seen in the pollen and plant macrofossil diagrams from Newrath where local
plant communities are now dominated with aquatic species such as celery leaved buttercup
(Ranunculus sceleratus), common water crowfoot (Ranunculus aquatilis) and common clubrush
(Schoenoplectus lacustris). Salt marsh vegetation indicators such as goosefoots
(Chenopodiaceous sp), Michaela’s daisies (Aster‐type) and sea plantain (Plant ago maritime)
are present in the pollen record and show the development of these communities at the
water’s edge. Pollen values of grasses remain high throughout both at Newrath and
Woodstown, indicating that reed swamp communities continued to fringe the salt marsh
areas.
24
Area C 14 Dimensions (m) Associated Interpretation

Structure no. Deposits
Cutting
1 344‐48 cal BC D 0.15 (34035) Brushwood platform
(34006) (UB‐6901) W 0.75
E L 4
1 173‐4 cal BC D 0.65 (34039) Brushwood hurdle
(34007) (UB‐6903) W 2.5 (34003) bridging tidal creek
E L 6 (34039)
1 N/A D 0.55 (34003) Brushwood linear
(34014) W 3.75 (34013) structure
B L 10 (34035)
1 256‐414 cal D 0.15 (34039) Brushwood structure,
(34015) AD (UB‐6904) W 0.5 (34003) some roundwood
F L 5.75 (34035) elements
1 N/A D 0.35 (34039) Brushwood hurdle
(34018) W 1.5
F L 5.8
1 N/A W 1.25 ‐ Stone dump
(34029) L 1.5
E H 0.4
Table 3 Iron Age Structures

Iron Age Structures in Area 1

This period corresponds to depositional Phase 3 and was represented by (34033), a light grey
silt and peat mix. As it was predominantly a silt deposit it was likely to have been the result
of widespread flooding in the Suir basin, perhaps as a result of a significant change in the
drainage pattern of the main channel. The accumulation of silt in the main channel of the Suir
could have increased tidal pressure on the main drainage system. This would have been
exacerbated by rising sea levels causing estuarine water to inundate areas that had previously
been freshwater wetlands and reed swamps. This resulted in the successive inundation of the
organic deposits by alluvial sediments. The majority of the archaeological structures in this
area were associated with deposit (34037), a predominantly clay deposit containing less than
5% peat. Creeks and dendritic channels aided the drainage of tidal water, gradually silting up
over time. A number of small dendritic drainage channels were recorded: [34009], [34010] and
[34011]. These tidal creeks would have drained the rising and receding waters and were filled
by a peat and silt mixture, (34036).

Structure [34006]
Structure [34006] was located to the east of the excavated area within cutting E, and appeared
to be an irregular shaped platform 4 m long, 0.75 m wide and 0.15 m deep. It was primarily
composed of brushwood that was laid horizontally with some larger roundwood elements
and was radiocarbon dated to 1 – 344‐48 cal BC (UB‐6901). These were not laid in any
discernable pattern but appeared to have been randomly placed throughout the structure. It
appeared to extend beyond the cutting towards the east and it may have joined up beneath
the baulk with the similar structure [34005] in adjacent cuttings. Both these structures
extended beneath the baulk that separated the cuttings E, C and D. The structure was set
within deposit (34035), a grey coloured silt and peat mixture, which appeared to have been
accumulated around the structure.

25
Metal tool marks were identified on a large number of the worked wood elements. The
worked ends were chisel, and two flat facets were recorded, the largest of which was 25mm
wide and 35mm long. Alder, ash and willow were the main woods used for this structure.

Structure [34007]
Structure [34007] was located within cutting A and was visible as a linear arrangement of
brushwood and larger roundwood elements with its long axis oriented north/south. The
structure appeared to extend beyond the cutting to both the west and the south. To the west
the channel appeared to extend further in this direction and the timber structure within it
continued to respect this channel and this was confirmed by further excavation of the area to
the west.

It was 6 m long north/south, 2.5 m east/west, and 0.65 m deep, and was dated to 173 cal BC to
4 cal AD (UB‐6903). The brushwood appeared to be located within the fill of a channel filled
by deposit (34039) and (34003). This structure was present within a number of deposits at a
number of different levels. In addition to the main body of the structure there were a number
of other outlying elements associated with the structure e.g. upright stakes and pegs. These
were located adjacent to the main structure with an increase in frequency the north.

Towards the base of the structure a roundwood was placed on to the silt surface at the base of
the tidal channel (34039) and secured with nine pegs, far more than was functionally
necessary to stabilise it. Why it needed so many pegs was unclear; it was oriented
north/south, approximately 0.8 m in length and was not in direct physical contact with any
other element.

Bulk samples number 1 and 3 were recovered from the structure, and the assemblage was
composed of alder, oak and pomaceous fruitwood, with hazel, willow, ash and elder also
recorded. A number of individual worked pieces were recorded from here and comprised of
pencil, chisel and wedge ended. Cutting angles were shallow, and facets were flat and
slightly concave, the largest of which was 62 mm wide and 71 mm long.

Structure [34014]
Structure [34014] was primarily located within Cutting B and was characterised by a linear
arrangement of brushwood and roundwood with the long axis oriented north‐east/south‐
west. The structure appeared to extend beyond the cutting both to the north and to the south,
and it was 10 m long, 3.75 m wide and extended to a depth of 0.55 m. The uppermost
elements of this structure were located within a peat and silt mixed deposit (34003). The main
body of this structure was located within deposits (34013) and (34035), both peat and silt
mixtures. There were two distinct phases to the construction of this structure, suggesting that
there were two separate phases of construction. The upper part was related to the mixed peat
and silt deposits while the lower part was entirely contained within the homogenous peat
deposit (34004). The lower phase was very similar in terms of orientation and construction
with the upper phase. It was composed of large roundwood elements with smaller
roundwood and brushwood placed on top.

Bulk samples number 7 and 8 were taken from the upper spits of this structure, and alder,
willow and ash were the main wood types identified. Hazel, yew, pomaceous fruitwood and
oak were also present. A large quantity of worked wood was analysed from here; the
roundwoods were mainly chisel ended, with flat facets. Nineteen facets were recorded, the
largest of which was 36 mm wide and 75 mm long. An alder half split with a notch was
identified.
26

Structure [34015] Area 1
Structure [34015] was present within Cutting F and visible as a spread of brushwood adjacent
to and running parallel with the west facing baulk of the cutting. It was 5.75 m long, 0.5 m
wide and 0.15 m deep and dated to 256 – 414 cal AD (UB6904). It was constructed primarily
of small brushwood elements although there was a concentration of larger roundwood
elements located to the south of the cutting. It extended to the east under the baulk and may
have been related to structure [34006] recorded in the west of Cutting E, and structure [34018]
in Cutting F. Structure [34015] was located within the grey silt and peat deposit (34039), and
was relatively shallow in depth. There were two clearly defined deposits present; (34003) in
the western half of the cutting and (34035) in the eastern half of the cutting.

Bulk samples were recovered from this structure; bulk sample #4 was located in the north of
the structure at spit level 1 and was composed almost exclusively of small pieces of
brushwood. Bulk sample # 9 was inserted into the southernmost part of the structure at spit
level 2 and was primarily composed of large roundwood timbers. This structure was defined
as a spread of brushwood and composed of mainly alder, ash, oak, pomaceous fruitwood and
willow. Worked wood was composed of mainly half split ashes and oaks, and a radially cleft
ash with a rectangular shaped notch was recovered from here.

Structure [34018]
Structure [34018] was a curvilinear arrangement of timbers located in the northwest of cutting
F. It was 5.8 m long, 1.5 m wide and 0.35 m deep. It could have been related to structures
[34007] in cutting A to the north and to [34015] in cutting F. It was set within deposit (34039),
a grey coloured silt and peat mixture. It was composed of brushwood and some larger
roundwood elements. It extended beyond the excavated area to the west and was only visible
in spit level 2. The structure was seen to extend to the west for an unknown distance, and
encountered during the stepping back of the edges of the site prior to the investigation of the
late Mesolithic levels. During monitoring of this strip the structure was seen to extend to the
west for a further 2 m, and bulk sample number 11 was taken from this structure at spit level
2.

Structure [34029]
This feature consisted of a dump of stones located in spit level 3 of Cutting E, although a
number of upright stakes, pegs and posts may also have been related to this structure. The
stones were located on what appeared to be a small area of a very fibrous brown peat. This
was surrounded by a pure silt deposit to the west and by a silt and peat mixture to the east.
The peat deposit containing structure [34029] appeared in section to be the result of a dome of
vegetation raised above the surrounding deposits. This mound was approximately 1.50 m
north/south and 1.25 m from east/west and 0.40 m in high. There were 40 stones recorded and
appeared to have been brought deposited through human agency. They varied in shape and
size from 5‐15 cm, with one large flat stone measuring 0.15 m long and 0.12 m wide. They
were too large and localised to have been transported by a tidal channel and traces of
charcoal were identified adhered to the surface of some stones, and others were found to be
heat shattered.

27
The Medieval period (AD 1169‐1540)

This activity was followed by depositional Phase 4 and could indicate a temporary lull in the
cycle of inundation enabling access to the rich wetland resource. Informal brushwood
platforms, trackways and wooden structures could have been in use over a number of
generations or just a few years, but the process of inundation soon resumed to cover the
archaeological structures. At least 2 contexts were deposited by estuarine floodwater in this
phase: (34035), pure silt deposit and (34045), a brownish grey marl mixture containing 20%
organic content, likely to be the result of erosional deposition.

Area/ Radiocarbon Dimensions (m) Associated Interpretation
Structure/ dates Deposits
Cutting
2 1324‐1441 cal D 0.25 (34035) Brushwood platform
(34504) AD (UB‐6906 W 3 (34045)
H L13.5
2 1316‐1436 cal D 0.3 (34035) Brushwood platform
(34507) AD (UB‐ W 0.35 (34045)
I 6907) L 1.2
Table 4 Medieval Structures

Structure [34504]
This structure was in the centre of cutting H and was characterised by a continuous linear
spread of brushwood, with few larger roundwoods. It was 13.5 m long (also identified in test
trench 19 to the south of Area 2), 3 m wide and 0.25 m deep. This was laid horizontally on a
layer of silt and peat and occasionally pegs were used to secure elements it in position
although not in a systematic fashion, and were dated to 1324‐1441 cal AD (UB6906) and 1298‐
1421 cal AD (UB6465). It was largely confined to spit level 1 and the structural elements
excavated in spit level 2 were not significantly different from those above. Its long axis was
oriented north south. It extended beyond the cutting both to the south and may have also
extended under the baulk to the west, joining up with the structure [34507] in cutting I. The
structure was present in two main deposits. A dark brownish grey peat and silt in the
northern half of the cutting and a light grey silt and peat located in the west of the cutting.
The centre of the structure appeared to have been expanded into a type of platform
constructed of the same type of brushwood as the main body of the trackway and numerous
stones were found adjacent to the south of the structure. A number of disassociated pieces of
brushwood were recorded adjacent to the structure and were likely to have become
dislodged from their original location. A single bulk sample was taken from the northern part
of the structure in spit level 1. Alder was the main component, while other wood such as oak,
pomaceous fruitwood, willow, ash, dogwood and birch were also used. A high number of
chisel ended pieces (46) were recorded from this structure, with a small percentage of wedge
and pencil ends. Facets were predominantly flat, the largest of which was 71 x 62 mm. A large
rectangular shaped jam curve was lifted from an oak roundwood, which was 83 mm in
width.

Structure [34507]

This structure was located in the westernmost cutting, primarily in the northwest and
northeast quadrants of cutting I, in an area that appeared to have been an active channel prior
to the structure being built. This channel was located to the south and to the west of the area
28
and may have been one of the main drainage channels between the estuary and the back
swamp. It appeared to have partly silted up prior to the construction of the structure. The
structure was radiocarbon dated to 1316‐1436 cal AD (UB6907). The main part of the structure
appeared to have a northeast to southwest orientation. It was mostly composed of brushwood
branches laid parallel and adjacent to each other, with the addition of some brushwood pieces
that ran parallel with the orientation of the structure.

The structure consisted of brushwood elements for the most part between 0.35 m and 1.25 m
in length and between 0.75 and 2.5 cm in diameter. Numerous smaller brushwood pieces and
fragments were incorporated into the structure. There were very few upright pegs or stakes
used in a systematic manner. The structure was present to a max depth of approx 0.40 m
though a depth of 0.30 m was the average. The lower parts of the structure were identical in
composition to the upper parts. This would imply that they were from the same construction
phase and that brushwood was deposited until a structure that was adequately raised above
the ground surface was achieved. There was a small concentration of parallel brushwood
pieces located in the northwest corner of the cutting, but no direct physical association
between this concentration and the main structure was recognised. It was approx 1.20 m in
length and extended in a northwest/south east direction. It was approx 0.35 m in width and
extended beyond the excavated area to the northwest for an unknown distance.

A much less well defined section of the structure was recorded to the southeast of the main
body of the structure. There was much more of a general spread of brushwood material and
occasional larger roundwood elements. This spread may represent a possible platform as it
would have represented an area of 3 square metres raised above the ground surface. Of
particular interest is that at the northern edge of this spread of material was located a large
tree stump 34W4001 that was lying on its side. It survived for a height of approx 0.50 m and
was approx 0.30 m in width. The upper portion of the trunk had been removed by metal tools
and the stump was wedge shaped. The medullary rays were noticeably prominent from the
surrounding tissue. The lower part of the stump had had the roots removed. The stump was
lying on its side with the upper trunk pointing towards the south east. Neither the roots nor
the upper portion of the trunk was located nearby, this would imply that the trunk stump
grew and was processed elsewhere and just this portion was deposited in this cutting. Alder
was the dominant wood selected, with lesser amounts of hazel, willow and pomaceous
fruitwood. The worked ends were mainly chisel, cut at shallow angles. Three flat facets were
recorded, the largest of which was 50 mm long and 48 mm wide.

Early Modern Period

An area of 330 square metres was topsoil stripped by machine to identify the limits and
extent of a brick kiln structure [34509] identified in Contract 2 testing (Wren 2003). This was
predominantly composed of orange brown brick dust. No upstanding structure could be
determined but the kiln was interpreted as a clamp kiln on the basis of firing and scorch
marks and dumps of hand‐made brick wasters. These were temporary rectangular structures
constructed from unfired bricks interleaved with fuel (often peat), then dismantled following
firing.

As with other excavation areas in Site 34, the deposit sequence included a vegetation layer
(34008) overlying oxidised clay layers (34001 and 34002) that formed as consequence of
reclaimed wetland. The entire structure was accounted for by a use phase of scorched clay
and an abandonment phase of dumped brick and debris. The main deposit of orange brown
29
brick dust [34509] formed the principle evidence for in situ burning, and this overlies a black
layer of burnt clay mixed with orange brick dust (34510). The surrounding clay (34511) was
scorched and revealed the stacked pattern of bricks laid in rows side by side, with a small gap
between each row to assist air circulation. The possibility remains that these bricks were
stacked in this position once fired in an adjacent kiln. The location adjacent to the canalised
Strangsmill stream was intended to aid export of finished product whilst also taking
advantage of the clay raw material.

A charred black clay deposit (34516) resulted from in situ burning during the firing of the
kiln. Deposit (34519) was 1 m wide and 7.5 m long and was a subretangular layer of orange
colour clay and brick dust. This was fairly loose, and extended to a depth of 0.01 m. Deposit
(34520) was similar to the above deposits, and consisted mainly of burnt and scorched clay as
a result of in‐situ burning. It was 0.02 m in depth and was fairly loose. A black deposit (34528)
was the result of in situ burning and 0.2 m deep. Deposit (24517) was the result of bricks
being fired in situ, and although no direct evidence for structure survives, the outline of
bricks stacked symmetrically was clearly recorded in plan. It was irregular in plan but was 7.5
m b y 7.5 m at its widest points and 5 mm in depth. The surface was a bright yellow and
orange colour as a result of its main inclusion of brick dust. It overlay (34518) which were
black in colour and very compact with a maximum depth of 0.02 m. A line of orange and
bright yellow stripes (34529) was above this, 1 m wide and 5 m long. A black grey layer of in‐
situ burning (34530) 0.02 m deep was above this. Deposit (34531) was square in plan and
located at the eastern end of the main body of the brick kiln. It was visible as scorch marked
lines in the surface NNE/SSW 0.25 m wide. This was above a grey black charred deposit
(34532) 0.4 m deep, 0.45 m long and 0.5 m wide.

An irregular shaped deposit (34515) comprised a mix of brick dust and brick rubble. It was
approximately 0.01 m in depth, barely extending beyond the depth of the surface. It had an
irregular shape in plan and was 4 m long and 2.5 m wide. A sub‐rectangular layer consisting
of broken brick and dust (34527) was 2.5 m wide by 6 m long though less so than the areas
thus far mentioned. A dump of broken brick (34505) extended towards the west end of the
area consisting of 80% broken brick and 20% clay. It was 0.20 m deep and 2.10 m wide and
was overlay by scorched grey clay deposit (34506) that was 0.03 m deep, and the likely result
of hot bricks dumped. Above this a grey layer of clay (34537) was recorded, mixed with less
than 15% broken bricks. It is clearly visible in section running beyond the limit of excavation.
It was 2 m wide and between 0.10‐0.15 m deep and was interpreted as a levelling deposit. A
brick dump (34521) in the eastern corner of the structure was 5 m in length, 6 m wide and
approximately 0.2 m deep. A series of interleaving dump layers (34532), (34522) 34533) and
(34534) were also recorded here and were the result of successive dumping events.

Natural Deposits

A thin layer of topsoil (34501) covered the area of the brick kiln varying in thickness between
0.5‐0.10 m. It was composed of the same kind of oxidised material covering the rest of the
bog, and supported grass vegetation. Immediately below this deposit a grey clay layer (34502)
and (34503) was recorded, extending to a similar depth to the rest of the wetland area. A
drain feature (34513) was 2.5 m wide and 7.5 m long and was related to modern agricultural
drainage post dating the use of the kiln.

30
9. Discussion

Estuarine archaeology remains poorly understood in Ireland, despite significant results
generated by a range of projects worldwide, and a wealth of archaeological information from
similar landscapes in Britain and mainland Europe (Bell and Neumann 1997; 1998). The
North Munster Project of the Discovery Programme carried out several seasons of inter‐tidal
and archaeological work on the Shannon estuary between 1992‐7 (O’Sullivan 2001), but the
excavation of Site 34 was one of the first times such a site had been excavated in response to
development‐led archaeology in Ireland (but see Carter 2007 for NRA‐funded work on
alluvial sediments). As a consequence of no major work having been undertaken in similar
conditions, the starting assumption was that this type of landscape was archaeologically
marginal and would not reward extensive investigation.

The burial environment of wet sites has long been recognised as empirically valuable and
potentially more informative than equivalent dryland sites (Gowan 2005). As the majority of
artefacts in the past were organic, the optimum preservation of wet sites contains significant
evidence of the human presence. And in addition to the artefactual evidence, past ecological
habitats and economic practices can be reconstructed through the exceptional preservation of
ecofactual evidence. At Newrath a combination of techniques were used in a multi‐proxy
investigation undertaken on two monoliths collected from Area 1. These included pollen and
non‐pollen palynomorphs, plant macrofossil, wood identification, foraminifera and diatom
analyses. This has enabled a detailed reconstruction of the environmental context of the
structures at Site 34.

The application of techniques derived from archaeological science to wet sites has resulted in
detailed empirical and paleoenvironmental studies, but the reliance on over deterministic
models of change and human interaction has come under criticism (O’Sullivan and Van de
Noort 2007). Estuarine landscapes have traditionally been conceived as neutral environments
ripe for exploitation, with archaeological remains explained in terms of cultural adaptation to
a rich wetland resource. These perspectives have been challenged by recent moves to
consider the ways that aspects of social identity such as status, kinship, ethnicity or gender,
may have influenced and been influenced by living and working in wetlands (Van de Noort
and O’Sullivan 2006). If people define their sense of self by what they do, then the movement
into estuarine salt marshes and fens would have had a powerful structuring influence. Daily
life would have been governed by cultural convention relating to the types of work that could
be undertaken by individuals or groups and the specific places it could be done.

Taking this approach at Newrath has enabled us to emphasise the practical, lived experience
of people’s knowledge of the wetland and to situate this within specific cultural and historical
contexts. The structures have provided insights into the choices and decisions that people
made to create route ways for short‐term access to the wetland. Wood species and tree‐ring
studies have demonstrated how people have used materials local to the site, and the multi‐
proxy paleoenvironmental study has allowed us to understand the biographies of these
structures in their changing environments. By constructing an onsite history of the human
inhabitation of the landscape from the Mesolithic to the present day, and recording the long‐
term formation processes as the landscape changed over time, Newrath can be conceived as a
dynamic social stage.

Late Mesolithic Mobility
31
Mesolithic hunter gathers clearly inhabited wetlands in a range of different ways, but despite
this variation the distribution of both excavated sites and stray finds in Ireland indicates a
strong emphasis on coastal, alluvial and estuarine sites (Little 2005). This may have been a
consequence of restricted movement, with people more likely to travel via the coast of river
valleys than through the wooded landscape (Woodman 2006). The artefacts recovered from
Site 34 are located at the current fringe of the River Suir and support this interpretation,
although during the Mesolithic period the morphology of the river is likely to have been
much different than today and probably resembled more of a stream (Carter 2007).

It has been suggested by Mitchell (2005) that a dense woodland covered Ireland during the
Mesolithic. This would have constrained activities and could be a factor influencing the
location of Mesolithic activity at Site 34. Later Mesolithic sites are usually located adjacent to
water, reflecting a preference for utilising the rich wetland resource for hunting, fishing and
fowling or gathering starch rich roots. As an essentially dryland site at the water’s edge, we
can confidently predict that the earliest material will be further out into the wetland area,
with later activity moving progressively eastwards in response to rising water levels or
encroaching vegetation. As a corollary to this argument, the contemporary active channel of
the Strangsmill stream precludes finding later Mesolithic activity beyond a certain point west
as this land surface was under considerable depth of water.

Given the relatively small area of contemporary ground surface exposed in Areas 1, 3 and 4,
and the difficult excavation conditions, the recovery of 5 Later Mesolithic artefacts from the
base of the peat cuttings (including two butt‐trimmed forms and one distally‐trimmed
example) indicates a significant phase of activity on Site 34 during this period. Although 5
other chipped stone artefacts were recovered, these could not be attributed with certainty to
the Later Mesolithic.

The varied composition of raw material from which these artefacts were constructed
(including high quality flint, landscape. Carboniferous limestone deposits are located to the
north of the road scheme and chert could have been sourced from these. Flint may have been
traded, or collected from the nearby coast. Rhyolite is known to outcrop at Monvoy, near to
Tramore on the Waterford coast, comprising part of the Ordovician/Silurian dated
Paratectonic Volcanics of the South East (Green and Zvelebil 1990, cited in Woodman 2006).
One of the butt‐trimmed flakes was constructed from mudstone (04E0319:34100:103), and
may have been brought from further north. If this were the case it would parallel similar sites
in the Bann Valley where this type of raw material was imported in small quantities from
adjacent areas (Woodman 2006)

The significance of this activity at Site 34 is thrown into relief by the paucity of finds from
other sites excavated on the N25. Radiocarbon dated paleoenvironmental evidence from this
period is also relatively scarce with information coming from only five sites with an age range
spanning from 4997‐4792 cal BC (UB‐6630) to 4492‐4349 cal BC (UB‐6642). These include
Rathpatrick (Site 17) and Mullinabro (Site 4) Granny (Site 22) and Newrath (sites 35 and 37),
(Gleeson 2006; Wilkins 2006; Wren 2006). Evidence that people were moving through this
woodland environment is shown by the charcoal and charred hazel nutshell recovered from
the sites mentioned above. Although more ephemeral in nature than some of the archaeology
recovered from later periods around Waterford, these features show that people were able to
utilise the wild plant resources available both for food and fuel.

32
The small‐scale Mesolithic activity recorded at Site 34 fits with this picture. Perhaps taking
advantage of local channelling, pools and stream eddies, hunter‐gather groups would have
used the dryland/wetland margin for hunting, fishing and fowling or gathering starch‐rich
roots. But this activity cannot just be reduced to economic exploitation, as these activities
were embedded in many different social practices. Mobility throughout the landscape was
bound up with ‘persistent places’ – well known camp or hunting sites revisited episodically,
with pre‐agreed rendezvous to meet other social groups and exchange raw materials amidst
that years stories. Site 34 was clearly not a ‘persistent place’, though the low level activity
could indicate that it was a pathway on the journey up and down valley. Woodman notes
that at this point the Suir valley is reminiscent of some of the wider stretches of flood plain in
between key points on the River Bann, where similar scatters have been recorded in between
key sites.

Neolithic Opportunism

During the Mesolithic period, this was an open‐water environment, but it was in the process
of changing, being steadily colonised by freshwater reed swamp. This created the favourable
conditions for a much more established colonisation by Carr woodland —a change
recognised in stratigraphic sections at around 3710–3620 BC (GU‐13998) with an associated
steady accumulation of sediment that lasted for approximately 600 years. Pollen diagrams
indicate that this was at first an oak‐dominated woodland giving way to alder, hazel and
other water‐tolerant species (see Appendix 9). Perhaps because tree‐cover at Site 34 was too
dense at this time, we have no evidence for human activity during this phase or immediately
before it. However, significant Neolithic activity was recorded on two adjacent sites to the
east—Sites 35 and 37, which include three structures and a series of three pits with
deliberately placed objects of ritual significance (Site 35: NGR 259210 114460, 15 m OD,
excavation licence no. 04E0319, approximately 100 m to the east of Site 34; Site 37: NGR
259260 113500, 18 m OD, excavation licence no. 04E288, approximately 150 m to the south‐
east of Site 34).

Despite the lack of direct evidence for Neolithic activity at Site 34, evidence from adjacent
sites supports the Monolith data for agricultural intensification. This was a significant
departure from the Mesolithic life‐way, with small communities dependent on a narrow
range of intensively managed food sources. Stable isotopic analysis of Neolithic human
remains indicates a general shift in this period from marine to terrestrial diet, shifting from a
diet of fish to that dominated by meat, bread and dairy products (see Timpany, Appendix 8).
Evidence from sites adjacent to Site 34 corresponds with this picture. Charred cereal grain of
emmer wheat has also been found at Newrath (Site 35) with grain here being radiocarbon
dated to 3695‐3523 cal BC (UB‐6639). The dated grain was recovered from the fill of a small
sub‐circular pit, which also contained charred hazel nutshell and charcoal fragments
(unidentified) suggesting the pit was used for the disposal of domestic food waste.
Radiocarbon dating of hazel nutshell fragments from the pit produced a near identical date of
3694‐3521 cal BC (UB‐6640) indicating the contemporaneity of the material. Further emmer
grain was identified from other pits investigated at the site. Cereal pollen grains have also
been identified at Newrath (Site 34) and identified as barley‐type (Hordeum group) and
oat/wheat‐type (Avena/Triticum group). On the basis of the identified charred grain it is likely
these pollen types represent the cultivation of emmer wheat and naked barley. This episode
of cultivation takes place between 3500‐3100 cal BC (SUERC‐14691) and 3370‐3090 cal BC
(SUERC‐15499), thus placing it just after the date of the charred grain from Site 35. However,
33
the close proximity of the two sites in location and date suggests this agricultural activity may
represent a continuous phase of cultivation at Newrath during the Neolithic.

However, pollen evidence at Woodstown does indicate that woodland clearance was taking
place elsewhere in the Waterford area. Here a decline can be seen in the pollen of both oak
and hazel, where oak in particular becomes near absent in the pollen record. This change has
been dated as taking place at 1890‐1680 cal BC (Beta‐195833). LOI data shows an increase in
mineral sediments during this phase which is thought to indicate the removal of trees on the
valley slopes, thus increasing the amount of hillwash (colluvium) entering the valley basin.
Prior to this clearance of woodland, cereal pollen types begin to appear in the pollen record
together with an increased representation of herbaceous taxa associated with meadow
vegetation such as grasses (Poaceae sp), plantains (Plantago sp) and buttercups
(Ranunculaceae.sp). Together this assemblage indicates clearance was taking place to obtain
land for the cultivation of cereals (Farell and Coxon 2004).

Evidence for a marine incursion is the most significant event during this phase, with
implications for our understanding of human agency. It is following the initial deposition of
silts in Monolith 2 (see results section) that cereal pollen of Hordeum‐group begins to appear
at 198 cm (Zone NWB2b). The appearance of cereal pollen in Monolith 2 at this level follows a
sharp decline in Quercus pollen at 200 cm when silts begin to be deposited. It is noticeable that
cereal pollen of Hordeum‐group and Avena‐Triticum‐group appears consistently during the
phase of silt deposition but disappear as [wood] peat begins to accumulate. Timpany
(Appendix 9) suggests that this period of agricultural activity and marine transgression are
linked. The role of storms in paleoenvironmental records is often underplayed but as Allen
(1996, 1998) observes, high winds can have a significant impact on woodlands causing the
natural felling of trees and those around it (Blackburn et al, 1988; Denslow et al, 1998). The
decline in arboreal taxa identified in the monoliths during this period is likely to be
consequence of just such events, with a concomitant impact on the archaeological record as
witnessed at Site 35. By opening up the woodland directly adjacent to Site 34, Neolithic
people could take advantage of cleared space for agricultural activity. Much less activity was
needed to maintain clearings than to create them in the first place, even though experimental
work has shown that stone axes could be very effective in felling trees. As tree growth re‐
established, agricultural activity is seen to decrease adjacent to Site 34, indicating that this
was an essentially opportunistic endeavour.

Bronze Age taskscapes

Throughout this period the landscape at Site 34 was in the process of changing, with a
gradual replacement of alder‐dominated fen carr with a phragmites‐dominated reed swamp
that lasted from 2880–2620 BC (GU‐13997) to 540–370 BC (GU‐13999). A similar
environmental change has been identified at other estuarine sites in Britain and Ireland, and
is the result of much wetter conditions—both groundwater rise and rising sea levels (Bell
2002). As tree‐cover diminished, the landscape became more accessible, and not surprisingly,
we find trackways and platforms at Newrath to aid people’s access across the reed swamp to
the water’s edge.

In Area 4 evidence for brushwood structures was identified on an old shoreline leading to two
substantial timber trackways. The first gave us a date range between of 2200‐1980 BC (UB‐
6908) and was 3 metres in length and composed of parallel round wood timbers laid side by
side. The second structure was 4 meters in length and constructed of thin round woods laid
34
side‐by‐side and secured by upright pegs. Whereas the first trackway was narrow and
appeared to cross a small pool, this was considerably wider. It could have functioned as a
platform, perhaps for launching boats and we actually found a possible fishing weight nearby.
Moving into the Later Bronze Age, the fresh water reed swamp was becoming much more
established on Site 34. In Area 3 a burnt mound was situated on a distinct rise of higher, dryer
land on the eastern margin of the site.

The Area 4 wooden trackways and brushwood platforms were constructed by people to
ensure access to and egress from the abundant resources offered by the inter‐tidal wetland.
Additionally they would have also worked to enable access to the open water of the river
channel. Resources such as fishing and fowling are often mentioned in relation to wetland
sites and indeed would have been important resources, but wetlands can also offer a range of
plant resources that can also be used to fulfil dietary and construction requirements. The
common reed (Phragmites australis) can provide both a dietary and construction resource (i.e.
its rhizomes (below ground root) is edible and it may also be used as thatch). That local carr‐
woodland resources were used is evident from the wood used in the construction of the
trackways. Wood identifications show alder to have been the main wood type used, with
other elements including birch, hazel, willow, ash, oak and dogwood (Cornus sanguinea).
Radiocarbon dates from the trackways show they were constructed and used between 2200‐
1980 cal BC (UB‐6908) and 1488‐1309 cal BC (UB‐6905). These dates correspond well with the
cereal dates from Newrath thus highlighting the varied resources that were used by Early
Bronze Age people.

The structures were constructed in the wetland using local, easily obtained resources. Wood
analysis and species identification indicates that dominates the assemblage. Other arboreal
taxa utilised for construction include Betula, Corylus avellana, Salix, Fraxinus excelsior, Quercus
and Corus sanguine (dogwood), which is absent in the pollen and plant macrofosil
assemblages (see Lyons and O’Donnell Appendix 8). The trackways were constructed from
small roundwoods, the majority of which were Alder aged between 6‐15 years. The narrow
age range may be indicative of woodland management through coppicing, and a small
number of coppice heels were identified. Rather than fell the larger trees of the adjacent
dryland, it is likely that much smaller wetland species were selected, also explaining the low
numbers of Quercus (and Corylus) timbers recorded in trackway construction.

Together with wild plant, fish and bird food resources there is also evidence that large
grazing animals were present on the wetland during this period. Fungal spores linked to
animal dung such as Types 16, 112 (Cercophera sp) and 170 (Rivularia sp) have been identified
and linked to this period (van Geel and Aptroot, 2006). These spores could also originate from
wild animals so are not necessarily indicative of a domesticated presence. The appearance of
Trichuris‐type (whipworm) eggs is of intrinsic significance, but also has social implications.
These were identified in Zone NWB2d. They infect a variety of mammals including cattle,
sheep, pigs and dogs, but are also one of the commonest human intestinal parasites that
inhabit the large intestine, the eggs of which are passed into the faeces of the host (Dark 2004).
Dark (2004) has suggested that Trichus‐type eggs from prehistoric wetlands may represent
the contamination of food or water from areas where animals and humans congregated.
Parasitic eggs identified at the Mesolithic site of Goldcliff East were interpreted as originating
from a peripheral area of the site used for defecation. Within Monolith 2 Trichuris‐type eggs
occur at approximately 2500‐2290 cal BC (SUERC‐14689), indicating its deposition prior to the
main phase of trackway construction when this area could well has been peripheral to other
activities.

35
Burnt Mounds are usually located near springs, streams or in marshy areas to fulfil their
primary function of boiling water. The burnt mound in Area 3 was no exception to the rule
and a relict streambed was identified along the southern boundary, flowing from the higher
dry land to the east into the former wetland. It has been established that the function of burnt
mound troughs was to boil water but how this water was subsequently utilised is difficult to
ascertain. So far no specific evidence has been identified from this excavation to indicate how
the hot water was used, and none of the possibilities i.e. cooking, washing, tanning or
brewing can be ruled out. The depth of the trough in Area 3 was too shallow for cooking and
the stake‐holes made no structural pattern that would indicate a sweat‐lodge, but they may
have been used for pegging out textiles after processing, which might explain the shallowness
of the trough.

No trackways or platforms have been dated to the Late Bronze Age. The rise in grass pollen
mentioned above is likely to signal a further expanse of reed swamp across the wetland on
the margins of the River Suir. This increase is thought to have occurred as a result of a
further rise in sea‐level taking place. Confirmation of the site being affected by marine waters
is given by the foraminifera and diatom data, which show the site to now be firmly within the
lower part of the upper salt marsh zone. It is unknown whether this hike in sea‐level
occurred gradually or rapidly. Either way, it certainly must have affected the lives of the
people who inhabited these wetland areas. Rising waters would have made some of the
trackways redundant as they were impacted by increased tidal levels and access to the
wetland would have become more restricted. This loss of a resource would have had a knock
on effect to the communities in the area and may help to explain the apparent near
abandonment of the region.

Salt marsh grazing in the Iron Age and Medieval Period

From the Iron Age onwards, the dynamic changes recognised in the vegetation records for
Site 34 are largely driven by sea‐level change. The sea‐level curve (Appendix 9) indicated that
during this period a rapid rise in sea level took place resulting in regular inundation. The
decline in archaeological structures during the Late Bronze Age may be a response to this.
Foraminifera and diatom evidence that Site 34 was becoming increasingly intertidal, and by
the Iron Age it had developed into an estuarine salt marsh environment. Tidal influence may
have increased, but far from becoming an inaccessible landscape the structures identified in
this period indicate that it was a rich and highly valued resource. As in the Bronze Age, Site
34 would have provided resources for fishing, fowling and edible plants. It is also likely the
salt marsh area would have been used for the grazing of cattle and sheep, a practice still
carried out in similar landscapes today. Saltmarshes provide highly nutritious grazing,
particularly for sheep, as the salt helps to prevent the foot rot and liver fluke that normally
exclude these animals from damp pastures. The presence of Trichuris‐type eggs in the
Monoliths during this period indicate dung at the site, probably representing animals grazing
on the reedswamp of the wetland or within the reedswamp/saltmarsh area.

The main barrier to access in salt marsh environments is that they are criss‐crossed by a
network of steep‐sided creeks that drain the rising tidal waters. To aid movement of livestock
trackways and hurdles were required to bridge active and semi‐active creeks, as recorded in
Area 1. Wood identifications from the trackways indicate that local carr‐woodland resources
continued to be used for construction materials with alder still the main wood species
utilised. Other species used include willow, ash, hazel, elder (Sambucus sp) and dog wood,
together with oak. The presence of oak and hazel in the construction of the wooden structures
36
across the salt marsh of Newrath indicates the continued presence of oak‐hazel woodland in
parts of the landscape. Indeed the pollen evidence from Newrath suggests this woodland
remained in the landscape into the medieval period suggesting that in some areas woodland,
which may have formed during the Mesolithic, continued to exist in areas on the dryland up
until relatively recent times. Evidence that the dryland woodland continued to remain a
valuable resource particularly for fuel wood is seen in the charcoal record across eleven sites
where either oak and/or hazel charcoal fragments have been identified across a period
spanning from 397‐207 cal BC (UB‐6317) to cal AD 1188‐1278 (UB‐6648).

Industrial archaeology and reclaimed wetland

Evidence for the first use of bricks in Ireland as a fashionable building material can be traced
back to the 16th century, when it was used in buildings such as the Ormond manor house at
Carrick‐on‐Suir, Co. Tipperary and Bunratty Castle, Co. Clare (Rynne 2006, 166). Over the
following centuries brick production grew from a small, limited, and exclusive industry to
production on an industrialised scale. This development began in the early modern period,
when single‐use structures called ‘clamp kilns’ were used. These were temporary rectangular
structures constructed from unfired bricks interleaved with fuel (often peat), then dismantled
following firing.

Clamp kilns were often located near a source of suitable clay, and a large irregular shaped
pond 25 m to the south of the brick kiln is likely to have been the original clay pit. The clay
would have been processed on site by removing all stones and worked to a suitable
consistency by adding water and trampling under foot (Rynne 2006, 167). The kiln at
Newrath was consistent with a pattern of small‐scale use. It was estimated to have been able
to fire 20,000 bricks at once, requiring 24 cubic m of clay. Bricks were then formed to set sizes
and allowed to dry before the brick clamps were constructed. By stacking unfired bricks in
rows (known as benches) with alternate short and long facing sides, or header and stretcher,
layers could be built up to 5 m high before firing (Hull 2005, 31). The gaps between the
bottom rows of bricks were filled with fuel, including peat and wood, and ignited. The
clamps were often covered with peat and allowed to burn for a number of days or weeks
resulting in the finished product (ibid).

The kiln product could easily have been exported by river, utilising the canalised Strangsmill
stream. Site 34 is adjacent to the grounds of Mullinabro house, an estate owned by the Jones
family and highly active from the eighteenth to the early twentieth century. This estate was
well established by the late eighteenth century when the house and grounds were depicted
on Richards and Scale’s map (1764) of Waterford City and environs. In the valley of the
Strangsmill Stream to the west there are the remains of a narrow gauge railway, built by the
Jones family to service their limestone quarries. It is entirely possible that the kiln product
was intended for estate buildings, a further example of the small‐scale use of the wetland that
began in the Mesolithic.

Conclusion

New road developments in southern Ireland are not only improving the infrastructure of the
country, improving road safety and meeting the demands of increasing traffic volume; they
are also providing a rare opportunity for archaeological and palaeoenvironmental
investigations. If wetlands are defined as “any area of land covered by water for part of each
37
year, or each day, or which has been drowned by water at any time of its existence” (Coles
1984) then the likelihood of encountering such landscapes in Ireland is extremely high. But
although estuarine landscapes have been the subject of major investigation in Britain and
Europe, these landscapes are rarely encountered in the course of development‐led
archaeology in Ireland and so have been subject to much less scrutiny.

Site 34 demonstrates the potential wetland archaeology that can be encountered by a transect
drawn across the landscape – in this case from Kilmeaden in Co. Waterford in the west to
Slieverue in Co. Kilkenny to the east. The starting assumption at project design‐stage was that
Site 34 was archaeologically marginal and would not reward extensive investigation. The
results reported here have directly challenged this assumption. Whilst the overall road
scheme strategy for archaeological mitigation must be focussed on dryland environments, the
strategy for wet sites should be to assess the potential of the archaeology encountered on the
site itself (such as wooden structures) whilst recovering evidence that can put the other sites
excavated on the scheme into a broader environmental context (NRA 2006). Adopting this
principle from the outset, the recording strategy and paleoenvironmental approach at Site 34
have directly influenced guidelines for all future road schemes, in addition to greatly
enhancing our understanding of the Suir estuary and its surrounding environs.
38
10. References

Bell, M. and Neumann, H. 1998. Intertidal survey in the Welsh Severn estuary. Archaeology in
the Severn Estuary 1997. 8: 13‐28.

Bell, M. and Neumann, H. 1997. Prehistoric intertidal archaeology and environments in the
Severn estuary, Wales. World Archaeology 29(1): 95‐113.

Bell, M., Allen J. R.L., Buckley, S., Dark, P. and Haslett, S. K. 2002. Mesolithic to Neolithic
coastal environmental change: excavations at Goldcliff East, 2002. Archaeology in the Severn
Estuary 12 27‐53.

Bennett K.D. (1989) A provisional map of forest types for the British Isles 5000 years ago.
Journal of Quaternary Science 4, 2 141‐144.
Bradley, R. 2002. The Past in Prehistoric Societies. London and New York: Routledge.

Blackburn, P., Petty J. A. and Miller F. 1988. An assessment of the static and dynamic factors
involved in withdraw. Forestry 61, 1 29‐43.

Bradley, R. and Williams, H. 2005. The Past in the Past: The Reuse of Ancient Monuments

Brown, A. G. 2007. Dating the onset of cereal cultivation in Britain and Ireland: the evidence
from cereal grains. Antiquity. 81 1042‐1052.

Carter, S. C. 2007. Environmental archaeology: two examples from the N25 Waterford City
Bypass and the N7 Limerick Southern Ring Road (Phase II). New Routes to the Past,
Archaeology and the National Roads Authority Monograph Series 4 47‐60.

Coles, J. M. 1984. The Archaeology of Wetlands. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press.

Coles, B. J. and Coles, J. M. 1989. People of the wetlands: bogs, bodies and lake dwellers. London:
Thames and Hudson.

Cooney, G. 2000. Landscapes of the Neolithic. London: Routledge.

Cooney, G. and Eogan G, E. 1994. Irish Prehistory: a social perspective. Dublin: Wordwell.

Dark, P. 2004. New evidence for the antiquity of the intestinal parasite Trichuris (whipworm)
in Europe. Antiquity. 78 676‐681.

Denslow, J. S., Ellison, A. M. and Sanford, R. E. 1988. Treefall gap size effects on above and
below ground processes in tropical wet forrest. Journal of Ecology. 86 597‐609.

Farrell A. and Coxon P. (2004) N25 Waterford Bypass: Sedimentological and Palaeoenvironmental
Investigation of Wetland Area adjacent to Woodstown. Unpublished assessment report, Trinity
College Dublin.
39
Gowen, M., OʹNeill, J. and Phillips, M (eds.) 2005. The Lisheen Mine Archaeological Project 1996‐
8. Bray: Wordwell.

Hull, G. 2005. Brick kilns. Archaeology Ireland 19 (4) Issue 74.
Little, A. 2005. Reconstructing the social topography of an Irish Mesolithic lakescape. In H. L.
Cobbs, F. Coward, L. Grimshaw and S. Price (eds.) Investigating prehistoric hunter‐gatherer
identities: case studies from Palaeolithic and Mesolithic Europe. Oxford: Archaeopress.

Mitchell, F.J.G. 2005. How open were European primeval forests? Hypothesis testing using
palaeoecological data. Journal of Ecology 93 168‐177.

NRA. 2006. Guidlines for the Testing and Mitigation of the Wetland Archaeological Heritage.
Environment Series On Construction Impacts. Dublin.

OʹNeill, J. and Plunkett, G. 2007. A Middle Bronze Age occupation site at Ballyarnet Lake,
County Derry: the site in its wider context. In J. Barber, C. Clarke, M. Cressey, A. Crone, A.
Hale, J. Henderson, R. Housley, R. Sands and A. Sheridan (eds). Archaeology from the wetlands:
recent perspectives: Proceedings of the eleventh WARP conference, Edinburgh. Edinburgh, Society of
Antiquaries of Scotland. Warp Occasional Paper 18: 175‐82.

OʹSullivan, A. 1990. Wood in Archaeology. Archaeology Ireland. 14: 68‐77.

OʹSullivan, A. 2001. Foragers, farmers and fishers in a coastal landscape; an intertidal archaeological
survey of the Shannon estuary. Dublin: Royal Irish Academy.

OʹSullivan, A. and Van de Noort, R. 2007. Temporality, cultural biography and seasonality. In
J. Barber, C. Clarke, M. Cressey, A. Crone, A. Hale, J. Henderson, R. Housley, R. Sands and A.
Sheridan (eds). Archaeology from the wetlands: recent perspectives: Proceedings of the eleventh

Rynne, C. 2006. Industrial Ireland 1750‐1930: An Archaeology. Cork: The Collins Press.
van de Noort, R and OʹSullivan, A. 2006. Rethinking Wetland Archaeology. London: Duckworth

van Geel B., Hallewas, D. P. and Pals, J. P. 1983. A late Holocene deposit under the Westfriest
Zeedjik, near Enkhuizen (Prov. of N‐Holland, The Netherlands): paleoecology and
archaeological aspects. Review of Paleobotany and Palynology. 31 269‐335.

WARP conference, Edinburgh. Edinburgh: Society of Antiquaries of Scotland. Warp Occasional
Paper 18: 67‐77.

Woodman, P. 2006. Report on lithics from Site 34 in the Townland of Newrath, Co. Kilkenny.
Unpublished Report for Headland Archaeology Ltd.

Wren, J. 2003. Report on the Archaeological Assessment of Newrath Townland, N25 Waterford
Bypass, Contract 2, Co. Kilkenny. Unpublished Report of Archaeological Development Services
Ltd.

Wilkins, B. 2005. Summary Report on Archaeological Investigations at Site 34 and 35 in the
Townland of Newrath, Co. Kilkenny. Unpublished Report of Headland Archaeology Ltd.

Wilkins, B. 2005. Preliminary Report on Archaeological Investigations at Site 34 and 35 in the
Townland of Newrath, Co. Kilkenny. Unpublished Report of Headland Archaeology Ltd.
40

41
SITE
Waterford
Reproduced from 1996 Ordnance Survey of Ireland 1:50,000 Discovery Series no 76,
C Government of Ireland. Licence No. EN 0008102
Brick kiln
Site 35
1
Site 34
4 3
4b
Site 34
Area 1 = 511 m 2
Area 2 = 558 m 2
Area 3 = 445 m 2
0 100 m
Area 4 = 636 m 2
Headland Archaeology trenches
Area 4b = 187 m 2
ADS previous trenches
N Brick kiln = 330 m 2
CPO
Additional testing
Large modern field drains
Linear trenching = 1195 m
Figure 1 - N25, Waterford Bypass, Contract 3: Site 34, 04E0319, location

Reproduced from 1950 Ordnance Survey of Ireland, Second Edition, Six Inch to One Mile map, Co Kilkenny Sheet 43,
C Ordnance Survey of Ireland and Government of Ireland. Licence No. EN 0008108
0008105
SITE
0 1000 m
Red box marks the extent of the third panel from Figure 1
Figure 2 - N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3: Site 34, 04E0319,

Extract from Record of Monuments and Places map
Area 1 structures listed by phase
site step (in section)
Mesolithic
34101
34124 34102
34111
34115
mound 34124
34101
Bronze Age
34102
A 34005
site step 34017
B 34111
34115 Iron Age
C 34006
34007
34014
173-174 cal AD (UB-6903) 34015
34014 34018
34005 1680-1500 cal BC (UB-6900) 34029
34007
timber structures
seen to continue
2112-1884 cal BC (UB-6902)
34017
E
344-348 cal BC (UB-6903)
F
34029 34006
timber structures
seen to continue
34018
D
Mesolithic features cut into glacial till

34015
256-414 cal AD (UB-6904) Area 1 Mesolithic chipped stone findspots
Structures
Stones
Section reproduced for Area 1 in

Figure 9
SUMP
N
0 10 m
Figure 3 - N25, Waterford Bypass, Contract 3: Site 34, 04E319, Area 1

features and structures
Area 2 structures listed by phase
Bronze Age Medieval
34505 34507
Area 2 34519 34504
Cutting H
Cutting G
Cutting I
34504
34507 1324-1441 cal AD (UB6906)
1316-1436 cal AD (UB6907) 1298-1421 cal AD (UB6465)
sump
34505
1488-1309 cal BC (UB6905)
34519
2034-1780 cal BC (UB6464)
sump
sump
Section reproduced
sump 9
for Area 2 in Figure 14
sump
sump
rench 19
line of T sump
sump
Location of bulk samples

rench 19 Section reproduced
line of T for Area 2 in Figure 14
34504 timbers continue here (unrecorded)
N
0 5m
Figure 4 - N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3: Site 34, 04E0319, Area 2

features and structures
341097
341114
341092
341115
341111
341113 341112
341094 341107
341102 341108
Area 3 341117 341101
341116 341085
341100 341088
341089
341086
341090
341087
341091
0 2m
341071
341032
area of
cobbles
341021 and compacted
clay
fulacht material
341051
projected edges
of paleochannel
341059
341077
341048
341024
Burnt mound material
341043
0 5m
Figure 5 - N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3: Site 34, 04E0319, Area 3 featues
drain
341511
Lower area Raised area

of silty peat of woody, fibrous peat
341509
341510
341501
341512 2133-1901 cal BC (UB-6466) 341508
2200-1880 cal BC (UB-6908)
341507
sump
341513
341514
sump 2855-2488 cal BC (UB-6905)
Section reproduced for Area 4 in Figure 9

N
0 5m
Location of bulk sample
Figure 6 - N25, Waterford Bypass, Contract 3: Site 34, 04E319, Area 4 structures
flooded
sump
flooded
sump
341522
sump
large timber
341521
sump
Location of bulk sample
0 5m
Figure 7 - N25, Waterford Bypass, Contract 3: Site 34, 04E319, Area 4b structures
m
Strea
gsmill
Stran
34529
34525 orange brown
burnt clay and brick dust 34517
dark
pink
oran
ligh
dark
North trench
pink
ge b
ligh
t
light
dar
t
row
ker
n
34511 34509
dark
34513
light
pink
bricks North trench
pink
34531
34519 34521
South trench
light
34505
light
South trench
34515
34523 34527
34502
Test trench
34507 34503
brick
dump
exposed peat
0 5m
Figure 8 - N25, Waterford Bypass, Contract 3: Site 34, 04E319, Brick Kiln plan
Area 1
Mesolithic
Early - Middle Bronze Age
Late Bronze Age
Iron Age
Medieval
Dry zone
Intermediate zone
Deep channel, wet zone
Area 2
Area 4 Area 3
Area 4b
0 25 m

Structures, features and deposits by phase
Brick kiln
CPO Area
rain
ern d
mod
deep
Area 1
Area 2
ern drain
deep mod
Area 4 Area 3
drain
odern
deep m
Area 4b
0 50 m N2
4
N Dry zone
Intermediate zone
Deep channel, wet zone
Headland Trenches
Testing Trenches
Sample sections (fig 11, 12)
Structures
Projected continuation of structures
Figure 10 - N25, Waterford Bypass, Contract 3: Site 34, archaeological zones, structures and section locations
Area 1 Area 2 Area 4
South facing section from Cutting B From Trench 19, opposite Cutting I
W E E W SE NW
34008 34008 34001
34001
34002
34071
34002 34062
34074 34070
34045
34037
34065
34035
34037 34063
34013 34036 34035

34069 34057
34039
34009
34033
34004
stone
34045 34060
34004
34043 34042
34021
lower portion of section from Cutting I in Area 2,
red level is consistent
34039
the sections used are located on Figure 8, as red triangles 34033 34032
and also on the idividual Area Plans, as 0 1m
34004
34034
34004
Figure 11 - N25, Waterford Bypass, Contract 3: Sample sections through deposits from Site 34
A
Representational line of channel section
BH301,R301
BH302,R302
‘Prongs’ used to align bore holes accurately into a
simulated straight line
BH304
BH306 Bore-hole locations

BH305 BH308
BHCH280
BH307
BH308A
Location of site section
BH310A
BH310B
BH311
BH311B
BHS312
BH311A
D
C
BHS313
BHS314
Channel section
301
302
80
0 200 m
01,R
02,R
08A
10A
10B
BH3 2
313
314
11A
11B
H2
31
05
06
BHC07
08
11
point at which channel deposits
BHS
BHS
BHS
BH3
BH3
BH3
BH3
BH3
BH3
BH3
BH3
BH3
BH3
BH3
A rise above present sea level B
0 m OD
Present ground surface

dry land in prehistoric eras
Alluvial sediments
Glacial till
0 20 40 60 80 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900

900m
horizontal and vertical
scale is consistent Position of Area 2 in plan, relative to bore-hole data in section
wetland in prehistoric eras
Trench 19
Site section, vertical axis exagerrated 200%
C oxidised clay and sod grey marl top of trackway accumulated organic sediment
D
0 m OD
Alluvial sediments Glacial till
till 0 25 m
Figure 12 - N25, Waterford Bypass, Contract 3: Site 34, 04E0319, Generalised stratigraphy derived from engineering bore-hole data compared with site section from Trench 19,
to show location of archaeology in relation to underlying shelving terrace, accumulated organic sediments and alluvial sediments
Figure 13 - N25, Waterford Bypass, Contract 3: Site 34, 04E319, Mesolithic reconstruction
Figure 14 - N25, Waterford Bypass, Contract 3: Site 34, 04E319, Neolithic reconstruction
Figure 15 - N25, Waterford Bypass, Contract 3: Site 34, 04E319, Early Bronze Age reconstruction
Figure 16 - N25, Waterford Bypass, Contract 3: Site 34, 04E319, Later Bronze Age reconstruction
Figure 17 - N25, Waterford Bypass, Contract 3: Site 34, 04E319, Iron Age reconstruction
Figure 18 - N25, Waterford Bypass, Contract 3: Site 34, 04E319, Medieval reconstruction
Find number: 14 Find number: 106 Find number: 4 Find number: 21 Find number: 103
Area 4, Area 1, Area 3, Area 4, Area 1,
Rhyolite blade, Flint, Large Rhyolite blade Rhyolite flake, Bann flake/
weathered Obliquely retouched on weathered Butt trimmed form
distal end
0 5 cm
Figure 19 - N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3: Site 34, 04E0319, Late Mesolithic artefacts
0 5 cm
Figure 20 - N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3: Site 34, 04E0319, Artefact Find number 13,
partially modified stone with hour-glass perforation, broken in antiquity,
possibly re-used as a fishing weight
Selection of Alder roundwoods, Area 4, Structure 341501 and 341512
Alder roundwood, chisel end, Area 1, Structure 34007
Felled Ash log 34W4001, Area 2, indicating felling techniques
with two opposing notches cut at least 40cm from the ground
Notched ash piece 34W2010, Area 1, structure 34015. Re-used timber from radially cleft, fast grown ash
Notched alder piece 34W1595, Area 1, structure 34014. Re-used timber from log-split alder piece
Figure 24 - N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3: Site 34, 04E319, worked wood
Rectangular edged jam curve from 34W3524, Area 2, Structure 34504
Alder stake, pencil end, structure 34007, Area 1
Plate 1 - Area 1 Cutting A, section, facing north
Plate 2 - Area 1 Cutting A, Structure [34007] in (34039) facing north

Plate 3 - Area 2, showing cuttings I, H and J, facing east
Plate 4 - Area 2 Cutting I, showing marl filled channel [34512] over peat [34004], facing east
Plate 5 - Area 2 Cutting I, showing from base; peat deposit, brown silt,
bands of peat interspersed with estuarine silt, facing north
Plate 6 - Area 3, timber lined trough [341077], facing east
Plate 7 - Area 4, showing trackway [341501] in foreground, facing north

Plate 8 - Excavation team cleaning peat from an early medieval platform in Area 2 prior
to recording and sampling
Plate 9 - Bronze Age platform in Area 4 being cleaned prior to recording

Plate 10 - Brushwood structure, Area 1, Cutting A, looking west
Plate 11 - Iron Age trackway in Area 1 being drawn to ensure that the exact location of
all worked wood was fully recorded
Context Registers

Site 34 Context Register – Area 1 Structures and Cuts

Context Area Type Description Interpretation
Number
34005 1 Structure Wooden structure located within This appeared to be a
cuttings C/D. This was composed of a rudimentary togher or
superstructure of small branches which track way. The area that
were on top of larger round‐wood was raised above the
timbers which were laid longitudinal surface of the peat
to the structures orientation (north‐ appeared to have been
south). Upright pegs were driven in colonised by shrubby tree
on either side and through the growth. There was a
structure to anchor it in position. definite slope discernible
Metal tool marks have been identified from top at north to base
on the worked ends of many of the and the end of the
timbers. The more substantial elements structure at south.
of this structure were located to the
north
34006 1 Structure Wooden structure. This was present in This possibly represents
the upper level of cutting E. an irregular shaped
Constructed on a marl deposit (34035), dump/platform of
it was composed of substantial brushwood and some
amounts of brushwood. This was larger roundwood
spread over several square metres, element. Extending north
with a noticeable concentration east from this
towards the south of the cutting. concentration, there was a
Metal tool marks have been identified line of timbers that
on the worked ends of many of the seemed to have the same
timbers. orientation as the
structure present at the
same level in cutting B.
Not all of this structure
was visible as some was
under the baulk.
34007 1 Structure Wooden structure located in cutting A, This structure appeared
constructed within the fill of channel to extend beyond the
[34048]. It was visible as a linear cutting to both the west
arrangement of brushwood and longer and the south, along the
roundwood elements with its long axis orientation of the channel
oriented north‐south. In addition to filled by (34039), (34032)
the main body of the structure there and (34026). The
were a number of other outlying structure was substantial
elements associated with the structure, enough to have served as
e.g. upright stakes and pegs. Metal a track way or possibly as
tool marks have been identified on the a platform.
worked ends of many of the timbers.

42

Number
34009 1, Cut Cut of small dendritic channel. One of Filled by (34036). These
Cut a number of such small channels that small channels appear to
B were all filled by the same silty fill. have eroded their course
These channels display evidence of out of the deposits (34013)
gradually silting up. and (34033).

34010 1, Cut Cut of small dendritic channel. Filled by (34036). These
Cut See [34009] small channels appear to
B have carved their course
into the deposits (34013)
and (34033).

34011 1, Cut Cut of small dendritic channel. Filled by (34036). These
Cut See [34009] small channels appear to
B have carved their course
into these deposits (34013)
and (34033).

34014 1 Structure Wooden structure, initially identified This structure was
in cutting B. It was present as a linear constructed well enough
arrangement of brushwood and to have functioned as a
roundwoods with its long axis oriented track way. It has a
northeast to southwest. There were superstructure of loosely
two distinct phases of this structure, a interwoven small
lower element within the peat (34004) branches and a
and an upper element that was not substructure of larger
directly physically associated it which roundwood branches.
was situated in peat and marl deposits
(34035) and (34013)

34015 1 Structure Wooden structure identified in cutting Possible brushwood
F. The structure was visible primarily platform. The relationship
as a spread of brushwood elements with the other structures
running adjacent and parallel to the in the area was unclear as
west facing baulk of the cutting. There only a small portion of
was also a concentration of larger this structure was
roundwood elements located to the exposed
south of the cutting. All elements were
in association with the deposit (34035).
This structure was relatively shallow in
depth and may be related to structure
[34006] present in the west of cutting E
at a similar level. Metal tool marks
were identified on a number of worked
wood elements.

43

Number
34017 1 Structure This was a possible structure located in Possible structure may be
Cutting E. It was an arrangement related to the dump of
of stakes and may be related to the stony material (34029),
dump of stone [34029]. It which occurs south of the
appeared to the north of the cutting arc of stakes.

and was visible as an arc of stakes. All
of these stakes are quite small in
diameter (2cm). Metal toolmarks were
identified on a number of worked
wood elements. A linear arrangement
of upright stakes was also located
immediately to the south east of the
stone dump and extended for two
metres to the east into the baulk. It
was similar in form to the stakes
located to the north of the cutting.

34018 1 Structure This was a curvilinear arrangement of Curvilinear arrangement
timbers located in the northwest of of timbers. Could have
cutting F. It may have been related to been associated with
the structures [34007] in cutting A to possible track way [34007]
the north and to structure [34015] in in cutting A and/or
cutting F. The structure was composed possible brushwood
of brushwood and some larger platform [34015] in
roundwood elements and was present cutting F.
at spit 2 only.

34029 1 Structure? This feature consisted of a dump of Phase 3, (On‐Site
stones located in spit level 3 of cutting Stratigraphy) Possible
E, specifically on a small area of very hearth.
fibrous brown peat, which appears to
have had the appearance of a dome of
vegetation raised above the
surrounding deposits. These stones
were too large to have been carried in
by water action and formed too
discrete a structure so must have been
brought here through human agency.
There were traces of charcoal present
on these stones and they appeared to
have been shattered as a result of
exposure to intense heat.

44

Number

34048 1 Cut Cut of a large channel filled by (34032) Phase 3, (On‐Site
in its northern section and by (34026) Stratigraphy)
in its southern area. This large north This channel was
south running channel was approx identified both in cuttings
2.20m wide at the top and 0.55m wide A and F. It was also
at the base. The channel was approx identified in the north
0.65m deep. The measurements were facing baulk of the site
taken from the baulk at the southern edge south. This large
edge of the site. Overall length of channel appeared to have
channel approx 15m. Extended beyond been silted up prior to the
the excavated area in either direction construction of any
timber structures
34072 1 Possible Timber concentration in south of Non structural timbers,
feature cutting E. This was indicated on the this was evidence of tree
plan as [34017]. This is incorrect, and it growth on the peat. It
was probably natural tree growth that appears that the tree died
had died in situ. in situ and was covered
by peat growth.
34073 1 Cut Cut of channel visible in section # 9, Small dendritic channel
filled by (34036), area 1 cut A similar to [34009]

Site 34 – Area 1 Extension/Mesolithic

Number
34100 1‐Ext Deposit Pale grey/brown silty clay with organic
inclusions.
34101 1‐Ext Cut Sub circular/irregular shape in plan Cut of possible pit or tree
with concave sides and flat base. bole. Filled by (34105) to
(34110)
34102 1‐Ext Cut Irregular shape with irregular sides Cut of a shallow burnt

and base. pit/spread. Filled by
(34103) and (34104).
34103 1‐Ext Fill Blackish brown peat with frequent Upper fill of small
charcoal inclusions. Loose compaction. shallow pit [34102].
34104 1‐Ext Fill Grey/brown sandy clay. Firm Lower fill of small
compaction. shallow pit [34102].
34105 1‐Ext Fill Mid brown peat with occasional fine Fill of possible pit or tree
pebble and angular stone inclusions. bole [34102]
Moderate compaction.
34106 1‐Ext Fill Dark brown peat with occasional fine Fill of possible pit or tree
pebble inclusions. Moderate bole [34102]
compaction.
34107 1‐Ext Fill Mid brown/grey silty clay with Fill of possible pit or tree
occasional pebble and medium angular bole [34102]
45

Number
stone inclusions.
34108 1‐Ext Fill Mid brown /grey silty sandy clay with Fill of possible pit or tree
moderate inclusions of large stones. bole [34102]
Moderate compaction.
34109 1‐Ext Fill Mid brown peat with very occasional Fill of possible pit or tree
large stone inclusions. Moderate bole [34102]
compaction.
34110 1‐Ext Fill Grey/light brown silty clay/peat with Fill of possible pit or tree
frequent medium and large stone bole [34102]
inclusions. Moderate to firm
compaction.

34111 1‐Ext Cut Linear shape in plan with steep sides Cut of possible pit. Could
and rounded base. be naturally formed by
water flow. Filled by
(34117), (34118) and
(34125)
34112 1‐Ext Deposit Dark brown sandy loam. Firm Deposit fill of [34111],
compaction. same as [34117].
34113 1‐Ext Deposit Light to mid brown/grey fine sandy Possibly upcast
silty with very occasional flecks of redeposited natural which
charcoal and occasional small rounded formerly occupied the
fragments of limestone and root space within a tree bole.
material inclusions. Firm compaction.
34114 1‐Ext Deposit Mid brown/grey fine sandy silt with Mixture of peat and
occasional small rounded fragments of redeposited glacial till.
limestone and moderate root material
inclusions. Moderate compaction.
34115 1‐Ext Cut Irregular shape in plan. Steep sides at Cut of tree bole. Filled by
northeast and south and becoming (34113) and (34114).
more gradual elsewhere. Uneven base.
34116 1‐Ext Deposit Brownish grey silty clay. Moderate Deposit containing a
compaction. Deposit was originally mixture of peat from cut
part of [34124], later slumping into the [34101] and mound
[34101]. [34124].
34117 1‐Ext Fill Dark grey/brown silty clay loam with Fill of [34111]
occasional charcoal inclusions. Firm
compaction.
34118 1‐Ext Fill Pinkish mid to pale grey/brown silty Primary fill of [34111].
clay loam with frequent stone
inclusions of various sizes. Firm
compaction.
34119 1‐Ext Deposit Light grey fine sand with no Lowest deposit of mound
inclusions. Very loose compaction. 34124.
34120 1‐Ext Deposit Light grey/brown sandy silt. Friable. Deposit in mound 34124.
Occasional stone (3cm) inclusions. Above (34119).
Very loose compaction.
34121 1‐Ext Deposit Light grey fine sandy silty clay with Deposit in mound 34124.
frequent root material inclusions. Very Above (34121).
46

Number
loose compaction.
34122 1‐Ext Deposit Dark brown medium sand with very Deposit in mound 34124.
frequent root material inclusions. Very
loose compaction.
34123 1‐Ext Deposit Light grey gritty, sandy silt with Deposit in mound 34124.
frequent root inclusions and occasional
small stone inclusions.
34124 1‐Ext Deposit Mound 3m x 0.70m. 0.60m depth. A mound of redeposit.
34125 1‐Ext Deposit Dark brown silty loam with occasional Charcoal rich fill of
decayed, bluish stone inclusions. It possible pit [34111].
contained frequent charcoal.
Moderately loose compaction.

Site 34 Context Register –Area 2 Structures

Number
34504 2 Structure This structure was located in the Possibly a wooden togher or
central cutting H. In the main part it track way which expanded in
was a continuous linear spread of the middle to form a possible
brushwood with its long axis platform.
orientated north‐south. It extended
beyond the cutting to the south and
may extend under the baulk to the
west to join up with the structure
[34507] in cutting I. The centre of the
structure appeared to have been
expanded into a type of platform
constructed of the same type of
brushwood as the main body of the
track way. Metal toolmarks were
identified on worked wood elements
found throughout the structure.

34505 2 Structure This structure was located in the Possible brushwood track
eastern part of cutting G. It consisted way or platform.
of a series of upright vertical posts
and pegs, concentrations of
brushwood and less dense
concentrations of larger roundwood
elements. There were three distinct
concentrations of brushwood in this
structure. Metal toolmarks were
found throughout the structure

47

Number
34507 2 Structure This structure was located in the Possible brushwood platform
westernmost cutting, cutting I. The and or Track way
main part of the structure appeared
to have a northeast to southwest
orientation and was mostly
composed of brushwood branches
laid parallel and adjacent to each
other. Metal toolmarks were
found throughout the structure
34512 2 Cut Cut of channel in cutting I Channel contained a light to
mid grey pure marl deposit
34519 2 Structure This structure was located in cutting Possibly a substructure of
G, beneath the structure [34505] and structure [34505].
may be a part of its substructure. It
is composed of large upright posts
that were driven into the glacial till
(34021). Metal toolmarks were
identified on several of these pieces.

Site 34 – Area 2 Extension Context Register

Number
34601 2‐Ext Cut Rectangular shape in plan. Irregular Cut of burnt pit. Filled by
profile with gentle break of slope at (34602), (34603), (34604),
base and a flat base. (34608)
34602 2‐Ext Fill Blue/grey clay. Moderate compaction Fill of a shallow pit
with frequent charcoal flecks [34601] that had burning
throughout. in situ.
34603 2‐Ext Fill Black, charcoal rich fill of [34601]. Fill of a shallow pit
Loose compaction. [34601] that had burning
in situ.
34604 2‐Ext Fill Black, brown, pinkish brown (due to in Fill of a shallow pit
situ burning) sandy loam. Moderate [34601] that had burning
compaction. Very occasional large in situ.
stone inclusions (5%).
34605 2‐Ext Deposit Light brown silt deposit. Probably just a variation
of the sandy loam natural.
34606 2‐Ext Deposit An orange streaked grey clay deposit ‐ Probably just a variation
occurs as a circular shape in plan. of the sandy loam natural.
34607 2‐Ext Deposit A light brown sandy loam. Probably just a variation
of the sandy loam natural
34608 2‐Ext Deposit Light brown sandy, clayey silt with Lens in a shallow pit,
yellow tints. Loose compaction. No [34601], that had burning
inclusions. in situ.
48
34609 2‐Ext Deposit A concentration of small cylindrical Probably natural but

finds/samples. Find #’s 34601‐34604. maybe anthropogenic.
Site 34 Context Register – Area 3

Number
34008 3 Deposit Topsoil layer composed of topsoil Topsoil
vegetation.
341002 3 Deposit Yellow white clay with orange Subsoil
flecking, below (31008)
341003 3 Deposit Light grey silty clay with 20% orange Subsoil
flecking, below (341002)
341004 3 Deposit Black slag/mineral deposit over Mineralised deposit that
charcoal rich burnt stone deposit post dates the deposition
of charcoal rich burnt
stone. Possibly
manganese.
341005 3 Deposit Very compact mid grey/white clay Ash deposit. This may be
(ash?) immediately above (341006) evidence for the in situ
burning heating of the
stones on the mound of
discarded burnt stone
fragments
341006 3 Deposit Charcoal rich burnt stone Fragmentary heat
shattered stone mixed
with charcoal clay and
ash.
341007 3 Fill Dark brown silty clay. Fill of [341008]

341008 3 Cut Curvilinear feature in plan with an Cut of curvilinear feature,
irregular profile. filled by (341007)
341009 3 Fill Top fill of possible trough in the SE This is the top deposit in
quadrant the burnt mound spread

341010 3 Deposit Irregular in plan. Light yellow brown Deposit, including slag,
sandy clay. mineral rock and some
quartz.
341012 3 Fill Dark grey sandy silt Fill of possible stakehole
[341013]

341013 3 Cut Oval shape in plan with steeply Cut of possible stakehole.
sloping sides (75 degrees). Concave Filled by (341012)
base.
341014 3 Fill Grey sandy silt, medium compaction Fill of possible stakehole
[341015]
341015 3 Cut Oval/sub circular in Very gradual slope Cut of possible stakehole.
on sides. Very shallow. Filled by (341014)
341017 3 Cut Sub circular in plan. Steep slope (75 Cut of possible stakehole.
degrees). Concave base. Filled by (341018)
341018 3 Fill Grey sandy silt with charcoal Fill of possible stakehole
49

Number
inclusions. Medium compaction. [341017]
341019 3 Deposit Dark grey silty clay with wood and Possible redeposit,
charcoal inclusions. Medium overlapping wood,
compaction. charcoal and wood lined
pit. Wood most likely
invasive roots etc
341020 3 Deposit Medium grey sandy silty clay. Deposit or possible
shallow pit
341021 3 Cut Linear feature with irregular edges. Cut of possible pit.
Stone lined base.
341022 3 Fill Mid grey sandy silty clay with some Fill of [341023]
charcoal flecking. Very loosely
compacted.
341023 3 Cut Linear shape in plan. Gradually Cut of linear feature.
sloping sides with flat base. Filled by (341022)
341024 3 Cut Sub circular in plan with gradually Cut of possible pit.
sloping sides with concave base.
341025 3 Deposit Dark grey clayey sand with burnt and Fill of pit [341024]
heat shattered stone inclusions.
Loosely compacted.
341026 3 Deposit Yellow with orange and grey mottling, Fill of [341059]
sandy silt with charcoal and burnt These may not be a
stone inclusions. Fairly loose separate feature. They
compaction. may be part of the burnt
mound that has filled a
natural hollow
341027 3 Deposit Orange/brown sandy silt with charcoal Same as above
inclusions. Medium compaction.
341028 3 Deposit Orange/brown clayey silt. Fairly loose Same as above
compaction.
341029 3 Cut Almost oval shape in plan. Gradual to Possible posthole. Filled
steep slope at sides with flat base. by (341030)
341030 3 Deposit Yellow/black sandy clay with charcoal Fill of possible posthole
inclusions. Hard compaction. [341029]
341031 3 Deposit Irregular in plan. Grey silty clay with Irregular shaped spread
charcoal, brushwood and gravel of silty clay.
inclusions. Firm compaction.

341032 3 Cut Irregular/oval shape in plan. Gradual Possible metalled/cobbled
slope on sides with flat base. Located area. This may be a work
on raised area to north of area related possibly to
paleochannel. Area consisted of well the wood lined trough
compacted clay and sub rounded located to the south west
stones set into a slight natural
depression
341033 3 Deposit Light grey with yellow mottling with Related to (341032)
charcoal and frequent stone inclusions.
341034 3 Deposit Light grey silty clay with charcoal and Secondary fill of linear cut
ash inclusions. Very loosely [341023]
50

Number
compacted.
341035 3 Cut Small, oval shape in plan. Gradually Cut of possible posthole.
341036 3 Fill Grey/pink sandy clay with charcoal Fill of possible posthole
and small stone inclusions. [341035]
341037 3 Cut Small, oval shape in plan with concave Cut of possible posthole.
base. Filled by (341038)
341038 3 Fill Black/grey sandy clay with charcoal Fill of possible posthole
inclusions. Hard compaction. [341037]
sloping sides with concave base. Filled by (341040)
341040 3 Fill Black/grey sandy clay with charcoal Fill of possible posthole
inclusions. Hard compaction. [341039].
341042 3 Fill Grey/yellow/pink sandy clay with Fill of possible posthole
charcoal and heat effected stone [341041]
inclusions. Hard compaction.
341045 3 Fill Dark brown/black sandy clay with Fill of pit [341047]
charcoal and heat shattered stone
inclusions.
341046 3 Fill Grey sandy silt with charcoal and Fill of [341047]
burnt stone inclusions.
341047 3 Cut Oval shape in plan with gradually Cut of pit. Filled by
sloping sides. Flat base, sloping gently (341046) and (341045).
towards south west.
341049 3 Deposit Black sandy silt with charcoal, ash and Related to the heating of
burnt stone inclusions. Medium the burnt stones, possible
compaction. hearth
341050 3 Cut Rectangular shape in plan with steep Cut of trench. Filled by
sides and flat base. Shallow. (341062) and (341070).
341051 3 Cut Oval shape in plan. Gradually sloping Cut of possible pit. Filled
sides with irregular base. by (341052)
341052 3 Fill Black/grey silty clay with charcoal and Charcoal rich fill of
burnt stone inclusions. Loosely possible pit [341051]
compacted.
341053 3 Fill Grey with orange/yellow mottling. Fill of pit [341047]
Clayey silt. Moderately compacted.
341054 3 Fill Grey sandy silt. Loose compaction. Fill of pit [341047].
Possible redeposit wash.
341055 3 Fill Yellow/light brown with burnt stone Fill of pit [341047].
inclusions. Loose compaction. Possible redeposit wash.
341057 3 Fill Grey, coloured by iron oxidation. Fill of pit [341047]
Sandy clay. Moderate to hard
compaction.
341059 3 Cut Sub circular shape in plan. Gradually Cut of possible pit
sloping sides with regular flat base. containing charcoal and
burnt stone. Filled by
51

Number
(341060)
341060 3 Fill Very light grey silty clay. Loosely Fill of possible pit
compacted. [341059]

341061 3 Fill Light grey sand with orange mottling Fill of possible pit
and charcoal inclusions. Very loosely [341059]
compacted.
341062 3 Deposit Mid grey with orange mottling (caused Uppermost deposit in the
by oxidation). Silty clay with very north east side of the
occasional inclusions of brushwood paleochannel in the
and charcoal flecking. Mid to firm southwest quadrant.
compaction.
341063 3 Deposit Orange brown silty sandy gravel. Deposit related to
Medium compaction. paleochannel
341064 3 Deposit Mid grey clayey sand with very Deposit related to
occasional charcoal flecking, paleochannel
brushwood and roots and small sub
angular stone inclusions. Medium
compaction.
341065 3 Deposit Mid yellowish brown with very Deposit related to
occasional charcoal inclusions. Loose paleochannel
compaction.
341066 3 Deposit Mid brownish grey silty sand with Deposit related to
very occasional charcoal flecking and paleochannel
undecayed organic material.
341067 3 Deposit Mid brownish grey silty sand with Deposit related to
very frequent undecayed organic paleochannel
material and very occasional charcoal
flecking and coarse sand. Medium
compaction
341068 3 Deposit Mid grey brown silty sand with very Deposit related to
frequent coarse gravel. Loose paleochannel
ompaction.
341069 3 Deposit Mid grey brown silty sand with Deposit related to
frequent undecayed organic remains paleochannel
and very occasional charcoal flecking.
Medium compaction.

341070 3 Fill Mid yellowish grey sandy clay with Deposit relating to
orange mottling due to oxidation, paleochannel
containing very occasional undecayed
organic material and very occasional
charcoal flecking. Mid to firm
compaction.
341071 3 Cut Sub circular shape in plan with Cut of possible pit/trough
irregular, gradually sloping sides. Flat, containing charcoal and
slightly irregular base. wood. Filled by (341072)
52

Number
and (341073).
341072 3 Fill Light grey silty clay with charcoal and Fill of possible pit/trough
burnt stone inclusions. Loose [341071]
compaction.
341073 3 Fill Very dark grey clay with brown Fill of possible pit/trough
mottling and burnt/heat shattered [341071]
stone inclusions. Loosely compacted.
341074 3 Fill Dark grey silty clay with 5% sand Fill of pit [341059].
inclusions, occasional burnt stone and
frequent charcoal inclusions. Very
loosely compacted.
341075 3 Deposit Black, charcoal rich sandy clay with Burnt deposit west of
burnt stone inclusions. Loose possible trough [341032]
compaction. and above wood lined
trough, [341077].
341076 3 Cut Circular shape in plan with gradually Pit
sloping sides. Flat even base.
341077 3 Cut Rectangular cut of timber lined trough. This trough was quite
Cut into edge of east west running shallow. At most the
paleochannel at south of area 3. Trough timbers survived to a
at south was cut into natural yellowish height of 0.17m above the
clay deposit and at north it was cut base of the cut. The fill of
into silty sand most likely deposited by the trough consisted of a
the paleochannel. Roughly half of the compact mass of small
trough was in each deposit. Dimension burnt stone fragments,
of cut for trough, east west 1.65.m charcoal and washed in
approx. The trough was wider at its silt and sand. It was
eastern end 0.95m than its western unclear as to whether the
0.70m. The base of the trough consisted trough had originally
of a two well made large planks. The been deeper and had been
larger of which, located to the north, truncated of eroded by
was doweled into position. later activity
341078 3 Fill Dark brown/black sandy clay with Fill of possible posthole
very frequent charcoal and stone [341085]
inclusions. Very loosely compacted.
341079 3 Fill Dark brown/black sticky sandy clay Charcoal rich fill of
with inclusions of charcoal chunks. possible posthole
Very loosely compacted. [341086].
341080 3 Fill Dark brown/black sticky sandy clay Charcoal rich fill of
with very frequent charcoal inclusions. possible posthole [341087]
Very loosely compacted.
341081 3 Fill Dark brown/black sandy clay with Charcoal rich fill of
very frequent charcoal inclusions and possible posthole [341088]
occasional burnt stone inclusions.

341082 3 Fill Dark brown/black sandy, silty clay Charcoal rich fill of
with very frequent charcoal inclusions possible posthole [341089]
and occasional small stone inclusions.
53

Number
341083 3 Fill Dark brown/black sandy silty clay with Charcoal rich fill of
very frequent charcoal inclusions and possible posthole [341090]
occasional small stone inclusions. Very
loosely compacted.
341084 3 Fill Dark brown/black silty sandy clay with Charcoal rich fill of
moderate charcoal inclusions and possible posthole [341091]
occasional small stone inclusions.
Very loosely compacted.
341085 3 Cut Sub circular in plan with steeply Cut of possible posthole.
sloping sides (80 degrees) and concave Filled by (341078)
base.
341086 3 Cut Circular shape in plan with steeply Cut of possible posthole.
sloping sides and concave but uneven Filled by (341079).
base.
341087 3 Cut Sub circular to oval in plan with Cut of possible posthole.
steeply sloping sides and a flat uneven Filled by (341087)
base.
341088 3 Cut Oval shape in plan with steeply Cut of possible stake hole.
sloping sides and uneven, concave Filled by (341081)
base
341089 3 Cut Circular shape in plan with steeply Cut of possible stakehole.
sloping sides and a concave base. Filled by (341082)
341090 3 Cut Very irregular shape in plan and Cut of possible posthole.
irregular profile – steep slope on all Filled by (341083)
sides. Flat base.
341091 3 Cut Circular shape in plan with steeply Cut of possible stakehole.
sloping sides. Concave base. Filled by (341084)
340192 3 Cut Circular shape in plan, steep sides and Cut of possible posthole.
concave base. Packing stone at base. Filled by [341093].
341093 3 Fill Black silty sandy clay with very Charcoal rich fill of
frequent charcoal, occasional burnt possible stake hole
stone inclusions. Loosely compacted. [341092]
341094 3 Cut Circular shape in plan. Steep slope on Cut of possible posthole.
sides with concave base. Filled by (341095)
341095 3 Fill Black silty sandy clay with very Charcoal rich fill of
frequent charcoal inclusions and possible posthole [341094]
occasional burnt stone inclusions.
341096 3 Fill Black/dark grey sandy clay with very Charcoal rich fill of
frequent charcoal inclusions and possible posthole [341097]
occasional heat effected stone
inclusions. Loosely compacted.
341097 3 Cut Circular to oval shape in plan with Cut of possible posthole.
irregular profile. Flat base. Filled by(341096)
341099 3 Deposit Dark brown sandy silty clay with This material was
occasional charcoal inclusions. adjacent to the trough and
Loosely compacted. a fill within the
paleochannel.
54

Number
341100 3 Cut Circular shape in plan with steep sides. Cut of possible stake hole.
Round tapered. Filled by (341103)
341101 3 Cut Circular shape in plan with steep sides. Cut of possible stake hole.
341102 3 Cut Circular shape in plan. Steep sides. Cut of possible stake hole.
341103 3 Fill Black/grey/brown/yellow mix. Sandy Charcoal rich fill of
silty clay with very frequent charcoal possible stake hole
and packing stone inclusions. Loosely [341100]
compacted.
341104 3 Fill Black/grey/brown/yellow mix. Silty Charcoal rich fill of
sandy clay with charcoal inclusions possible stake hole
(30%) and burnt stone inclusions [341101]
(30%).
341105 3 Fill Black/very dark grey/brown/yellowish Charcoal rich fill of
mix. Silty clay with charcoal (20%), possible stake hole
burnt stone (5%) and small stone [341102]
inclusions (5%).
341107 3 Cut Circular shape in plan. Round tapered. Cut of possible stake hole.
Filled by (341109)

Filled by (341110)
341109 3 Fill Grey/black silty clay with moderate Charcoal rich fill of
charcoal inclusions (30%). Loosely possible stake hole
compacted. [341107]
341110 3 Fill Yellow/black silty clay with charcoal Charcoal rich fill of
(40%) and burnt stone (30%) possible stake hole
inclusions. Loosely compacted. [341108].
341111 3 Cut Oval shape in plan. V‐tapered. Cut of possible stake hole.
Filled by (341118)
Filled by (341119)
341113 3 Cut Circular shape in plan. Round tapered. Cut of possible stake hole,
Filled by (341120)
341114 3 Cut Circular shape in plan. V‐tapered. Cut of possible stake hole.
Filled by (341121)

Filled by (341122)
341116 3 Cut Oval shape in plan. Steep side. U‐ Cut of possible stake hole.
shaped profile. Filled by (341123).
341117 3 Cut Oval shape in plan. Irregular profile. Cut of possible stake hole.
Filled by (341124)

341118 3 Fill Grey silty clay with charcoal inclusions Fill of possible stake hole
(20%). Hard compaction. [341111}
341119 3 Fill Black/grey silty clay with charcoal Charcoal rich fill of
55

Number
(40%) and very small burnt/heat possible stake hole
effected (30%) inclusions. [341112].
effected stone inclusions. Loosely [341113]
compacted.
shattered stone (40%) inclusions. [341114]
(60%) and very small burnt stone (30%) possible stake hole
inclusions. Loosely compacted. [341115]
341123 3 Fill Black/grey/yellow silty clay with Charcoal rich fill of
charcoal (40%) inclusions. Loosely possible stake hole
compacted. [341116]
341124 3 Fill Black/grey/yellow silty clay with Charcoal rich fill of
charcoal inclusions (30%). Loosely possible stake hole
compacted [341117]

Site 34 – Area 4 and 4B Structures

Context Type Type Description Interpretation
Number
341501 4 Structure This structure was a large timber track A large timber track way
way comprised of 8 large roundwoods comprised of 8 large
that were laid parallel to each other. roundwoods. This
The superstructure as described was structure also contained
placed on top of a smaller transverse two less well constructed
roundwood timber located under the portions, one at the west
western end of the track way. The and one at the east. The
structures long axis was oriented eastern element may be
north, northeast to south, southwest. connected to the structure
To either end of this section of parallel [34009] located on the
roundwoods were smaller parallel raised peat area to the
timbers and some upright elements east of the site. To the
that secured them in position. To the west of the parallel timber
west of the central section the section, the structure was
structures direction veers towards the comprised of smaller less
south. All of these timbers exhibited well put together
toolmarks made by metal axes/adzes. elements

341507 4 Structure This structure was located on the Possible brushwood
raised eastern part of the area and platform.
consists mainly of a small brushwood
concentration and a small number of
upright stakes and pegs. It was a
shallow structure, roughly
ovate/circular in shape. Several timbers
56

Number
exhibit metal toolmarks

341508 4 Structure This structure was located on the A small platform
raised eastern part of the area. The measuring 1.5m in width
upper part of this structure consisted and 1.6m in length.
of a dense concentration of small
brushwood elements which formed a
roughly oval shape. Beneath this
upper brushwood concentration were
located a number of large sub
structural roundwoods. Numerous
small upright stakes were found within
and adjacent to the structure. several
elements bore evidence of metal
toolmarks

341509 4 Structure This structure consisted of upright Possible platform/small
posts and a concentration of track way running in the
brushwood and larger roundwood direction of track way
elements. [341501].

341510 4 Structure This structure was located in the Possible platform/small
northern part of the raised area at the track way.
east of the excavated area and was
composed mainly of a brushwood
concentration visible only at spit 1.

341511 4 Structure This structure was located in the north Possible brushwood
eastern part of the site. It consisted of a platform.
possible brushwood platform with a
less dense concentration of brushwood
and upright posts extended to the
west. This was a shallow structure,
0.10m deep approximately. Several
upright stakes were present in and
near this structure.

341512 4 Structure This structure was located in the west This structure was either
of the cutting. It was composed of a small track way or a
brushwood and some larger platform.
roundwood elements laid parallel and
adjacent to each other and there were
several upright stakes driven through
the structure to anchor these into
position. Metal tool marks were
identified on a number of worked
wood elements.
57

Number

341513 4 Structure This structure was situated adjacent to This structure was a
and extending beyond the southern potential small togher or
limit of excavation of the site. It was track way.
composed of 2 main parts, a lower
substructure, which comprised of a
large dark coloured timber laid
horizontally, and an upper
superstructure which consisted of light
coloured branches and brushwood that
were loosely interwoven together and
placed on top of the substructure.

341514 4 Structure This structure was a linear Possible togher extending
arrangement of parallel roundwood beyond the limit of
elements which extend in a north‐ excavation to the south.
south orientation form the site edge Although only a small
baulk in a southerly direction. In amount of this structure
addition to the parallel roundwoods was uncovered, its
there was also a scatter of brushwood stratigraphic location and
elements extending to the north in the the manner of its
direction of structure [341501]. Of construction all indicate
particular interest is the arc of four that it was contemporary
upright posts that extended from the with the other trackway
northern edge of [341514] towards the and platform elements in
southern edge of the large trackway this area.
[341501].
341521 4B Structure This structure was located to the south Possible
excavated area 4. It consisted of a brushwood/roundwood
linear structure composed of platform or track way.
brushwood and larger roundwood This structure was not
elements laid together horizontally excavated in its entirety.
with their long axis respecting the
structures orientation. A number of
upright pegs and stakes were located
within the linear structure and others
were located nearby.
341522 4B Structure This structure was located in the Possible brushwood
northern part of area 4B. It was platform/track way.
composed of both horizontal and
upright elements. The horizontal
elements consisted of discontinuous
parallel roundwoods which extended
in a north south direction. There were
also a number of associated
roundwood and brushwood elements
as well as numerous upright stakes
and posts. Metal toolmarks were
58

Number
evident on a number of worked wood
elements.
Site 34 context registers – Wetland deposit registers

Number
34001 1, 2 Deposit Colour: Light/mid grey with Phase 5 (On‐Site
and 4 orange/brown mottling and also black Stratigraphy) This deposit was
mottling. found directly beneath the
Mottling : Orange brown mottling: topsoil throughout the site. It
• Abundance = many 20‐40% had the appearance of very
• Size = very fine, 1‐2 mm compact orangey grey clay. It
• Contrast = distinct is believed that the formation
• Sharpness = diffuse, >2mm of this deposit was caused by
transition the lowering of the water table
Consistence: Resistance to soil rupture is in this area related to the east
strong/moderately strong. west running field drains. The
Structure: Strongly developed, sub water loss from the sediments
angular, blocky (mixed rounded, caused the compact, sterile
flattened faces with many rounded fine particled clay to form. The
vestrues). orange colour is evidence of
Boundary : of (34001), (34008) redox phenomena associated
• Distinctness = gradual with oxidation of the deposit
• Zone of uncertainty = 50‐150mm (34001).
• Form = irregular
Pores and voids: Very fine fissures, very
fine macropores.
Root and plant remains : Moderate
amount of intrusive living roots from
topsoil layer, becoming less frequent in
the lower part of the deposit

34002 1, 2 Deposit Colour: Predominantly blue/grey with Phase 5. (on‐site stratigraphy)
and 4 orange mottling. Oxidised peat and marl. Due
Mottling : Orange rust coloured to water loss and drying out
• Abundance = Very many >40% after early modern drainage in
• Size = medium to coarse >5cm the area, the deposit became
• Contrast = prominent more compact as described
• Sharpness = clear <2mm above. This process does not
transition appear to have been uniform
Texture : Silty clay loam (very adhesive) throughout the site.
Fibre content = <5%. No stones.
Consistence: Resistance to soil rupture =
very firm.
Structure: Apedal – massive (no
discernable structure).
Boundary : Not known
Pores and Voids : None
59

Number
Root/plant remains : None

34003 1,2 Deposit Colour: Light to mid grey colour. Phase 3 and 4. (on‐site
and 4 Mottling: a light orange brown tint was stratigraphy)
recorded; this may be due to the presence Estuarine mud deposited
of fine grass roots. during flooding events.
Texture: Silt/very fine marl. Very low Formed a layer over much of
fibre content <5%. the excavation area.
Boundary : Flat/ horizontal boundary This deposit was the latest
inundation event that we can
identify. Above this the
deposits have been subject to
water loss, oxidation and
compaction.

34004 1,2 Deposit Colour: A very uniform mid brown. Phase 3 and 2 (on‐site
and 4 Mottling: No indication of the presence stratigraphy)
of the oxidisation of iron. This deposit is a freshwater
Texture: An organic horizon. Fibre peat. The upper levels of
content = > 25% Consistence : Very weak which have produced some
Structure: Very weakly developed. cultural material. The peat
Boundary: Not known. whilst appearing to be a deep
Pores and Voids : Fissures : 1‐3mm = fine homogenous deposit was
Root/plant remains: No live roots/plants. sampled in two separate
locations. Macrofossil analysis
has identified two distinct
phases of vegetation from the
samples. The cultural material
can be associated with the
uppermost of the two samples
(34004A)

34004B 1,2 Deposit Colour: Very dark brown with occasional Phase2 (on‐site stratigraphy)
and 4 black inclusions. This deposit was a freshwater
Texture: Organic horizon. H6 – well peat. This sample was taken
decomposed (plant structure indistinct). from the lower levels of a
Most remains unidentifiable. Fibre seemingly deep homogenous
content <2%. Stones: deposit. Macrofossil analysis
• Size = Very small (2‐6mm) sub has identified that there was a
angular. change in the vegetation that
• Abundance = very slightly stony formed the peat between the
(<5%) upper and lower parts of the
Consistence: Resistance to soil rupture = deposit.
very weak. Force applied between
thumb and forefinger. Adhesive when
wet (crumbles when dry).
60

Number
Structure: Weakly developed.
Boundary: Not known.
Pores and Voids : Fissures = medium
Macropores = very fine

34008 1,2,3 Deposit Topsoil, consisting of topsoil vegetation. Phase 6 (on‐site stratigraphy)
and 4
34012 1 Deposit Colour : light grey, colour uniform Phase 3 and 4, (on‐site
throughout deposit, no evidence for stratigraphy). This deposit of
mottling soft fine silt had almost
Texture: very soft silt deposit certainly an estuarine/marine
Structure : very weakly developed origin. This was visible as an
Consistence : adhesive when wet arc of material set into the
Boundary : sharp and clear between the deposit (34013). This may be
deposit (34013) evidence for a dendritic
channel albeit quite a small
one

34013 1 and Deposit Colour: Original colour = light to mid Phase 3 (on‐site stratigraphy)
2 brown, goes very dark brown/black on Peat/marl mixture. Evidence
extended exposure. for gradual inundation of reed
Mottling : Unidentified peat with gradual deposition
Texture: Organic horizon. H5 of sediment. The majority of
(moderately decomposed). Fibre content the structures in Area 1 were
= <2%. No stones. Small pieces of found to have a direct
timber. physical relationship with this
Consistence: Very weak. deposit.
Pores and Voids: Fissures = medium to
coarse. Macropores = very fine <0.5
34016 1 Deposit Colour : Grey Phase 2 and 3 (on‐site
(secti Texture: Silt/marl. Contains a high stratigraphy)
on 7, percentage of reeds, a low percentage of This deposit appeared as a
sheet brushwood and low fibre content. lens of material within the
3) peat deposit (34004). It
appeared as a band of material
in section within the eastern
edge of the site. This may be
related to an inundation event.
34019 1 Deposit Colour : Dark black Phase 3 and 4 (on‐site
Texture: Organic horizon Peat rich stratigraphy)
pocket with timber. Contains a high Lens of wood rich material
percentage of reed and brushwood. within (34004). Possible tree
Several large timbers were located here throw. This tree may indicate
also. Deposit contains more than 50% a localised colonisation of a
brushwood and timber in its composition dryer raised area of vegetation
61

Number
rather than being indicative of
a marine regression event
where we would see greater
evidence for colonisation by
less water tolerant species.
This appears to represent an
individual tree. That has died
in situ.
34020 1 Deposit Colour : Grey Phase 2 and 3 (on‐site
Texture : Fine particles silt stratigraphy)
Consistence : This deposit may be indicative
Structure: Apedal of a transgression event.
Boundary : Marl and peat mixture below (34020) was located above a
(34004) and within (34022) number of peat deposits
(34023) and (34022) and it was
located below (34004) another
widespread peat deposit. The
grey colour and fine particle
size of the deposit (34020)
show the marine/ estuarine
origin of this deposit. This
transgression event appeared
to have been a short lived
phenomena, as the formation
of peat (34004) continued after
(34020) has been deposited.

34021 1, 2 Deposit Colour: Whitish/grey, no mottles present. Phase 1 (on‐site stratigraphy)
and 4 Texture: Loamy sand. Moderately stony, Till formed by glacial activity
sub rounded stones. during the last stadial event in
Consistence : Weak the region. This land surface
Structure : Apedal massive has produced material of a
Boundary : Sharp/smooth late Mesolithic date. The land
Pores and voids: Very fine fissures and surface was then covered by
very fine macropores. the encroachment of
Roots and plant remains : None freshwater peat (34004)

34022 1 Deposit Colour: Mid brown with orange tint. Phase 2 (on‐site stratigraphy)
Texture: Peat. Contained a high Peat whose differences from
percentage of fibres and a moderate (34004) may result from micro
percentage of reeds. This was an organic ecological changes in the
horizon. character of the reed swamp.
This peat was formed prior to
any marine transgression
events.

34023 1 Deposit Colour : uniform Light brown Phase 2 (on‐site stratigraphy)
62

Number
Mottling : none Almost identical to (34004)
Texture: Peat. H5 on von post scale
Consistence : very weakly developed
Boundary : diffuse
Pores and voids : none
Roots and plant remains: Contained a
high percentage of reeds, a low
percentage of brushwood and low fibre
content. None of which were intrusive
34024 1 Deposit Colour : Rich dark brown Phase 2 (on‐site stratigraphy)
Mottling : none Peat almost identical to
Texture: Peat with <10% reed and high (34004).
percentage of wood. Moderately fibrous
Consistence : very weakly developed
Boundary : diffuse
Roots and plant remains : none

34025 1 Deposit Colour : Brownish grey Phase 1 and 2 (on‐site
Texture: Peat, organic horizon, H5 on stratigraphy)
von post scale. Contains moderate This was probably an interface
amount of rounded, sub rounded and layer. It was located
angular stones, at 5%. These vary in size immediately above the glacial
from 0.2cm p to 4‐5cm in diameter. These till (34021) and beneath a thick
stones are very similar to those present deposit of peat (34004).
within the till deposit (34021) (34025) was almost identical to
Consistence : weakly developed (34046) which has the same
Structure : Apedal stratigraphic position. It
Boundary : diffuse,> 2mm. Difficult to contained moderate amounts
discern from the deposit above of reed and brushwood.
Pores and voids: none Moderately fibrous

34026 1 Deposit Colour : Dark grey marl Phase 2 and 3, (on‐site
Mottling : none present stratigraphy) This deposit was
Texture: Silty peat, H5 on von post scale. located at the south of cutting
35% peat/ 75% silt 1. It appeared to be the fill of a
Consistence : weakly developed channel measuring 0.40m
Boundary : diffuse across at the base and 2m
Pores and voids : none wide at the top. The channel
Roots and plant remains : none was approximately 0.60m
deep. Immediately above the
channel but still within the
context was located a
concentration of timber and
brushwood mixture with
more peat than in (34003). It
was above (34004).
63

Number

34027 1 Deposit Colour : light brown grey Phase 3, (on‐site stratigraphy)
Mottling : none recorded as being an interface
Texture: silty peat between (34003) and (34004),
Consistence : weakly developed this deposit exhibited
Boundary : diffuse characteristics of both deposits
34028 1 Deposit Colour : Brown with a grey tint Phase 3, (on‐site stratigraphy)
Mottling : None A predominantly peat, peat
Texture : organic horizon 70% peat and marl mixture. This
Consistence : very weakly developed deposit was present only as a
Boundary: diffuse lens and was not recorded
Pores and voids : none anywhere else in the
Roots and plant remains: none excavation.
34030 1 Deposit Colour : Grey marl with a blue tint Phase 3, (on‐site stratigraphy)
Mottling: Some small patches of dark Fill of channel within (34026)
blue. These occurred at less than 10% of This deposit appears to be the
total fill of a paleochannel, that has
Texture: Silt marl. Inorganic deposit. cut its course into the deposit
Very fine particle size some small sand (34026) and through it to cut a
particles present at < 1% channel into the peat deposit
Consistence : weakly developed (34004)
Boundary : diffuse

34031 1 Deposit Colour : Black Phase 3, (on‐site stratigraphy)
Mottling : mid grey flecking caused by This lens of material was very
gritty sand within the context rich in timber material and
Texture: organic horizon but with a large charcoal. This may be related
quantity of sand and grit < 10%. This to the deposition of burnt or
deposit contains a large amount of charred timbers in deposit
brushwood and fragmentary pieces of (34013). The presence of the
larger timbers at < 25%. Charcoal present gritty sand is enigmatic. Was
at < 1% this a dump of material
Consistence : weakly developed relating to the possible hearth
Boundary : diffuse feature [34029] located in
Pores and voids : some , small at < 1% cutting E, spit 3 which was
Roots and plant remains : none found in association with the
deposit (34013) also?

charcoal rich silty lens within (34013)
34032 1 Deposit Colour : Blue/green marl Phase 3, (on‐site stratigraphy)
Mottling: The entire deposit consisted of The deposit was present
various shades and tones of blue and within paleochannel [34048]. It
green. They were present at approx 50% contained a significant
of each amount of timber in its upper
64

Number
Texture : silt marl levels where it has expanded
Consistence : weakly developed beyond the confines of the
Pores and voids : none channel [34048]. These timbers
Roots and plant material : none may be related to the cultural
activity identified further to
the north. This deposit was
very similar to the deposit
(34026) which was also a fill of
the paleochannel [34048].
34033 1, 2 Deposit Colour: Light greyish brown. Phase 3 (on‐site stratigraphy)
and 4 Mottling: Some mid brown”staining” –
probably caused by decomposing
vegetation.
Texture: H5 = moderately decomposed.
Fibre content = 30‐35%. No stone s
evident.
Consistence : Resistance to soil rupture =
weak
Structure: Grade = weakly developed.
Pores and Voids: Fissures = fine (1‐3mm).
Macropores = very fine <0.5mm

34034 1 and Deposit Colour: Greyish brown. Phase 2 and 3 (on‐site
2 Mottling: Some mid brown”staining” – stratigraphy)
probably caused by decomposing
vegetation.
Texture: Fibre content = 30‐35%. No
stone s evident. H5 on the von Post scale.
Consistence : Resistance to soil rupture =
weak
Structure: Grade = weakly developed.
Pores and Voids: Fissures = fine (1‐3mm).

34035 1 and Deposit Colour : Dark blue/grey marl Phase 3 (on‐site stratigraphy)
2 Texture: Silt – almost an organic horizon. This deposit was very similar
Structure: Weakly developed, possibly in terms of its composition to
because of high organic content. (34039). In Area 2 it was above
(34039) and below (34037)

34036 1 Deposit Colour: Dark greyish blue with a Phase 3 (on‐site stratigraphy)
greenish tint Channels within the area
Texture: silty marl affected by tidal? Inundation.
Consistence: moderately well developed, These would be the result of
has a sticky feel the rising and falling water
65

Number
carving out dendritic channels
for the drainage of the
wetland.

34037 1 and Deposit Colour : greyish brown Phase 3, (on‐site stratigraphy)
2 Mottling : none Intercalated peat and marl
Texture : peat and marl deposit,organic deposit. This deposit may
deposit with a very silty feel indicate deposition of eroded
Structure : very fine particle size with peat with fine particled marl
almost no grit or sand in the deposit< 1% or it may be indicative of
Consistence : moderately well developed regenerating vegetation that
Boundary : diffuse continues to be inundated by
Pores and voids : none rising estuarine waters. Both
Roots and plant remains : living none, of these processes may have
some amount of undecomposed been active in the formation of
vegetation this deposit

34038 1 Deposit Colour : light grey Phase 3, (on‐site stratigraphy)
Texture: silt. A deposit purely composed of
Structure: very fine particle size contains sediment of marine/estuarine
a small amount of small sand/ grit origin
particles. / Particle size was consistent
Consistence: weakly developed with deposition under low
Boundary: somewhat wavy with deposit water energy conditions.
beneath. Indicative of slight turbidity
during deposition.
Pores and voids: none
Root/ plant remains: none

34039 1 and Deposit Colour : Brownish grey Phase 3, (on‐site stratigraphy)
2 Texture: Silt. H4 on the von Post scale. A deposit purely composed of
Fibre content = >25%. sediment of marine/estuarine
This is an organic horizon. origin
Consistence : Moderately weak
Structure : Weakly developed
Boundary : Unknown
Pores and voids : None

34040 1 Deposit Colour : Reddish brown Phase 2 and 3, (on‐site
66

Number
Texture: an organic horizon H5 on van stratigraphy)
post scale Pure peat deposit, this formed
Consistence: prior to the inundation event.
Structure: weakly developed The difference with it and
Boundary: boundary visible only as a (34004) is primarily one of
colour change colour. The difference may be
Pores and voids: none superficial. Over (34046) and
Root/ plant remains: none under (34004) and (34041)

34041 1 Deposit Colour: greyish brown Phase 2, (on‐site stratigraphy)
Texture: organic horizon H4/5 on van This appears to be a peat
post scale deposit within (34004) and
Consistence: very similar to it in
Structure: weakly developed composition.
Boundary: boundary clear as a colour
change, difficult to recognise otherwise
Pores and voids: none
Root/ plant remains: none

34042 1 Deposit Colour: Mid grey with bluish tint. Phase 2, (on‐site stratigraphy)
Mottling: Some paler grey patches. This deposit appears to
• Abundance = few <2% contain some amount of
• Size = very fine, 1‐2mm organic matter.
• Contrast = faint This deposit was a lens of
• Sharpness – diffuse >2mm material within deposit
transition (34004). This is representative
Texture: Sandy loam. Stoniness: of an inundation event. As
• Size = very small there were numerous small
• Abundance = 15‐20% stones within the deposit, this
Fibre content = 5‐8%. Contains pieces may be evidence of deposition
of brushwood <5%. under high energy water
Consistence: Resistance to soil rupture = conditions. It is unclear
firm. whether a freshwater or
Structure : Grade =apedal massive saltwater process was
Boundary : Not known responsible
Pores and Voids : Fissures = fine 1‐3mm

34043 1 Deposit Colour : pale whitish creamy colour Phase 2, (on‐site stratigraphy)
Mottling : none The deposit was entirely
Texture: sandy loam. Moderately stony composed of inorganic
67

Number
Very small stones at 10%. Fibre content at sediments. It is unclear
5%, contains small fragments of whether the sediment was
brushwood and larger timbers at 5% deposited under a freshwater
Structure : apedal massive or brackish/ saltwater regime.
Consistence : moderately firm The large particles of sand and
Boundary : diffuse the stoniness suggest high
Pores and voids : none recognisable water energy.
Root and plant remains : no living
intrusive material
34044 1 Deposit Colour : cream white Phase 2, (on‐site stratigraphy)
Mottling : none Possible interface layer or its
Texture : loamy sand origin may be similar to that
Boundary : diffuse with both the deposit of (34025) as discussed above
above (34043) and beneath (34021)
34045 1 and Deposit Colour : Greyish brown Phase 4 (on‐site stratigraphy)
2 Mottling : Orange brown Marl deposit that contained a
• Abundance = common (2‐20%) large amount of organic
• Size = fine to medium (2‐15mm) matter, notably mostly
• Contrast = faint (evident on close remains of phragmites australis.
inspection)
• Sharpness = diffuse
Texture: Silty clay loam. Fibre content =
c.15‐20%, close to being an organic
horizon.
Consistence: resistance to soil rupture =
weak (crumbles when crushed).
Structure: Weakly developed (breaks
easily).
Pores and Voids : Fissures = very fine
Macropores = very fine.
34046 1 Deposit Colour : cream white with a brown tint Phase 1 and 2, (on‐site
Texture : gritty/ sandy silt, several small stratigraphy)
stones present This deposit was located
Consistence : weakly developed directly above the glacial till
Boundary : sharp and distinct with (34021). It appeared to be a
(34021), diffuse >2mm with (34004) mixture of organic freshwater
Peat mixing into the mineral clay. Classic peat and inorganic very fine
interface deposit light coloured silt. It is unclear
if this deposit had an estuarine
or freshwater origin
34047 1 Deposit Colour: Light brown with a grey (and Phase 4, (on‐site stratigraphy)
orange tint). This deposit seems to have a
Mottling: A mixture of orange and negligible organic component
brown. and can be explained as
• Abundance = many (20‐40%) another inundation event.
• Size = medium to coarse This deposit was located
• Contrast = prominent above (34045) and below
68

Number
• Sharpness = clear <2mm (34002)
transition.
Texture: Silty clay loam. Fibre content =
<10%. No stones.
Consistence: Resistance to soil rupture –
moderately firm.
Structure: Apedal massive (no
discernible structure).
Root/plant remains: None identified.
34049 2 Deposit Colour : Mid to dark brown Phase 3, (on‐site stratigraphy)
(Cut Mottling: No mottling. This deposit was located and
G Texture: Organic matter > 25% so is an beneath (34013). This was the
and organic horizon. No stones. deposit located directly
H). Consistence: Moderately firm. beneath the platform [341512]
and 4 Structure: No discernible structure.
Pores and Voids: Fissures = <1mm, very
fine. Macropores = <0.5mm, very fine

34050 2 Deposit Colour: Light brown with dark Phase 3, (on‐site stratigraphy)
(Cut grey/bluish tint. An organic layer, very high in
G) Mottling : None silt content, giving a very
Texture: Silt. Fibre content is >25%. An muddy look and feel. No
organic layer. H5 on the von Post scale. inclusions. Located beneath
No stones present. (34051) and above (34049)
Consistence: Moderately firm.
Structure: Apedal massive.
Pores and Voids: A dense layer where
the fine silt has no pores or voids. Some
fine (1‐3mm) fissures but only around
plant remains.
Root/plant remains: No live remains.

34051 2 Deposit Colour: Light brown with a very slight Phase 3, (on‐site stratigraphy)
greyish tint. A mixture of peat and silt with
Mottling : No evidence very occasional small stones.
Texture: Fibre content > 25% so is an Located above the deposits
organic deposit. H4‐H5 on von Post (34039),(34050) and (34052)
scale. Contains occasional very small,
sub angular stones, <2%.
Consistence: Very weak.
69

Number
Pores and Voids: Fissures = fine, 1‐3mm
wide. Macropores = Occasional, very
fine, <0.5mm
Root/plant remains: No live root or plant
remains.

34052 2 Deposit Colour: Very dark grey with a brownish Phase 3, (on‐site stratigraphy)
(Cut tint. An organic peat layer, high in
G) Mottling : None silt content with no other
Texture: Fibre content = >25% so is an inclusions other than the
organic layer with a high percentage of occasional nodule of grey
silt. H4‐H5 on the von Post scale. silt/clay.
Consistence : Moderate to firm This was located above
Structure: No discernible structure. (34049) and beneath (34051)
Apedal massive.
Pores and Voids: None, very dense,
probably due to high silt content.
Root/plant remains: No live remains.

34053 2 Deposit Colour : light greyish brown Phase 3, (on‐site stratigraphy)
(Cut Mottling : none This was located beneath
H) Texture : organic horizon but with a (34049) and above (34004)
substantial amount of inorganic sediment Light grey/brown peat lens
in its composition with a high percentage of marl
Consistence : moderate to weakly in its composition
developed
Structure : not recorded
Boundary : diffuse
Root and plant remains : none
.
34054 2 (cut Deposit Colour : brownish grey Phase 3, (on‐site stratigraphy)
H) Mottling : none recognisable This deposit was located
Texture : organic horizon 70% mar, 30 % beneath (34055) and above
peat (34013). It was related to a
Consistence : weakly developed number of the structures
Structure : apedal including
Boundary : diffuse Peat/marl mixture. The
Pores and voids : none structure [34504] was partially
Root and plant remains : none contained within this deposit
34055 2 Deposit Colour : dark brown Phase 3, (on‐site stratigraphy)
Mottling : none Contained elements of timber
Texture: organic horizon > 20%. and brushwood togher [34504]
contained a significant amount of located in cutting H. This
70

Number
brushwood and timber fragments deposit was fairly widespread
Consistence : silty peat, almost no sandy in area 2 and was found in all
grit inclusions at < 1% the cuttings and also in
Structure : apedal association with the structure
Boundary : diffuse [34507]. The amount of
Pores and voids : none brushwood fragments may
Roots and plant remains : none indicate that some degree of
timber processing as well as
deposition took place in this
area
34056 4 Deposit Colour: Very dark grey and black giving Phase 3 and 2, (on‐site
it a purple tint. Some lighter grey stratigraphy)
nodules also giving it a mottled effect. This was a very small lens of
The overall effect is black. material within the deposit
Mottling: No evidence of any iron (34058)
oxides.
Texture: Silty clay. The fibre content is
<25%, but the organic material is
discernible. H6 on von Post scale. No
stones present.
Consistence: Moderately firm.
Structure: Moderately developed. Peds
were evident but not distinct due to
stickiness of the silty clay content.
Boundary :
Crystals etc: Contains soft aggregations
of light grey and black nodules.
• Sizes = varies from <1mm (very
fine) to 5‐15mm (medium).
• Abundance = common.
Pores and Voids : Fissures = fine, 1‐3mm

34057 4 Deposit Colour: Mid brown with slight tints of Phase 3, (on‐site stratigraphy)
dark grey This deposit contained a
Mottling : None evident (no iron oxides) considerable amount of
Texture: Silty clay loam. Contains > cultural material in the form
25% organic material. H4‐H5 on von of brushwood and timber.
Post scale. This deposit was located
Consistence: Moderately firm. above (34004) and was located
Structure: Weakly developed. Peds are below (34062) and (34063)
evident but not distinct.
Boundary: Wavy.
Pores and Voids: Fissures = very few
and very fine, <1mm. Macropores = fine
(0.5‐2mm)
71

Number

34058 4 Deposit Colour: Mid grey with a slight brownish Phase 3, (on‐site stratigraphy)
tint probably caused by presence of Taken from section through
organic material. [341512]. The deposit was
Mottling: None apparent. located directly above the
Texture: Silty clay loam. Fibre content > glacial till in this area
25%so is an organic horizon. H5 on the
von Post scale.
Consistence: Moderately weak.
Structure : Apedal massive
Boundary : Wavy
Crystals, nodules etc: Contains soft
aggregations of grey/white clay like
material.
• Size = fine, 2‐5mm
• Abundance =few, <2% by volume
• Shape = irregular.
Pores and Voids: Fissures = very fine,
<1mm. Macropores + fine (0.5‐2mm) and
few in number.

34059 4 Deposit Colour: A rich dark brown. Phase 3, (on‐site stratigraphy)
Mottling: None evident. Taken from section through
Texture: Fibre content >25% so this is an [341512] this appears to be a
organic horizon. small pocket of material
Consistence: Moderately weak. located above (34057) and
Structure: Weakly developed, peds are (34058) and beneath (34039)
barely visible. and (34049)
Boundary : Wavy
<1mm. Macropores = barely visible/fine,
0.5‐2mm
34060 4 Deposit Colour: Grey with an orange inclusion Phase 1, (on‐site stratigraphy)
with occasional very dark/black patches This deposit was clay that had
of organic material. The overall effect been deposited prior to the
gives the sample a light brown/orange formation of the peat deposits.
colour. The clay either formed later
Mottling: A mottled effect which appears than or was deposited
to be due to the presence of organic contemporary with the glacial
material rather than the presence of iron till (34021). It had certainly
oxides. formed by the late Mesolithic
Texture: Clay. <25% organic matter so is period as a stone tool from
a mineral deposit. H5‐H6 on the von this period was found resting
Post scale. Contains angular and sub on the surface of (34060)
angular very small (2‐5mm approx) and
small (6‐20mm approx) stones.
Consistence : Firm
72

Number
Boundary : Wavy
Pores and Voids : None
34061 4 Deposit Colour: Very dark grey/blue with a rich
brown inclusion and lighter grey patches. Phase 1 and 2 on‐site
Overall effect is a very dark brown. . stratigraphy
Mottling: None evident. This deposit was related to a
Texture : >25% organic material present number of the structures
so is an organic horizon. H6 on the von located in the lower western
Post scale. part of the area.
Boundary : Wavy
Crystals/nodules etc.: Unidentified soft
aggregations of grey/white material, 5‐
15mm. Abundance is few, < 2% by
volume. Irregular in shape.
<1mm. Macropores = /fine, 0.5‐2mm

34062 4 Deposit Colour: Very dark rich brown/black. Phase 3 (on‐site stratigraphy)
Mottling: None evident. This deposit was located
Texture: > 25% organic matter so is an above (34057), (34063) and
organic horizon. H7 on the von Post (34070). It was situated
scale. No stones, sand or grit. beneath (34071)
Consistence: Moderately weak.
Structure: No discernible structure.
Boundary : Wavy
Crystals/nodules etc.: Unidentified soft
aggregations of dark grey clay like
material.
• Size = small (up to 15mm)
• Shape = irregular
Pores and Voids: Fissures = very fine, <
1mm wide. Macropores = fine, 0.5‐2mm
34063 4 Deposit Colour: Mid to dark brown with patches Phase 3 (on‐site stratigraphy)
of blue/grey tints. This deposit was related to a
Mottling: None visible. number of the structures. It
Texture : >25% organic matter so is an was located above (34004),
organic horizon. H6‐H7 on the von Post (34069), and (34057) and was
scale. located below (34070) and
Consistence: Moderately weak. (34062). A possible stone tool
73

Number
Structure: No discernible structure. was situated in this deposit,
Boundary: Wavy. Find #15
Crystals/nodules etc.: Very few (<1%).
Unidentified clay like soft aggregations
of a very dark blue/grey colour.
<1mm. Macropores = very fine, <0.5mm
Root/plant remains: None

34064 4 Deposit Colour: Blue/grey with a brownish tint. Phase 1 and 2, (on‐site
Mottling: None evident. stratigraphy)
Texture: Silty clay. < 25% organic matter This was an interface deposit
so is a mineral deposit. No stones. between the clays and tills and
Consistence: Moderately firm. the organic peat deposits that
Structure: Apedal massive, no discernible overlay them. In no instances
structure. was this deposit thicker than a
Boundary : Wavy few centimetres
<1mm wide. Macropores = fine, 0.5‐2mm

34065 4 Deposit Colour: Very dark grey with a bluish tint. Phase 3, (on‐site stratigraphy)
Mottling: None visible. This deposit is representative
Texture : <25% organic matter so is a of the inundation events that
mineral deposit. deposited inorganic silt
Consistence : Loose deposits in this area.
Structure: Apedal‐single grain.
Boundary : Wavy
Pores and Voids : Macropores = very
fine, <0.5mm

34066 4 Deposit Colour: Very light brown with a greyish Phase 1 and 2, (on‐site
tint. stratigraphy)
Mottling: Orange coloured glaebules
caused by the presence of organic matter.
No iron oxides evident.
Texture: Sandy clay. < 25% organic
74

Number
matter present so is a mineral deposit.
Stoniness:
• Size = very small, <1mm
• Abundance = stoneless, <1% by
volume
• Shape = undetermined.
Consistence : Very firm
Structure: No discernible structure.
Boundary : Wavy
Pores and Voids: Fissures = fine, 1‐3mm
wide. Macropores = fine, 0.5‐2mm

34067 4 Deposit Colour: Mid brown with a greyish tint. Phase 1 and2, (on‐site
Mottling: None evident. stratigraphy)
Texture: Sandy loam. >25% organic This was a peat deposit that
matter so is an organic horizon. A high contained a significant
percentage of mineral content is present. amount of large grits and sand
H7 on the von Post scale. particles. This was evidence of
Consistence : Weak a flooding event under high
Structure: Weakly developed. water energy conditions. As
Boundary: Unknown. this deposit was found to be
Crystals, nodules etc.: Contains soft more concentrated to the east
aggregation of grey clay like material. (dryland) and more diffuse to
• Size = fine, 2‐5mm the west (wetland), the origin
• Irregular shape of this deposit is freshwater
• Abundance = common, 2‐20% by runoff/ discharge from the
volume dryland. This could have
Pores and Voids : Macrospores = very taken the form of surface
fine, <0.5mm runoff. The sand deposit was
Root/plant remains: None encountered as a discrete lens
of material about 0.75m in
width and 0.15m in depth in
the raised area in the lower
area it was present as a diffuse
deposit that tapered off a bout
2m from the edge of the
higher area. This would be
consistent with a flow with
sand in suspension running as
a channel through the peat
falling into an area of standing
water where the flow would
rapidly lose energy and
deposit any matter in
suspension

75

Number

34068 4 Deposit Colour: Dark ochre grey with an Phase 1 and 2, (on‐site
orange/brown tint caused by organic stratigraphy)
matter. Very similar to (34004)
Mottling: None evident.
Texture: sandy clay loam. H6 on the von
Post scale. Stoniness:
• Size = very small, 2‐6mm
• Abundance = stoneless (by
definition) <1%
• Shape = sub angular
Consistence : Moderately weak
Crystals, nodules etc: Contains soft
aggregations of light to medium grey
glaebules.
• Size = fine, 2‐5mm
• Abundance = common, 2‐20%
• Shape = irregular
fine, <0.5mm
34069 4 Deposit Colour: Mid brown on initial exposure. Phase 3, (on‐site stratigraphy)
Rapidly oxidised to dark brown/black. This deposit was located
Texture: Silt with < 1% sand. beneath the deposit (34063)
H4 on the von Post scale. Fibre content = and above (34004) it was
>25%. This is an organic horizon. related to cultural activity
Stoniness:
• Size = very small sub angular and
singular stones (2mm)
• Abundance = 2%
fine, <0.5mm

34070 4 Deposit Colour : Dark greyish brown Phase 3 (on‐site stratigraphy)
Mottling: Mid brown mottles (15%), This deposit was related to
possibly caused by oxidisation post ex. some of the cultural activity in
Texture: Silt with <1% sand. this area. The deposit was
H4 on the von Post scale. Fibre content = located beneath the deposit
>25%. This is an organic horizon. (34071) and above the deposit
76

Number
Stoniness: (34063)
• Size = 2mm, angular and sub
angular.
• Abundance = <1%
Consistence : Very weak
Pores and Voids : Very fine micropores
= 1%

34071 4 Deposit Colour : Dark brownish grey Phase 3 and 4 (on‐site
Mottling: Mid brown mottles between stratigraphy)
0.5‐1cm in diameter. This deposit was located high
Texture: Silt <1% sand. Fibre content = in the stratigraphic succession.
>25%. This is an organic horizon. It was located beneath (34001)
H4 on the von Post scale. No stones. and above (34070) and (34062).
Consistence : Very weak It was a very fibrous woody
Structure: Apedal massive. type deposit
Pores and Voids : Micropores = <1%
34074 2 and Deposit Number added in post excavation. This Phase 5, (on‐site stratigraphy)
4 deposit was visible as a dark band within This was visible as a thin band
the deposit(34002) of vegetation that was present
as a lens within (34002).
34080 4b Deposit Colour : light to mid grey Phase 3, (on‐site stratigraphy)
Mottling : none The structures [34020] and
Texture : silt [34021] were located in this
Consistence : weak to moderately well deposit. It appeared to be
developed mostly estuarine in origin,
Structure : apedal although there was a small
Boundary : not known percentage of peat in its
composition at < 20%
34508 2 Deposit Colour: Mid grey – oxidised to mid This number was allocated to
brown after exposure post ex. the material located directly
Texture: Silt. Too dry to perform von beneath the structure [34507]
Post. located in cutting I, area 2.
Consistence : Moderately firm
Pores and Voids: Micropores = very fine,
<0.5mm. No fissures.
77

Number

34509 2 Deposit Colour : Dark greyish brown This deposit was the material
.Texture: Silt. H4 on von Post scale. that was located directly
Fibre content = >25%. This was an beneath spit 1 and above spit 2
organic horizon. No stones. of the structure [34504] in area
Consistence : Very weak 2, cutting H
Pores and Voids : Micropores = 2%

Site 34 – Brick Kiln context register

Number
34501BK Kiln Deposit This topsoil layer varied in Topsoil
thickness to a maximum of
c.10cm deep.
34502BK Kiln Deposit Redeposited marl after peat Subsoil
extraction. It is c. 60cm deep.
34503BK Kiln Deposit Peat lying below the Peat below (34502).
Redeposited marl and was
never encountered during the
excavation.
34504BK Kiln Deposit Natural lying below the peat. Natural
34505BK Kiln Cut Irregular shape in plan with Cut of broken brick spread.
steep sides (not well defined)
and uneven base.
34506BK Kiln Deposit This deposit consists mainly of Primary deposit of broken brick
broken brick (80%) and marl spread [34505]
(20%)

34507BK Kiln Cut Irregular shape in plan. Deposit of broken brick spread
Orange/grey brick and marl [34505].
mix.
34508BK Kiln Deposit 70% marl with large brick Deposit of broken brick spread
inclusions. Contains more peat [34505].
and dark brown clay (30%) at
extremities of deposit.
34509BK Kiln Cut Sub circular shape in plan. Pit
Surface is an orange/brown
colour consisting of burnt clay
and brick dust. The burnt clay
surrounds the area of brick dust
78

Number
and c.30cm in width.
34510BK Kiln Deposit Black with traces of A mix of dust and brick rubble,
orange/brown brick dust on the c.10% volume.
surface, c.2cm deep with no
inclusions. Firmly compacted
scorched clay.
34511BK Kiln Cut This “feature” surrounds Sterile area of natural marl with
[34509] and consists of natural no archaeological significance.
scorched clay.
34512BK Kiln Deposit No individual deposit detected.
Natural marl.
34513BK Kiln Cut Marl only, no other signs of Possible line of drain.
activity.
34514BK Kiln Deposit Marl, no other signs of activity Layer

34515BK Kiln Cut Irregular shape in plan. Surface Pit
consists of a brick dust/brick
rubble mix c.1cm thick.
34516BK Kiln Deposit Black charred marl with light Layer showing evidence of
brick dust on the surface firing/ burning in situ
(barely visible in section).

34517BK Kiln Cut Irregular shape in plan. Surface Brick stacking area
of bright yellow and orange
(brick dust) with darker lines
that appear to be areas of brick
stacking.
34518BK Kiln Deposit Black scorched marl with a thin Deposit of [34517]
layer of yellow/orange brick
dust on the top. Firm
compaction. No inclusions.
34519BK Kiln Cut Sub rectangular shape in plan. A spread of brick dust between
Set between 2 areas where brick 2 areas where brick stacking
stacking occurred. occurred. Area of waste
material.
34520BK Kiln Deposit Loosely compacted, some Deposit of spread [34519]
scorching and staining of the
underlying marl has taken
place
34521BK Kiln Cut Rectangular shape in plan with Extensive broken brick spread.
no definite edges, spread Possible dumping area for
merges with adjoining waste material and broken
“features”. Very smooth but bricks from nearby kiln.
undulating base of marl.
34522BK Kiln Deposit Orange in colour with grey Deposit of extensive broken
marl and jet black coal. Very brick spread [34521]. Possible
firm compaction. Brick rubble, dumping area for waste
brick dust, marl and coal material and broken bricks
composition. No other from nearby kiln.
79

Number
inclusions.
34523BK Kiln Cut Irregular shape in plan. This area lies to the south of the
Composed of a brick dust/marl areas where brick stacking
mix (50%/50%). occurs and is probably an
intermediate area where waste
material has over spilt. No
archaeological significance.
34525BK Kiln Cut Irregular shape in plan. A loose brick dust/marl mix.
Composed of a spread mix of Probably the result of a spillage
brick dust and marl. overflow from [34509] and
[34511].
345626BK Kiln Deposit Orange/brown marl (50%) and Deposit of [34525]
brick (50%) mix. Loosely
compacted.
34527BK Kiln Cut Sub rectangular shape in plan. An area outside of main
An area of “natural” marl activity, no evidence of brick
containing patches of dark stacking evident.
areas that appears to be
charring.
34528BK Kiln Deposit Black charred marl. Very Heart, shows evidence for
firmly compacted. No other heating
inclusions.
34529BK Kiln Cut Rectangular shape in plan. A Brick stacking area.
spread of orange and bright
yellow similar to [34517].
34530BK Kiln Deposit Black and grey scorched marl. Deposit of brick stacking area
Very firmly compacted. [34529]
34531BK Kiln Cut Square shape in plan. There are Probable brick stacking area.
a series of different coloured
“segments” on the surface
ranging from pink.
Orange/brown to black/grey.
Brick marks lie in 2 separate
segments lying on a pink and
an orange base. There are dark
marks indication scorching.
34532BK Kiln Deposit Grey to black charred marl with Deposit of extensive broken
no inclusions. Very firm brick spread [34521]. Possible
compaction. dumping area for waste
material and broken bricks
from nearby kiln
34533BK Kiln Deposit Orange and grey mix with Deposit of extensive broken
occasional flecks of black, brick brick spread [34521]. Possible
and marl mix with occasional dumping area for waste
coal inclusions. More loosely material and broken bricks
compacted than the rest of the from nearby kiln
spread.
34534BK Kiln Deposit Black coal. Solidly compacted Deposit of extensive broken
with no inclusions. brick spread [34521]. Possible
80

Number
dumping area for waste
material and broken bricks
from nearby kiln
34536BK Kiln Deposit Black/charcoal grey brick/marl Burnt marl created when hot
mix. Firm compaction. brick was dumped.
34537BK Kiln Deposit Grey marl /brick mix (85%/15%) Burnt brick and marl deposit
with broken powdered brick over (34506).
inclusions.
34538BK Kiln Deposit Black at surface, fading to grey. Deposit of possible brick
Scorched marl with no stacking area [34531]
inclusions. Very firm
compaction.

81
Finds Register

STONE

Area 1 ‐ STONE

Excavation Context Find Material Type Identification Description Habitat Quantity
No. No. No.
04E0319 34001 3 Stone Granite? Round granite like stone Headland 60g
(natural) Offices
04E0319 34002 8 Stone Quartz Pebble Rounded white quartz Headland 10g
pebble‐water rolled Offices
04E0319 15 Stone Igneous rock Angular igneous rock Heat effected angular igneous Headland 560g
rock‐possibly associated with Offices
find # 47 and sample #
1G******
04E0319 34013 20 Stone Igneous rock Angular igneous rock Surface weathered by Headland 44g
interaction with bog Offices
chemicals
04E0319 34003 22 Stone Chert Small piece of chert‐ Headland 12g
unworked Offices
04E0319 34013 23 Stone Igneous rock Angular igneous rock Heat/chemical effected Headland 56g
igneous rock******* Offices
04E0319 24 Stone Igneous rock Angular grey igneous Heat effected igneous Headland 20g
rock rock******* Offices
04E0319 25 Stone Igneous rock Angular grey igneous Heat/chemical effected Headland 94g
rock igneous rock****** Offices

82
No. No. No.

04E0319 26 Stone Igneous rock Flat slab‐possible Grey thick slab***** Headland Too heavy
grinding stone******* Offices

04E0319 34 Stone Unknown Possible hammer Rounded stone‐very Headland 658g
hard igneous stone infrequent small mica Offices
rock crystalline inclusions
04E0319 35 Stone Igneous rock Pebble Heat effected pebble****** Headland 46g
Offices

04E0319 37 Stone Granite Possible rubbing Grey, 1 side rounded the Headland
stone other flat Offices
04E0319 45 Stone Limestone Possible Possible limestone scraper? Headland 38g
scraper?(unlikely) (unlikely) Offices
04E0319 46 Stone Igneous rock Possible rubbing 2 x flat, smoothed surfaces Headland 360g
stone/whetstone****** Offices
04E0319 47 Stone Quartz Multiple stones‐some May be associated with Headland 176g
heat shattered******** sample # 1G from possible Offices
hearth.
04E0319 48 Stone Igneous rock Possible heat effected Possibly associated with find Headland 740g
stones******* # 47 Offices
04E0319 49 Stone Igneous rock Possible heat effected Fragment of possible heat Headland 14g
stone***** effected stone Offices
04E0319 70 Stone Possible Possibly naturally struck and Headland 146g
limestone/mu possible wear on some Offices
dstone surfaces
04E0319 73 Stone Igneous rock Possible heat Possible heat shattered Headland 94g
shattered stone**** stone**** Offices
83
No. No. No.

04E0319 76 Stone Igneous rock Possible rubbing 1 smooth surface Headland 386g
stone Offices

04E0319 81 Stone Igneous rock Very angular igneous Very angular igneous rock Headland 94g
rock Offices

04E0319 34021 97 Stone Chert? Fragment Unworked Headland 32g
Offices
04E0319 99 Stone Quartz and Fragments Unworked Headland 46g
chert Offices
04E0319 83 Stone Chert 2 fragments Headland 36g
Offices
04E0319 92 Stone Igneous rock Pebble Small water rolled pebble Headland 12g
Offices

Area 2 – STONE

No. No. No.
04E0319 503 Stone Igneous rock Angular igneous rock Possible iron oxide effected Headland 308g
stone Offices
04E0319 504 Stone Chert? Small piece chert Headland 42g
Offices
04E0319 505 Stone Igneous rock Angular igneous rock Chemical/heat effected Headland 100g
stone Offices

84
No. No. No.

04E0319 506 Stone Sandstone Flat stone Chemical effected? Headland 138g
Offices
04E0319 509 Stone Igneous rock Rubbing stone******* Rubbing stone****** Headland 369g
Offices
04E0319 520 Stone Igneous rock Angular igneous rock Unworked Headland 60g
Offices
4E0319 521 Stone Quartz Small piece of quartz Headland 94g
Offices
04E0319 522 Stone Igneous rock Angular igneous rock Unworked Headland 72g
Offices
04E0319 34504 525 Stone Igneous rock Angular igneous rock Unworked Headland 92g
Offices
04E0319 527 Stone Igneous rock Angular igneous rock Very large angular stone Headland Too heavy
Offices
04E0319 34505 529 Stone Igneous rock Angular igneous rock Angular stone Headland 30g
Offices
04E0319 534 Stone Limestone Natural Headland 64g
Offices
04E0319 535 Stone Igneous rock Possible heat Headland 34g
shattered igneous Offices
rock*******
04E0319 536 Stone Various Various angular Natural Headland 270g
lithologies stones Offices
04E0319 537 Stone Igneous rock Sub rounded stone Natural Headland 206g
Offices
04E0319 549 Stone Igneous rock Possible rubbing Fragment Headland 208g
stone****** Offices

85
No. No. No.

04E0319 550 Stone Igneous rock Possible rubbing Headland 404g
stone****** Offices
04E0319 551 Stone Igneous rock Possible rubbing Sub angular Headland 308g
stone – (dubious) Offices

04E0319 552 Stone Igneous rock Possible stone lid for Very flat, partially smooth Headland 252g
a pot***** on both surfaces Offices
04E0319 553 Stone Igneous rock 2 x natural small angular Headland 184g
stones Offices
04E0319 555 Stone Igneous rock Possible heat Headland 202g
shattered stone***** Offices
04E0319 34504 557 Stone Igneous rock Possible surface for Large flat stone with a Headland 1395g
breaking hazelnuts** number of dents on the Offices
surfaces
04E0319 566 Stone Sedimentary ‐ Angular stone‐smooth Headland 270g
limestone Offices
04E0319 567 Stone Rhyolite Possible rubbing Flat, smooth 1 side Headland 244g
stone** Offices
04E0319 577 Stone Igneous rock Possible rubbing Headland 662g
stone/whetstone**** Offices
04E0319 34507 579 Stone Igneous rock Hollowed stone Stone with hollow but not Headland >1 kg
very smooth Offices

04E0319 34507 581 Stone Sedimentary Very large with acidic bog Headland >1 kg
staining Offices
04E0319 34507 582 Stone Igneous rock Possible Headland 410g
whetstone****** Offices

86
No. No. No.

04E0319 584 Stone Igneous rock Possible hammer Headland 484g
stone****** Offices
04E0319 34507 591 Stone ? Angular stone from BS#7 Headland 508g
Offices
04E0319 34507 592 Stone Igneous rock Probably natural Headland 1035g
with mineral staining Offices
04E0319 34507 595 Stone Sedimentary Very large water rolled Headland >1 kg
stone Offices
04E0319 34507 596 Stone Sedimentary Possible rubbing Very smooth cobble, water Headland 822g
stone**** rolled Offices
04E0319 598 Stone Conglomerate Headland 68g
stone – quartz Offices
and other
minerals

Area 3 ‐ STONE

No. No. No.
04E0319 341010 1 Stone Igneous Sub angular stone‐broken Headland
Offices

04E0319 341099 7 + 8 Stone Quartz Possible hammer 2 x rounded quartz cobbles. Headland 804g
stone Show pronounced pink Offices
colour on external surface,
internal surface is white

87
No. No. No.

04E0319 341077 9 Stone Limestone Possible blade Heat shattered Headland 18g
(dubious) Offices
04E0319 341099 6 Stone Limestone Probably heat shattered Headland 16g
fragment but visually and Offices
morphologically similar to
tools

Area 4‐ STONE

No. No. No.
04E0319 341508 10 Stone Sedimentary Possible bulb on surface of Headland 56g
stone (natural?) Offices
04E0319 341507 11 Stone Various Natural Headland 1465g
lithologies Offices
04E0319 341513 13 Stone Conglomerate Possible net fishing Broken, but possible hole Headland >1 kg
weight/anchor****** through centre. It could Offices
have functioned as an
anchor. 0.75 approx
remains.
04E0319 Beneath 15 Stone Blade chip Possibly struck stone Headland 8g
341512 Offices

04E0319 341512 16 Stone Large stone Headland 135g
Offices

88
No. No. No.

04E0319 341512 20 Stone Igneous rock Possible hammer Rounded possible hammer Headland 296g
stone fragment***** stone fragment***** Offices
04E0319 28 Stone Igneous rock Very hard. Light Headland 344g
grey/white in colour Offices

BONES AND TEETH

Area 1 – BONES AND TEETH

No. No. No.
04E0319 34003 11 Tooth BOS/cow Molar/premolar Tooth from cow – older Headland 10g
animal Offices
04E0319 17 Bone Mammal Small rib 7cm long Headland 22g
Offices
04E0319 34003 18 Bone Sheep Tibia Possibly sliced bone Headland 24g
Offices
04E0319 30 Tooth BOS/Cow Young Young cows tooth Headland 20g
Offices
04E0319 34013 36 Tooth BOS/Cow Old Possible cows tooth – older Headland 28g
animal Offices
04E0319 38 Bone Mammal Split Split bone (possibly worked Headland 8g
end tool). Similar to find # Offices
39

No. No. No.
89
04E0319 39 Bone Mammal Split Split (similar to find # 38) Headland 10g

Offices
04E0319 40 Bone Bird Leg bone Small fragment, avian leg Headland 2g
Offices
04E0319 41 Bone Bird Leg bone Larger and more robust Headland 6g
than find # 40 Offices
04E0319 58 Bone Mammal Metallic properties Possible small mammal Headland <1g
bone but appears to have Offices
metallic properties
04E0319 59 Bone Tibia Small tibia Headland 4g
Offices
04E0319 60 Bone Femur Femur? Headland 10g
Offices
04E0319 68 Bone Sheep? Scapula Possible fragment of Headland 10g
scapula Offices
04E0319 74 Bone Sheep? Long bone Headland 60g
Offices
04E0319 78 Bone Sheep? Scapula? Possible sheep scapula Headland 160g
Offices


90

No. No. No.
04E0319 Surface 508 Bone Bone splinter Headland 14g
find Offices
04E0319 Surface 510 Bone Cow Unfused radius Cut marks,/gnaw marks Headland 100g
find evident Offices
04E0319 Surface 511 Bone Cow Mandible Young animal Headland 172g
find Offices
04E0319 Surface 512 Bone Horse Tibia Headland 546g
find Offices
04E0319 Surface 513 Bone Horse Radius Headland 508g
find Offices
04E0319 34501 514 Bone Horse Mandible Headland 676g
Offices
04E0319 34501 515 Bone Horse Rib Headland 36g
Offices
04E0319 34501 518 Bone Cow Rib Headland 52g
Offices
04E0319 34505 530 Tooth Horse Headland 6g
Offices
04E0319 34505 531 Bone Horse Tibia Headland 208g
Offices
04E0319 34505 533 Bone Splinter Headland 4g
Offices
04E0319 538 Bone Splinter Headland 4g
Offices
No. No. No.
04E0319 541 Tooth Cow Headland 22g
Offices
91
04E0319 542 Tooth Horse Headland 10g

Offices
04E0319 543 Tooth Horse Headland 16g
Offices
04E0319 546 Bone Horse Tibia Headland 26g
Offices
04E0319 547 Bone Vertebra?? Headland 32g
Offices
04E0319 548 Bone Ribs Headland 10g
Offices
04E0319 561 Bone Horse Vertebra? Headland 40g
Offices
Offices
04E0319 34504 565 Bone Horse Scapula Headland 208g
Offices
04E0319 34507 568 Bone Rib Headland 8g
Offices
Offices
Offices
4E0319 34504 575 Tooth Horse Headland 24g
Offices
04E0319 577 Bone Horse Distal and proximal ends Headland 246
non‐existent Offices
No. No. No.
Offices
92
04E0319 34504 585 Bone Animal Skull Headland 18g

Offices
04E0319 34504 586 Bone Horse Skull Headland 106g
Offices
04E0319 34504 588 Bone Horse Skull Headland 14g
Offices
04E0319 34507 589 Bone Cow Headland 52g
Offices
04E0319 34507 594 Bone Animal Rib Headland 48g
Offices
04E0319 595 Bone Rib Found with find # 548 Headland 2g
Offices


No. No. No.
04E0319 341513 4 Bone Fragments of unfused Black in appearance on Headland <1g
epiphysis excavation, found in Offices
association with find # 5

04E0319 Beneath 22 Bone Cattle/deer Long bone/femur Found directly above Headland 310g
341512 glacial till in association Offices
with find # 23
No. No. No.
04E0319 Beneath 25 Tooth Deer Molar Deer molar/premolar found Headland 10g
341512 near find # 22,23 and 24 Offices
93
04E0319 29 Bone Headland 42g

Offices
Area 1 Ext. ‐ BONES

No. No. No.
04E0319 34100 104 Tooth Cow Cow tooth Headland 20g
Offices

NUTS, SEEDS ETC.

Area 1 –NUTS, SEEDS ETC.

No. No. No.
04E0319 34002 1 Nut Acorn/hazelnut Bead? Probable acorn/hazelnut Headland 5ml
with hole going through it Offices
04E0319 34002 2 Nut Acorn/hazelnut Acorn/hazelnut Headland 20ml
Offices
04E0319 Surface 7 Nut Hazelnuts Multiple hazelnuts Headland 50ml
find Offices
No. No. No.
04E0319 34004 10 Nut Hazelnuts Multiple hazelnuts – 1 Headland 2ml
hollowed out Offices
04E0319 34006 12 Nut Hazelnuts Fragments of hazelnut shell Headland 1ml
94
Offices
04E0319 34006 13 Nut Hazelnut Fragments of hazelnut shell Headland 2ml
Offices
04E0319 34014 29 Seeds Very small orange/yellow Headland 40ml
seed Offices
04E0319 34014 33 Nut Small complete nut Headland 1 nut
Offices

04E0319 34015 43 Nut Hazelnut? Whole nut and shell Headland 2.5 nuts
fragments Offices
04E0319 34015 44 Nuts Hazelnuts Several fragmentary and Headland 20ml
whole nuts Offices
04E0319 34017 50 Nuts Hazelnuts Multiple hazelnuts Headland 40ml
Offices
04E0319 34017 51 Nut Acorn Acorn Headland 5ml
Offices
04E0319 34017 53 Seed Small seed – possibly apple Headland 10ml
Offices
4E0319 Cutting 55 Nut Hazelnut Whole hazelnut Headland 5ml
A – spit 3 Offices
04E0319 34015 57 Seeds Seeds Headland 10 seeds
Offices
04E0319 34015 61 Nut Shell Possible nut shell Headland 4
Offices fragments

No. No. No.
04E0319 34017 63 Nut Hazelnuts Hazelnuts Headland 15ml
Offices
04E0319 34017 64 Nut Acorn Acorns Headland 15ml
95
Offices
04E0319 34006 65 Nut Acorns 2 acorn fragments Headland 2
Offices fragments
04E0319 34006 66 Seeds Reed? Headland 3ml
Offices
04E0319 34006 67 Nut Acorns Acorns Headland 3ml
Offices
04E0319 69 Nut Acorn Acorn Headland Half an
Offices acorn
04E0319 34015 72 Nut Hazelnut Hazelnut Headland 40ml
Offices
04E0319 34015 75 Nut Hazelnut Hazelnut Headland 20ml
Offices
04E0319 34015 79 Nut Hazelnut Hazelnut Headland 1 nut
Offices
Offices
04E0319 87 Nut Hazelnut Multiple fragments of Headland 2ml
hazelnuts Offices

04E0319 100 Nut Hazelnut Headland 30ml
Offices

No. No. No.
04E0319 101 Nuts Acorns, Acorns, hazelnuts and Headland 50ml
hazelnuts and possible malus seeds Offices
possible malus
96
seeds
04E0319 102 Nut Hazelnut Hazelnut Headland 15ml
Offices
04E0319 103 Nut Hazelnut Hazelnut – found above Headland 2ml
mineral clay in conjunction Offices
with charcoal

Area 2 – NUTS, SEEDS, ETC.

No. No. No.
04E0319 34501 501 Nut Hazelnut Hazelnut shell Headland
Offices
04E0319 34502 502 Seed Possible seed from larger Headland 1 seed
shrubs or trees Offices
04E0319 507 Seed Sloe/hawthorn Sloe/hawthorn (prunus sp.) Headland 1
(prunus sp.) Offices fragment
04E0319 519 Nut Hazelnut Hazelnut Headland Multiple
Offices fragment
Offices fragments
04E0319 524 Nut Acorn Acorn Headland 1
Offices fragment

No. No. No.
04E0319 528 Nut Hazelnut Whole hazelnut Headland 1 nut
Offices
04E0319 532 Nut Hazelnut Hazelnut Headland 10ml (in
97
Offices matrix)
04E0319 539 Seed ? Unidentified seed Headland 5ml (in
Offices matrix)
04E0319 544 Seed Emmer wheat? Headland 5ml (in
Offices matrix)
04E0319 545 Seeds Possible seed from larger Headland 2 seeds
shrubs or trees Offices
04E0319 34504 556 Nut Hazelnut Hazelnut Headland 2.5 nuts
Offices

04E0319 558 Nut Hazelnut Hazelnut shell Headland 1
Offices fragment
04E0319 559 Nut Hazelnut Hazelnut shell Headland 1
Offices fragment
Offices fragments
Offices
04E0319 34504 572 Nut Hazelnut Hazelnut Headland 4
Offices fragments
04E0319 576 Seed Possible acorn Possible acorn Headland 2
Offices fragments

Area 4 – NUTS, SEEDS, ETC.

No. No. No.
04E0319 341501 1 Nut Hazelnuts Hazelnuts Headland 1 whole, 2
98
Offices half nuts
04E0319 341513 5 Nut Hazelnuts Hazelnuts Headland 2
Offices
04E0319 6 Nut Hazelnuts Burnt hazelnut fragment Headland 1
Offices
04E0319 341509 7 Berry/see Possibly ivy Berry Headland 1 berry
d/nut Offices
04E0319 9 Nut Hazelnuts Hazelnuts Headland 5ml
Offices
04E0319 341507 12 Berry Juniper? Ivy? Headland 1
Offices
04E0319 Stray 26 Nut Acorn 1 whole acorn Headland 1 nut
find Offices

LITHICS

Area 1 Ext./Mesolithic ‐ LITHICS

No. No. No.
O4E0319 34021 100 Flint Blue/grey translucent. Headland 1 very
Debitage Offices small
piece, <1g
No. No. No.
04E0319 34100 101 Chert/ Black/grey matrix, white Headland 4g
Flint cortex. Struck beach cobble Offices
with multiple facets.
Possible debitage but not a
99
tool.
04E0319 34100 102 Chert Scraper Bann flake? Bann flake. Blue grey with Headland 6g
cortex visible on ventral Offices
surface
04E0319 34100 103 Flint Butt trimmed Bann Pale grey flake with broken Headland 10g
flake tip and possible retouch Offices

04E0319 106 Chert Butt trimmed Bann Headland 10g
flake Offices

Area 3 ‐ LITHICS

No. No. No.
04E0319 341043 3 Chert Possible debitage, (very Headland <1g
dubious) Offices
04E0319 4 Rhyolite Possible Bann Possible Bann flake but Headland
flake? more likely a Neolithic Offices
scraper.

Area 4 – LITHICS

No. No. No.
04E0319 Beneath 14 Chert Blade Bann flake Large Bann flake. Stone Headland 36g
341513 blade, butt trimmed with 2 Offices
100
fragments that have split
from Unworked side

04E0319 340021 21 ? Not Bann flake Headland 14g
chert or Offices
flint
04E0319 Beneath 24 Chert Bann flake Worked tool. Dark grey Headland 8g
341512 material with light grey Offices
mottling.

Charcoal and Charred wood

Area 1 – CHARCOAL AND CHARRED WOOD

No. No. No.
04E0319 34017 27 Charcoal 1 fragment Headland 2ml
Offices

04E0319 34017 28 Charcoal Multiple fragments of burnt Headland 15ml
wood Offices
No. No. No.
04E0319 34017 31 Charcoal 1 fragment of burnt wood Headland 1ml
Offices
04E0319 34007 52 Charred Burnt woodchip Headland 2ml
wood Offices
04E0319 34006 71 Charcoal Charcoal Headland 5ml
101
Offices

Area 2 –CHARCOAL AND CHARRED WOOD

No. No. No.
04E0319 34504 574 Charred Charred wood Headland 1 very
wood Offices small
piece

Area 4 –CHARCOAL AND CHARRED WOOD

No. No. No.
04E0319 341501 27 Charcoal Charcoal chunks Headland 6g
Offices

SHELLS AND MOLLUSCS

Area 1 – Shells/Molluscs

No. No. No.
04E0319 34007 56 Shell Seashell? 1 whole possible seashell Headland 1 shell
102
Offices
04E0319 34015 62 Shell? Flecks of white material, Headland Few flecks
possible seashell Offices
04E0319 34015 77 Shell Possible marine Possible marine mollusc Headland 10ml
mollusc Offices
04E0319 34015 82 Shell Mollusc Mollusc Headland 20ml
Offices

AREA 2 EXT. – ALL FINDS

No. No. No.
04E0319 34609 601 Unknown Cylinders (material or Headland 82g‐
identification unknown) Offices combined
weight of
find # 601‐
604
04E0319 34609 602 Unknown Cylinders (material or Headland
identification unknown) Offices
04E0319 34609 603 Unknown Cylinders (material or Headland
identification unknown) Offices
No. No. No.
04E0319 34609 604 Unknown Cylinders (material or
identification unknown)

AREA 2 – BEETLECASING

103
No. No. No.

04E0319 34501 516 Beetle Headland 1ml
casing Offices
04E0319 562 Beetle Headland 1ml
wing Offices
casing

AREA 4B– SHOES

No. No. No.
04E0319 8 Shoes Leather 1 and a half leather shoes Headland 1.5 shoes
found in fibrous material in Offices
trench directly south of
area 4

WOOD

Area 1 Extension – WOOD

No. No. No.
04E0319 34110 105 Wood Possibly Possibly worked (unlikely) Headland 1 piece
worked piece Offices

Area 1 – WOOD

104

No. No. No.
04E0319 34001 4 Wood Stake Waterlogged, partial stake Headland 1 piece
Offices
04E0319 42 Wood Splinter Hardwood, possibly Headland 1 very
splinter from chopping Offices small
piece

Area 4 ‐ WOOD

N. No. No.
04E0319 341512 18 Wood Spoon like wooden object Headland 1 piece
with rounded edge Offices

Brick Kiln

Number Number Number
04E0319 Surface 001 Pottery Post medieval C18/C19. Glazed both sides Headland 6g
Offices
04E0319 Surface 002 Pottery Medieval/post Unglazed Headland 12g
medieval Offices
04E0319 Surface 003 Metal Unidentified Unidentified iron object Headland 8g
Offices
04E0319 Surface 004 Nut Possible acorn Possible acorn, black in Headland <1g
105
colour. Offices
04E0319 Surface 005 Stone Possible stone Possible stone Headland 6g
Offices
04E0319 [34521] 006 Glass/slate/pot Post medieval Dark, thick post medieval Headland 74g/34g/<1g
glass bottle sherd and grey Offices
slate and thin white glazed,
patterned pot sherd.

106
3. Sample register for dating purposes

Area 1 Ext./Meso and Area 4

Area Sample Context Amount Description Type/
No. No. Initial
results
1‐Ext. BS19 34001 10L Upper grey clay deposit
1‐Ext BS20 34002 10L Lower orange mottled clay deposit
1‐Ext BS21 34047 10L Mid brown, grey silty clay/marl
1‐Ext. BS22 34045 10L Brownish/blue grey marl
1‐Ext BS23 34013 20L Brown peat with marl traces
1‐Ext BS24 34033 15L Light, white marl/peat mix
1‐Ext. BS25 34035 20L Dark blue/grey marl
1‐Ext BS26 34004A 20L Brown peat
1‐Ext BS27 34031 30L Black silty charcoal lens
1‐Ext. BS28 34004B 10L Brown peat, under 34031
1‐Ext BS29 34042 10L Pale band of marl
4 1540 34001 10L Very light grey/white clay from sect. 6
4 1541 34071 10L Dark brownish grey fibrous peat.
4 1542 34070 10L Dark greyish/brown reed rich peat.
4 1543 34063 10L Mid to dark brown peat with patches
of blue/grey tints from sect. 6
4 1544 34004 10L Mid brown peat from sect. 6
4 1545 34062 10L Very dark rich brown/black peat from
sect. 6
107
Soil Sample Register and Assessment

Area Sample Context No. Amount Description
No.
1 1G 34029 5 Bags 100% sample of burnt stones
1 3G 34013 0.5L Small deposit of peat within
the clay/marl
1 Ext. 100 34110 10L Lower fill of [34101]
1 Ext. 101 34103 5L Fill of shallow burnt pit
[34101]. Peat with charcoal
1 Ext. 102 34104 5L Fill of [34102]. Greyish brown
clay with peat inclusions.
1 Ext. 103 34112 30L Fill of [34111]
1 Ext. 104 34105 30L Fill of [34101]
1 Ext. 105 34107 2L Fill of [34101]
1 Ext. 106 34113+34114 5L Mixed deposit due to floods
1 Ext. 107 34108 6L Fill of [34101]
1 Ext. 108 34109 10L Fill of [34109]
1 Ext. 109 34109 10L Fill of [34101]
1 Ext. 110 34110 20L Fill of [34101]
1 Ext. 111 34113 20L Redeposited natural from
[34115]
1 Ext. 112 34114 5L Greyish brown mix of peat
and redeposited natural from
[34115]
1 Ext. 113 34116 15L Fill between [34101] and
[34124]
1 Ext. 114 34121 15L Fill of [34124]
1 Ext. 115 34106 10L Fill of [34101]
1 Ext. 116 34122 20L Fill of [34124]
1 Ext. 117 34109 1 bag Wood from [34101]
1 Ext. 118 34117 20L Secondary fill of [34111]. Grey
brown organic peat
1 Ext. 119 34118 10L Primary fill of [34111]
1 Ext. 120 34125 20L Tertiary fill of [34111]. Peat
with charcoal.
1 Ext. 121 34124 15L Dark brown /orange silty clay
with organic components
1 Ext. 122 34124 25L Light grey fine sandy clay
2 501 34508 20L Greyish brown silty peat/marl
mix in [34507]
2 502 34509 10L Reed peat [34504]
2 503 34510 10L Greyish brown silty peat/marl
mix in [34504]
2 504 34504 <1L Possible moss in [34504]
2 505 34507 10L Peat/marl mix
2 506 34504 10L Reed peat beneath spit 3 in
[34504]

108

No.
2 508 34004 10L Peat base layer in cutting G
from sect. 15
2 509 34039 10L Marly upper layer in cutting
G from sect. 15
2 510 34049 10L Peat and marl mix towards
base of cutting G from sect. 17
2 511 34050 10L Dark grey and brown marl in
cutting G from sect. 17
2 512 34051 10L Dark grey and dark blue marl
in cutting G from sect. 17
2 513 34052 10L Lighter grey and blue marl in
cutting G from Sect. 17
2.Ext 601 34602 100% sample of grey clay fill
2.Ext 602 34603 100% sample of burnt fill
2.Ext 603 34604 Burnt lining
2.Ext 604 34608 Grey lens
2.Ext 605 34609 Spread of cylindrical finds
3 1 341006 5L Wood and charcoal
3 2 341007 1L Fill of linear feature, [341008]‐
contains wood and charcoal
3 3 341010 6L Charred mineral/slag deposit
3 4 341010 2L Charcoal rich deposit‐not so
much slag present as sample #
4 but still the same context
3 5 341012 0.5L Dark grey fill of possible stake
hole [341013] , contains
charcoal
3 6 341014 1L Dark brown/black sandy clay,
fill of possible posthole
[341015]
3 7 341018 4L Grey/black sandy clay,
charcoal rich, fill of possible
stake hole [341017]
3 8 341020 8L Grey sandy silt with wood
inclusions
3 9 341022 10L Grey sandy/silty clay with ash
and charcoal inclusions

3 10 341006 10L Charcoal rich burnt stone
deposit
3 11 341019 10L Grey silty clay deposit,
charcoal rich with wood
inclusions
3 12 341007 10L Dark reddish brown silty clay
with small pebble, semi
decayed wood and charcoal
inclusions, fill of [341008]
109

No.
3 13 341031 10L Mid blue/grey silty clay with
inclusions of charcoal and
wood.

3 14 341033 10L Grey silty clay with wood and
charcoal inclusions, fill of
[341032}
3 16 10L Peat from test trench 3
3 17 341038 0.25L Black/grey clay from possible
posthole [341037]
3 18 341040 0.25L Black/grey clay from possible
posthole [341039]
3 19 341042 0.25L Greyish, yellowish, pinkish
sandy clay from possible
posthole [341041]
3 20 341043 10L Mid grey silty clay, charcoal
rich, fill of pit [341044]
3 21 341046 10L Grey silty clay, charcoal rich,
fill of pit [341047]
3 22 341045 10L Blackish sandy clay, charcoal
rich, fill of pit [341047]
3 23 341049 20L Black stony mineral deposit,
charcoal rich, over (341004)
3 25 341043 0.25L Charcoal only from (341043)
3 28 341060 20L Light grey clay with charcoal
inclusions, fill of [341059]
3 29 341027 10L Light grey sand containing
charcoal
3 30 341061 10L Orange/brown sandy clay
with burnt stone and charcoal
inclusions
3 31 341025 6L Dark grey clayey sand, fill of
[341024]
3 32 341072 5L Grey clay containing
burnt/heat effected stones and
charcoal, fill of [341071]
3 33 341073 6L Dark grey clay containing
burnt stones
3 34 341008 1L Split wood from base of
[34008]
3 36 341100 0.5l Black/grey/brown silty, sandy
clay

3 37 341106 32L Black, charcoal rich silty clay,
containing heat shattered
stones.
110

No.
3 38 341106 1L Black charcoal rich fulacht
material, fill of trough
[341077]
3 39 341104 0.5L Black/grey/brown (mixed
colour) silty, sandy, clay, fill of
possible stake hole [341101]
3 40 341105 0.5L Black/grey/yellowish silty
clay. Fill of possible stake
hole [341105]
3 41 341109 0.5L Grey, silty clay, fill of possible
stake hole 341107
3 42 341110 0.5L Yellowish black silty clay, rich
in charcoal, fill of possible
posthole [341108]
3 44 341118 0.3L Yellowish grey silty clay, fill
of possible posthole [341111]
3 45 341119 0.3L Grey, black silty clay, fill of
possible posthole, [341112]
3 46 341120 0.3L Yellowish/blackish grey silty
clay, fill of possible stake hole
[341113]
3 47 341121 0.7L Black, silty clay, fill of possible
posthole [341114]
3 48 341122 1L Yellowish, black silty clay, fill
of possible stake hole [341115]
3 49 341123 0.3L Grey/black silty clay, fill of
possible posthole/stake hole
341116
3 50 341124 0.3L Black/grey silty clay, fill of
possible stake hole, 341117
3 51 341126 5L Grey clay, rich in organic
material
3 52 341128 5L Silty deposit with organic
material removed from
underside of trough, timber E.
3 53 341128 8‐10L Deposit from underside of
timber F.
3 54 341128 0.5L Deposit from underside of
timber G.
3 55 341128 0.25L Black charcoal from around
timber H.
3 57 341125 2.5L Fibrous organic material
adjacent to fulacht trough
timber at east.
3 58 341125 1‐2L Fibrous organic matter from
trough.
3 59 341125 0.5L Fibrous organic matter

111

No.
3 60 341125 0.5l Material adjacent to fulacht
timber
3 61 341099 0.25L Hazelnuts

3 62 341128 0.25L Material from between and
beneath timbers
3 63 341125 1.5L Material deposit within base
of trough 341077
3 64 341128 0.25L Material from within internal
SW corner of trough [341077]
4 1500 341505 10L Reed peat from below BS#1,
[341508], spit 1
4 1501 341511 15L Reed peat from below
brushwood concentration at
eastern end of [341511], spit 1
4 1502 341511 10L Reed peat from below
brushwood concentration at
western end of [341511], spit 1
4 1503 341513 20L Reed peat from below wood
in BS#4, [341513], spit1
in BS#3, in possible structure
[341509]
4 1505 341516 20L Wet reed/root rich peat
in BS#6, from western end of
bulk sample area
in BS#6, from eastern end of
bulk sample area.
4 1508 341501 1‐2L Micro sample taken from
between timbers of track way
[341501]
4 1509 341512 10L Sample from beneath spit 2 of
[341512]
4 1510 341520 10L Dark grey/black peat at base
of [341512]
4 1511 34049 10L Mid‐dark brown peat,
moderately firm, from section
1
4 1512 34039 10L Very light brown/greyish
tinted marl, silty clay loam,
from section 1
4 1513 34056 5L Very dark grey‐black, silty
clay, moderately firm
compaction. From section 1

112

No.
4 1514 34057 10L Mid brown with slight tints of
dark grey, silty clay loam,
moderately firm compaction,
from section 1
4 1515 34058 10L Mid grey with a slight
brownish tint probably caused
by the presence of organic
matter, silty clay loam,
mottled marl from section 1.
4 1516 34004 5L Mid brown thin layer of peat
from sect. 1
4 1517 34059 5L Dark brown peat lens from
section 1
4 1518 34060 10L Yellow clay, firm compaction
from section 4
4 1519 34061 10L Greyish brown clay from
section 4
4 1520 34062 10L Very dark brown/black peat
from section 4
4 1521 34063 10L Mid‐dark brown silty peat
from section 4
4 1522 34064 5L Blue/grey silty peat,
moderately compacted from
section 4
4 1523 34065 10L Very dark grey with a blue
tint, sandy gravel from section
4
4 1524 34066 5L Pale pinkish clay and sand,
very firm, from section 4
4 1525 34067 5L Mid brown with a greyish
4
4 1526 34068 5L Dark, ochre sandy clay with
an orange/brown tint caused
by organic matter.
3
from sect. 3
tint. Sandy loam from section
3
4 1530 34066 5L Pale pinkish clay and sand,
very firm, from section 3
from sect. 6

113

No.
6
from section 6
tint. Sandy loam from section
6
from section 6
4 1536 34069 5L Mid brown fibrous peat.
Rapidly oxidised to dark
brown on exposure.
4 1537 34070 3L Dark greyish/brown reed rich
peat.
4 1538 34001 2L Light/mid grey with
orange/brown mottling and
also black mottling. Clay
from section 6
4 1539 34071 3L Dark brownish grey fibrous
peat.
4 1540 34001 10L Light/mid grey with
orange/brown mottling and
also black mottling. Clay
from section 6
4 1541 34071 10L Dark brownish grey fibrous
peat.
4 1542 34070 20L Dark greyish/brown reed rich
peat.
from section 6
from sect. 6
from section 6.

Site 34 – Brick Kiln
Sample Register

Sample Context Amount Description Type/Initial results
Number Number
001 Surface Brick for ID material and
firing method
002 Surface Slag? For ID material
003 Surface Coal? For ID material
004 Surface Brick (Differential firing)
005 [34531] Burnt wood‐possibly kiln
fuel
114

4. Site 34 – Area 1, 2 and 4

Wood Bulk Samples per Structure

Area Structure Spit Cutting Bulk Sample Sample Description Reason for sampling Number
Number Number Sample Number of Bags
Number
1 34005 1 C 2 40 All timber from within Species identification and 8
designated bulk sample area dating
1 34005 C 5 116 All timber from within Species identification and 4
2? designated bulk sample area dating
1 34005 4 D 13 195 All timber from within Species identification and 12
1 34005 2 and D 12 190 All timber from within Species identification and 5
3 designated bulk sample area dating
1 34006 1 E 1 20 All timber from within Species identification and 10
1 34007 1 A 3 43 All timber from within Species identification and 9
1 34007 5 A 17 206 All timber from within Species identification and
115

Number
1 34014 3 B 7 160 All timber from within Species identification and 3
1 34014 5 and B 16 204 All timber from within Species identification and
1 34015 1 F 4 46 All timber from within Species identification and 2
1 34017 4 E 10 185 All timber from within Species identification and
1 34017 5 and E 14 200 All timber from within Species identification and
2 34504 1 H 54 509 All timber from within Species identification and 1
116

Number
2 34504 ? H 65 558 All timber from within Species identification and 9
2 34505 1 G 59 515 All timber from within Species identification and 9
2 34505 G 60 526 All timber from within Species identification and
2 34507 1 I 51 506 All timber from within Species identification and 1
2 34507 1 I 61 All timber from within Species identification and 28
117

Number
4 341501 Not N/A 6 1567 All timber from within Species identification and 2
applicable designated bulk sample area dating






118

Number


4 341509/341519 Not N/A 9 1613 All timber from within Species identification and 4


119

Individual Wood Samples per Structure

Asterix and bold print indicates exceptional toolmark specimen.
Area Structure Spit Cutting Individual Sample Number Sample Description Reason for sampling Condition
Number Number worked No.
1 34007 ? A 34W1023 47 Stake, chisel end Species identification, OK

dating and tool mark
identification.
1 34007 ? A 34W1024 29 Stake, chisel end Species identification, Good
identification.
identification.
identification.
120

1 34007 ? A 34W1027 21 Stake, chisel end Species identification, Poor

identification.
1 34007 ? A 34W1028 25 Split roundwood Species identification, Good
identification.
identification.
1 34007 ? A 34W1030 33 Roundwood, chisel end Species identification, Poor
identification.
1 34007 ? A 34W1031 44 Roundwood, chisel end Species identification, Good
identification.
1 34007 ? A 34W1036 141 Roundwood, chisel end Species identification, ?
identification.
1 34007 ? A 34W1037 124 Peg, pencil end Species identification, ?
identification.
121

1 34007 ? A 34W1038 143 Forked roundwood, Species identification, ?

chisel ended dating and tool mark
identification.
identification.
1 34007 ? A 34W1040 125 Peg, wedge end Species identification, ?
identification.
1 34007 ? A 34W1041 121 Upright peg, chisel end Species identification, Poor
identification.
1 34007 ? A 34W1042 144 Peg, facetted Species identification, ?
identification.
identification.
identification.
122

1 34007 ? A 34W1045 147 Forked roundwood, Species identification, Good

chisel ended dating and tool mark
identification.
1 34007 ? A 34W1050 155 Large roundwood log Species identification, ?
identification.
identification.
1 34007 ? A 34W1047 145 Roundwood, chisel end Species identification, OK
identification.
1 34007 ? A 34W1049 162 Possible peg, wedge Species identification, ?
end dating and tool mark
identification.
1 34007 ? A 34W1051 153 Roundwood, chisel end Species identification, Good
identification.
identification.
123

1 34007 ? A 34W1053 161 *********Possible rope Species identification, OK

marks‐large wedge dating and tool mark
ended identification.
roundwood********
identification.
1 34007 ? A 34W1056 193 **********Plank with Species identification, OK
possible mortise dating and tool mark
hole********** identification.
1 34007 4 A 34W1057 208 *******Hollow stake, Species identification, OK
chisel ended***** dating and tool mark
identification.
1 34007 4 A 34W1058 209 Stake, wedge ended Species identification, OK
identification.
1 34007 4 A 34W1059 210 Large chisel ended Species identification, OK
stake dating and tool mark
identification.
1 34007 4 A 34W1060 211 Large chisel ended Species identification, OK
identification.
124

1 34007 4 A 34W1061 212 Roundwood, worked Species identification, OK

both ends dating and tool mark
identification.
1 34007 4 A 34W1062 213 Stake, chisel end Species identification, Good
identification.
1 34007 4 A 34W1063 214 Stake, wedge ended Species identification, OK
identification.
1 34007 4 A 34W1064 215 *********Stake‐possible Species identification, OK
rope marks******** dating and tool mark
identification.
1 34007 5 A 34W1066 219 Roundwood chisel end Species identification, ?
identification.
1 34014 1 B 34W1500 87 Post, chisel end Species identification, Good
identification.
1 34014 ? B 34W1503 75 Upright roundwood, Species identification, Good
facetted dating and tool mark
identification.
125

1 34014 ? B 34W1504 94 Stake, chisel end Species identification, OK

identification.
1 34014 ? B 34W1505 93 Roundwood, chisel end Species identification, Poor
identification.
1 34014 ? B 34W1506 106 Roundwood chisel end Species identification, OK
identification.
identification.
1 34014 ? B 34W1508 48 Roundwood, facetted Species identification, Poor
identification.
1 34014 ? B 34W1511 62 Roundwood, chisel end Species identification, OK
identification.
identification.
126

1 34014 ? B 34W1512 61 Roundwood, chisel end Species identification, Good

identification.
1 34014 ? B 34W1515 63 Roundwood, facetted Species identification, OK
identification.
1 34014 ? B 34W1518 65 *******Stake, chisel end‐ Species identification, Good
wear mark possibly due dating and tool mark
to lashing********* identification.
identification.
identification.
identification.
1 34014 ? B 34W1522 76 Plank Species identification, Good
identification.
127


identification.
identification.
identification.
identification.
identification.
identification.
1 Baulk ? B 34W1531 118 Roundwood, chisel end Species identification, OK
identification.
128


identification.
identification.
identification.
identification.
1 34014 ? B 34W1537 74 Stake, chisel end, held Species identification, Good
in place by a peg dating and tool mark
identification.
identification.
identification.
129

1 34014 ? B 34W1540 77 Peg, chisel end Species identification, OK

identification.
identification.
1 34014 ? B 34W1542 128 Split roundwood Species identification, OK
identification.
1 34014 ? B 34W1543 92 Roundwood, chisel end Species identification, ?
identification.
1 34014 ? B 34W1544 81 Wood splinter Species identification, OK
identification.
identification.
identification.
130

1 34014 ? B 34W1547 71 Roundwood, wedge Species identification, Good

identification.
1 34014 ? B 34W1548 70 *******Possible binding Species identification, Good
withy***** dating and tool mark
identification.
identification.
identification.
identification.
identification.
1 34014 ? B 34W1554 109 Split timber Species identification, Good
identification.
131

1 34014 ? B 34W1555 99 *******Post/stake‐ Species identification, Good

possible coppice dating and tool mark
heel****** identification.
identification.
identification.
1 34014 ? B 34W1558 148 Possible plank Species identification, ?
identification.
1 34014 ? B 34W1559 104 Notched roundwood Species identification, ?
fragment dating and tool mark
identification.
identification.
identification.
132

1 34014 ? B 34W1564 131 Roundwood, wedge Species identification, OK

identification.
identification.
identification.
identification.
1 34014 ? B 34W1569 115 ********Plank with Species identification, Good
mortise hole and blade dating and tool mark
marks evident******** identification.
1 34014 ? B 34W1570 139 Roundwood, wedge Species identification, ?
identification.
1 34014 ? B W341571 134 Roundwood, chisel end Species identification, ?
identification.
133

1 34014 ? B 34W1572 135 Wedge shaped plank Species identification, ?

identification.
identification.
1 34014 ? B 34W1574 136 Forked rooty Species identification, OK
roundwood dating and tool mark
identification.
identification.
1 34014 ? B 34W1578 150 ****Roundwood with Species identification, ?
possible drill hole****** dating and tool mark
identification.
1 34014 ? B 34W1579 149 Peg Species identification, OK
identification.
identification.
134

1 34014 ? B 34W1582 152 Small stake/peg Species identification, OK

identification.
1 34014 ? B 34W1584 158 Roundwood with Species identification, OK
possible fork end dating and tool mark
identification.
1 34014 ? B 34W1585 154 Stake, pencil end Species identification, Good
identification.
identification.
1 34014 ? B 34W1587 157 Stake‐held in place by Species identification, Good
peg dating and tool mark
identification.
1 34014 ? B 34W1589 165 Transverse split timber Species identification, OK
identification.
identification.
135

1 34014 ? B 34W1591 164 Roundwood, wedge Species identification, Good

identification.
identification.
identification.
identification.
1 34014 ? B 34W1595 189 ******Stake with Species identification, Good
notch****** dating and tool mark
identification.
1 34014 5 B 34W1596 187 ****Stake with possible Species identification, Good
notch***** dating and tool mark
identification.
1 34014 5 B 34W1597 202 Plank, no tool marks Species identification, OK
identification.
136

1 34014 ? B 34W1598 203 Long, thin roundwood‐ Species identification. Good

possibly yew. No tool
marks‐sampled for
species identification.
1 Stray Stray Stray 34W000 54 ********Secondary Species identification, Poor

conversion with dating and tool mark
possible mortise and identification.
tenon fixings*******
1 34005 ? C 34W001 191 *******Stake with wedge Species identification, VG

end‐possible evidence dating and tool mark
of iron axe marks****** identification.
1 34005 ? C 34W002 3 component Species identification, Good
rnmkoundwood fork, dating and tool mark
wedge end on one identification.
prong‐good for
illustration‐possible
used as a securing
component of
structure********
1 34005 ? C 34W003 3 Roundwood, chisel end Species identification, Good
identification.
137


identification.
1 34005 ? C 34W005 8 Small piece of split Species identification, OK
wood dating and tool mark
identification.
1 34005 ? C 34W006 4 Split roundwood Species identification, Good
identification.
1 34005 ? C 34W007 32 Roundwood, chisel end Species identification, OK
identification.
1 34005 ? C 34W008 5 Roundwood, pencil end Species identification, Good
identification.
1 34005 ? C 34W009 7 Split roundwood Species identification, Good
identification.
1 34005 ? C 34W010 12 Roundwood twig, Species identification, OK
chisel end dating and tool mark
identification.
138

1 34005 ? C 34W011 2 ʺDaggerʺ like split of Species identification, Good

wood. Sampled for dating and tool mark
shape not tool marks. identification.
identification.
identification.
identification.
identification.
identification.
1 34005 2 C 34W025 59 Roundwood, chisel end Species identification, Good
identification.
139

1 34005 2 C 34W028 60 ********Peg, possible Species identification, Good

rope marks******** dating and tool mark
identification.
1 34005 ? C 34W030 57 Roundwood, wedge Species identification, Good
identification.
1 34005 2 C 34W0311 58 Roundwood, pencil end Species identification, Good
identification.
1 34005 2 C 34W032 80 Roundwood, chisel end Species identification, Good
identification.
1 34005 ? C 34W033 175 Roundwood, facetted Species identification, OK
identification.
1 34005 ? C 34W034 170 Split roundwood Species identification, ?
identification.
1 34005 ? C 34W035 171 Roundwood, chisel end Species identification, OK
identification.
140

1 34005 ? C 34W037 172 Roundwood, chisel end Species identification, ?

identification.
1 34005 ? C 34W038 196 Upright peg Species identification, Good
identification.
1 34005 ? C 34W039 197 Upright peg, chisel end Species identification, OK
identification.
1 34005 ? C 34W040 199 Upright peg, wedge Species identification, Good
identification.
1 34005 ? C 34W041 198 Upright peg, wedge Species identification, OK
identification.
1 34005 ? C 34W042 180 Stake, chisel end Species identification, Good
identification.
identification.
141

1 34005 4 C 34W044 205 ****Stake, pencil end. Species identification, OK

Possible bore holes and dating and tool mark
rope marks identification.
evident******
1 34005 3 C 34W047 221 Roundwood, wedge Species identification, VG
identification.
1 34005 3 C 34W048 222 Post, wedge and chisel Species identification, VG
facets dating and tool mark
identification.
1 34006 ? E 34W502 18 Plank Species identification, Good
identification.
1 34006 ? E 34W503 24 Roundwood, chisel end Species identification, Good
identification.
1 Stray ? Stray 34W504 30 Roundwood, chisel end Species identification, OK
identification.
identification.
142


identification.
identification.
identification.
identification.
1 34006 ? E 34W510 42 Split roundwood, Species identification, Good
possibly chisel end dating and tool mark
identification.
identification.
1 34006 ? E 34W514 15 ******Roundwood, Species identification, Good
chisel end. ‐Possible dating and tool mark
rope abrasion identification.
marks*****
143

1 34006 ? E 34W515 14 Split roundwood Species identification, OK

identification.
identification.
1 34006 ? E 34W517 17 Roundwood, chisel end Species identification, Poor
identification.
1 34006 ? E 34W518 9 Possible split Species identification, OK
identification.
identification.
1 34006 ? E 34W520 16 Roundwood, possible Species identification, OK
facets dating and tool mark
identification.
1 34006 ? E 34W521 27 *******Roundwood, Species identification, Good
chisel end‐circular cut dating and tool mark
with 2 facets identification.
evident*******
144


identification.
1 34006 ? E 34W523 39 *******Split wood with Species identification, Good
chisel end‐possible dating and tool mark
square nail hole******* identification.
1 34006 ? E 34W524 23 Split roundwood Species identification, OK
identification.
identification.
1 34017 ? E 34W526 173 Secondary conversion Species identification, OK
radial split dating and tool mark
identification.
1 34017 ? E 34W528 132 *****Upright peg, chisel Species identification, Good
end‐in line with dating and tool mark
34W529, 34W533 and identification.
34W534******
1 34017 ? E 34W529 178 Upright peg, chisel end Species identification, OK

identification.
145

1 34017 ? E 34W530 174 Radially split Species identification, OK

identification.
1 34017 ? E 34W531 176 *******Small timber‐ Species identification, Good
possible wear dating and tool mark
marks******* identification.
1 34017 ? E 34W532 177 Radially split secondary Species identification, Good
conversion‐possible dating and tool mark
debris from identification.
woodworking.
1 34017 ? E 34W533 182 Upright, chisel end Species identification, OK

identification.
1 34017 ? E 34W534 179 Upright, chisel end Species identification, OK
identification.
1 34015 1 F 34W2001 49 Roundwood, chisel end Species identification, OK
identification.
1 34015 1 F 34W2002 52 Possible split log Species identification, Good
identification.
146

1 34015 1 F 34W2003 50 Roundwood, facetted Species identification, ?

identification.
1 34015 1 F 34W2005 51 Roundwood, chisel end Species identification, Good
identification.
1 34015 1 F 34W2006 53 Roundwood with Species identification, Good
concave facet dating and tool mark
identification.
1 34015 1 F 34W2007 54 ******Roundwood Species identification, VG
fragment‐possible rope dating and tool mark
marks****** identification.
1 34015 1 F 34W2008 55 Primary half section Species identification, Poor
with chisel facet dating and tool mark
identification.
1 34015 1 F 34W2009 56 Split plank stake Species identification, Good
identification.
1 34015 ? F 34W2010 188 *******Short plank with Species identification, Good
possible mortise dating and tool mark
hole****** identification.
147

1 34015 3? F 34W2011 192 Short split plank‐large Species identification, Poor

piece of possible oak‐ dating.
dendro date
1 34015 ? F 34W2012 194 Split stake Species identification, Good
identification.
1 34015 5 F 34W2014 216 Upright peg, wedge Species identification, Good
identification.
1 34015 ? F 34W2015 217 Large section of log Species identification, OK
dating
1 34015 5 F 34W2016 219 Stake, chisel end Species identification, OK
identification.
1 34015 5 F 34W2017 218 Stake, chisel end Species identification, OK
identification.
2 34504 1 H 34W3502 519 Stake with pencil facet Species identification, Good
identification.
2 34504 1 H 34W3513 533 Stake, chisel end Species identification, Good
identification.
148

2 34504 1 H 34W3516 547 Plank at one end, stake Species identification, Poor

at other dating and tool mark
identification.
2 34504 1 H 34W3517 548 *******Stake, chisel end. Species identification, VG
Possible saw marks**** dating and tool mark
identification.
2 34504 1 H 34W3518 549 *******Possible coppice Species identification, Good
piece******* dating and tool mark
identification.
2 34504 1 H 34W3519 551 Upright peg Species identification, Good
identification.
identification.
2 34504 1 H 34W521 553 Peg, chisel end Species identification, Good
identification.
2 34504 1 H 34W3522 554 Stake with wedge at Species identification, OK
one end and chisel at dating and tool mark
other end identification.
149


identification.
2 34504 H 34W3524 556 *******Worked Species identification, Good
root******* dating and tool mark
identification.
2 34505 1 G 34W3001 501 Upright stake, chisel Species identification, Good
identification.
2 34505 1 G 34W3002 502 Peg, chisel end Species identification, OK
identification.
2 34505 Stray Stray 34W3003 503 Peg, chisel end Species identification, OK
identification.
2 34505 Stray G 34W3004 504 Peg, chisel end Species identification, OK
identification.
2 34505 1 G 34W3005 505 Peg, chisel end Species identification, VG
identification.
150

2 34505 5 G 34W3006 514 Plank Species identification, Poor

identification.
2 34505 1 G 34W3016 517 ********Rounded timber Species identification, OK
with groove********* dating and tool mark
identification.
2 34507 1 I 34W4001 524 Large worked tree Species identification, OK
stump dating and tool mark
identification.
2 34507 1 I 34W4004 538 Stake Species identification, Good
identification.
2 34507 1 I 34W4005 539 *********Possible coppice Species identification, Good
piece******** dating and tool mark
identification.
2 34507 1 I 34W4006 540 *********Possible Species identification, Good
coppice piece******** dating and tool mark
identification.
2 34507 1 I 34W4007 543 Species identification, Good
identification.
151

2 34507 1 I 34W4008 544 Stake, chisel end Species identification, Good

identification.
2 34507 1 I 34W4009 545 Stake, chisel end Species identification, OK
identification.
2 34507 1 I 34W4010 546 ********Stake with Species identification, Good
possible demi dating and tool mark
mortis******* identification.
2 34507 1 I 34W4011 550 Whittled roundwood Species identification, Fair
identification.
2 34519 4 G 34W3019 563 Upright post, facetted Species identification, OK
identification.
2 34519 4 to 6 G 34W3020 564 Upright post, facetted Species identification, VG
identification.
2 34519 6 G 34W3021 565 Upright post, facetted Species identification, Good
identification.
152

2 34519 3 G 34W3022 566 Upright stake, facetted Species identification, Good

identification.
2 34519 3 to 5 G 34W3023 567 Upright stake, facetted Species identification, VG
identification.
2 34519 3 to 5 G 34W3024 568 Upright stake, facetted Species identification, Good
identification.
2 34519 3 to 5 G 34W3025 569 Upright stake/post, Species identification, Good
facetted dating and tool mark
identification.
2 34519 3 to 5 G 34W3026 570 Upright stake, chisel Species identification, Good
identification.
2 34519 3 to 6 G 34W3028 573 Post, facetted Species identification, Good
identification.
identification.
153

2 34519 4 to 6 G 34W3030 575 Peg, facetted Species identification, Good

identification.
2 34519 4 to 6 G 34W3031 576 Peg, facetted, blackened Species identification, Good
identification.
2 34519 4 to 6 G 34W3032 577 Peg, chisel end Species identification, Good
identification.
2 34519 4 to 6 G 34W3033 578 Peg, facetted Species identification, Good
identification.
identification.
identification.
4 341501 N/A N/A 34W4532 1560 Roundwood with chisel Species identification, OK
identification.
154

4 341501 N/A N/A 34W4533 1561‐1562 Roundwood‐facets at Species identification, Good

east end dating and tool mark
identification.
4 341501 N/A N/A 34W4534 1563 Roundwood with Species identification, Good
wedge end dating and tool mark
identification.
4 341501 N/A N/A 34W4535 1564 Roundwood, no tool Species identification, ?
marks evident dating
4 341501 N/A N/A 34W4536 1565 Roundwood, no tool Species identification, OK
4 341501 N/A N/A 34W4538 1568+1570 Roundwood, tool marks Species identification, Good
at both ends dating and tool mark
identification.
4 341501 N/A N/A 34W4538 1572 Roundwood, tool marks Species identification, Good
at both ends dating and tool mark
identification.
4 341501 N/A N/A 34W4541 1573‐1575 Roundwood with tool Species identification, Good
marks dating and tool mark
identification.
4 341501 N/A N/A 34W4548 1577 Roundwood Species identification, ?
dating
155


dating
4 341501 N/A N/A 34W4542 1580 Roundwood with facets Species identification, OK
at west end dating and tool mark
identification.
4 341501 N/A N/A 34W4543 1581 Roundwood wedge end Species identification, Good
at west end dating and tool mark
identification.
4 341501 N/A N/A 34W4557 1582 Roundwood post/peg Species identification, Good
with facets dating and tool mark
identification.
4 341501 N/A N/A 34W4546 1585 *****Roundwood with Species identification, OK
charred wedge end***** dating and tool mark
identification.
4 341501 N/A N/A 34W4544 1588 Roundwood, tool marks Species identification, OK
evident dating and tool mark
identification.
4 341501 N/A N/A 34W4545 1589+1591+1592 Roundwood, tool marks Species identification, OK
evident dating and tool mark
identification.
4 341501 N/A N/A 34W4592 1602 Upright stake, wedge Species identification, VG
identification.
156

4 341501 N/A N/A 34W4594 1604‐1605 Roundwood outlier, Species identification, OK

identification.
4 341501 N/A N/A 34W4595 1606 ********Roundwood‐ Species identification, Good
deep impression of dating and tool mark
possible axe*******NB identification.
4 341501 N/A N/A 34W4596 1607‐1609 Roundwood, chisel end Species identification, ?
at south, chopped and dating and tool mark
trimmed at north identification.
4 341501 N/A N/A 34W4597 1610 Split plank with facet Species identification, OK
dating
4 341501 N/A N/A 34W4598 1611 Roundwood, chop Species identification, Good
marks at west end dating and tool mark
identification.
4 341501 N/A N/A 34W4599 1612 Roundwood with Species identification, OK
identification.
4 341501 N/A N/A 34W4554 1614‐1616 Roundwood‐chopped Species identification, Good
at north end, chisel end dating and tool mark
at south identification.
4 341501 N/A N/A 34W4602 1617 Upright stake, pencil Species identification, VG
identification.
157

4 341509 N/A N/A 34W4504 1517 Linear roundwood, Species identification, OK

quarter radial section dating and tool mark
identification.
4 341509 N/A N/A 34W4539 1569 Plank Species identification, OK
identification.
4 341509 N/A N/A 34W4540 1571 ********Plank portion‐ Species identification, Good
possible partial dating and tool mark
mortise******** identification.
4 341512 N/A N/A 34W4501 1503‐1505 Transverse roundwood‐ Species identification, VG
multiple facets at both dating and tool mark
ends identification.
4 341512 N/A N/A 34W4502 1506‐1508 Transverse roundwood‐ Species identification, OK
multiple facets at both dating and tool mark
ends identification.
4 341512 N/A N/A 34W4503 1511‐1513 Transverse roundwood, Species identification, OK
identification.
4 341512 N/A N/A 34W4505 1514‐1516 Transverse roundwood, Species identification, Good
chisel end dating and tool mark
identification.
158

4 341512 N/A N/A 34W4506 1520‐1522 Roundwood outlier‐tool Species identification, OK

marks evident at dating and tool mark
southern end identification.
4 341512 N/A N/A 34W4507 1518‐1519 Transverse roundwood‐ Species identification, Poor
no tool marks evident dating
4 341512 N/A N/A 34W4508 1523‐1524 Roundwood outlier, no Species identification, Good
tool marks evident dating
4 341512 N/A N/A 34W4509 1527‐1528 Transverse roundwood, Species identification, OK
4 341512 N/A N/A 34W4510 1525‐1526 Transverse roundwood, Species identification, Poor
4 341512 N/A N/A 34W4511 1529‐1531 Transverse roundwood, Species identification, VG
chiselled end dating and tool mark
identification.
4 341512 N/A N/A 34W4512 1532‐1534 Roundwood outlier, Species identification, Good
tool marks on south end dating and tool mark
identification.
4 341512 N/A N/A 34W4513 1535‐1539 Possible post, tool Species identification, VG
marks evident dating and tool mark
identification.
4 341512 N/A N/A 34W4514 1540 Transverse roundwood, Species identification, ?
tool marks evident dating and tool mark
identification.
159

4 341512 N/A N/A 34W4515 1544‐1547 Almost complete tree Species identification, VG

trunk(but split)‐ dating
component of
trackway‐no tool marks
evident
4 341512 N/A N/A 34W4516 1541‐1543 Roundwood, facets at Species identification, Good
identification.
4 341512 N/A N/A 34W4517 1549‐1550 Roundwood, chisel end Species identification, OK
identification.
4 341512 N/A N/A 34W4518 1551‐1552 Roundwood, facetted Species identification, OK
identification.
4 341512 N/A N/A 34W4520 1553+1555 Roundwood, chisel end Species identification, Good
identification.
4 341512 N/A N/A 34W4522 1554 Roundwood, worked Species identification, Good
identification.
4 341512 N/A N/A 34W4526 1556 Roundwood with facet Species identification, OK
identification.
160

4 341512 N/A N/A 34W4529 1557 Roundwood with tool Species identification, Good

identification.
4 341512 N/A N/A 34W4531 1558‐1559 Roundwood with chisel Species identification, OK
identification.
4 341512 N/A N/A 34W4549 1576 Roundwood with tool Species identification, OK
identification.
4 341512 N/A N/A 34W4551 1579 Roundwood with Species identification, OK
wedge and chisel points dating and tool mark
identification.
4 341512 N/A N/A 34W4559 1583 Roundwood with Species identification, Good
identification.
identification.
identification.
161

4 341512 N/A N/A 34W4580 1593 Roundwood, ʺhookʺ Species identification, OK

shaped dating and tool mark
identification.
4 341512 N/A N/A 34W4582 1594 Roundwood, no tool Species identification, Good
4 341512 N/A N/A 34W4583 1595 Whittled twig, possibly Species identification, OK
hazel or willow dating and tool mark
identification.
4 341512 N/A N/A 34W4587 1597 Upright stake, whittled Species identification, OK
to point? dating and tool mark
identification.
4 341512 N/A N/A 34W4588 1598 Upright stake Species identification, Good
identification.
4 341512 N/A N/A 34W4589 1599 Upright stake, pencil Species identification, OK
end dating
4 341512 N/A N/A 34W4590 1600 Upright stake Species identification, OK
identification.
4 341512 N/A N/A 34W4591 1601 Upright stake Species identification, OK
identification.
162


dating

163
5. Deposit depths

Area 1 – Deposit minimum/maximum and average depths

Minimum depth of Maximum depth of
Context context context Average depth
34008 0.02 0.14 0.08
34001/34002 0.28 0.6 0.44
34045 0.06 0.24 0.15
34035 0.04 0.44 0.24
34037 0.02 0.06 0.04
34036 0.02 0.1 0.06
34013 0.02 0.2 0.11
34004 0.42 0.68 0.55
34033 0.02 0.24 0.13
34031 0.02 0.16 0.09
34042 0.02 0.08 0.05
34043 0.02 0.2 0.11

(34021) is the basal fill of this section and was unexcavated. ‐0.525 is the lowest depth below
the absolute value of 0.075 and ‐0.325 is the highest depth below the absolute value.

Area 2 – Deposit minimum/maximum and average depths

Minimum depth of Maximum depth of
Context context context Average depth
34008 0.22 0.32 0.27
34002 0.54 0.62 0.58
34004 0.08 0.32 0.2
34037 0.4 0.64 0.52
34035 0.5 0.84 0.67
34039 0.42 1.32 0.87
34045 0.32 0.81 0.565

164
6. Archive Quantities

Item Quantity
Context sheets 225
Plans 64
Sections 97
Photographs 1299
Digital photographs 69
Registers 33
Notebooks 0
Wood recording sheets 398

165

Appendix 7 Radiocarbon Date Catalogue
Years BP Site Context classification, number Lab Code Dated Material 2SigmaCalibration (95.4% probability)
4850 35 Site 34 Alluvial deposit Monolith 1 SUERC-10126 Plant tissue (buds & bud cal BC 3710 - 3620 (73.7%)
and 3580 - 3530 (21.7%)
Basal fen peat Quercus & Betula
4820 41 Site 34 Alluvial deposit UB-6481 Wood cal BC 3695 - 3677

(3.0437%) and 3670 - 3617
Area 1 (34004B) Macrofossil sample Prunus sp. (33.6779%) and cal BC 3614
from deposit sequences. - 3520 (63.2784%)
4765 35 Site 34 Alluvial deposit Monolith 1 SUERC-10128Plant tissue (buds & bud cal BC 3640 - 3500 (86.0%)
and 3430 - 3380 (9.4%)
Basal wood peat Quercus & Betula
4628 43 Site 34 Alluvial deposit [C34042] UB-6482 Wood cal BC 3622 - 3606
(1.5219%) and 3522 - 3337
Area 1 (C34042) Lowermost level. Alnus sp. (96.7315%) and cal BC 3207
Macrofossil sample from deposit - 3194 (1.1551%) and cal BC
sequences. 3149 - 3140 (0.5915%)
and 3380 - 3260 (39.7%) and
Alluvial deposit Quercus & Betula cal BC 3240 - 3100 (36.9%)
163

Alluvial deposit Alnus & Betula
Years BP Site Context classification, number Lab Code Dated Material 2SigmaCalibration
and description (95.4% probability)
4505 35 Site 34 Alluvial deposit Monolith 1 SUERC-14687 Fruit stone cal BC 3360 - 3090 (95.4%)
Alluvial deposit Prunus spinosa
4150 35 Site 34 Alluvial deposit Monolith 1 SUERC-10125 Seeds cal BC 2880 - 2620 (100%)
Top of wood peat Rubus sp.
4068 35 Site 34 Small track way. (34513) UB-6909 Wood cal BC 2855 - 2812 (12.9%)
and 2747 - 2725 (2.9%) and
Area 4 Wood 11 Structure [341513]. Pomoideae cal BC 2697 - 2546 (65.7%)
Worked wood sample. and cal BC 2541 - 2488
(18.5%)
3935 35 Site 34 Alluvial deposit Monolith 2 SUERC-14689 Seeds cal BC 2570 - 2520 (7.7%)
and 2500 - 2290 (87.7%)
Alluvial deposit Rubus sp.
3859 38 Site 34 Alluvial deposit (34004) UB-6471 Fruit stone cal BC 2464 - 2270
(83.7896%) and 2259 - 2206
Area 4 (34004). Macrofossil sample Prunus sp. (16.2104%)
164

3835 39 Site 34 Alluvial deposit (34033) UB-6469 Wood cal BC 2460 - 2198
(98.1574%) and 2162 - 2152
Area 1 C34033. Macrofossil sample from Prunus sp. (1.8426%)
deposit sequences.
3733 38 Site 34 Alluvial deposit (34031) UB-6480 Wood cal BC 2280 - 2250
(5.0623%) and 2230 - 2219
Area 1 C34031. Macrofossil sample from Alnus sp. (1.3077%) and cal BC 2212 -
deposit sequences. 2027 (93.6299%)
3702 34 Site 34 Small trackway [341512] UB-6908 Wood (worked) cal BC 2200 - 2158 (12.3%)
or platform. and 2154 - 2015 (84.5%) and
Area 4 Wood 34W4501 Structure Alnus sp. cal BC 1997- 1980 (3.2%)
341512. Worked wood sample
(Tranverse roundwood-multiple facets at
both ends).
3637 36 Site 34 Large timber trackway [34063] UB-6466 Wood (worked) cal BC 2133 - 2081
(17.2315%) and 2060 - 1901
Area 4 Wood 4537 Structure [341501] Alnus sp. (82.7685%)
[34063]. Worked wood sample.
165

3605 33 Site 34 Arc of stakes forming [34017] UB-6902 Wood (worked) cal BC 2112 - 2101 (1.5%)
structure and ca l BC 2036 - 1884
Area 1 Wood 34W532 Structure 34017. Taxus sp. (98.5%)
166

3585 36 Site 34 Possibly a substructure of [34049]UB-6464 Wood (worked) cal BC 2034 - 1876
platform 34505. (95.1569%) and 1842 - 1819
Area 2 Wood 3020 Structure 34519 Salix/Populus (2.9784%) and cal BC 1797 -
C34049. Worked wood sample. 1780 (1.8647%)
3542 37 Site 34 Alluvial deposit [34013] UB-6468 Plant macrofossil cal BC 2007 - 2005
(0.2644%) and 1974 - 1754
Area 1 34013. Macrofossil sample from Alnus sp. (99.7356%)
deposit sequences.
3301 36 Site 34 Wooden Trackway [34005] UB-6900 Wood (worked) cal BC 1680 - 1674 (1.1%)
and 1670 - 1500 (98.9%)
Area 1 Wood 34W048 Structure 34005. Alnus sp.
Worked wood sample. (post, wedge and
chisel facets)
3119 32 Site 34 Possible brushwood [34505] UB-6905 Wood (worked) cal BC 1488 - 1483 (0.8%)
track/platform. and 1454 - 1309 (99.2%)
Area 2 Wood 34W3002 Structure Corylus avellana
[34505]. Worked wood sample (peg, chisel
end).
167

2360 35 Site 34 Alluvial deposit Monolith 1 SUERC-10127 Plant tissue (Monocot.) cal BC 720 - 690 (2.1%) and
540 - 370 (93.3%)
Top of reed peat Phragmite
2116 32 Site 34 Irregular shaped wooden [34006] UB-6901 Wood (worked) cal BC 344 - 323 (4%) and
dump/platform 205 - 48 (96%)
Worked wood sample (roundwood, chisel
end).
2062 32 Site 34 Substancial wooden [34007] UB-6903 Wood (worked) cal BC 173 - cal AD 4 (100%)
structure-possible
trackway
Area 1 Wood 34W1063 Structure 34007. Fraxinus excelsior
Worked wood sample (stake, wedge
ended).
2045 40 Site 34 Alluvial deposit Monolith 1SUERC-14682 Plant tissue (Monocot.) cal BC 170 - AD 60 (95.4%)
Alluvial deposit Phragmites
2029 33 Site 34 Wooden structure - [34035] UB-6463 Wood (worked) cal BC 158 - 135 (3.9199%)
possible track way. and 114 - 54 (96.0801%)
Area 1 Wood 1507 Structure 34014 Salix/Populus
C34035. Worked wood sample.
168

1965 35 Site 34 Alluvial deposit Monolith 1 SUERC-14681Plant tissue (Monocot.) cal BC 50 - cal AD 90
(91.0%) and cal AD 100 -
Alluvial deposit
Phragmites 130 (4.4%)

1950 34 Site 34 Deposit (34035) UB-6470 Plant macrofossil cal BC 37 - 28 (2.5994%) and
24 - 10 (4.0876%) and cal
Area 1 (34035) Uppermost level. Salix sp./Populus BC 3-cal AD 126 (93.313)
Macrofossil sample from deposit sequences.
1870 35 Site 34 Alluvial deposit Monolith 1SUERC-10124 Plant tissue (Monocot.) cal AD 60 - 240 (100%)
End of reed peat / estuarine silt transition Phragmites
Zone
1698 31 Site 34 Possible brushwood platform[34015] UB-6904Wood (worked) cal AD 256 - 305 (26.2%)
and 312 - 414 (73.8%)
Area 1 Wood 34W2007 Structure 34015. Fraxinus sp..excelsior
Worked wood sample (roundwood
fragment-possible rope marks).
1665 35 Site 34 Alluvial deposit Monolith 1SUERC-14680 Plant tissue (Monocot.) cal AD 250 - 440 (91.1%)
and 480 - 530 (4.3%)
Alluvial deposit Phragmites
169

592 32 Site 34 Possible wooden track way[34054]UB-6465 Wood (worked) cal AD 1298 - 1372
which expanded to form (71.2411%) and 1378 - 1412
platform. (28.7589%)
Area 2 Wood 3517 Structure 34504 Alnus sp.
34054. Worked wood sample.
541 30 Site 34 Possible brushwood [34507] UB-6907 Wood (worked) cal AD 1316 - 1354 (31.6%)
platform or trackway. and 1389 - 1436 (68.4%)
Worked wood sample (stake).
524 29 Site 34 Possible wooden track way[34504]UB-6906 Wood (worked) cal AD 1324 - 1346 (12.7%)
which expanded to form and 1393 - 1441 (87.3%)
platform.
Worked wood sample (worked root, chisel end)
170

N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3. Final Report On Archaeological Investigations at Site 34 in The Townland of Newrath, Co Kilkenny Volume 1

Transféré par

Informations du document

Titre original

Copyright

Formats disponibles

Partager ce document

Partager ou intégrer le document

Options de partage

Avez-vous trouvé ce document utile ?

Ce contenu est-il inapproprié ?

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3. Final Report On Archaeological Investigations at Site 34 in The Townland of Newrath, Co Kilkenny Volume 1

Transféré par

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

III Fen peat 34046 4850±35 BP (GU‐ 230‐235

Area/ Radiocarbon Dimensions (m) Associated Interpretation

Area C 14 Dimensions (m) Associated Interpretation

Figure 1 - N25, Waterford Bypass, Contract 3: Site 34, 04E0319, location

Figure 2 - N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3: Site 34, 04E0319,

2112-1884 cal BC (UB-6902)

Mesolithic features cut into glacial till

Section reproduced for Area 1 in

Figure 3 - N25, Waterford Bypass, Contract 3: Site 34, 04E319, Area 1

Location of bulk samples

Figure 4 - N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3: Site 34, 04E0319, Area 2

Burnt mound material

Lower area Raised area

Section reproduced for Area 4 in Figure 9

Location of bulk sample

Deep channel, wet zone

Figure 9 - N25 Waterford Bypass, Contract 3: Site 34, 04E0319,

Deep channel, wet zone

34008 34008 34001

34013 34036 34035

BH306 Bore-hole locations

Present ground surface

0 20 40 60 80 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900

Plate 2 - Area 1 Cutting A, Structure [34007] in (34039) facing north

Plate 7 - Area 4, showing trackway [341501] in foreground, facing north

Plate 9 - Bronze Age platform in Area 4 being cleaned prior to recording

Context Area Type Description Interpretation

Context Area Type Description Interpretation

Context Area Type Description Interpretation

34102 1‐Ext Cut Irregular shape with irregular sides Cut of a shallow burnt

Context Area Type Description Interpretation

Context Area Type Description Interpretation

34609 2‐Ext Deposit A concentration of small cylindrical Probably natural but

Context Area Type Description Interpretation

Context Area Type Description Interpretation

Context Area Type Description Interpretation

Context Area Type Description Interpretation

Context Area Type Description Interpretation

Context Area Type Description Interpretation

Context Area Type Description Interpretation

Context Type Type Description Interpretation

Context Type Type Description Interpretation

Context Type Type Description Interpretation

Context Area Type Description Interpretation

Context Area Type Description Interpretation

Context Area Type Description Interpretation

Context Area Type Description Interpretation

Context Area Type Description Interpretation

Context Area Type Description Interpretation

Context Area Type Description Interpretation

Context Area Type Description Interpretation

Context Area Type Description Interpretation

Context Area Type Description Interpretation

Context Area Type Description Interpretation

Context Area Type Description Interpretation

Context Area Type Description Interpretation

Context Area Type Description Interpretation

Context Area Type Description Interpretation

Context Area Type Description Interpretation

Context Area Type Description Interpretation

Context Area Type Description Interpretation

Context Area Type Description Interpretation

Context Area Type Description Interpretation