Lang Learning and Technology - v17n3

Volume 17 Number 3 October 2013 Special Issue on MALL Articles
Guest Editors Susana Sotillo and Glenn Stockwell Students Perceptions and Experiences of Mobile Learning Abstract | Article PDF Daesang Kim, Valdosta State University Daniel Rueckert, Oklahoma City University Dong-Joong Kim, Korea University Daeryong Seo, Indiana State University pp. 5273 Podcasting for Language Learning Through iTunes U: The Learners View Abstract | Article PDF Fernando Rosell-Aguilar, The Open University pp. 7493 The Development of Advanced Learner Oral Proficiency Using iPads Abstract | Article PDF Franziska Lys, Northwestern University pp. 94116 Reading and Grammar Learning Through Mobile Phones Abstract | Article PDF Shudong Wang, Shimane University Simon Smith, Shimane University pp. 117134 Mobile-Assisted Grammar Exercises: Effects on Self-Editing in L2 Writing Abstract | Article PDF Zhi Li, Iowa State University Volker Hegelheimer, Iowa State University pp. 135156
Columns
Special Issue Commentary Motivation Matters in Mobile Language Learning: A Brief Commentary Article PDF by Ema Ushioda pp. 15 Emerging Technologies Implementing Glossing in Mobile-Assisted Language Learning Environments: Directions and Outlook Article PDF by Hansol Lee and Jang Ho Lee pp. 622 Action Research Edited by Greg Kessler From Particular to Popular: Facilitating EFL Mobile-Supported Cooperative Reading Article PDF by Yu-Ju Lan, Yao-Ting Sung, and Kuo-En Chang pp. 2338
Reviews
Edited by Paige Ware Technology in the L2 Curriculum Dubravac, S., Liskin-Gasparro, J., & Lacorte, M. Article PDF Reviewed by Jacob Kletzien pp. 4346 Language at Play: Digital Games in Second and Foreign Language Teaching and Learning Sykes, J., & Reinhardt, J. Article PDF Reviewed by Steven L. Thorne and Erin Watters pp. 4751
Contact: Editors or Managing Editor Copyright 2013 Language Learning & Technology, ISSN 1094-3501. Articles are copyrighted by their respective authors.
Mobile-Assisted Language Learning: A Selected Annotated Bibliography of Implementation Studies 19942012 Abstract | Article PDF Jack Burston, Cyprus University of Technology pp. 157225
Announcements & Call for Papers

Announcements News From Sponsoring Organizations Article PDF pp. 3942 Call for Papers Special Issue 18-3: Digital Literacies and Language Learning Article PDF p. 226
Contact: Editors or Managing Editor Copyright 2013 Language Learning & Technology, ISSN 1094-3501. Articles are copyrighted by their respective authors.
About Language Learning & Technology

Language Learning & Technology is a refereed journal that began publication in July 1997. LLT disseminates research to foreign and second language educators worldwide on issues related to technology and language education. Language Learning & Technology is sponsored and funded by the University of Hawaii National Foreign Language Resource Center (NFLRC) and the Michigan State University Center for Language Education and Research (CLEAR). Language Learning & Technology is a fully refereed journal with an editorial board of scholars in the fields of second language acquisition and computer-assisted language learning. The focus of the publication is not technology per se, but rather issues related to language learning and language teaching, and how they are affected or enhanced by the use of technologies. Back and current issues of Language Learning & Technology are indexed in the Current Contents/Social and Behavioral Sciences, ISI Alerting Services, Institute for Scientific Information's (ISI) Social Sciences Citation Index (SSCI), Linguistics Abstracts, PsycINFO, and Social SciSearch databases. Since 2007, Language Learning & Technology has ranked in the top 20 Linguistics journals and in the top 20 Education journals in the Thomson Reuters Journal Citation Reports. The European Reference Index for the Humanities (ERIH) classifies Language Learning & Technology as INT2 in the field of Pedagogical and Educational research, an international publication with significant visibility and influence in the various research domains in different countries. Language Learning & Technology is published three times per year (February, June, and October).
Copyright 2013 Language Learning & Technology, ISSN 1094-3501. Articles are copyrighted by their respective authors.
Sponsors, Board, and Editorial Staff

Volume 17, Number 3 SPONSORS
University of Hawaii National Foreign Language Resource Center (NFLRC) Michigan State University Center for Language Education and Research (CLEAR)
ADVISORY AND EDITORIAL BOARDS Advisory Board

Susan Gass James Dean Brown Michigan State University University of Hawaii at Mnoa
Editorial Board
Nike Arnold Robert Blake Klaus Brandl Thierry Chanier Scott Crossley Tracey Derwing Lara Ducate Robert Godwin-Jones Regine Hampel Debra Hardison Claire Kennedy Markus Ktter Eva Lam Jenifer Larson-Hall Joshua Lawrence Lina Lee Meei-Ling Liaw Paul Kei Matsuda Jill Pellettieri Mark Pegrum Hayo Reinders Bryan Smith Patrick Snellings Susana Sotillo Phillip A. Towndrow Pavel Trofimovich Portland State University University of California, Davis University of Washington Universite Blaise Pascal Georgia State University University of Alberta University of South Carolina Virginia Commonwealth University The Open University Michigan State University Griffith University, Brisbane University of Siegen Northwestern University Kyushu University University of California, Irvine University of New Hampshire National Taichung University Arizona State University Santa Clara University University of Western Australia Middlesex University, London Arizona State University University of Amsterdam Montclair State University National Institute of Education, Singapore Concordia University
Copyright 2013 Language Learning & Technology, ISSN 1094-3501. The contents of this publication were developed under a grant from the Department of Education (CFDA 84.229, P229A60012-96 and P229A6007). However, the contents do not necessarily represent the policy of the Department of Education, and one should not assume endorsement by the Federal Government.
Editorial Board (continued)

Paige Ware Cynthia White Bonnie Youngs Southern Methodist University Massey University Carnegie Mellon University
Editorial Staff
Editors Associate Editors Dorothy Chun Mark Warschauer Trude Heift Philip Hubbard Rick Kern Marie-Nolle Lamy Lara LomickaAnderson Carla Meskill Glenn Stockwell Incoming Managing Editor Outgoing Managing Editor Web Production Editor Book & Multimedia Review Editor Action Research Column Editor Emerging Technologies Editor Social Media Director Copy Editors Mnica Vidal Gerriet Janssen Carol Wilson-Duffy Paige Ware Greg Kessler Robert Godwin-Jones Chin-Hsi Lin Kyle Crocco Jennifer Holdway Jake Kletzien Kasey Larson Valerie Meier Justine Meyr Jonathan Trace Gordon West University of California, Santa Barbara University of California, Irvine Simon Fraser University Stanford University University of California, Berkeley The Open University University of South Carolina State University of New York, Albany Waseda University University of Hawaii at Mnoa University of Hawaii at Mnoa Michigan State University Southern Methodist University Ohio University Virginia Commonwealth University Michigan State University University of California, Santa Barbara University of Hawaii at Mnoa Sookmyung Womens University University of Hawaii at Mnoa University of Hawaii at Mnoa University of California, Santa Barbara University of Hawaii at Mnoa University of Hawaii at Mnoa
Copyright 2013 Language Learning & Technology, ISSN 1094-3501. The contents of this publication were developed under a grant from the Department of Education (CFDA 84.229, P229A60012-96 and P229A6007). However, the contents do not necessarily represent the policy of the Department of Education, and one should not assume endorsement by the Federal Government.
Language Learning & Technology http://llt.msu.edu/issues/october2013/commentary.pdf
October 2013, Volume 17, Number 3 pp. 1-5
MOTIVATION MATTERS IN MOBILE LANGUAGE LEARNING: A BRIEF COMMENTARY

Ema Ushioda, University of Warwick In this paper I offer a brief commentary on motivational issues in mobile language learning, drawing on empirical insights from the articles in this special issue. Key words: Motivation, Autonomy, Self-determination Theory APA Citation:. Ushioda, E. (2013). Motivation matters in mobile language learning: A brief commentary. Language Learning & Technology, 17(3), 15. Retrieved from http://llt.msu.edu/issues/october2013/commentary.pdf Received: June 25, 2013; Accepted: July 23, 2013; Published: October 1, 2013 Copyright: Ema Ushioda INTRODUCTION As highlighted in the original call for papers for this special issue, learning with mobile technologies is currently a rapidly developing area of interest for researchers, teachers, materials writers and app developers in the educational field, not least within language education. Yet to what extent is this growing interest realised and shared by language learners themselves? How far are they motivated to exploit the affordances offered by mobile technologies for language learning, and how far can mobile technologies help to engage and sustain individual motivation for language learning? Although learner motivation is not a core concern of the studies in this special issue, a particular strength of these papers is their common focus on the student perspective in relation to mobile language learning. This student perspective sheds interesting critical light on the motivational dimension of mobile language learning, which is the thread I would like to discuss in this commentary article, building on my longstanding interest in motivation in language learning and more recently in relation to the use of digital technologies in language learning (see Ushioda, 2011). Drawing on the empirical findings reported in this special issue, I will focus my short commentary on the following motivational issues concerning mobile language learning: Motivation as a matter of choice and autonomy. Motivation as a matter of personally meaningful casual learning.
Motivation as a matter of choice and autonomy As Stockwell (2013) pointed out in his comprehensive discussion of motivation and technology in language learning, it is helpful to draw a conceptual distinction between two kinds of motivation that may shape why language learners engage with a particular technology: (a) an inherent interest in the technology, which then leads to discovering its benefits for language learning and to strengthening language learning motivation; (b) a strong motivation for language learning, prompting interest in a particular technology that can support and enhance this process. In other words, as Stockwell describes, students may have different points of departure when it comes to using a technology for language learning purposes. Furthermore, as theorised by Rogers (1962) in his seminal work on the diffusion and adoption of innovations and as explored in 0006, people bring different degrees of motivation or readiness to embrace new technologies. In addition to such variations in motivation for using technologies for language learning, we might add that people will also have different reasons for learning a language and different degrees of motivation, which will partly reflect the level of priority that language learning occupies in their life in relation to
Copyright 2013, ISSN 1094-3501
Ema Ushioda
Motivation Matters in Mobile Language Learning
other concurrent activities and pursuits (for detailed discussion, see Ushioda, 2012). Furthermore, it is possible that their motivation for language learning may be largely internally driven, such as the intrinsic motivation that is reported to characterise leisure-time users of iTunes U language resources in 0014. Alternatively, peoples motivation for language learning may be regulated more by external pressures and controls, such as the need to complete a course credit or to fulfil the skills requirement for a new job. Relating these various perspectives to the use of mobile technologies for language learning, an interesting empirical question is whether, from a motivational point of view, it is better that learners are free to choose how much they wish to engage with such technologies (if at all), or whether it is better that learners engage with such technologies as an integral (and possibly credit-bearing) component of their course of study (as suggested, for example, by 0008 in light of their research findings). Broadly speaking, most theoretical arguments would underline the importance of internally driven forms of motivation, since these reflect personal control and autonomy in the learning process and generally lead to high quality engagement in learning. For example, this argument is central to self-determination theory (SDT), which is a general theory of motivation and human growth (Ryan & Deci, 2002), and which has been highly influential in explaining learning motivation in a variety of contexts including language learning (see for example Noels, 2009; Ushioda, 1996). An underlying SDT principle is that people have an innate tendency towards psychological growth and the development of skills and potentialities, and that socialenvironmental conditions which support peoples sense of autonomy or personal control in this process are likely to promote healthy self-determined forms of motivation for learning (see for example the empirical studies in Deci & Ryan, 2002). Such theoretical arguments would thus seem to imply that the use of mobile technologies should best be left as a matter of free choice and individual autonomy for language learners. This position seems broadly reflected in the design of the four intervention studies reported in this special issue. In 0009, participating ESL students were encouraged to use a web-based mobile application on their mobile devices, but were free to use computers to complete their assignments. In 0006, participating student teachers of TESOL could opt to work with mobile devices or portable computers to undertake the various activities associated with each class project. In 0008, target reading and grammar materials were sent to participating students mobile phones, but students themselves were free to decide how far they wished to engage with the materials. The fourth intervention study 0010 was somewhat different in that the mobile devices (iPADs) were actually given to participating students for completing specific assignments outside class as part of their course. Nevertheless, students had considerable flexibility in how much time they devoted to these assignments and how much work they did. In short, the need to provide choice, flexibility and autonomy in how students work with mobile technologies is clearly recognised by the researchers in these four intervention studies, while the link between autonomous forms of motivation and mobile language learning emerges strongly in the survey study reported in 0014. Of course, this general concern with autonomous or independent learning principles has long been core to discussions about technology and language learning, regardless of the nature of the technology (see, for example, Little, 1996; Schwienhorst, 2007). Yet in the case of learning with mobile technologies, this concern takes on an added dimension relating to the personal flexibility offered by mobile learning that is, the freedom to access language learning tools and resources any time and anywhere, perhaps while on the move or, as reported by some podcast users in 0014, while pursuing other activities. In other words, autonomy, flexibility, freedom and choice are intrinsic features of mobile learning, and by exploiting these features teachers and materials designers may well be able to promote internalised motivation for independent learning. However, despite their inherent potential for autonomous flexible learning, mobile devices are primarily owned and used for personal and social purposes, which means that their potential as language learning tools may not be particularly valued or accepted by users. In other words, some students may not feel motivated to use mobile devices for language learning, preferring to work instead with portable
Language Learning & Technology 2
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computers or desktop PCs as evidenced in the three intervention studies here where students were given a choice of platform. While in many cases students reported reasons for not using smaller mobile devices related to practical drawbacks such as size of screen and keyboard (for example, 0006), there remains an underlying concern that students may regard their mobile devices and smartphones as their personal territory or private space to be kept clearly separate from their studying space (an argument elaborated by Stockwell, 2008; see also 0008 for commentary on this issue). In short, whatever their motivation towards technology-enhanced language learning in general, some language learners may stop short of wanting to engage with mobile learning, at least until there is a significant change of culture associated with mobile technologies at a local or more global level. In this respect, as suggested by an anonymous reviewer of this commentary article, language teachers can have a significant role to play in helping to change the local institutional culture by creatively and actively promoting mobile learning and demonstrating its benefits and potential, while the growing use of mobile technologies in other subject classes (such as geography or science) may also contribute to a positive change of local culture in relation to mobile language learning. Motivation as a matter of personally meaningful casual learning At the same time, for students who do feel motivated to engage with mobile language learning, the findings reported in these papers suggest that the level of engagement may be broadly superficial or casual rather than deep. This superficiality may well reflect the particular affordances of mobile devices as pedagogical tools, such as the packaging of learning content into small bite size chunks, or the facility to dip in and out of learning while on the move. Superficiality of engagement may also reflect the limitations of learning with mobile technologies, such as the difficulty of working at length with a small screen and keyboard to do tasks more easily accomplished on larger devices (see student comments in 0006 and 0009). In short, the extent to which mobile technologies can motivate and sustain deep levels of engagement with language learning or language use is perhaps questionable, given their particular design features and constraints. On the other hand, the potential value of mobile technologies may lie instead in motivating and facilitating frequent (rather than deep) engagement in language learning or language use opportunities. As suggested by 0014, regular and frequent exposure to the target language is recognised by many learners as an important part of language learning, and such exposure can prove motivating in itself by instilling the feeling that one is learning, regardless of level of cognitive engagement with the language input. Increased opportunities for language practice using mobile technologies may also improve feelings of confidence, as reported by the learners in 0010. In effect, in terms of motivating engagement in mobile learning, learners own intuitive perceptions and feelings about its benefits for them would seem to play a critical role, even if such engagement remains largely superficial. What seems important is the personal learning value ascribed to such engagement, or as described in 0006, the extent to which learning with mobile technologies can engage learners emotions and feelings in a positive way. Ultimately, however, the various findings reported in these studies suggest that the power of mobile technologies to motivate deeper and more sustained levels of engagement in language learning may be limited. While much will depend, of course, on how such technologies evolve in the future, the studies reported here would seem to indicate that even intrinsically motivated language learners (such as the podcast users in 0014) are reluctant to invest substantial cognitive or metacognitive effort in mobile learning. When using mobile technologies for language learning, the general preference seems to be for dealing with content that is not too demanding or challenging (as reported by learners in 0008), for working with tools and features that are quick and easy to use (as reported by learners in 0006), or for engaging with language input in a casual rather than intensive way (as suggested by the podcast users in 0014). In 0009 where the pedagogical focus was on learning grammar using a web-based mobile application and the task thus required a degree of cognitive effort, only 35% of participating students reported using the mobile app on their own outside the context of class assignments, despite the general
Ema Ushioda
perception of its usefulness in developing their grammatical awareness. In short, motivating the more demanding cognitive and metacognitive efforts needed for developing language skills and knowledge may be difficult to achieve using mobile technologies, at least perhaps with smaller handheld devices such as smartphones. This is clearly an area that merits much more research if we are to understand better how mobile technologies can be pedagogically exploited to facilitate deeper levels of student learning and engagement. While insights from research on mobile learning in other subject domains may be useful in this regard (see for example Vavoula, Pachler & Kukulska-Hulme, 2009), an issue here may be the qualitatively different nature of skill-focused learning (such as language learning) from content-focused learning. Research that has explored motivational perspectives on deep versus surface approaches to learning (such as Fransson, 1984; Marton & Slj, 1976) has broadly highlighted the kinds of motivation that shape how students engage with and process information content rather than how they develop procedural skills. Thus the extent to which current research insights on using mobile devices in contentfocused learning can be applied to understanding student motivation for mobile language learning may be open to question. As emphasized in a recent excellent overview of the motivational potential of mobile technologies for learning in general (Tran, Warschauer & Conley, 2013), our understanding of this potential is still very limited and much research is needed. In this regard, the need for such research in relation to mobile language learning seems even more compelling. CONCLUDING REMARKS As I noted in my introduction, a particular strength of the studies in this special issue is their common concern with student perceptions and perspectives in relation to mobile language learning. Whatever the inherent motivating properties and affordances of mobile technologies or of specific mobile applications for language learning, at bottom what matters is the motivation that students bring to mobile language learning, and how this is meaningfully supported and facilitated. As I have commented, mobile learning environments present particular issues of motivation to consider, yet in the end it is the pedagogical need to attend to and nurture students underlying personal motivations and perspectives that remains of paramount importance as it does for all learning environments. Individual motivation always matters in learning.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR Ema Ushioda is an associate professor in applied linguistics at the University of Warwick. Her research interests are language motivation, autonomy and sociocultural theory. Recent publications include International Perspectives on Motivation: Language Learning and Professional Challenges (2013), Teaching and Researching Motivation (co-authored by Z. Drnyei, 2011) and Motivation, Language Identity and the L2 Self (co-edited by Z. Drnyei, 2009). E-mail: E.Ushioda@warwick.ac.uk
REFERENCES Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (Eds.). (2002). Handbook of self-determination research. Rochester, NY: The University of Rochester Press. Fransson, A. (1984). Cramming or understanding? Effects of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation on approach to learning and test performance. In J. C. Alderson & A. H. Urquhart (Eds.), Reading in a foreign language (pp. 86121). London, UK: Longman.
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Little, D. (1996). Freedom to learn and compulsion to interact: Promoting learner autonomy through the use of information systems and information technologies. In R. Pemberton, E. S. L. Li, W. W. F. Or, & H. D. Pierson (Eds.) Taking control: Autonomy in language learning (pp. 203218). Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press. Marton, F., & Slj, D. (1976). On qualitative differences in learning 1: Outcome and process. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 46, 411. Noels, K. A. (2009). The internalisation of language learning into the self and social identity. In Z. Drnyei & E. Ushioda (Eds.), Motivation, language identity and the L2 self (pp. 295313). Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters. Rogers, E. M. (1962). Diffusion of innovations. New York, NY: The Free Press of Glencoe. Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2002). Overview of self-determination theory: An organismic dialectical perspective. In E. L. Deci & R. M. Ryan (Eds.), Handbook of self-determination theory (pp. 333). Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press. Schwienhorst, K. (2007). Learner autonomy and CALL environments. London, UK: Routledge. Stockwell, G. (2008). Investigating learner preparedness for and usage patterns of mobile learning. ReCALL, 20(3), 25370. Stockwell, G. (2013). Technology and motivation in English-language teaching and learning. In E. Ushioda (Ed.), International perspectives on motivation: Language learning and professional challenges (pp. 156175). Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan. Tran, C., Warschauer, M., & Conley, A. (2013). Tapping the motivational potential of mobile handhelds: Defining the research agenda. In G. Trentin & M. Repetto (Eds.), Using network and mobile technologies to bridge formal and informal learning (pp. 129). Oxford, UK: Chandos Publishing. Ushioda, E. (1996). Learner autonomy 5: The role of motivation. Dublin, Ireland: Authentik. Ushioda, E. (2011). Language learning motivation, self and identity: Current theoretical perspectives. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 24(3): 199210. Ushioda, E. (2012). Motivation: L2 learning as a special case? In S. Mercer, S. Ryan & M. Williams (Eds.), Psychology for language learning: Insights from research, theory and practice (pp. 5873). Basingstoke, UK: Palgrave Macmillan. Vavoula, G., Pachler, N., & Kukulska-Hulme, A. (2009). (Eds.). Researching mobile learning. Oxford, UK: Peter Lang.
Language Learning & Technology
Language Learning & Technology http://llt.msu.edu/issues/october2013/emerging.pdf
October 2013, Volume 17, Number 3 pp. 622
IMPLEMENTING GLOSSING IN MOBILE-ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS: DIRECTIONS AND OUTLOOK

Hansol Lee, Korea Military Academy Jang Ho Lee, Korea Military Academy While mobile technology, such as the touch-based smart-phone, has become part of our daily lives, research into and classroom practices surrounding mobile-assisted language learning (MALL) have generally not kept up with the pace of technological development. This situation may be caused in part by the fact that a considerable proportion of researchers and teachers have not had personal experience with the newly developing technology. In order to improve this situation, the present paper provides comprehensible and useful directions for building web-based reading materials with integrated electronic glossing, with which readers can create their own web-based materials. The authors provide methodological descriptions and discussions of how to implement two useful formats of electronic glossing: (a) hyperlinks to target iframe and (b) tooltips by touching in web pages. The directions are carefully written so that these two formats of glossing work properly in both PC and mobile device environments. Lastly, the authors urge researchers and teachers to be more actively involved in the field of MALL and look forward to future work bridging the gap between computer-assisted language learning and mobile-assisted language learning. Key Words: Computer-Assisted Language Learning, Glossing, Mobile-Assisted Language Learning, Vocabulary Acquisition APA Citation: Lee, H., & Lee, J. H. (2013). Implementing glossing in mobile-assisted language learning environments: Directions and outlook. Language Learning & Technology, 17(3), 622. Retrieved from http://llt.msu.edu/issues/october2013/ emerging.pdf Received: March 30, 2013; Accepted: May 17, 2013; Published: October 1, 2013 Copyright: Hansol Lee and Jang Ho Lee INTRODUCTION Only seven years ago, in 2006, did Chinnery predict that an area of future language learning research would include mobile-assisted language learning (MALL). Initially developed from computer-assisted language learning (CALL), MALL immediately seized the attention of language education researchers and has been recognized as different from CALL in many respects, due to its anytime, anywhere principle (Kukulska-Hulme & Shield, 2008). Kukulska-Hulme (2009) notes that mobile technology can assist learners at the point of need and in ways that fit in with their mobile lifestyles (p. 162). GodwinJones (2011a) further suggests that mobile devices [that deliver MALL] integrate real-life interests and academic roles on the part of learners (p. 8). He additionally noted that this characteristic of MALL would eventually promote learner autonomy (Benson, 2007), meaning that learners can take more responsibility for their own learning. Stockwell (2007) holds that studying MALL is a natural path of computer-based learning research in light of the current situation in which technologies themselves are becoming more pervasive, and the number of students who own mobile technologies is increasing at an impressive rate (p. 366). In addition, recent studies (e.g., Lu, 2008; Thornton & Houser, 2005) have shown that learners generally have positive attitudes towards using mobile devices. Since 2006, a reasonable amount of research in a wide array of contexts has been conducted on the effects of MALL, in the areas of reading (e.g., Kondo et al., 2012; Lan, Sung, & Chang, 2007), speaking and
Hansol Lee and Jang Ho Lee
Implementing Glossing in MALL Environments
listening (e.g., Demouy & Kukulska-Hulme, 2010), and vocabulary (e.g., Chen & Chung, 2008; Wong & Looi, 2010). Although more research with larger sample sizes and more sophisticated designs is necessary, the evidence accumulated so far suggests that mobile devices have much to offer to language learners. While mobile technology is making inroads into classroom environments and our daily lives at a fast pace (Kukulska-Hulme, 2009), research into MALL has not kept up with the speed of technological development (Ballance, 2012). What is worse, in our view, is that most teachers and researchers interested in MALL themes are largely ignorant of how to build and tailor mobile-based learning materials for their students and participants. As a result, when adapting technology, teachers and researchers are highly reliant on computer experts, who may not prioritize concerns regarding language teaching and learning. Although some may argue that equipping oneself with knowledge of computer languages and programs might be burdensome, we suggest otherwise. It is only after those directly concerned with language teaching and learning begin to grasp how mobile technology operates that MALL will become fully integrated into the process of language teaching and learning. This will require that language teachers micro-tailor their materials to the requirements of the curriculum and needs of learners, and that researchers take a much greater role in adjusting materials to their research focus. For example, in the case of glossing, teachers may be able to put the definition of a target word in learners mother tongue (see our examples below) or any other information they find useful for their learners (e.g., using concordance data for target words: http://hansol6461.dothome.co.kr/call/test(corpus).htm). Thus, we believe that it would be a useful undertaking for these two groups to start getting their feet on the expanding ground of MALL. To this end, we attempt to present here succinct and useful directions for building web-based reading materials integrated with electronic glossing for target language teachers and researchers without much knowledge of computer language. The present paper provides directions for creating materials that can interface with a wide range of smart-phones, especially as glossing has been shown to be effective for language learning (Abraham, 2008). The present paper begins by providing a brief review of the effects of glossing on language learning documented in previous research, with reference to paper-, computer-, and mobile-based studies. It goes on to deal with theoretical and methodological descriptions, and discussions of how to integrate electronic glossing into web-based reading materials. Lastly, we suggest that researchers and teachers be more involved in the field of MALL, and indicate the ways in which the gaps between CALL and MALL may be bridged. BACKGROUND FOR GLOSSING IN TARGET LANGUAGE READING AND MALL Given the value of reading in a target language (Coady, 1997; Krashen, 1989), researchers have explored several pedagogical options that enable language learners to benefit from reading linguistically demanding texts, for example texts with low-frequency vocabulary. One line of research has focused on how reading can become more manageable, comprehensible, and convenient for language learners. To this question, glossingwritten information relating to unfamiliar vocabulary contained in texts, usually being a definitionhas been one of the most suggested pedagogical options. Nation (2009) summarizes the benefits of using glossing as follows: Under appropriate conditions glosses can help learners read a text more fluently, can raise comprehension of the text, and can increase vocabulary learning. Glossing can be used with both hardcopy and computerized texts. Moreover, readers tend to have positive attitudes towards glosses. (p. 102) The positive effect of glossing on vocabulary acquisition has been found in several reading studies (e.g., Hulstijn, Hollander, & Greidanus, 1996; Jacobs, Dufon, & Fong, 1994; Watanabe, 1997), in which
increases in target vocabulary were attributed to glossing. A general claim resulting from these studies is that glossing makes target vocabulary more salient, consequently increasing the likelihood of these items being acquired by the language learners. It is thought that ambitious learners may revisit glossed words as well as their definitions several times to record them in their memory, and this may lead to long-term vocabulary acquisition. In the context of language learning through technology, Chapelle (2003) reiterated the value of glossing as input enhancement, which makes the input understandable to the learner through any means that gets at the meaning (p. 40). In fact, as part of the growing interest in CALL materials including the use of mobile devices, glossing has quickly become part of computerized support options, especially to enhance reading comprehension and vocabulary acquisition. Research has already documented the pedagogical effects of glossing with these devices: Abraham (2008) carried out a meta-analysis of 11 studies that investigated computer-mediated glossing and found that glossing has a medium effect on language learners reading comprehension and a large effect on language learners incidental vocabulary acquisition (though the effect may be mediated to some extent by some factors such as the learners proficiency levels, text types, and assessment measures). With the limited amount of evidence accumulated thus far regarding the effects of computer-mediated glossing, it is expected that the next phase of computer-mediated glossing research will begin to examine the effects of glossing in mobile environments, presumably with a focus on its relevance to the anytime, anywhere principle. However, technical difficulties concerned with creating and using computer and mobile learning materials have placed MALL research somehow out of reach for a considerable number of researchers and teachers in the field of language teaching and learning. In addition, a significant portion of research seems to have taken place in a rather restricted number of regions to date. For example, the few studies that have examined the effects of mobile devices on vocabulary acquisition (e.g., Lu, 2008; Song & Fox, 2008; Stockwell, 2010) were carried out in Asian countries like Hong Kong, Japan, and Taiwan. It is of utmost importance that, for the effects of MALL to be validated, research should be conducted within a wide range of educational contexts and with learners of various backgrounds. To meet this end, we believe that researchers and teachers in regions where MALL research remains not as widely developed should take a sizable step in the direction of examining the effects of MALL with their learners. In what follows, we provide comprehensive directions so that these populations can try building web-based reading materials that are enhanced by glossing. We have chosen this topic as it only requires CSS (Cascading Style Sheets) and JavaScript in Hypertext Mark-up Language (HTML) which, according to Godwin-Jones (2011b), can be built by just scripting [in human languages] rather than [coding] programming languages, hence do not involve compilation into byte-code (pp. 56). DIRECTIONS ON HOW TO IMPLEMENT GLOSSING In this section, we would like to introduce two distinct formats of electronic glossing that can be built into web pages. As will be made clear below, the suggested methods of glossing are meant to operate properly in mobile device environments (not only in PC settings). It is noteworthy that we are dealing here with web-based materialsrather than software applications specifically designed to run on mobile devices for the following reasons: since there are numerous types of devices with different programming environments (e.g., Objective-C and Apples Xcode for iPhone, and Java for Android based smartphones), producing a type of application that suits one device would not be interoperable with others. Furthermore, web-based materials are more conducive to resolving any technical difficulties that can be caused by diverse types, versions and configurations of mobile web browsers (e.g., Chrome, FireFox, Internet Explorer, Opera, and Safari) and by various screen sizes (e.g., Galaxy, iPhone, and Nexus). To understand these mobile environments, we begin by describing their interfaces, and provide preset HTML source code for one to be able to integrate the suggested glossing into ones own web pages. This is further followed by our own exampleone that we built for our university-level students in Korean
EFL reading classes in 2012 (for more information on our examples, visit the following web site: http://hansol6461.dothome.co.kr/call(2012).htm). In order for readers to build their own version using these methods, they may simply place our HTML source code (see Appendices below) into their HTML file, and doing so will help readers implement the suggested glossing formats.1 Before delving into the directions on how to implement electronic glossing in HTML, it would be useful for readers to familiarize themselves with the concept and develop some knowledge of HTML. First, to put it simply, we would say that an HTML file consists of two elements: (a) HTML tags enclosed in angle brackets (e.g., <head>) that define the structures of the document; and (b) the HTML files contents (e.g., a reading passage). Second, these HTML tags form a mark-up language, which is mostly composed of pairs of start (e.g., <head>) and end (e.g., </head>) tags. These start and end tags take a major role in delivering information when constructing pages for web browsers. These tags translate information into the graphical user interface (GUI), which is what the users see and interact with on their screens. It should be noted in passing that the same HTML web page could be loaded differently, albeit to a small degree, according to different types of web browsers. Hyperlinks to Target Iframe One of the first and most important steps when developing a coding framework is to consider how the screen the user sees will be divided. To divide a web page into multiple sections so that several items can be loaded to different parts of the screen on a single window simultaneously, a normal HTML frame can be used. For example, one ubiquitous HTML frame is the vertically divided web page with menus located on the left hand side and main contents on the right (e.g., http://hansol6461.dothome.co.kr/cbt(2011)/index.htm). However, in the case of designing a computerbased reading text, you may want to split the screen horizontally, using the upper part of the window to load the reading text and the lower part to provide extra information about target words (e.g., http://hansol6461.dothome.co.kr/call/test(frame).htm). In terms of framing, unfortunately, the aforementioned properties of HTML as a mark-up language prevent us from using the same frameset when using touch-based devices. As shown in Figure 1 where the reading passage Education: fact or myth? from the textbook Cutting Edge Advanced (Cunningham, Moor, & Carr, 2003) is displayed, web pages with framed divisions on the PC will not be displayed in the same way on most mobile web browsers (e.g., the mobile version of Safari for Apples iPhone and ICS Stock Android Browser for Samsungs Galaxy).
Computer Figure 1. A framed HTML page on Computer and iPhone screens. (http://hansol6461.dothome.co.kr/call/test(frame).htm)
iPhone
In particular, the differences may occur when the contents overflow the frame, (i.e., when the user needs to scroll up or down because the text is larger than the screen size). In web browsers for PC settings, one can designate the attribute of automatic scrolling when setting the frames, such that each frame carries a scroll function. The frame size is then set to the screen, and the scrollbar appears on the right side, so the user can scroll up and down to see the whole text within the frame. However, in the mobile web browsers of smart phones, the framed window does not have this scrollbar function. Thus the framed part is expanded to the size of its content, extending beyond the visible screen. This means that the bottom frame containing glossary information of the target words will literally appear at the very bottom of the reading text, and thus readers need to scroll laboriously to the end of the web page using their fingers to see the glossary information they are looking for. This is to say, on mobile devices, one cannot simultaneously take in the text, a target word, and its glossary information in a single glance. In other words, using the same HTML file divided by frames for PC settings will not work for touch-based devices. This makes it difficultwhen using touch-based devicesto follow Al-Seghayers (2003) suggestion on glossing: An ideal place for the annotated words display would be in an area separate from the text. When readers click on a word, the definition window immediately appears in a separate glossary window that is adjacent to or alongside the text being read. This location allows learners to see the word in its context while they are reading the definition. (p. 3) To create a conceptualization of your web page in a way that allows you to overcome these drawbacks, we suggest using a table and HTML inline frame tags called iframe, which is displayed as a separate box or window within a Web page (Carey & Canovatchel, 2006, p. REV 45). The direction we suggest is as follows: First, using the table tag enables us to divide any type of mobile screen as if we were using the typical HTML frame for PC settings. Then, by inserting the division tags inside this table, you can provide the scrollbar function indirectly in the window. In doing so, a table with two rows (a top and a bottom row) can effectively function as a HTML frameset that divides the screen into upper and lower frames to be used for the placement of upper and lower content. Second, placing iframe tags in the lower row of the table enables this lower row to be used as the target frame for hyperlinks. Iframe tags ensure that target words in the text function as hyperlinks to glossary information in the lower row. This lower row will then project the glossary information of target words, making this table act just like the normal HTML frame in PC settings. In Figure 2, an excerpt from Melvilles Moby Dick (1851) is displayed on the iPhone screen, using the hyperlinks that link the target word spleen to its glossary information in the iframe.2
Upper row of the table, where the reading content is placed with the scrollbar function Lower row of the table, where the iframe (hyperlinks target) is placed
Figure 2. Hyperlinks to Target Iframe on iPhone screen. (http://hansol6461.dothome.co.kr/llt/iframe.htm)
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For the technical construction of this type of web site using the hyperlinks to target iframe structure, you will need at least two HTML pages: the main page with iframe tags (which concerns the text) and the source page that presents glossary information (see Appendix A and B for more detailed information). As a first step, you need to build a table that spans two rows in the main page, which defines the layout of a set of the text and glossing rows in a single window view (see Step 3, 4 in Appendix A). In this example, the table tag (<table> and </table>), whose height and width attributes are 100%, indicates that you are going to draw a full sized table on the screen compatible with any type of display. For the upper row of the table, division tags (<div> and </div>) with the scrolling function (in this example, overflow: scroll is inserted as the style of the division) have to be designated. In this way, this division will provide users of mobile devices with an invisible scroll bar that allows them to scroll up and down to see the whole texts within the fixed size of the upper row. In the lower row, another set of division tags (<div> and </div>) should be included to set the inline frame function or iframe tags (<iframe> and </iframe>) inside this lower row itself. Since the iframe is to be a blank page used to display the text from the hyperlinks, there is no need to type in any kind of contents. However, we need to designate attributes such as width, height, and name (in this example, the name for this iframe is iframe). As a second step, to create a hyperlink for a specific target word, specific HTML markup must be added around the target word (see Step 6, 7 in Appendix A). For the word spleen, the head tag <a href=spleen.htm target=iframe> and end tag </a> must be placed to the left and right of the target word. In addition, to make the clicked words visually distinguishable, the CSS Class function is included in the hyperlinks attributes. In this example, we named the CSS Class .emphasis in the style section of the web page. As one of the principles of HTML tags, the period (.) before the randomly selected name (emphasis in this case) serves as attributing a certain CSS Class function (as defined in Step 2 in Appendix A) to this name. This period is no longer required when this randomly selected name is used in hyperlinks. The attributes of the CSS Class in our example make the target words visually salient and distinguishable when one clicks or touches the vocabulary, loading the function of CSS Class added in the head section of the main HTML page. As a third or final step, one needs to build additional HTML pages for each words glossary information (see the steps in Appendix B). In particular, for example, the word spleen in the sentence It is a way I have of driving off spleen and regulating the circulation and the word grim in the sentence Whenever I find myself growing grim about the mouth (our emphasis) were set to be hyperlinks in this example. If you click these words, the web page spleen.htm or grim.htm will be loaded on the iframe in the lower table. Note that we provide the meaning of this word in both the learners first language (Korean) and second language (English). Tooltips by Touching It is thought that glossing should provide relevant information in a useful location close to the target words without interrupting the flow of ones reading (e.g., by blocking the portion of the text one is reading or by searching for glosses in a different location) (Al-Seghayer, 2003). The tooltip function, which you can experience in many computer programs, could be a suitable option in this case. In some commercial computer programs (e.g., Microsoft Word and Internet Explorer), you can activate this tooltip function when you move your mouse cursor over a range of menus or buttons in the program interface. This function provides descriptive information about the menus or buttons that your mouse cursor is pointing at before you actually click and initiate certain commands; literally, the tooltip function provides readers tips for understanding the tool. The next HTML format of electronic glossing we introduce is the one that creates the tooltip. This format will provide glossary information for target vocabulary as a form of tooltip when the mouse cursor is placed on top of a word (see Figure 3).
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Figure 3. Tooltips by touching on iPhone screen. (http://hansol6461.dothome.co.kr/llt/tooltip.htm) In PC environments, there are two simple ways to implement the tooltip function using HTML. The first way is using abbreviation tags, which are originally used to represent the complete form of the abbreviation or acronym when you move the mouse cursor over the abbreviation element (e.g., http://hansol6461.dothome.co.kr/call/test(abbr).htm). While this may be the simplest way to implement tooltips, this tag enables the glossary information to appear only briefly once activated, and thus does not satisfy those learners who may want the glossary information to be present much longer. The second way is adding a few lines of preset CSS tags (which is rather similar to what we introduce in the following paragraphs) to the simple HTML code, which can supply customized tooltips to users for several actions of the mouse cursor (e.g., http://hansol6461.dothome.co.kr/call/test(css).htm). However, in touch-based mobile devices, these two methods will not work properly unless thoroughly designed considering the unique properties of these devices. The reason for this is that the finger-touch input system of these devices does not have a mouse cursor. Consequently, it cannot recognize the mouse cursors movements on the screens, except for clicks on clickable objects or hovers on the objects that are customized with certain codes. Especially on iPhones, the action of touching the screen is almost always regarded as the intention of scrolling the page up and down or left and right, not as the action of clicking. As a result, abbreviation tags cannot be used in mobile settings. Furthermore, mobile devices do not recognize the action of the cursor moving off a target word, meaning that if you tried to use the simple CSS tags as mentioned above, the glossary information would remain visible even if you did not want it to be. In addition, this customized method cannot prevent tooltips from being cut off by the border lines of the screen, especially when it comes to the small and fixed screen size of smart-phones. To solve this conceptual problem, abbreviation tags with CSS tags and JavaScript code including library plug-ins, widely used tags to add abundant styling effects to simple HTML pages, can be added to reproduce the PC setting tooltip function with complete fidelity in the touch-based mobile devices environments. As mentioned above, when designing this tooltips by touching method, there are several caveats we need to keep in mind: this method has (a) to enable touch devices to recognize the mouse cursors hovering action on the target word; (b) to make the tooltips disappear when the reader wants to; (c) and to provide alternative ways to prevent tooltips from being cut off by screen edges. To this end, we need to employ CSS tags along with JavaScript code with a jQuery library.3 Thanks to this JavaScript library, one page with several CSS and JavaScript tags is all we need to build the tooltips by touching, as shown in Appendix C. As a first technical step, we designate CSS ID selector (e.g., #tooltip) as a part of the CSS code along with CSS Class (e.g., .emphasis) in the style section (see Step 4, 5 in Appendix C). While we used a period (.) as a mark for the CSS Class, the hash sign (#) is a required sign for the CSS ID. So using this hash sign along with the customized name, in this example, we designate CSS ID selector as #tooltip. The reason for adopting this selector is to set the customized formative features of tooltips so that we could
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link this selector to the target words abbreviation tags by declaring the relationship (e.g., <abbr rel=tooltip>) to customize the style of abbreviation functions. In adding its properties, you can modify the color or style of the tooltip boxes inner space and outer lines. The position, however, has to be absolute, meaning that you place the selector exactly where you want it to be without being affected by other elements. In this way you can manipulate the specific location of each tooltip to be near the target words in the next area of the direction of reading. As we did in the previous section Hyperlinks to Target Iframe, the CSS Class, with the name emphasis, is also required to be written in this section in order to make the target words visually distinguishable when clicked or touched. To summarize, in this example, CSS ID selector carries attributes of the formative features of the tooltips, while CSS Class designates styling attributes of the target words. As a second step, the JavaScript code located in the script section (<script> and </script>) follows the style section (see Step 6 through 14 in Appendix C). The script section is to add further specifications to CSS ID selector, or in this example, the tooltips that will contain and present glossary information for the target words. This section consists mainly of five parts: (a) initiating the tooltip function (Step 7), (b) designating a function to start the tooltip event (Step 8), (c) setting the tooltips initial positions (Step 9), (d) suggesting an alternative when tooltips are cut off by the right or bottom borderlines (Step 10, 11), and (e) removing tooltips when the mouse leaves in the PC setting or when a finger is removed from a word on mobile devices (Step 13). To follow this complex-looking step, there are several points you need to understand. First, a mouseover code in the second part enables tooltips to appear when a mouse cursor hovers over the target word in PC settings, or your finger touches it in mobile devices. Second, several mathematical functions in the second, third and fourth parts are added as well to designate the size and position of tooltips. According to our example, these functions determine the positions for the initial state and the contingencies of being cut off by right and bottom borderlines. Third, the last part ensures that the tooltip will disappear after consulting the target word, making this tooltips by touching method work properly in both PC and mobile device environments. As part of this effort, the mouseleave code enables tooltips on the screen to disappear when the mouse cursor leaves the target words in PC settings, while a click code would make the tooltip vanish when you click or touch it in mobile devices. As a last step, you need to provide several attributes to the target words to make them perform the abovementioned functions as a tooltip (see Step 16, 17 in Appendix C). First, the target word should be designated with abbreviation tags (<abbr> and </abbr>). Second, one should apply attributes to each abbreviation tag that are necessary for it to function as a customized tooltip, involving relation (e.g., rel=tooltip) and title (e.g., title=glossary information). Third, to make target words visually distinguishable when clicked or touched, CSS Class attributes tags should be attached before the abbreviation tags (e.g., <a class=emphasis> and </a>). CONCLUSION AND OUTLOOK In this paper, we have provided directions for implementing two useful formats of electronic glossing on the mobile devices: (a) hyperlinks to target iframe and (b) tooltips by touching. We hope that our illustration here has not scared researchers and teachers away from using technology-based materials, but that we have shown that they are manageable and even enjoyable. We also hope that the present work will entice readers who suffer from technophobia to undertake their own projects. We would like to reiterate that researchers and teachers who are about to introduce and share technology with their learners should not remain in ignorance of how it works. If they have some basic knowledge of building web sites and writing HTML code, they may be able to micro-tailor mobile-based learning materials so that they work most effectively for their own learners. In light of the rise of smart-phones and tablet PCs in the market which entails the need to develop
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learning materials that can be applied to more than one particular device, we hope our efforts here will be seen as an attempt to bridge the gap between CALL and MALL. That is, as Godwin-Jones (2011b) notes, developing applications for mobile devices has somewhat limited effects because each OS system has its own platform, and thus the way of developing and utilizing each application should be subject to that particular programming environment. On the other hand, his alternative suggestion of building compatible web applications, while useful and cost-effective for program developers, would be rather too ideal for most language teachers and researchers at the starting line of developing MALL. Nonetheless, this suggestion has made us explore a third path, building web pages that are compatible with both PC and mobile device environments. The directions given above are entirely built in this effort, and we expect that more diverse types of web learning materials will be developed following this path. In this way, researchers and language teachers will be able to keep up with growing technology with no insurmountable obstacles, and infuse more pedagogically-oriented ideas based on education theory, practical teaching experience, and insiders knowledge of learners and contexts into the development of MALL. APPENDIX A. Sample HTML Code for the Main Page of the Hyperlinks to Target Iframe <html> <head> Step 1. Starting HTML codes <title>Hyperlinks to iframe</title> <meta http-equiv="content-type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8">
Step 2. Defining CSS Class

<style type="text/css"> .emphasis{position:absoulte;z-index:24;color:blue;border-bottom:thin dotted #046;textdecoration:none} .emphasis:hover{z-index:25; background-color:#FF0} </style> </head> <table width="100%" height="100%">
Step 3. Defining table tag with a full screen size
<tr> <td height=70%> <div style="width:100%; height:100%; overflow:scroll">
Step 4. Defining the top table row and designating its attributes
Step 5. Typing the main text

<p><h1 align=center><b>Moby Dick; or, The Whale</h1></b></p> <p><h3 align=right>By Herman Melville</h3></p> <p><b><h4 align=center>Chapter 1. Loomings.</h4></b></p> <p>Call me Ishmael. Some years ago -- never mind how long precisely having little or no money in my purse, and nothing particular to interest me on shore, I thought I would sail about a little and see the watery part of the world. It is a way I have of driving off the
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Step 6. Designating attributes of hyperlinks including CSS class and hyperlinks (address for the source file and target frame)
<a class=emphasis href="spleen.htm" target="iframe">spleen</a> and regulating the circulation. Whenever I find myself growing
Step 7. Designating attributes of hyperlinks as Step 6

<a class=emphasis href="grim.htm" target="iframe">grim</a> about the mouth; whenever it is a damp, drizzly November in my soul; whenever I find myself involuntarily pausing before coffin warehouses, and bringing up the rear of every funeral I meet; and especially whenever my hypos get such an upper hand of me, that it requires a strong moral principle to prevent me from deliberately stepping into the street, and methodically knocking people's hats off -- then, I account it high time to get to sea as soon as I can. This is my substitute for pistol and ball. With a philosophical flourish Cato throws himself upon his sword; I quietly take to the ship. There is nothing surprising in this. If they but knew it, almost all men in their degree, some time or other, cherish very nearly the same feelings towards the ocean with me. </p> </div> </td> </tr>
Step 8. Ending the top table row
Step 9. Defining the bottom table row and designating its attributes including the iframe within division tags
<tr> <td> <div style="width:100%; height:100%; overflow:scroll"> <iframe align="center" width="99%", height="99%" name="iframe" style="border-width:1px; border-color:black; border-style:solid"></iframe> </div> </td> </tr> </table> </body> </html>
Step 10. Ending table tag and finishing HTML codes
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APPENDIX B. Sample HTML Code for the Source Page (spleen.htm) of the Hyperlinks to Target Iframe <html> Step 1. Starting HTML codes <head> <meta http-equiv="content-type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"> </head>
Step 2. Adding the lexical information for glossing
<b>spleen (n)</b><br> L1: , <br> L2: feelings of anger or ill will often suppressed </body> </html>
Step 3. Finishing HTML codes
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APPENDIX C. Sample HTML Code for the Main Page of the Tooltips by Touching <html> Step 1. Starting HTML codes <head> <title>Tooltips by touching</title> <meta http-equiv="content-type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"/> <meta content=IE=edge, chrome=1 http-equiv=X-UA-Compatible> <meta name=robots content=all> <meta name=viewport content=width=device-width, initial-scale=1>
Step 2. Loading jQuery library from Google CDN in script section

<script src="http://ajax.googleapis.com/ajax/libs/jquery/1.9.1/jquery.min.js"> </script>
Step 3. Adding style section

<style>
Step 4. Designating attributes for CSS ID including its selectors position value (absolute)
#tooltip {position: absolute; border-style: solid; border-color: black; padding:.3em; border:2px outset #BBB; color:#000; background:#FF9; text-align: center;}
Step 5. Defining CSS Class

.emphasis{position:absoulte;z-index:24;color:blue;border-bottom:thin dotted #046;textdecoration:none} .emphasis:hover{z-index:25; background-color:#FF0} </style>
Step 6. Adding script section

<script> $( document ).ready( function() { var targets = $( '[rel~=tooltip]' ), target = false, tooltip = false, title = false;
Step 7. Initiating the tooltip function: designating a function to execute the tooltip event when the DOM (jQuery) is loaded and ready
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targets.bind( 'mouseover', function() { target = $( this ); tip = target.attr( 'title' ); tooltip = $( '<div id="tooltip"></div>' ); if( !tip || tip == '' ) return false; target.removeAttr( 'title' ); tooltip.css( 'opacity', 0 ) .html( tip ) .appendTo( 'body' );
Step 8. Designating a function to start the tooltip event when a mouse cursor locates on or a finger touches the target words
var init_tooltip = function() { if( $( window ).width() < tooltip.outerWidth() * 1.5 ) tooltip.css( 'max-width', $( window ).width() / 2 ); else tooltip.css( 'max-width', 340 ); var pos_left = target.offset().left + 20, pos_top = target.offset().top + 20;
Step 9. Setting tooltips initial positions
Step 10. Suggesting an alternative when tooltips are cut off by the right borderline
if( pos_left + tooltip.outerWidth() > $( window ).width() ) { pos_left = target.offset().left - tooltip.outerWidth() + target.outerWidth() / 2 + 20; tooltip.addClass( 'right' ); } else tooltip.removeClass( 'right' );
Step 11. Suggesting an alternative when tooltips are cut off by the bottom borderline
if( pos_top + tooltip.outerHeight() > $( window ).height() ) { pos_top = target.offset().top - target.outerHeight() + target.outerHeight() / 2 + 20; tooltip.addClass( 'bottom' ); } else
tooltip.removeClass( 'bottom' );
Step 12. Setting tooltips revised positions and attributes (e.g., opacity)
tooltip.css( { left: pos_left, top: pos_top } ) .animate( { top: '+=10', opacity: 1 }); }; init_tooltip(); $( window ).resize( init_tooltip );
var remove_tooltip = function() { tooltip.animate( { top: '-=10', opacity: 0 }, 50, function() { $( this ).remove(); }); }; target.attr( 'title', tip );
Step 13. Setting a function to remove tooltips when mouse leaves in PC or when finger touches it on mobile devices
target.bind( 'mouseleave', remove_tooltip ); tooltip.bind( 'click', remove_tooltip ); }); });</script> </head> <body>
Step 14. Finishing the script section
Step 15. Typing the text
<p><h1 align=center><b>Moby Dick; or, The Whale</h1></b></p> <p><h3 align=right>By Herman Melville</h3></p> <p><b><h4 align=center>Chapter 1. Loomings.</h4></b></p> <p>Call me Ishmael. Some years ago -- never mind how long precisely having little or no money in my purse, and nothing particular to interest me on shore, I thought I would sail about a little and see the watery part of the world. It is a way I have of driving off the
Step 16-1. Designating attributes of CSS class (e.g., emphasis) Step 16-2. Designating attributes of ABBR tags including CSS ID selector (e.g., tooltip) and the information for glossing
<a class=emphasis><abbr rel="tooltip" title="<div align=left><b>spleen (n)</b> <br> L1: , <br> L2: feelings of anger or ill will often suppressed</div>">spleen</abbr></a>
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and regulating the circulation. Whenever I find myself growing
Step 17. Designating attributes of CSS class and ABBR tags as Step 16
<a class=emphasis><abbr rel="tooltip" title="<div align=left><b>grim (adj)</b> <br> L1: ( ) []<br>L2: fierce in disposition or action</div>">grim</abbr></a> about the mouth; whenever it is a damp, drizzly November in my soul; whenever I find myself involuntarily pausing before coffin warehouses, and bringing up the rear of every funeral I meet; and especially whenever my hypos get such an upper hand of me, that it requires a strong moral principle to prevent me from deliberately stepping into the street, and methodically knocking people's hats off -- then, I account it high time to get to sea as soon as I can. This is my substitute for pistol and ball. With a philosophical flourish Cato throws himself upon his sword; I quietly take to the ship. There is nothing surprising in this. If they but knew it, almost all men in their degree, some time or other, cherish very nearly the same feelings towards the ocean with me. </p> </body> </html> NOTES 1. For those who lack experiences with HTML, we recommend reading Learning web design: A beginners guide to HTML, CSS, JavaScript, and web graphics (Robbins, 2012), or visiting reliable websites such as Wikipedia or HTML tutorial by W3School for detailed information on HTML. 2. If you right-click with your mouse on the example page in PC browsers, you will see viewsource on the menu. Then you will be able to see the HTML source code of the content. 3. This library is a single JavaScript file that contains DOM (Document Object Model) manipulations that allow us to give additional effects on CSS ID selectors, among numerous other useful functions. See Godwin-Jones, 2004, 2011b for more discussion on this matter. To load the jQuery library, which is free and open source, our example recommends that you use Googles CDN (Content Delivery Network) page or Microsofts CDN page unless you are going to use this teaching material in off-line environments (in this case you have to download this library file from the Internet). As one of the most popular JavaScript libraries in use, the huge number of connections in this file in the jQuery server (http://jquery.com) would slow the loading time of your web page; therefore, Google and Microsoft CDN page provide online code archives along with jQuerys website. ABOUT THE AUTHORS Hansol Lee is an assistant professor in the Department of English at Korea Military Academy. His research interests include computer- and mobile-assisted language learning, corpus linguistics, and language assessment. Jang Ho Lee received his DPhil in education from the University of Oxford. He is presently an assistant professor in the Department of English at Korea Military Academy. His areas of interest are teachers
Step 18. Finishing HTML codes
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code-switching in English classrooms, learners attitudes towards teachers language uses, and using mobile technology for language learners. All correspondence should be addressed to Jang Ho Lee at mjangho330@gmail.com.
REFERENCES Abraham, L. B. (2008). Computer-mediated glosses in second language reading comprehension and vocabulary learning: A meta-analysis. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 21(3), 199226. Al-Seghayer, K. (2003). Technological and pedagogical considerations for a more effective electronic glossary. The Reading Matrix, 3(1). Retrieved from http://www.readingmatrix.com/articles/alseghayer/article.pdf Ballance, O. J. (2012). Mobile language learning: More than just the platform. Language Learning & Technology, 16(3), 2123. Retrieved from http://llt.msu.edu/issues/october2012/ballance.pdf Benson, P. (2007). State-of-the-art article: Autonomy in language teaching and learning. Language Teaching, 40(1), 2140. Carey, P., & Canovatchel, F. (2006). New perspectives on JavaScriptcomprehensive. Boston, MA: Thomson/Course Technology. Chapelle, C. A. (2003). English language learning and technology. Amsterdam, Netherlands: John Benjamins. Chen, C. M., & Chung, C. J. (2008). Personalized mobile English vocabulary learning system based on item response theory and learning memory cycle. Computers & Education, 51(2), 624645. Chinnery, G. M. (2006). Going to the MALL: Mobile assisted language learning. Language Learning & Technology, 10(1), 916. Retrieved from http://llt.msu.edu/vol10num1/pdf/emerging.pdf Coady, J. (1997). L2 vocabulary acquisition through extensive reading. In J. Coady & T. Huckin (Eds.), Second language vocabulary acquisition: A rationale for pedagogy (pp. 225237). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Cunningham, S., Moor, P., & Carr, J. C. (2003). Cutting edge advanced with phrase builder: Students book. Harlow, UK: Pearson Education. Demouy, V., & Kukulska-Hulme, A. (2010). On the spot: Using mobile devices for listening and speaking practice on a French language programme. Open Learning: The Journal of Open, Distance and e-Learning, 25(3), 217232. Godwin-Jones, R. (2004). Making the web dynamic: DOM and DAV. Language Learning & Technology, 8(1), 812. Retrieved from http://llt.msu.edu/vol8num1/pdf/emerging.pdf Godwin-Jones, R. (2011a). Autonomous language learning. Language Learning & Technology, 15(3), 4 11. Retrieved from http://llt.msu.edu/issues/october2011/emerging.pdf Godwin-Jones, R. (2011b). Mobile apps for language learning. Language Learning & Technology, 15(2), 211. Retrieved from http://llt.msu.edu/issues/june2011/emerging.pdf Hulstijn, J. H., Hollander, M., & Greidanus, T. (1996). Incidental vocabulary learning by advanced foreign language students: The influence of marginal glosses, dictionary use, and reoccurrence of unknown words. The Modern Language Journal, 80(3), 327339. Jacobs, G. M., Dufon, P., & Fong, C. H. (1994). L1 and L2 vocabulary glosses in L2 reading passages:
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Their effectiveness for increasing comprehension and vocabulary knowledge. Journal of Research in Reading, 17(1), 1928. Kondo, M., Ishikawa, Y., Smith, C., Sakamoto, K., Shimomura, H., & Wada, N. (2012). Mobile assisted language learning in university EFL courses in Japan: Developing attitudes and skills for self-regulated learning. ReCALL, 24(2), 169187. Krashen, S. (1989). We acquire vocabulary and spelling by reading: Additional evidence for the input hypothesis. The Modern Language Journal, 73(4), 440464. Kukulska-Hulme, A. (2009). Will mobile learning change language learning? ReCALL, 21(2), 157165. Kukulska-Hulme, A., & Shield, L. (2008). An overview of mobile assisted language learning: From content delivery to supported collaboration and interaction. ReCALL, 20(3), 271289. Lan, Y.-J., Sung, Y.-T., & Chang, K.-E. (2007). A mobile-device-supported peer-assisted learning system for collaborative early EFL reading. Language Learning & Technology, 11(3), 130151. Retrieved from http://llt.msu.edu/vol11num3/pdf/lansungchang.pdf Lu, M. (2008). Effectiveness of vocabulary learning via mobile phone. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 24(6), 515525. Melville, H. (1851). Moby dick; or the whale. Retrieved from http://www.gutenberg.org/files/2701/2701h/2701-h.htm Nation, P. (2009). New roles for L2 vocabulary? In L. Wei & V. Cook (Eds.), Contemporary applied linguistics volume 1: Language teaching and learning (pp. 99116). London, UK: Continuum. Robbins, J. N. (2012). Learning web design: A beginner's guide to HTML, CSS, JavaScript, and web graphics. Cambridge, UK: OReilly Media. Song, Y., & Fox, R. (2008). Using PDA for undergraduate student incidental vocabulary testing. ReCALL, 20(3), 290314. Stockwell, G. (2007). Vocabulary on the move: Investigating an intelligent mobile phone-based vocabulary tutor. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 20(4), 365383. Stockwell, G. (2010). Using mobile phones for vocabulary activities: Examining the effect of the platform. Language Learning & Technology, 14(2), 95110. Retrieved from http://llt.msu.edu/vol14num2/stockwell.pdf Thornton, P., & Houser, C. (2005). Using mobile phones in English education in Japan. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 21(3), 217228. Watanabe, Y. (1997). Input, intake, and retention: Effects of increased processing on incidental learning of foreign language vocabulary. Studies in Second Language Acquisition, 19(3), 287307. Wong, L.-H., & Looi, C.-K. (2010). Vocabulary learning by mobile-assisted authentic content creation and social meaning-making: Two case studies. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 26(5), 421433.
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Language Learning & Technology http://llt.msu.edu/issues/october2013/action.pdf
FROM PARTICULAR TO POPULAR: FACILITATING EFL MOBILESUPPORTED COOPERATIVE READING

Yu-Ju Lan, National Taiwan Normal University Yao-Ting Sung, National Taiwan Normal University Kuo-En Chang, National Taiwan Normal University This paper reports the results of an action research-based study that adapted a mobilesupported cooperative reading system into regular English as a foreign language (EFL) classes at one Taiwanese elementary school. The current study was comprised of two stages: adaptation and evaluation. During the adaptation stage, a mobile-supported cooperative EFL reading (MCER) systemchosen because of a report about its effects on enhancing the development of young EFL learners reading abilities (Lan, Sung, & Chang, 2009)was tailored to be integrated into a regular elementary EFL curriculum based on the suggestions of experienced elementary EFL teachers. During the evaluation stage, an EFL class learned reading via the support given by the MCER system; quantitative and qualitative data were collected and analyzed to evaluate the effects of the adapted reading system on young EFL learners reading abilities. The results revealed that the adaptation and use of the MCER system was successful and that it might facilitate the acquisition of reading abilities by young learners if used within EFL classes around the entire school. Key words: English as a Foreign Language (EFL), Mobile-Supported Cooperative learning (MSCL), Early Reading, Mobile Assisted Language Learning (MALL) APA Citation: Lan, Y.-J., Sung, Y.-T., & Chang, K.-E. From particular to popular: Facilitating EFL reading through mobile-supported cooperation. Language Learning & Technology 17(3), 2338. Retrieved from http://llt.msu.edu/issues/october2013/action.pdf Received: December 14, 2012; Accepted: March 7, 2013; Published: October 1, 2013 Copyright: Yu-Ju Lan, Yao-Ting Sung, and Kuo-En Chang BACKGROUND In 2000, the Ministry of Education of Taiwan initiated curricular and instructional reforms (Ministry of Education, 2001), cultivating in its citizens the global perspectives and core competences necessary for modern life. The teaching of English as a foreign language (EFL) is one of the major foci of this reform, as learning English from an early age is expected to help students easily master grammatical rules and acquire near-native pronunciation (Flege, Yeni-Komshian, & Liu, 1999; Wu, Sung, Huang, Yang, & Yang, 2011). A report about a mobile-supported cooperative EFL reading (MCER) system (Lan, Sung, & Chang, 2009) caught the imagination of one principal of a Taipei elementary school, who was eager to help the students in her school improve their English abilities. The idea was to evaluate the feasibility of integrating the MCER system into regular EFL classes in Taiwanese elementary schools. After consulting with the developer of the MCER system, a two-stage action research project was conducted, focusing on the adaptation and evaluation of the MCER system into this particular Taipei elementary school. During the first stage, several experienced elementary EFL teachers were invited to use and give suggestions for revising the MCER system to meet the requirements of EFL teaching in Taiwanese elementary schools. Then after completing the modifications, a class of elementary EFL students used the MCER system, so researchers could evaluate the effects of the modified system on students EFL reading abilities. Researchers were also able to measure student attitudes confirming the appropriateness of the adaptation.
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Yu-Ju Lan, Yao-Ting Sung, and Kuo-En Chang
Facilitating EFL Reading through Mobile-Supported Cooperation
LITERATURE REVIEW The Reality of Taiwanese EFL Education at the Elementary Level The Ministry of Education of Taiwan is greatly concerned with its students English abilities, especially students in elementary and high school, and many efforts have been made to improve Taiwanese students English abilities. Since 2000, the Ministry of Education in Taiwan has implemented curricular and instructional reforms, in which English education has been designated to start from the third grade of elementary school, four years earlier than the previous requirement. In certain locations, English is required from an even younger age; indeed, in the city of Taipei, English is now a required subject from the first grade (Taipei City Government Department of Education, 2000). Despite these mandates, based on the official report of the International English Language Testing System, the English abilities of Taiwanese students were far beneath proficiencies of students in many other Asian countries (Central News Agency, 2011; Chen, 2007). Several issues might be causing these test results: diversity of student English abilities, high studentteacher ratio, parental social and economic differences, class sizes, and limited learning time available in classrooms (Lan, Chang, & Sung, 2004). A high student-teacher ratio (typically 30-to-1) not only constrains teachers from catering to individuals needs but also influences instruction. With large EFL class sizes, teacher-centered approaches are frequently used, and EFL students often lack opportunities to use the target language during instructional time (Hwang & Chen, 2011), lowering student motivation and interest in English language learning. In spite of the fact that EFL teachers wish to increase student interest in learning English through the use of language activities like classroom games, such activities are mainly designed for large groups. This privileges language output by higher proficiency students rather than by lower proficiency students. In one example, though lower-level students actively participated in a game activity, they only shouted the word go to cheer for their team members, whereas the higher-level ones used the lessons target words (Lan, in press). Inefficient teaching methodologies and low learning achievements have been shown to decrease students motivation to learn (Central News Agency, 2011; Chen, 2007). Not surprisingly, English is typically one of the most disliked subjects in Taiwanese schools. Though we are unaware of studies that address the larger problem of why Taiwanese students dislike English, we have anecdotally observed that the specific problem of varied proficiency levels in a single class mostly results from social and economic inequalities among parents. Typically, students from wealthy families learn English during early childhood and have plenty of opportunities to practice the language outside the classroom; in contrast, students from lower-income families have only 80 minutes in the classroom per week to learn English, and rarely do they have opportunities to use or learn the language outside of school. Consequently, varying levels of student exposure to English challenges teachers when preparing their teaching materials (Lan, Sung, & Chang, 2007). These adverse conditions have been shown to frustrate numerous EFL teachers when assisting low-proficiency students (Chang, 2006). This also increases the frustration of students at beginning levels when they are forced to learn alongside their more advanced classmates. Unfortunately, many students have negative attitudes towards English from early learning experiences and avoid learning English after leaving school at the end of high school (Chang, 2007; Wu, 2004). One strategy used to face the above problems is to promote learner autonomy and to increase their opportunities for exposure to English. According to Day and Bamford (1998) and Wu et al. (2011), reading ability is important for student academic achievement, particularly for EFL learners with limited exposure to the target language. Students with adequate English reading ability are capable of expanding their vocabulary through independent reading. Therefore, early EFL reading has been attracting increasing attention from EFL teachers, practitioners, and researchers (National Reading Panel, 2000; Taipei City Government Department of Education, 2000, 2012).
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Based on descriptions of successful reading programs, socio-constructivist learning approaches are potential strategies for alleviating difficulties with reading and for improving reading skills. These approaches include working in small groups (Foorman & Torgesen, 2001; National Reading Panel, 2000), scaffolding (George & Patrick, 2002; Mathes, Torgesen, & Allor, 2001), and cooperative learning (Ghaith, 2003; Ushioda, 1996). Although numerous studies have supported the effect of these learning strategies on the progress of young children learning to read, most prior study informants have been native speakers of English. The degree to which these strategies can be successfully applied to young EFL learners in Asiaespecially in Taiwan, where the EFL teaching environment differs markedly from a first language (L1) reading classis uncertain. The pedagogical challenges described above, including class size, time constraints, and available resources, hinder most EFL teachers in Asia from applying socio-constructivist learning approaches to reading instruction in traditional EFL classes, though the effectiveness of these strategies in EFL reading have been clearly demonstrated (Lan et al., 2004; Reed, 2002). Also, simply grouping students into small reading groups does not guarantee the effectiveness of the cooperative process (Lan et al., 2007), as some students with lower-level abilities might feel left out the group and may lack of confidence. Hence, more teacher intervention is needed to help small reading groups to proceed with cooperation (Lan, Sung, & Chang, 2006). Without a doubt, both students and teachers need additional support during the cooperative reading process for the successful implementation of socio-constructivist learning in EFL reading. These pedagogical interventions informed the authors throughout the research process of this current study. Mobile-Supported EFL Reading Studies Mobile technology potentially offers a feasible approach to removing numerous existing barriers in the implementation of the socio-constructivist approaches in traditional EFL settings (Lan et al., 2007; Lan, Sung, & Chang, 2009). Mobile assisted language learning (MALL) not only provides second language (L2) learners with ubiquitous learning support, immediate feedback, and independent and targeted reading practice, it also helps them achieve advances in social interactivity, context awareness, connectivity, individuality, and immediacy (Attewell & Webster, 2004; Chinnery, 2006; Klopfer, Squire, & Jenkins, 2002; Soloway, Norris, Blumenfeld, Fishman, Krajcik, & Marx, 2001). Moreover, as Kukulska-Hulme and Shield (2008) noted, MALL inspires new ways of learning, as it emphasizes continuity or spontaneity of access and interaction across different contexts of use. MALL also provides a ubiquitous learning that can closely fit learners learning habits. Numerous advocates have recommended MALL as a method of providing L2 learners with rich, real time, cooperative, and conversational experiences both inside and outside the classroom. However, research on MALL has mostly focused on speaking (Kukulska-Hulme, 2005), listening (Liu & Chu, 2010), vocabulary (e.g. Huang, Huang, Huang, & Lin, 2012; Sandberg, Maris, & de Geus, 2011; Thornton & Houser, 2005), phrases (e.g. Morita, 2003; Thornton & Houser, 2005), and grammar (Sung, Huang, & Chang, 2006), rather than early EFL reading skills. Furthermore, recent studies of MALL have focused on college students or adults (e.g., Chang & Hsu, 2011; Cui & Wang, 2008), and few have examined how mobile technology benefits the early EFL reading skills of elementary students. Studies that have connected mobile technology and early EFL reading skills includes those of Lan and her colleagues (Lan et al., 2007, 2009), who applied mobile technology to cooperative EFL reading in order to overcome the problems existing in traditional cooperative EFL reading activities. Their research obtained fruitful results and echoed the advances of MALL reported by other researchers (e.g., Attewell & Webster, 2004; Chinnery, 2006) that MALL consistently benefits young EFL learners reading development, improves EFL learning attitude, and enhances students cooperative learning skills. However, even though academic research on MALL has provided cheerful results in relation to the improvement of young EFL learners performance and motivation, expanding the research agenda to consider elementary EFL curricula has yet to be investigated. As a second gap, the learning materials and activities used in much previous research have been created especially for purposes related to
experimental design; whether these materials and activities were relevant to the regular elementary EFL curricula is not known. In addition, most previous research has used additional lesson time to conduct experimental procedures. Using a specific research procedure integrated within the regular EFL syllabus and time constraints also has not been a priority in previous research. To successfully integrate the concepts from previous research and the practical limitations of the EFL syllabus in Taiwanese elementary schools, this study asks the following questions: 1. What adaptations should be made to strengthen the MCER system so it better integrates with the existing EFL curriculum, so as to best meet EFL teachers needs? 2. How does the adapted system benefit reading abilities and attitudes of young Taiwanese EFL learners? INTEGRATING PREVIOUS ACADEMIC RESEARCH INTO THE REGULAR EFL SYLLABUS The previously documented success using the MCER system in supporting elementary learners EFL reading (Lan et al., 2009) inspired this action research project, especially in face of the pedagogical challenges found in most Taiwanese elementary schools by EFL teachers. Nevertheless, this system had to be modified to be more relevant to regular elementary EFL classes and to overcome several identified problems. To adapt the MCER system, two experienced elementary EFL teachers met with the MCER system developer to describe the advantages and challenges associated with using this system in Taiwanese EFL settings. Both teachers had used the MCER system in a two-week trial; both thought highly of the systems functions, expressing that the system helped learners read cooperatively and that it had a great potential to resolve numerous pedagogical problems they faced. However, because of strict course syllabi stipulated by school administrators, it was difficult for teachers to include this supplementary methodology with their students. Thus, the MCER system needed to be more flexible to allow for the inclusion of teacher-selected reading materials. Moreover, as EFL teachers at Taiwanese elementary schools do not have extended periods of time to prepare extra online materials, it was recommended that the system include a sharing function between all teachers, to encourage more teachers to use the system in their classes. Aligned with the two teachers feedback mentioned above, a platform for sharing cooperative English reading materialsMCER+was developed and connected to the original student learning platformMCER. Accordingly, the teaching materials developing mobile-supported cooperative reading activities in daily EFL classes that were uploaded to MCER+ were automatically transferred to the pool of learning materials on MCER. In order to document the effects of the MCER+ system, a two-stage evaluation was conducted, which is briefly described below. Stage One: Adaptation In the adaptation stage, two versions of MCER+I and IIwere adapted based on the experienced EFL teachers suggestions and comments. The MCER+ I was based on two teachers feedback as described above. In order to make sure the MCER+ I system met the general EFL teachers expectations, another eight experienced EFL teachers from different elementary schools in Taipei City were invited to provide feedback about the MCER+ I system. The first iteration of evaluation considered user interfaces and the functions of MCER+ I, and these comments were used to create MCER+ II. The MCER+ II system was again evaluated on its user interfaces and functions. The two iterations of adaption on user interfaces and functions of MCER+ system are briefly described below. The First Version of MCER+ System (MCER+ I) Built upon the existing MCER system, which was an original learning platform for elementary EFL learners, the MCER+ I system incorporates three new modules to directly support EFL teachers in their
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development of mobile-supported cooperative reading materials. These modules include a material management module, a class management module, and a material sharing management module. The material management module aims at providing EFL teachers with an easy approach to developing online reading materials. Three categories of materials, which together form a learning unit, can be uploaded in this module: sight words, phonetic words, and an article. The second modulethe class management modulefocuses on helping EFL teachers effectively manage the information of each teaching course, such as the class information (e.g., grades and class sizes), student bio-data, teaching records, assigned learning materials, and teaching schedules, and so forth. The EFL teacher can also use the class management module interface to add or delete a class, assign students and group leaders to different small cooperative learning groups, and set assigned learning activities. Within this module, the teachers can check individual learning records, and also establish assessment criteria to see whether students passed tests. The last module, the material sharing management module, keeps specific information regarding the author, theme, or target users of a learning unit designated via the material management module. The material sharing information can be used as keys for searching in the material sharing management module. Through the material sharing module, EFL teachers can search for suitable articles for their students and can print out materials to be used in conventional EFL settings. Evaluation of User Interfaces and Functions of MCER+ I As stated above, eight experienced elementary EFL teachers were invited to assess the MCER+ I platform. Teachers completed two questionnaires, one for the interface appearance of web pages of MCER+ I (Appendix A, Questionnaire 1), and the other for usability which was based on Lunds questionnaire (2001) (Appendix A, Questionnaire 2). The evaluation focused on five dimensions: appearance (color, font size, button name and location, web style, etc.), usefulness, ease of use, ease of learning (while using the system), and satisfaction. During the evaluation, the teachers were first trained to use the MCER+ I system, then they completed the interface evaluation questionnaire considering the individual web pages of all three modules and an overall system evaluation questionnaire. Afterwards the participating teachers had to develop a complete teaching unit and to use the newly developed materials in their EFL classes via MCER+ I. After the usage, they completed the questionnaire of usability. All the questionnaire items used a five-point Likert scale where 1 means strongly disagree and 5 means strongly agree. Table 1 lists the evaluation results. Table 1. MCER+ I Survey Results (n = 8) Dimensions Appearance Usefulness Ease of use Ease of learning Satisfaction Mean 3.90 3.62 4.04 3.97 3.96 SD .26 .23 .31 .32 .37
All the teachers were broadly satisfied with most of the functions of the MCER+ I; however, some refinements were suggested. According to the participating teachers, the interface required too many steps to upload their teaching materials: a simple upload process was suggested so teachers could integrate the proposed system into their daily EFL classes. Additionally, almost all teachers recommended using larger font sizes for texts. Appearance was also a main concern for these teachers. Some teachers even suggested replacing the original webpage background with a more interesting layout that would attract the attention of elementary EFL learners. To summarize, MCER+ I offered a potential approach for improving current elementary EFL education in
Taiwan, but still required some modifications. The biggest concern in terms of improving the MCER+ system was to simplify the systems operational procedures to increase these EFL teachers interest in using it. The Second Version of the MCER+ System (MCER+ II) The MCER+ II system incorporated several improvements based on teacher suggestions. First, structured teacher interfaces, including both tree- and map-structures (as shown in Figure 1, left) were provided to facilitate user navigation within the system. Second, several new functions were developed for adding new learning materials to simplify material creation and the uploading process, such as the new interface for editing teaching materials related to sight words (as shown in Figure 1, right). Third, the process of searching for and managing teaching materials was simplified. Figure 2 shows a material management module for a sample unit of learning.
Figure 1. Improvements included within MCER+ II. These include a teacher interface map structure (left), and new functions, such as editing teaching materials related to sight words (right). Evaluation of User Interfaces and Functions of MCER+ II All eight EFL teachers who provided suggestions for the creation of MCER+ II were invited to participate in this second evaluation. The evaluation focused on the MCER+ II system interface and functions, and specifically on whether the problems identified earlier were resolved. The same questionnaires were used for this evaluation. Except for two instructors who gave only oral feedback, all other teachers sent back their evaluation results. All teachers expressed their high satisfaction with MCER+ II. Table 2 lists the evaluation results obtained from the six EFL teachers who provided written feedback. The results obtained in this second survey showed that instructors rated more highly the different dimensions of MCER+ II, particularly the dimension of usefulness. As shown in the third column of Table 2, the means of the different ratings increased across all the dimensions. These results indicated that the system interfaces and functions were aligned with the teachers specifications and did not require any immediate modification, even though there is room for future improvement in the dimensions ease of use and ease of learning. These results indicated to the researchers that the MCER+ II system could be used with confidence to study the effects of this system on young EFL learners learning to read.
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Unit title Author information Development date Target users Target skills Unit theme Needed teaching time Reading article Reading comprehension questions
Group size Figure 2. A sample unit of learning material management modules. Second Stage: Evaluation Participants A third grade class of 20 students at one Taiwanese elementary school participated in this study of effects MCER+ II on young EFL learners reading abilities and English learning attitudes. At the beginning of this studyaccording to the Taipei Municipal Education Departments standards for the elementary school English curriculum (Taipei Municipal Dept. of Education, 2000)the participants knew the letters of the English alphabet, 30 words, and 20 sentences of basic daily conversation and classroom English. The students in this class were divided into small reading groups, based on their level of English achievement in the previous semester. Each group was comprised of one student with higher-level Table 2. MCER+ II Survey Results (n = 6) Dimensions Appearance Usefulness Ease of use Ease of learning Satisfaction Mean 4.50 4.60 4.40 4.30 4.50 SD .30 .38 .25 .27 .36 Increase over MCER+ I .60 .98 .36 .33 .54
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reading abilities and two or three with lower-level reading abilities. Only data from the 18 students who completed the entire semester were analyzed in this study. Instruments and Procedure The participating EFL teachers adapted two units from an EFL textbook used in the elementary school into learning activities and materials for the MCER+ II system. Every student was provided with an Asus EeePad, within which the MCER+ II system was embedded. Additionally, an attitude questionnaire of EFL learning (see Appendix B) and two subtests from the dynamic indicators of basic early literacy skills (DIBELS) (Good & Kaminski, 2002) (phoneme segmentation and nonsense word reading) were administered before the study. For Taiwanese elementary EFL learners, those two early reading skills are crucial for both their spelling and oral reading (Lan, in press). Additionally, both the two subtests were individual tests. While administering the phoneme segmentation test, participants would hear an English word, such as book, then they were asked to produce all the phonemes included in the word: /b/, //, and /k/. Each correctly said phoneme scored one point. In terms of the nonsense word test, participants were shown a paper filled with pseudo English words, such as cik. Participants were then asked to produce the pseudo words as quickly and correctly as possible. Again, for each correctly produced phoneme, students scored one point. After the pretest, the participants received training on the use of the equipment. Then the two units were taught. Each unit was taught in four 40-minute periods over two weeks. In each 40-minute period, the MCER+ first randomly assigned part of the reading materials to each member of a small group, such as one fourth of target vocabulary or one paragraph of a story. Then everyone learned the assigned materials with the support of MCER+ II. After participants finished their reading tasks, they shared what they had read with other group members. Finally, the whole group cooperatively carried out group projects, such as unscrambling out-of-order paragraphs into a complete story. One week after finishing the four-week experiment, the same questionnaire and reading tests were administered as a post-test. RESULTS The young EFL learners showed significant differences in their pre and post test scores on the same early reading ability tests (phoneme segmentation: t(17) = -3.79, p < .05, effect size = .30; and nonsense word reading: t(17) = -2.34, p < .05, effect size = .14). Table 3 lists the means and standard deviations for early EFL reading ability scores on the two tests. It was found that the young EFL learners made a greater improvement in phoneme segmentation than nonsense word reading after having had the support of MCER+ II. This phenomenon potentially indicates that there was an absence of the instruction of first skill in Taiwanese elementary EFL settings which has been partially filled by the MCER+ II system. The young EFL learners are able to acquire this skill if they have the appropriate learning opportunities and support. Table 3. Pre- and Post-Test Scores for Reading Tests and Learning Attitude Questionnaire Phoneme Segmentation Test Nonsense Word Reading Test Mean Pretest Posttest
Note. n = 18.
Early FL Learning Attitude Questionnaire Mean 3.11 3.57 SD .58 .43
SD 19.47 26.78
Mean 22.17 59.39
SD 30.17 38.38
11.94 23.61
In addition, the students attitudes towards learning English were measured during this stage (see Table 3). The participants showed significant differences in attitude towards learning English before and after
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this study: t(10) = -3.75, p < .05, effect size = .29. Additionally, the young EFL learners more positive attitudes towards English learning after using MCER+ II system are similar to the positive evaluation results obtained from the eight participating EFL teachers during the adaptation stage. In sum, by participating in this study, teachers developed a more favorable opinion of the MCER+ II system as a method of developing and sharing teaching materials. The efforts made to simplify the operational processes and provide a map of the material development processes in the MCER+ II system were seen by teachers as being improvements, and the MCER+ II was seen as being an easy and useful platform for EFL teachers to develop curricular-based teaching materials. Results obtained in this study also showed that the curricular-based materials and learning activities transformed via the MCER+ II system into mobile supported cooperative learning, cultivating early EFL learners reading abilities and improving their enthusiasm for English learning. Based on the results obtained from this two-stage action research project, the MCER+ II system was found to be an appropriate platform to be popularized in all the EFL classes at the participating school. REFLECTIONS AND CONCLUSIONS A primary goal of Taiwans National Science Council (NSC, 2005, 2010) has been to enhance the practical value of academic research. In Taiwan there have been numerous investigations relevant to elearning striving for excellence in teaching and learning (Shih, Feng, & Tsai, 2008), but few successful practical applications designed for regular teaching contexts. This study can be seen as a first step of bridging academic research and practical pedagogical settings. The current research was inspired by two urgent needs in practical EFL teaching and learning: aiding EFL teachers and enhancing EFL learners reading abilities. The findings obtained from this study added to the knowledge of both MALL and CALL research. It highlighted the importance of assisting EFL teachers to first prepare young learners for executing individual learning tasks and then put them in small groups to facilitate them to learn by doing and sharing. Furthermore, based on the lessons learned from the two stages of this study, directly introducing technological products (learning systems or advanced devices) to real educational practice will face severe obstacles if project managers do not take into account different educational realities. Thus, end users, including teachers and students, should be invited to be involved from the very beginning stage of a learning system. This shows the increasing impact of design research on educational research, in which the teachers, students, and the researchers work together to develop and evaluate a technological product via an iterative process (Collins, Joseph, & Bielaczyc, 2004). Based on the system MCER, the present action research project improved the original systems functionality, to create the new system MCER+ II. As described above, purely academic research might be limiting in terms of how much it can actually help improve real-world educational environments. Careful research involving the researchers, teachers, the real users (learners), and multi-stage confirmation is necessary as a first step towards improving education. However, this study is only the beginning. Only eight experienced EFL teachers from Taipei were invited to provide comments and suggestions for adapting the original MCER system to become MCER+ II; there was only one elementary school from Taipei city that participated in evaluating the effect of MCER+. Students in many other regions in Taiwan possess different EFL abilities, and their concerns should be represented in future studies. Furthermore, EFL teachers teaching in different area of Taiwan may need different instructional support. Thus, there is still a need to expand the popularization of MCER+ II to all the EFL classes in Taiwan beyond this single elementary school in Taipei.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors would like to thank the National Science Council of the Republic of China, Taiwan, for financially supporting this research under Contract Nos. NSC 101-2511-S-003-031-MY3 and 101WFA0300229. The authors also want to thank the Ministry of Education of the Republic of China, Taiwan, for financially supporting this research under Aim for the Top University Plan.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS Yu-Ju Lan is currently an Associate Professor of Department of Applied Chinese Language and Culture at National Taiwan Normal University. Her research interests include technology enhanced foreign language learning, online synchronous teacher training, language learning in virtual worlds, and mobile learning. Yao-Ting Sung is a professor of Department of Education and Psychology and Counseling at National Taiwan Normal University. His research interests include the psychology of learning and computerassisted instruction. Kuo-En Chang is currently president and a professor in the Department of Information and Computer Education at National Taiwan Normal University. His research interests include intelligent tutoring systems, web-based learning, and learning technology. His main research work is the design of web-based systems with applications to education.
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APPENDIX A. Questionnaires for User Interface and Overall Functions of MCER+ System Questionnaire 1. Interface Evaluation Questionnaire of MCER+ System System pages Items The interface design is clear for users to understand. The font size and color make reading comfortable. Suggestions 1 2 3 4 5 for refining system
an example page
The webpage is easy to navigate. The webpage shows a suitable amount of information. The way of presenting the information is easy to read and to understand. It properly presents the reading comprehension questions. The screen background provides a good fit with the information without disturbing the users main task. Each link is properly labeled.
General suggestions for interface improvement

Note. Each of the system pages is accompanied by this questionnaire.
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Questionnaire 2. Usability Questionnaire of MCER+ System

Dimensions Usefulness Items It helps me manage the students personal learning activities in the system. It helps me manage the whole-class learning activities in the system. It helps me understand students learning process in the system. The data of students learning process shown in the system help me better understand the student learning outcomes. The system clearly shows student peer assessment in the teacher module and helps me understand the results of the activity. Ease of Use It is easy to add both phonetic words and sight words to the system. It is easy to post the reading comprehension questions. It is easy to enter and organize student data. It is easy to set up and manipulate student learning activities in the system. Ease of Learning It is easy to learn to add both sight words and phonetic words to the system. It is easy to learn to post the reading comprehension questions. It is easy to learn to enter and organize student data. It is easy to learn to set up and manipulate student learning activities in the system. Satisfaction The system provides appropriate sight words. The system provides appropriate phonetic words. The context of the articles are appropriate. The system provides a proper way to set up standards to help students reach goals. General suggestions for improvement Suggestions 1 2 3 4 5 for refining system
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APPENDIX B. Attitude Questionnaire of EFL Learning Num. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Items I like reading English stories. I like listening to English songs. I like watching English cartoons or movies. I like participating in English-related activities, such as English oral reading contests, English drama contests, etc. I like attending English classes. I learn very useful knowledge in English classes. I can understand the sentences I have learned. I can make a self-introduction in English. I can use an English dictionary to help me learn English. I can read English stories; when I encounter new words, I look them up in the dictionary. I can write out my thoughts in English. Strongly agree 4 Agree 3 Disagree 2 Strongly disagree 1
Note. This is a translation of the questionnaire written in Chinese that was originally administered to this studys young students.
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Lan, Y. J. (in press). The research on computer assisted cooperative learning for early EFL reading. In H. W. Ko (Ed.), Technology and Language Learning. Taipei, Taiwan: Higher Education Process. Lan, Y.J., Chang, K.E., & Sung, Y.T. (2004). DIAMOND hunt: A reading teaching approach for EFL beginners reading skills development. In F. Malpica, F. Welsch, & A. Tremante (Eds.), Proceedings of International Conference on Education and Information Systems: Technologies and Applications, 3, 9296. Lan, Y.J., Sung, Y.T., & Chang, K.E. (2006). Collaborative early EFL reading among distributed learners: A simulation pilot study. The Journal of JALT CALL, 2(2), 5365. Lan, Y.J., Sung, Y.T., & Chang, K.E. (2007). A mobile-devices-supported peer-assisted learning system for collaborative early EFL reading. Language Learning & Technology, 11(3), 130151. Retrieved from: http://llt.msu.edu/vol11num3/pdf/lansungchang.pdf Lan, Y.J., Sung, Y.T., & Chang, K.E. (2009). Let us read together: Development and evaluation of a computer assisted reciprocal early English reading system. Computers & Education, 53(4), 11881198. Liu, T.Y., & Chu, Y.L. (2010). Using ubiquitous games in an English listening and speaking course: Impact on learning outcomes and motivation. Computers & Education, 55(2), 630643. Lund, A.M. (2001 October). Measuring usability with the USE Questionnaire. Usability Interface: The usability SIG newsletter of the Society for Technical Communications, 8(2). Retrieved from http://www.stcsig.org/usability/newsletter/0110_measuring_with_use.html Mathes, P.G., Torgesen, J.K., & Allor, J.H. (2001). The effects of peer-assisted literacy strategies for first-grade readers with and without additional computer assisted instruction in phonological awareness, American Educational Research Journal, 38, 371410. Ministry of Education. (2001) General guidelines of grades 1-9 curriculum for elementary and junior high school education. Retrieved from http://www.fhjh.tp.edu.tw/eng_www/G1-9%20curriculum.doc Morita, M. (2003). The Mobile-based learning (MBL) in Japan. In Y. Kambayashi, S. Konomi, & K. Rose (Eds.), Proceedings of the First Conference on Creating, Connecting and Collaborating through Computing. Retrieved from http://csdl2.computer.org/comp/proceedings/c5/2003/1975/00/19750128.pdf National Reading Panel. (2000). Teaching children to read: An evidence-based assessment of the scientific research literature on reading and its implications for reading instruction. Retrieved from http://www.pbs.org/teacherline/courses/rdla155/pdfs/c2s5_11teachingchildren.pdf National Science Council. (2005). Key points of implementation for NSC subsidized application and promotion plans of science education research results. Retrieved from http://law.nsc.gov.tw/LawContentDetails.aspx?id=FL035276&KeyWordHL=&StyleType=1 National Science Council. (2010). Yearly survey of promotion and application of research projects results funded by NSCs department of science education. Retrieved from http://www.nsc.gov.tw/sci/public/Attachment/0102910521571.doc Reed, J. (2002). The pedagogical challenges for western ESL teachers in Asia. Contact, 28(4), 18. Sandberg, J., Maris, M., & de Geus, K. (2011). Mobile English learning: An evidence-based study with fifth graders. Computers & Education, 57(1), 13341347. Shih, M., Feng, J., & Tsai, C.-C. (2008) Research and trends in the field of e-learning from 2001 to 2005: A content analysis of cognitive studies in selected journals. Computers & Education, 51, 955967. Soloway, E., Norris, C., Blumenfeld, P., Fishman, B., Krajcik, J., & Marx, R. (2001 June). Log on education: Handheld devices are ready-at-hand. Communications of the ACM, 44(6), 1520.
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Sung, Y.T., Huang, C.C., & Chang, K.E. (2006 July). The design and application of a mobile devicesbased real time formative assessment system. Paper presented at the meeting of the IADIS International Conference Mobile Learning, Dublin, Ireland. Taipei City Governments Department of Education. (2000). Curriculum guidelines of elementary English language teaching and learning. Retrieved from Curriculum Guidelines Download Taipei City Governments Department of Education. (2012). English Easy Go VI The best English reading material is published! Retrieved from http://www.edunet.taipei.gov.tw/ct.asp?xItem=14380130&ctNode=22621&mp=104021 Thornton, P., & Houser, C. (2005). Using mobile phones in English education in Japan. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 21(3), 217228. Ushioda, E. (1996). Learner autonomy 5: The role of motivation. Dublin, Ireland: Authentik. Wu, Y.M. (2004). Implementing the theory of multiple intelligences in English teaching to improve students learning attitude: An action research study (Maters thesis). Retrieved from http://ndltd.ncl.edu.tw/cgibin/gs32/gsweb.cgi?o=dnclcdr&s=id=%22092NTPTC694022%22.&searchmode=basic Wu, T.T., Sung, T.W., Huang, Y.M., Yang, C.S., & Yang, J.T. (2011). Ubiquitous English learning system with dynamic personalized guidance of learning portfolio. Educational Technology & Society, 14 (4), 164180.
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The University of Hawaii National Foreign Language Resource Center engages in research and materials development projects and conducts workshops and conferences for language professionals among its many activities. CALL FOR PROPOSALS: 4TH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON FILIPINO AS A GLOBAL LANGUAGE The NFLRC is pleased to co-sponsor the upcoming 4th International Conference on Filipino as a Global Language (August 1-3, 2014). The theme will be Kahusayan (Excellence): Filipino in All Fields and Disciplines. It includes (but is not limited to) the use of Filipino for specific purposes; Filipino as medium of instruction in various disciplines; challenging the current curriculum for higher education in the Philippines; the new secondary school curriculum for Filipino; status of Filipino as a second language; Filipino as a foreign language; Filipino in mass media, social media, and the internet; Filipino language and culture pedagogy; research in Filipino language and literature. Submissions can be research, case studies, teaching demos, and so forth. The deadline for submissions is November 14, 2013. For more information, visit http://www.lll.hawaii.edu/index.php/call-for-proposals-filipino-as-global-language/ STAY IN TOUCH WITH SOCIAL MEDIA Did you know that the NFLRC has its own Facebook page with over 1,600 fans? Its one of the best ways to hear about the latest news, publications, conferences, workshops, and resources we offer. Just click on the Like button to become a fan. For those who prefer getting up-to-the-minute tweets, you can follow us on our Twitter page. Finally, NFLRC has its own YouTube channel with a growing collection of free language learning and teaching videos for your perusal. Subscribe today!
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News from Our Sponsoring Organizations
NEW NFLRC PUBLICATIONS The National Foreign Language Resource Center released three new titles in June: New perspectives on Japanese language learning, linguistics, and culture by Kimi Kondo-Brown, Yoshiko Saito-Abbott, Shingo Satsutani, Michio Tsutsui, & Ann Wehmeyer (Eds.) (2013) 208pp Download/view table of contents
This volume is a collection of selected refereed papers presented at the Association of Teachers of Japanese Annual Spring Conference held at the University of Hawaii at Mnoa in March of 2011. It not only covers several important topics on teaching and learning spoken and written Japanese and culture in and beyond classroom settings, but also includes research investigating certain linguistic items from new perspectives. Pragmatics and language learning, volume 13 by Tim Greer, Donna Tatsuki, & Carsten Roever (Eds.) (2013) 292pp Download/view table of contents
Pragmatics & Language Learning Volume 13 examines the organization of second language and multilingual speakers talk and pragmatic knowledge across a range of naturalistic and experimental activities. Based on data collected among ESL and EFL learners from a variety of backgrounds, the contributions explore the nexus of pragmatic knowledge, interaction, and L2 learning outside and inside of educational settings Pragmatics of Vietnamese as native and target language by Carsten Roever & Hanh thi Nguyen (Eds.) (2013) 282pp Download/view table of contents
The volume offers a wealth of new information about the forms of several speech acts and their social distribution in Vietnamese as L1 and L2, complemented by a chapter on address forms and listener responses. As the first of its kind, the book makes a valuable contribution to the research literature on pragmatics, sociolinguistics, and language and social interaction in an under-researched and less commonly taught Asian language.
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Michigan State University Center for Language Education and Research (CLEAR)
CLEARs mission is to promote the teaching and learning of foreign languages in the United States. Projects focus on materials development, professional development training, and foreign language research. RICH INTERNET APPLICATIONS FOR LANGUAGE LEARNING One of CLEARs most successful projects is our suite of free online language learning and teaching tools called Rich Internet Applications (RIAs). We have been busily working on retooling the user interface for the RIAs and look forward to launching the new website this fall. New features will include improved documentation of all the RIAs, screen flow videos and demonstrations of each app, a gallery of sample RIA activities created by language teachers, and printable start-up guides for both teachers and students. CONFERENCES CLEAR exhibits at local and national conferences year-round. We enjoyed seeing many of you in Hawaii at the CALICO conference hosted by our sister center, the University of Hawaii National Foreign Language Resource Center. We look forward to seeing you at MIWLA and ACTFL later this year, and the Central States Conference in the spring. PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT CLEAR hosted four well-attended professional development workshops in July and August 2013. Covering topics including writing in the foreign language classroom, the teaching of vocabulary, online tools for language learning, and assessing speaking skills, the workshops offered hands-on experience and lots of ideas for language educators. Watch our Web site in October for the announcement of topics and dates for summer 2014. NEWSLETTER CLEAR News is a free bi-yearly publication covering FL teaching techniques, research, and materials. Download PDFs of back issues and subscribe at http://clear.msu.edu/clear/newsletter/.
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Language Learning & Technology http://llt.msu.edu/issues/october2013/review1.pdf
REVIEW OF TECHNOLOGY IN THE L2 CURRICULUM

Technology in the L2 Curriculum Stacy DuBravac 2012 ISBN: 978-0132385121 US $33.33 272 pp. (paperback) Prentice Hall Upper Saddle River, New Jersey
Review by Jacob A. Kletzien, Sookmyung Womens University Technology in the L2 Curriculum, by Stayc DuBravac, is a recent offering by Prentice Hall in the Pearson series of Theory and Practice in Second Language Classroom Instruction edited by Judith LiskinGasparro and Manel Lacorte. Intended for a wide range of current and future language teaching professionals, this book covers a comparably broad range of topics that should help prepare teachers toward more effective and informed use of technology in their classrooms. Tipping the scales heavily in favor of theory, this book does meet its goal of being a viable main text for CALL courses in undergraduate/graduate teacher teaching programs; however, due to a limited focus on practical application, it is unlikely to serve as a sole text, with the supplementation of practical materials likely needed. Texts aimed at broad audiences inherently struggle with the need to cater to both absolute beginners and to those who come to the text already possessing some knowledge of the content. In the past, texts have left room for the discussion of offline technologies for those who are new to or lack connection to the online world (e.g., Dudeney & Hockly, 2007). Technology in the L2 Classroom, however, plants itself firmly in a world where basic familiarity with computers and basic Internet use can be assumed for both teachers and learners. Building off this assumption, the book seems to deal with a pitfall of having no clearly defined audience, which can be the case with many language instruction books, by focusing loosely on American World Languages educators. Readers and teacher educators from other areas or fields can then take the mostly general information in this particular text and tailor its suggested tasks to their particular languages and contexts. CALL and SLA theories are woven into each chapter, providing strong justifications for the choice to use (or not) technologies in any classroom, but the practical aspects are often left vague, perhaps due to a one-size-fits-all approach. Experienced L2 technology practitioners will have no problem supplementing the strong theoretical foundations of this text with their own technological know-how and resources, which can make this a strong text in their teacher training courses; however, novice teachers or those inexperienced with CALL will likely struggle at times to operationalize the theoretical knowledge and would benefit from more guidance and clearer walkthroughs on the use of the technologies covered in this text.
Copyright 2013, ISSN XX 43
Jacob A. Kletzien
Review of Technology in the L2 Curriculum
The organization of the text walks readers through the history of the field, giving them context and justifications for the use of a wide range of technologies. The book is organized into four main sections: a) the history of CALL and Web 1.0 technology; b) the placement of technology in methodological and instructional contexts; c) the range of synchronous and asynchronous tools; and d) the area of assessment. Completing the text is a look at the future of CALL, which is necessary in the rapidly changing world of CALL, wherein a book becomes dated the moment it is published. In the first section, the authors cover the basic concepts as well as the history of CALL and web technology. In Chapter 1, they introduce the basics of CALL, the introduction of technology-enhanced language learning (TELL), the history of the Internet and the World Wide Web, and current developments (e.g., cloud computing, web 2.0, e-classrooms). They then review the history of language teaching methodology by highlighting the relationship between historical pedagogical beliefs and the use of technology in language teaching, ending with a look at technological considerations educators need to keep in mind. The focus here on password security makes clear the overarching focus on web-based L2 technology. The focus in Chapter 2 is on evaluating and using technology. Starting with an analysis of the underlying assumptions teachers have about learners, themselves, and pedagogy, the chapter then includes a review of the differing criteria teachers have for technology. The chapter concludes with a thorough look at copyright law for educators. The third chapter comprises an examination of the World Wide Web, its history, and its potential uses for educators. Perhaps in part attributed to the pitfalls of writing for a broad audience, the author shares a broad range of web-based technologies with very little demonstration of applications. Many hyperlinks are given (although they must be entered by hand, as there is neither a text webpage nor a supplemental CD), but the reader is only told what can be found at that particular site and is left to explore it on their own. Readers with a good amount of experience with these technologies will likely be familiar with a number of the hyperlinks and find no need for in-depth explanations, but novice teachers may desire more detailed explanations or walkthroughs of the use of some of these technologies. As with subsequent chapters, the tasks in chapter 3 focus more on exposing the reader to the aforementioned technologies, without delving much deeper into the specifics of how they could be used. While there are tutorials available online for most if not all of these tools, learners looking for a text that contains pictures and detailed walkthroughs will be disappointed. Following this comprehensive look at the CALL field, the authors delve into a look at SLA theories and their place in CALL in the second section of the text. The first chapter in this section, chapter 4, is perhaps the clearest exemplar of the strengths of this text. By examining the histories of the theories behind learning and language, methodology, and CALL applications and tools, the authors demonstrate the ways in which teaching and technology have grown side-by-side and intertwined. As one theory is explained, connections to others and those from related fields are presented in a straightforward manner. While the practical tasks again leave the reader somewhat on their own, the explanation of a wide range of important theories and the connected research makes this chapter the strongest in the book. The next chapter continues the examination of the overlap between theories, but the focus shifts to theories of activities and tasks and their connections to CALL. The chapter starts with a discussion of sociocultural theory and CALL, and moves on to other theories behind particular activities. Again, the chapter leans far more into the territory of theory than it does practice, as the authors tend to explain why technology use is effective in general rather than how to use certain technologies in particular. Chapter 6 provides an overview of how technology can be used in ways that meet different sets of standards, including the National Standards in Foreign Language Education Projects 5 Cs standards, as well as those of the International Society for Technology in Education. The chapter is divided into two sections to examine how these standards pertain to students in the first section, and to teachers in the
Jacob A. Kletzien
second. The standards and how technology may be used to meet them are explained in some detail, and while the focus is primarily on the teaching foreign languages in the context of the US, often in tertiarylevel classrooms, the standards offer a starting point for educators working in other L2 contexts interested in integrating technology. In the third section of the book, the authors examine the predominant types of web-based learning technologies available to teachers today: synchronous and asynchronous computer-mediated communication (Chapters 7 and 8 respectively). In these two chapters, they lay out the circumstances in which they would want to use such technologies, as well as justifications for doing so drawn from contemporary research. Once more, although there is a wide array of options explained to the reader, specific technologies are not explained in any great detail. Tasks are provided for readers to practice the use of the tools on their own, but for readers with limited prior experience, the self-study orientation of this text may not work. In the hands of capable teacher educators, this lack of specific demonstration is no large problem, as they will have had experience both with the technologies and with their applications. As is seen in other chapters, though, the list-like mentioning of technologies and inclusion of hyperlinks is likely to be seen as cumbersome to those with less experience. The final section explores the intersections between CALL and language assessment. Chapter 9 centers on computer-based testing, from formative tools that teachers can create and use in their own classes, to summative commercially available assessments. The authors discuss in length the history of computerized testing and the considerations teachers should make when deciding whether to implement them in their own classes. Yet, as is seen in other chapters, the authors focus more on exposing the readers to the tests and testing sites, rather than on explaining in any great detail how to use any of the tools mentioned. Chapter 10 wraps up the assessment section with a look at alternative assessments, in particular projects, performances, and ePortfolios. Once more, the intersection between advancements in popular teaching methodology and teaching technology are highlighted, as the author delves into different ways to effectively use technology to get the most out of alternative assessments. The final chapter explores the future of CALL. DuBravac has done well in selecting technologies that have become well established and that seem likely to have staying power. This chapter doubles down on those technologies and the trends they represent by looking toward their future. Trends in evaluation, the Internet, tasks, communication, and assessment are all examined. Because the historical progression of CALL has been thoroughly documented throughout this book, the readers of this chapter can rest assured that the predictions are not based on a gaze into a crystal ball, but rather on rational, evidence-based analysis of the field and its future. Technology in the L2 Curriculum could be a strong choice for teachers considering a theory-driven text intended to inform students, promote discussions, and serve as a solid reference tool for students. In that aspect, there is nothing to critique. Like theory-driven course texts for other subjects (e.g., Ortega, 2008, for SLA) this text serves as a compendium of relevant theories and current research. In each chapter, the authors highlight several important theories and studies and end with useful suggestions for further reading. They handle the history of CALL as well as that of SLA well, providing readers with a good understanding of what to expect in the field and why. They also cover important practical considerations like password safety and copyright law thoroughly, which are important for all Internet-using teachers. In addition, they accomplish this with a straightforward and clear style. As a theory text, there is little to be improved upon. However, this title is sold in a series that promises practice as well as theory, and that is the shortcoming of this first-edition text. Whereas other practical texts (e.g. Dudeney & Hockly, 2007) come with supplemental materials such as CDs or DVDs, have easy one-click access to link suppositories or other materials, or offer step-by-step guides for activities, this book comes as is: 272 pages and only one picture (of how cloud computing works). Tasks seem to follow a pattern that seldom strays from a simple cycle
Jacob A. Kletzien
from exposure to self-teaching, with little elaboration and few concrete examples that would be necessary for readers with limited experience integrating technology. For a book that covers theory so well, it is somewhat disappointing to see how little seems to have gone into making this a practical text as well, which might be a direction to take in a second edition. For example, instead of just writing about del.icio.us, this book could have its own site set up, so that teachers could simply click links to the resources they read about instead of typing URLs (several in excess of 30 characters) by themselves. There are certainly benefits to sending readers to the various sites for those substantive introductions, FAQs, and walkthroughs, as these sites will be constantly updated, whereas the book cannot offer such a level of detail. Even so, the lack of any step-by-step guidance and the absence of linking to good examples of technology applications are hard to overlook. While there is little that could be done to improve the theoretical aspects of this book, much could be done to improve the practical applications, if this text is to be viewed as a practical guide to technology use in L2 teaching. Overall, Technology in the L2 Curriculum is a useful text and is likely to be seen in technology courses in teacher training programs in the years to come. It is not the stand-alone text it may wish to be, but subsequent editions, hopefully with more attention to task design and supplemental materials, may be able to offer the reader the balance of theory and practice that the series title implies. ABOUT THE REVIEWER Jacob A. Kletzien is a former ELFellow (Korea 2011-13) and currently an assistant professor in the TESOL-YL program at Sookmyung University (Seoul, Korea), where he teaches YL literacy and SLA theory courses. His MA thesis (University of Hawai'i at Mnoa, 2010) focused on the evaluation of the use of a course management system. Email: jacobkletzien@gmail.com REFERENCES Dudeney, G., & Hockly, N. (2007) How to teach English with technology. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson. Ortega, L. (2008) Understanding second language acquisition. New York, NY: Routledge.
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Language Learning & Technology http://llt.msu.edu/issues/october2013/review2.pdf
REVIEW OF LANGUAGE AT PLAY: DIGITAL GAMES IN SECOND AND FOREIGN LANGUAGE TEACHING AND LEARNING
Language at Play: Digital games in second and foreign language teaching and learning Julie Sykes and Jonathan Reinhardt 2013 ISBN 10: 0-205-00085-1 US $33.33 157 pp. Pearson New York, US
Review by Steven L. Thorne, Portland State University and University of Groningen and Erin Watters, Portland State University The use of games as learning activities has likely existed for as long as have formal (or serious) approaches to teaching and learning. In the new millennium, it is difficult to avoid what would appear to be hyperbole in regard to digital gaming environments. The strong and growing interest in digital games, coupled with rapid technological advancements, have created what is unquestionably one of the most inventive, fast-moving, complex media enterprises currently in existence. Game designers draw upon academic research originating in psychology, computer science, and the learning sciences, and reciprocally, within the academy new degree programs such as game studies are emerging. While commercially produced recreational games benefit from the greatest influx of capital and expertise, approaches to structuring learning environments that leverage game mechanics and pedagogies are now routine in settings as diverse as the military, management training, museum kiosks, DNA research, social justice awareness, and increasingly, for the teaching and learning of otherwise conventionally defined academic content. Importantly, and in tandem with the factual accuracy of the above statements, gaming is also associated with many problems, not the least of which is the polarized public assessment of online games, the negative binary of which presumes that online games are violent (some are, many are not), addictive (an unresolved debate that continues), and that gaming is the passionate focus of primarily adolescent males (patently false, for discussions see Cornillie, Thorne, & Desmet, 2012; Thorne & Fischer, 2012). Stepping into the digital gaming fray and performing a tremendous service for second language educators and researchers alike, Julie Sykes and Jonathon Reinhardt have produced an ambitious book-length treatment, Language at play: Digital games in second and foreign language teaching and learning, that is admirably comprehensive in scope and which adeptly aligns second language acquisition (SLA) and pedagogy research with practical strategies for the use of games in foreign and second language (L2) instructional contexts. The book uses the acronym L2TL, standing for second language teaching and learning, and for purposes of economy, we will employ the same in this review. Before beginning the chapter-by-chapter review, it is relevant to note that this is a dialogically written text
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Steve L. Thorne and Erin Watters
Review of Language at Play
that thoroughly engages the reader. Most chapters open with a scenario that narrativizes a focal topic through the presentation of (presumably) fictive classroom situations, many of which include situated descriptions of teachers as well as learners viewpoints and experiences. Enhanced versions of the scenarios are revisited at the end of each chapter in order to situate specific L2TL theory and practice themes in instructed L2 contexts. While some of the scenarios feel more forced than others, classroom teachers, and those in training to be such, will find them to be useful anchors. Additionally, each chapter is interspersed with questions to the reader in sections labeled Your Reflections and Scenario Questions (often two or three of each per chapter), which request the reader to articulate and/or contrast their own circumstances or experiences with the content under discussion. This feature would be useful for teacher preparation, classroom use and practicing educators alike. Finally, game-related activities and suggestions that build upon core themes (e.g., interaction, feedback, context, motivation) conclude each chapter. Especially in view of a potentially diverse readership, we have found the text to be clearly and interactively designed. In the Preface, Sykes and Reinhardt provide an overview of how to use the volume and describe a number of their central aims: To highlight how digital games can inform and potentially transform L2 pedagogy. They do this by arraying the following themes across five of the chapters: Chapter 2: Learning tasks and goal orientation; Chapter 3: Interaction; Chapter 4: Feedback; Chapter 5: Context; and Chapter 6: Motivation. To describe the behaviors, practices, and cultures of games as sociologically significant contexts for learning. To encourage interdisciplinary collaboration between SLA, game design, and learning specialists to develop effective L2 learning games.
Chapter one attunes the reader to the terminology of games as learning environments, beginning with definitions of key terms such as language (e.g., Hallidays (1978) notion of social-semiotic practice), play (e.g., distinctions between rule-bound and open-ended play), and game (typically rule-bound with internal reward systems; may include imaginative/creative experiences coupled with problem solving). These terms are explored in short but heavily referenced discussions of relevant research literatures, and appropriate caveats suggest that there is considerable variability in how these terms may be applied in specific circumstances. Also in the chapter, Sykes and Reinhardt turn to the question of how gameplay is related to learning, focusing primarily on game literacy as a kind of new media literacy practice (e.g., Gee, 2007) that may inculcate dispositions and abilities that are relevant to other learning and problem solving situations (e.g., Steinkuehler, 2007). A key distinction is made between game-enhanced L2TL the use of vernacular and off-the-shelf commercial games which are not themselves designed for language learning per seand game-based L2TL, which refers to game environments developed particularly for language learning purposes. This is a useful approach since, in addition to the obvious consideration of games designed specifically for L2 learning purposes, many language educators (and learners) may want to explore the use of an L2 in the often highly interactive, social and event-driven scenarios of online games. The second chapter interpolates digital games through the lenses of goal orientation and task-based language teaching (or TBLT, see Ellis, 2003; Van den Branden, Bygate, & Norris, 2009). The overview of TBLT, which describes both its pedagogical utility as well as criticisms of TBLT from within the SLA research literature (e.g., the differences between a task and an activity), will be particularly useful for readers who are less familiar with L2 pedagogy or who wish to use TBLT to better understand the mechanics and pedagogical structuring of digital games (for the latter, see Fullerton, 2008). The chapter concludes with the presentation of a literacy-informed approach that focuses on L2 writing through game journaling, essentially an awareness-raising activity that has students play games and record their observations by responding to written prompts (see activity 2B, p. 29). Additionally, there is an exercise
encouraging readers to design a game that focuses on goals specific to L2 learning. These activities highlight the expansive view of games that Sykes and Reinhardt seek to convey with this text game play itself may be directly useful to language learning, but it can also serve as a catalyst for later L2 activity (i.e., game journaling, mentioned above) and as a way for educators, and potentially students, to reframe language learning goals and the processes that may contribute to reaching them (i.e., the game design activity). In chapter three, the focus is interaction with, through, and about digital games (p. 32). The framing of this chapter is far-reaching and addresses interaction viewed through the lens of systemic functional linguistics, focusing on ideational interactions with games, interpersonal interactions through and around games, and textual interaction about games (pp. 36-40), as well as discussion of the importance of social context as it relates to opportunities for the negotiation for meaning. The number of frameworks and dimensions that are included here may challenge some readers, but as with all chapters in the volume, the presence of classroom scenarios, guiding questions, and summary and implication sections allow readers with varied interests and background with SLA and linguistic theory to read selectively. Importantly, Sykes and Reinhardt present compelling examples of how interaction in the classroom can be informed, and possibly enhanced, by attention to how games are structured, and additionally they make the point that revisiting game experiences in the classroom (wrap-around activities) can enhance opportunities for learning. A taxonomy of games types and genres, with suggestions for their use in L2TL contexts, is included in Appendix 2 for additional reference. Chapter four focuses on feedback, an essential element to both instructed L2 learning and game play experience. Drawing primarily on the sociocultural concepts of zone of proximal development and scaffolding, the authors explain that feedback is itself an important form of instruction. The chapter touches on challenges instructors may face in giving feedback, such as inadequate time to provide individualized and temporally immediate support, and then describe how commonly used game mechanics address these issues. A quite comprehensive description of common feedback mechanisms used in online games is depicted in table format (p. 61), and additional examples of game-based, gameenhanced and game-informed feedback-as-instruction are included at the end of the chapter. Chapters five and six explore the roles of context and motivation, respectively, as they relate to processes of language learning and online gaming environments. The context discussion revisits Hallidayan notions of context of situation to describe the importance of embedding discrete elements of the L2 in more complex realizations of culture and language. Sykes and Reinhardt make a useful two-part distinction between the given and often novelistic narrative of games and actual game play. The latter, termed the context of play (p. 73), forms the agentive space that is created through player actions and it is the interplay between a compelling event-driven narrative and player-generated actions that can result in optimal flow activity of the sort described by Czikszentmihalyi (e.g., 1990, discussed in Chapter 6). The authors note that not all games possess high-quality narratives, but those that do can form productive language learning environments, especially when learning the L2 is understood as necessary for playing a desirable game. This dynamic of high motivation for a game stimulating (or even providing the core rationale for) L2 learning is perhaps one of the most compelling reasons for language educators (and students) to seriously explore the potential of commercial game environments and the often large and committed communities that develop around them (see also Thorne, Black, & Sykes, 2009). Chapter seven pulls the book together as the authors summarize key elements across the text, concluding that developmentally useful games for L2TL (and of course not all are) provide opportunities for high levels of learner agency and engagement, form complex, emergent, and integrated systems, and that successful games promote learning to play rather than playing to learn (Arnseth, 2006, is referenced here). Language at Play is a clearly written and tightly organized book. Throughout the volume, the authors
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describe, as well as critique and apply to game-related contexts, well-chosen SLA research and pedagogical approaches, and by so doing create a framework that flows coherently across the seven chapters that comprise the volume. Appendixes include a glossary of terms, list of games, guide to game types and genres, and an L2TL-digital game evaluation guide. In terms of omissions and possible critiques, we note that at first glance, the book may appear to have an overly compartmentalized structure, with a table of contents which alone runs to six full pages. However, an obvious benefit to a highly modularized (and richly intertextually referenced) layout is that readers who are interested in, for example, implementation and pedagogy, can readily find these portions of the text across chapters, and reciprocally, SLA enthusiasts and researchers will have no difficulty locating discussion of relevant theory (here primarily systemic-functional, sociocultural, interactionist, and taskbased approaches). We had hoped to see a treatment of augmented reality or place-based game design (e.g, Holden & Sykes, 2011; Squire, 2009), which is an increasingly prevalent technique that utilizes GPS-enabled handsets to emplace players in goal-directed actions in the physical world (rather than primarily or only in front of a computer screen), but this was perhaps beyond the scope of the current volume. We had also been expecting a critical discussion of gamification the practice of applying game mechanics and techniques to non-game contexts and problems. In its negative form, gamification has been criticized as the practice of adding points or levels to otherwise pedagogically uninspired activity (e.g., Bogost, 2011) in other words, a version of the lipstick-on-a-pig problem. Gamification has the potential, of course, to positively transform or even revolutionize some L2TL practices and paradigms, but it is also a seductive, increasingly overused, and often shallowly construed concept, and hence a discussion of this issue would have improved the criticality of volume. In summary, Sykes and Reinhardt, both of whom are established second language researchers and new media innovators, have brought together processes of language learning, pedagogy, and the use and design of digital games to produce a lucid, engaging, and highly useful volume. The text is rich with examples, provides a variety of exercises, questions, and project types for a diversity of audiences, and includes comprehensive suggestions for additional reading, investigation of existing games, and design ideas for experienced as well as would-be L2TL game developers. In short, the book is an invaluable resource for those engaged in language education, applied linguistics, and the considered use and design of games and related media as they come to inform 21st century trajectories of language development. ABOUT THE REVIEWERS Steven L. Thorne holds faculty appointments in the Department of World Languages & Literatures at Portland State University (USA) and the Department of Applied Linguistics at the University of Groningen (The Netherlands). His research interests include explorations of new media, intercultural communication, indigenous language revitalization, and work that draws upon cultural-historical activity theory, contextual traditions of language analysis, and usage-based and distributed approaches to language development. Email: steven.thorne@pdx.edu Erin Watters is an Adjunct Research Assistant for the Literacy, Language and Technology Research Group at Portland State University and an ESL instructor with Portland English Language Academy (USA). Her research interests include the development of professional workshops for educators focusing on intercultural competencies in the classroom, heritage language instruction, and online language course development. Email: erinwatters@gmail.com
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REFERENCES Arnseth, H. C. (2006). Learning to play or playing to learn: A critical account of the models of communication informing educational research on computer gameplay. Games Studies, 6(1). Retrieved from: http://www. gamestudies.org/0601/articles/arnseth Bogost, I. (2011). Gamification is bullshit. The Atlantic, August 9, 2011. Retrieved from: http://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2011/08/gamification-is-bullshit/243338/ Cornillie, F., Thorne, S. L., & Desmet, P. (2012). Digital games for language learning: From hype to insight? ReCALL Journal, 24(3), 243256. Czikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. New York, NY: Harper. Ellis, R. (2003). Task-based language learning and teaching. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Fullerton, T. (2008). Game design workshop: A playcentric approach to creating innovative games. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier. Gee, J. (2007). What video games have to teach us about learning and literacy (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Palgrave Macillan. Halliday, M. A. K. (1978). Language as social semiotic: The social interpretation of language and meaning. London, UK: Edward Arnold. Holden, C., & Sykes, J. (2011). Leveraging mobile games for place-based language learning. International Journal of Game-Based Learning, 1(2), 118. Squire, K. D. (2009). Mobile media learning: Multiplicities of place. Horizon, 17(1), 7080. Steinkeuhler, C. (2007). Massively multiplayer online gaming as a constellation of literacy practices. eLearning, 4, 297-318. Thorne, S. L., Black, R. W., & Sykes, J. (2009). Second language use, socialization, and learning in Internet interest communities and online games. Modern Language Journal, 93, 802821. Thorne, S. L., & Fischer, I. (2012). Online gaming as sociable media. ALSIC: Apprentissage des Langues et Systmes dInformation et de Communication, 15(1). URL: http://alsic.revues.org/2450; DOI: 10.4000/alsic.2450 Van den Branden, K., Bygate, M., & Norris, J. (2009). Task-based language teaching: A reader. Amsterdam, Netherlands: John Benjamins.
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Language Learning & Technology http://llt.msu.edu/issues/october2013/kimetal.pdf
STUDENTS PERCEPTIONS AND EXPERIENCES OF MOBILE LEARNING

Daesang Kim, Valdosta State University Daniel Rueckert, Oklahoma City University Dong-Joong Kim, Korea University Daeryong Seo, Indiana State University This study focused on how students perceive the use of mobile devices to create a personalized learning experience outside the classroom. Fifty-three students in three graduate TESOL classes participated in this study. All participants completed five class projects designed to help them explore mobile learning experiences with their own mobile devices, incorporating technologies such as YouTube and VoiceThread. We identified characteristics of these mobile users in Mobile Language Learning (MLL), and the results illuminate how MLL opens up new pedagogical scaffoldings. Keywords: Students Perceptions, Learning Experiences, Mobile Learning APA Citation:. Kim, D., Rueckert, D., Kim, D.-J., & Seo, D. Students perceptions and experiences of mobile learning. Language Learning & Technology, 17(3), 5273. Retrieved from http://llt.msu.edu/issues/october2013/kimetal.pdf Received: June 26, 2012; Accepted: April 28, 2013; Published: October 1, 2013 Copyright: Daesang Kim, Daniel Rueckert, Dong-Joong Kim, and Daeryong Seo INTRODUCTION In recent years, researchers have begun to investigate language learning using various mobile devices such as mobile phones (e.g., Wong, Chin, Tan, & Liu, 2010), pocket PCs (e.g., Wong & Looi, 2010), and Apple iPhones (e.g., Jong, Specht, & Koper, 2010). These researchers often concern themselves with design features that capitalize upon Wi-Fi access, Internet browsers, and text input. Most of these researchers have found that embracing the mobility and connectivity of mobile devices may lead to innovation in language learning for students across different environments (Looi et al., 2010; Tai, 2012). For instance, it has been shown that mobile phones are increasingly used for improving knowledge of vocabulary (Stockwell, 2010; Zhang, Song, & Burston, 2011), grammar, listening, and speaking (Rueckert, Kiser, & Cho, 2012), in both formal and informal settings (Demouy & Kukulska-Hulme, 2010). Furthermore, the use of mobile technologies to support content with social communication features (e.g., the ability to review content and then leave comments) can empower students to participate in more collaborative learning environments. Advances in mobile technologies have enabled educators to send instructional messages in flexible ways. With new technologies including mobile computers, Pocket PCs, Apple iPhones, Android phones, and tablets, instructors and students can communicate through voice and image as well as text. Using mobile devices for educational purposes is becoming a common expectation of learners (Lan & Huang, 2012). For instance, Valk, Rashid, and Elder (2010) demonstrated how mobile phone-facilitated learning can give students in developing countries increased access to educational materials and services, particularly in rural and remote regions. In some previous studies on small displays (e.g., Chen et al., 2003; Maniar, Bennett, Hand, & Allan, 2008), small screen size was found to create cognitive disadvantages related to students attention and visual perception (Kim & Kim, 2012). However, students have also reported wanting to have more options to make learning tools more convenient so they can study when and where they want to. Typically, the use of personal devices affords students ownership of learning, which may
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Daesang Kim, Daniel Rueckert, Dong-Joong Kim, and Daeryong Seo
Students Perceptions and Experiences
lead to positive language learning experiences (Kukulska-Hulme, 2009). However, the innovation of technology-based learning (referred to in this study as Mobile Language Learning or MLL) continues to challenge educators to develop new teaching and learning methods. Unfortunately, many teachers and students resist change in teaching and learning with new technology because they do not think of themselves as part of a new learning culture. In addition, technology-oriented trainings and resources may not meet the needs of individuals in understanding the nature of learning. Stockwell (2007) argued that survey results about mobile learning (e.g., Thornton & Houser, 2002) in classroom settings will be different when the learners have a choice to use mobile devices (e.g., mobile phones) or something else (e.g., desktop PCs) outside the classroom. In later studies, Stockwell (2008, 2010) indicated that technological, pedagogical, psychological, or even environmental barriers often prevent learners from selecting mobile devices like smartphones for vocabulary learning activities, even though they have a positive view of mobile learning. Technology Adopter Category Index Rogers (2003) defined five categories of adopters (Innovators, Early Adopters, Early Majority, Late Majority, and Laggards) and proposed that the adoption of an innovation follows an S-curve when plotted over time. In the case of MLL, it will first be adopted by the innovators, followed in turn by the early adopters, early majority, and late majority, with laggards finally adopting MLL when it is widely available. In order to accommodate and support these diverse adopters, understanding their characteristics in the process of adopting MLL is essential, especially when educators seek to promote successful personal learning with new mobile technologies. It is thought that students positive perceptions and experiences with mobile technologies will encourage participation and acceptance of MLL (Pollara & Kee Broussard, 2011). In this study, we followed Dugass (2005) Technology Adopter Category Index (TACI), which describes different ways in which participants can adopt new technology including mobile devices. An overview of this categorization is shown in Table 1. Table 1. Technology Adopter Category Index (Dugas, 2005)
Index 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Adopter Category Description I tend to latch onto new technology as soon as it is available to me. My interest lies more with the technology itself than with its application to specific problems. Between 1 and 3 I explore new technologies for their potential to bring about improvements. I am willing to try new things, and am not averse to occasional failure. Between 3 and 5 I adopt a wait and see attitude toward new technology and want examples of close-to-home successes before adopting. I want to see value in an innovation before adopting it. Between 5 and 7 I accept new technology later in the game, once the technology has become established among the majority. Between 7 and 9 I am usually not interested in adopting new technology.
The TACI score is inversely proportional to the participants degree of comfort with innovation. That is, an individual with a low TACI score is very comfortable with innovation, while an individual with a high TACI score is not comfortable with innovation. For the purpose of this study, a TACI classification
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demonstrates participants willingness to adopt MLL in their own classrooms in the future. Reflection for Learning The value of reflection has been extensively explored as being a form of learning process through individual experiences (Wu & Looi, 2012). Denton (2011) has pointed out that reflection represents the human capacity for higher-order thinking, specifically, our ability to make connections between thoughts (p. 838). However, to encourage students to think about their learning, researchers have used the term reflection to represent different levels of thinking, such as content-based reflection, meta-cognitive reflection, self-authorship reflection, and intensive reflection (Grossman, 2009). In light of the goals of our study, participants content-based reflections about their personal experiences, thoughts, and feelings about MLL were thought to be most beneficial and therefore were sought. There has been little investigation of the uses of mobile devices in current language learning; few of these studies include learner reflections. Language teachers and language students views concerning the use of MLL for their own teaching and learning are also not well known. In this study, we focused on how students in a graduate program in Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL) use their personal mobile devices (including mobile computers) as learning tools. We specifically tried to document when their coursework allowed them to create personal experiences that engaged their emotions and learning processes while using mobile learning environments outside the classroom. The study asked the following research questions: 1. What are students perceptions of personal mobile devices used for learning? 2. How do students use mobile devices to connect, communicate, and collaborate with other students as they create personalized mobile learning experiences? METHODOLOGY Three instruments were used to collect primary data: a pre-study survey, student reflections for class projects, and a post-study survey. All participants were required to complete the pre-study survey, which was administered one week prior to the beginning of the study. This survey gathered students views on their use of personal mobile devices; results of this survey determined the students different TACI classifications (i.e., their degree of comfort with adopting new technology). Based on the types of mobile devices they owneddetermined from the results of the pre-class surveyparticipants were divided into two user groups (A and B) to complete this studys six class projects. After finishing each class project, all students were required to complete a student reflection as a separate assignment. Approximately one week after all the projects were completed, a post-study survey was administered and collected to re-examine the students TACI classification score. The post-study survey scores were used as a proxy for understanding how exposure to and use of mobile technologies by a student can impact overall willingness to adopt new technology. Participants A total of 53 MA students in TESOL were recruited from three different graduate classes during the spring 2012 semester at one Central US university. As shown in Table 2, of the 53 students, 17 were male and 36 were female. Participants ages ranged from 21 years to 50 years. Some students were simultaneously enrolled in more than one class in which they used the mobile devices. Participants varied in their levels of experience as language teachers and came from various countries around the world.
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Table 2. Range of Participants Ages

Age Male Female Total 2125 0 13 13 2630 2 6 8 3135 8 5 13 3640 4 4 8 4145 2 8 10 4650 1 0 1 Total 17 36 53
Using the results of the pre-survey, the participants were separated into two groups based on the devices they recorded as owning: Group A consisted of mobile device users and Group B consisted of mobile computer users. These groups were defined in order to compare the results of six class projects in the specialized learning environments as shown in Table 3. Table 3. Mobile Device User Groups
Group Number of participants Registered devices Group A 25 students Apple iPhones, Android Phones, iPads, tablets, and other mobile devices Group B 28 students Laptops, MacBook, Netbooks, and other mobile computers
Survey Questionnaires The pre-study survey was used to gather students perceptions toward new technology such as mobile devices and to determine the students pre-study TACI classification. The post-study survey was used to re-evaluate students TACI classification and to investigate how exposure to and use of mobile technologies as a student can impact the students overall willingness to adopt new technology. Class Projects A specialized learning environment (i.e., a mobile learning site) was created to simplify the students use of their personal mobile devices, when tasked to complete the different mobile activity assignments. The authors developed the layout and design of the learning environment to support different mobile operating systems (e.g., iOS, Android OS, Windows Phone, etc.), mobile browsers (e.g., the native Android browser, Opera Mini, Firefox, etc.) and to support the significantly reduced screen sizes of their mobile devices. For example, the learning content was fitted to the different screen sizes so that the learners could easily access it with their mobile devices when they logged in to the mobile learning site. Students could post their responses to topic prompts that the instructor had posted on a discussion board and then respond to postings made by their peers. This learning site facilitated the use of social online sites such as YouTube, Facebook, and VoiceThread, as shown in Figure 1. Class projects were designed according to the following criteria: (a) projects must demonstrate the use of personal mobile devices for connecting, communicating, and collaborating as students create personalized learning experiences; (b) projects must demonstrate the use of personal mobile devices for MLL such as participating in individual and group discussion activities; (c) projects must demonstrate the use of everyday technologies (already known or easily learned) for MLL; and (d) projects must demonstrate both quantitative and reflective information that it promotes new learning experience with mobile technologies. Based on these criteria, a total of six class projects were generated: a bio-sketch, an online discussion,
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View of iPhone user
View of laptop user
Figure 1. An example of the specialized learning environment for different users. Spring Break Facebook updates, YouTube video watching, VoiceThread presentations, and YouTube video authoring. These projects shared concerns such as the need to engage with mobile activities and the perceived benefits of using mobile devices to cooperate with others as a way to trigger personally meaningful learning experiences in MLL. Appendix A further describes the different learning tasks in each of these projects. All class projects spanned a 12-week period between January 2012 and April 2012. For each project, students were given two weeks to make their contributions. Student Reflections We also sought to document what students thought about their learning experiences with mobile devices. To this end, we developed a student reflection questionnaire to elicit their thoughts and suggestions. We also focused on student resistance and possible reasons why the use of mobile technologies would be resisted. The reflection questions solicited students thoughts on four categories of interaction with the mobile resources: how to connect, communicate, collaborate, and create personalized learning. Each category more specifically asked about the types of tools students used, the number of times they used their mobile devices, the time period, their feelings about the tools used, and their suggestions for improvements. The full questionnaire is shown in Appendix B. RESULTS Pre-Survey Questionnaire Fifty-three language education students responded to the pre-survey during the first week of class (see
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Appendix C). One interesting finding was that 84% of the participants indicated that they use a mobile computer many times a day outside of class, but less than half the students use a smartphone (48%) or other mobile devices (28%) with Internet (see Figure 2). Although the results of the survey may not be generalized to all language students, this finding would imply that many students are reluctant to use their advanced mobile devices like smartphones outside of class as Stockwell has found (2007, 2008, 2010).
Figure 2. Percentage of students who use mobile devices with Internet many times a day outside of class. This finding may also indicate that students do not have widespread access to these mobile devices. However, the participants also generally had positive views towards the use of mobile devices, particularly that these devices increased access to resources (44% of students agreed and 44% of students strongly agreed) as well as improved communication with teachers and classmates (52% of students agreed and 28% of students strongly agreed). Student adopter index classifications were measured using the TACI as shown in Figure 3. With a skewness of .07, this distribution was not significantly skewed. An independent-samples t-test was conducted to compare the mean TACI classifications between these two user groups. There was a significant difference between the mobile device users of Group A (M = 4.0, SD = 1.68) and the mobile computer users of Group B (M = 5.54, SD = 1.86), t(47) = -3.04, p = .04, d = .87 (large effect size).
Figure 3. Frequency of students pre-study TACI classifications.
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Group A had lower adopter category index scores than Group B, which suggests that the participants in Group Athe mobile device usersare more open to using new technologies compared to Group Bthe mobile computer users. As a general conclusion, it can be inferred that the students who are mobile device owners would be more likely to use mobile technologies in their future classrooms. Class Project Reflections Approximately one week after completing each class project, students were required to complete the reflection questionnaire regarding the project. For four out of six class project activities, it was observed that some students who had originally registered their mobile devices for learning stopped using them and switched to laptop computers, as shown in Table 4. Switching from mobile devices to mobile computers, such as laptops, is a common event among users, as documented by Stockwell (2010). This can happen for a number of reasons, which may include small screen size, keyboard complexity, and even battery drainage. Although the members of this group were considered to be early adopters, the actual practicality and difficulty level of using the mobile devices frustrated them, and a large percentage of them ultimately switched to a more comfortable means of completing their tasks. Table 4. Number of Group Participants by Class Projects
Group A Registered user Bio-sketch Online discussion Spring Break Watching YouTube VoiceThread Creating YouTube 25 15 13 N/A 10 9 22 Group B 28 37 36 N/A 35 38 23
Overall, a total of 237 student reflections regarding five of six class projects were analyzed (because of technical difficulties with the Facebook account, this project had to be excluded from the study). Reflections were first analyzed by raw numbers (i.e., frequency and time/hours) and then with other information about participants personal views on the use of personal mobile devices for learning (e.g., feelings, suggestions, and advantages/disadvantages). The four themes that students were asked to reflect upon were clearly identifiable in the data: (a) how to connect (i.e., mobile connectivity), (b) how to communicate (i.e., mobile communication), (c) how to collaborate (i.e., mobile collaboration), and (d) how to create personalized learning experience (e.g., mobile learning experience). Each item from the student reflections was tallied to create the frequency distributions shown in Appendix D. An independent-samples t-test was conducted to discover if significant differences existed between the groups in numerical data from the student reflections. The results revealed that there were three statistically significant differences between the groups in the amount of connection in the Watching YouTube video project as well as in the amount of communication in both the Bio-sketch and VoiceThread projects (see Table 5). We are led to determine that the ease of connecting and communicating on mobile devices in learning activities facilitated the Group A participants more frequent interaction.
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Table 5. Three Statistically Significant Differences and Effect Sizes

Project Watching YouTube video Bio-sketch VoiceThread Group A M 4.89 SD 2.98 Group B M 2.93 SD 1.76 t 2.433 df 35 p .020 d .80 C.I. .333.60
2.75 7.00
.62 5.93
1.96 3.85
.98 .32
2.551 2.050
35 40
.015 .047
.96 .75
.161.50 .056.25
The information from the open-ended questions (e.g., feelings, suggestions, and advantages/ disadvantages) was used to determine the participants subjective views. Overall, the comments in the reflections revealed a positive attitude toward learning with mobile devices (including mobile computers), but there are still a number of barriers as shown in the representative quotes listed in Table 6. Post-Survey Questionnaire Figure 4 shows the different distributions of the students TACI scores from both the pre- and post-survey. Of particular interest was if and how the participants TACI changed through exposure to activities that encouraged them to use their own mobile devices to complete their coursework. We used the Table 6. Examples of Students Responses to Open-Ended Questions Category Mobile connectivity Group A I felt that it was convenient and advantage of using time effectively. easy to connect accessibility (advantage), download speed (disadvantage) Overall, I felt using my mobile phone to complete my assignment and communicate with my peers was convenient. It was different using my phone instead of my laptop. The advantage was doing it while being away from the computer. The disadvantages were slower Internet connectivity and smaller keypad. It was uncomfortable to read others opinion on smaller devices. I was amazed at the convenience of using the iPhone. Its a big challenge for collaboration but its useful. I felt it was meaningful. It was a good tool for creating personalized learning. Group B I felt okay about it. Easy connection; convenience It was easy to watch the video. The video was a good change of learning. I felt it was easy to communicate with others. I feel it is a useful tool (Online discussion board) for communication and we can communicate with each other and get the ideas easily. I felt good about it. It has many advantages like communicating with people easily. Its a good way for us to learn and experience. One of the disadvantages is that collaboration may not be very effective. As an advantage, the learner has the time to think freely and comfortably. I felt satisfied. It gives advantages to create personalized learning.
Mobile communication
Mobile collaboration
Personalized learning experience
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Figure 4. TACI in the pre- and post-survey results. independent-samples t-test to evaluate the difference between the means of TACI from the pre-survey (M = 4.79, SD = 1.913) and post-survey (M = 3.81, SD = 1.778), and the result was statistically significant, t(81) = 2.321, p = .023, d = .53, 95% CI [.41, 1.82]. Fewer students participated in the postsurvey due to attrition. This indicates that exposure to mobile device use in the MA in TESOL program was effective in lowering the overall TACI of these students. Although we did not assess depth of learning in this study, we believe that the ways of learning with mobile technologies are different even when the same learning activity is required for all students. For instance, the use of mobile devices has added a potential new dimension for language learning such as opportunities to learn and practice anytime and anywhere (Demouy & Kukulska-Hulme, 2010). DISCUSSION Research Question 1 The TESOL students in this study provided a useful view of what learners are currently doing and of what they can do with mobile devices regarding MLL outside of the classroom. In terms of activities, the participants felt that as the use of mobile devices becomes more pervasive, these devices will have more potential to provide greater mobile connectivity and communication. Other researchers (e.g., Cavus & Ibrahim, 2009; Lu, 2008; Stockwell, 2010) have also reported positive reactions to the use of mobile devices for language learning because of these devices portability and perceived convenience. However, there are also practical challenges. For example, students might have limited access to mobile devices due to device and service costs. The participants in this study also reported frustration with new technology when used as a learning tool. This has no bearing on whether or not more mobile content should be developed, but it is important to remember that students may not have consistent access to mobile technologies (including new mobile devices) for learning at home. For instance, one student in this study remarked, Never assume that all students have access to all new technologies. Unsurprisingly, Group A participants who used mobile devices (e.g., Android phones, Apple iPhones, iPads, tablets, etc.) for learning had lower TACI scores than participants who registered only their mobile computers (e.g., laptops, netbooks, MacBook, etc.). It seems that the individual who is more highly receptive to innovation (i.e., being an innovator or early adopter) are more eager to use mobile technologies as a learning tool beyond their primary function as a simple communication or entertainment tool. Figure 5 shows the plot of the pre- and post-TACI utilizing Rogers Adopter Categories: Innovators
(index 1), Early Adopters (index 2 and 3), Early Majority (index 4 and 5), Late Majority (index 6 and 7), and Laggards (index 8 and 9). As stated above, there was a statistically significant difference in individuals TACI between the pre-survey and post-survey; specifically, more participants were classified with a lower TACI in the post-survey than in the pre-survey.
Figure 5. A comparison of adopter categories from the pre- and post-survey. These results demonstrate that providing a mobile learning environment to language educators may help them become more comfortable with using their own devices. As students used their mobile technologies, their TACI scores generally went down. It appears that students will change their receptivity to technological innovation (i.e., adopter category) and embrace learning with mobile technologies when they have been exposed to MLL over the length of time required to pass through the innovation-decision process. Moreover, it became clear that current mobile learning environments have to cater to the earlier adopters (e.g., Innovator and Early Adopter) to supply convenient access to mobile content while also accommodating the students who fall more on the laggard end of the TACI spectrum. As mobile technologies develop and become more readily available for all students, the number of adopters of mobile technology will increase. As more learners are exposed to and make use of mobile learning environments, they will have richer learning opportunities. This is especially true for TESOL students in the field of language education. As they become more comfortable with using mobile learning devices and change their receptivity to new technology, they can see more value in adopting new technology in their classes. If they change their beliefs about the use of new technology, they should be more likely to use mobile learning devices for pedagogical purposes in their future classes. Although many educators and schools have worked hard to make mobile learning available to all students, the usage of mobile technologies for language learning should be carefully implemented and should take student perceptions into consideration. In other words, educators should embrace students perceptions and recognize them as essential when designing effective mobile learning environments. This can potentially empower students by engaging them in personalized learning experiences with mobile technologies. If future teachers have positive experiences using mobile technologies while they are students, they will be more likely to use those mobile technologies when they become classroom teachers. Research Question 2 Understanding how students use their mobile devices to connect, communicate, and collaborate as they create new learning experiences can better illuminate how MLL opens up new pedagogical scaffoldings.
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To answer our research question, we explored the characteristics of mobile learners in terms of their experience (i.e., mobile connectivity, mobile communication, mobile collaboration, and personalized learning experience); we also explored the practical and pedagogical considerations in designing a positive mobile learning environment that cultivates confidence in technology use. Krashen and Terrell (1983) discussed the importance of lowering the affective filter when teaching language to facilitate greater retention of language. The use of mobile learning environments and activities can be very effective, but for those who identify more closely as laggards, the anxiety caused by having to use new technologies may increase their affective filters. If the activity is not designed to be easy to use in practice, these students will walk away in frustration and the learning objective of the activity may be obscured due to the increased stress and anxiety of using the new technology. Mobile Connectivity & Communication In the Watching YouTube video project, Group A participants (M = 4.89, SD = 2.98) more frequently connected to mobile content with their mobile devices (e.g., Apple iPhones, Android phones, iPads, tablets, etc.) than Group B participants (M = 2.93, SD = 1.76) who used mobile computers. These individuals demonstrated their ability and willingness to use their mobile devices when the project was related to simple mobile activities such as viewing mobile content. This is not to say that all learning needs to require such simple activities, but it should be kept in mind that learners may be more willing to engage in activities that incorporate easy-to-use features of their mobile devices. That is in part because mobile devices offer unique opportunities to deliver multimedia content in authentic learning situations (Jong, Specht, & Koper, 2010, p. 110). Small screens such as those on smartphones often have technical limitations (Kim & Kim, 2012) compared to laptops relatively larger screens. However, our general results and conclusions drawn from these students reflections suggest that transmitting mobile content through small mobile devices (e.g., Apple iPhones, Android phones, iPads, and tablets) might be just as useful as providing content through mobile computers if the learning environment is made pedagogically user friendly. Statements from the participants such as I like watching YouTube videos on my mobile device, so doing it for a class assignment made me more excited about it and I felt that it was convenient and had the advantage of using time effectively support this conclusion. Recently, adding Internet access to mobile devices has extended users communication ability from simply telephoning to emailing, creating and sharing multimedia messages, accessing social media like Facebook, and so forth. When applied to learning activities, these mobile communication services can increase students extrinsic motivation to participate in learning, which may lead to positive learning outcomes (Rau, Gao, & Wu, 2006). There were significant differences in the amount of mobile communication for two of the five projects. In particular, the participants in Group A (M = 7.00, SD = 5.93) used their mobile devices to communicate with other learners more often than the learners in Group B during the VoiceThread project (M = 3.85, SD = .32). We assume this was because the participants were able to use voice commentary as a primary type of communication, which is easier to do using the built-in camera and microphone on a smartphone than with a laptop, which may or may not have a webcam. This interesting condition demonstrates that incorporating the voice commentary feature in mobile learning activities can increase the interactions between students as a positive result of using advanced mobile technology. This same tendency was observed in the Bio-sketch project (Group A, M = 2.75, SD = .62 and Group B, M = 1.96, SD = .98), in part because this particular project was related to simple mobile activities such as viewing and writing short answers. The analysis of the reflection question What kind of tools did you use? indicate that the learners preferred to use their laptops as a connecting tool, especially if they were required to participate in activities related to sharing or creating (See Appendix D). Overall, the choice of mobile devices was laptop > netbooks > Apple iPhones > Android phones > tablets. In other words, even if students own advanced mobile devices (e.g., Android phones, Apple iPhones, and tablets), they might not necessarily be able to use them as a primary learning tool for completing mobile learning activities. Learners often to
chose not to use advanced mobile devices because of concerns similar to those reported in Stockwells (2010) study, such as small screen and keyboard. Indeed, some students wrote It was uncomfortable to read others opinion on smaller devices and I am not good at typing with mobile device. It appears that students final decision of which mobile device to use for completing learning activities was not necessarily a result of having the ability and willingness to use the device as a learning tool. For example, the online discussion board was the primary communication tool to facilitate learning activities that involved communicating with their classmates. In particular, students cited difficulty providing written commentary in that particular learning environment: I used my iPad to read discussion board posts, but preferred to use my laptop to post my own responses; When responding to the video, I didnt love using the keyboard on my mobile device. Similarly, while participants in Group A seem to be more willing and confident about using mobile technologies, learning using these devices was sometimes still very challenging for them. This may also be due to challenges related to the instructional design features involved with the commonly used technologies that were employed in this study. For example, the Creating a YouTube Video project was made more difficult because of participants inability to upload large video files with their mobile devices. In addition and as mentioned in the previous section, students faced an unintended practical issue with VoiceThread (at the time of the study, there was an app for the Apple iPhone, but not for Android phones). When faced with this obstacle, Android users switched to portable computers to complete their projects. It appears that many of these technologies, though well designed for entertainment purposes, became less user-friendly when applied to pedagogical activities. Though we initially expected to see differences between learner groups as we observed how they thought about their learning experiences with mobile devices, our results showed no significant differences between groups in terms of the questionnaire categories addressing mobile collaboration and personalized learning experience. Mobile Collaboration We intended to use discussion board activities as a mode of collaboration among participants in this study. The majority of participants reported that discussion boards have many benefits (e.g., creating and sharing messages) as an online collaboration tool for mobile learning activities. However, there were some technical problems with the discussion boards in this study. For example, Group A participants may have encountered more technical obstacles such as frustration with the format of the collaboration and with how long it took to type out complex ideas on their mobile devices. In addition, the format of our discussion board with YouTube and VoiceThread features was confusing because it had too many steps (e.g., logging in to different online tools with different passwords and permissions); participants were constantly busy with technical details instead of being able to focus on more important learning issues. Thus, there is potential for future versions of these activities to be excellent learning tools on mobile devices, but these were not practical or user-friendly enough to be pedagogically effective. In contrast, as mobile computer technology has evolved, Group B participants sometimes felt that there was no difference in benefits between mobile devices, as the following statement indicates: I didnt use my phone, because I didnt feel there were any advantages greater than using my laptop. Personalized Learning Experience The student reflection summary (See Appendix D) suggests that the participants in this study felt that they could create a personalized meaningful learning experience no matter which mobile device they used for their learning activities. One interesting finding was that fewer participants of Group A felt that the Bio-sketch (53.3% of the participants) was a personally meaningful learning experience than Watching YouTube video (90.0% of the participants) and Creating YouTube video (95.5% of the participants). This seems to indicate that
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students were more interested in using their mobile devices for the latter two projects, which coincidentally included a YouTube component, and the students created a greater personally meaningful use of tools than projects that required text entry only without a multimedia component. In other words, the students did not like writing about themselves, by themselves, as much as they liked watching videos and commenting to each other. This would support the conjecture that writing simple texts without peer interactions could negatively impact the perceived personally meaningful nature of the learning activity. Without meaningful interactions with the language, a language cannot be learned effectively (Norton, 2000). Limitations of the Study There are a few limitations of this study. First, this study was designed to observe how students are thinking about learning experiences with mobile devices that engage their emotions. Thus, the findings from this study may not be generalized to assessing depth of learning with mobile technologies. Second, the number of participants was small (N = 53), so their reflections may not be equally applicable to all mobile learner perceptions. Another limitation was that the practical disadvantages of small devices seen in this study may have already been resolved by other technological innovations (e.g., wireless keyboard and screen share). CONCLUSION The findings of this study suggest that mobile technologies have the potential to provide new learning experiences. In these experiences, students can engage more frequently in learning activities outside of class, providing them with more learning opportunities in their community of practice. The fact that the students TACI scores dropped significantly after participating in these activities indicates that the use of mobile technologies in these classes opens up new avenues for interaction and learning. The participants became more willing to adopt new technologies into their own lives, which revolve around teaching English as a profession. Furthermore, the t-test results indicated statistically significant changes in their views towards mobile technology. While changes in views do not necessarily result in immediate changes in behavior, this experience may have given the participants the impetus they need to adopt mobile technologies more fully in their own classrooms. In addition, increased participation in a community of practice should result in greater proficiency in language (Norton, 2000) and other content areas. Although many educators and teachers already use technology in class, they should consider modifying existing class activities to make them more practical and meaningful for language learning when using mobile technologies. How students use mobile technology as a learning tool is dependent on their everchanging relationship with these mobile technologies. Teachers should remember the technological demands of mobile devices when planning activities in order to give the activities a valuable pedagogical component while being easy to use. In order to facilitate training and planning, this study has provided insight into the views of mobile learners as they connect, communicate, and collaborate to create personalized learning experiences with mobile technologies. We hope that our analysis of the characteristics of mobile users will provide some constructs for pedagogical thinking about enhancing MLL with new mobile technologies. Key issues in facilitating future language learning with new mobile technologies include developing seamless learning environments for all users that capitalize on technologies and incorporate a variety of available content while reducing the devices limitations. In addition to their ease of use, universal availability of the mobile technologies makes them a viable and exciting option for language learning. Keeping these issues in mind, developers and educators should furnish students with options they can use to create personally meaningful language learning with mobile technologies.
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APPENDIX A. Summary of the Six Class Projects

Project Bio-sketch Description On their first day of class, students in all three classes were given the task of introducing themselves to their peers via the online discussion board. Specifically, they were asked to give their names, to state where they are from, and to answer two or three questions providing information about themselves that was relevant to the course content. An online discussion board was used in each class to prompt students to think more deeply about the topics being studied and to articulate their ideas and opinions about a variety of issues related to their course(s). Students were required to post their own responses to the topic prompts that the instructor had posted and then to respond to postings made by two of their peers. This project promoted collaboration by posing problems and requiring students to engage in discussion to find solutions to those problems. The authors created Facebook pages for each class and friended the students to include them in the groups. Students were required to use their mobile devices to report what they were doing during spring break on their classs Facebook page. Students in each class were assigned to watch a YouTube video that provided information about their course. There was no additional component to this task. Students simply logged into the mobile learning website and were able to watch YouTube videos that were already embedded there. Every student was supplied a VoiceThread membership. Students were assigned the specific task of creating a collaborative learning experience using VoiceThread as an instructional tool. All projects required students to create a unique VoiceThread presentation and to post audio comments on their own and others presentations. These projects asked students to collaborate to better serve their future students by creating practical and useful activities using this technology. All students were assigned presentations that would require them to create their own video and then post it to the class YouTube channel. Peers had to leave comments for these newly created videos. The comments were designed to give peer assessment of the strengths and potential modifications that could be made to improve the quality of the recorded presentations.
Online discussion
Spring break
Watching YouTube videos VoiceThread
Creating a YouTube video
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APPENDIX B. Reflection Questionnaire

Category 1. Connecting Items 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 2. Communicating 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 3. Collaborating 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 4. Creating personalized learning 4.1 What kind of tools (apps) did you use to connect to this project? (e.g., Safari, iPhone, Netbook, Firefox, etc.) How many times did you use your mobile device for this project? (e.g., 10 times total) How long did you use your mobile device for this project? (e.g., 1 hour total) How did you feel? Any suggestions? What advantages/ disadvantages did you feel? What kind of tools did you use to communicate for this project? (e.g., telephone, online discussion board, etc.) How many times did you communicate with your classmates for this project? (e.g., 5 times total) How long did you use your mobile device to communicate for this project? (e.g., 1 hour total) How did you feel? Any suggestions? What advantages/ disadvantages did you feel? What kind of tools did you use to collaborate for this project? (e.g., telephone, online discussion board, etc.) How many times did you collaborate for this project? (e.g., 5 times total) How long did you use your mobile device to collaborate for this project? (e.g., 1 hour total) How did you feel? Any suggestions? What advantages/ disadvantages did you feel? How effective were the tools you used in terms of creating a personally meaningful learning experience for yourself? While working on this project, how frequently did you consider that your learning was personally meaningful? (e.g., 50% of the time it was personally meaningful) While using your mobile device, how long was your learning personally meaningful? (e.g., 1 hour total) How did you feel? Any suggestions? What advantages/ disadvantages did you feel?
4.2
4.3 4.4
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APPENDIX C. Frequency Summary of the Survey Questionnaire

Many times per day 1. Use a desktop PC outside of class. 2. Use a mobile computer (e.g., laptop) outside of class 3. Use a smartphone (e.g. Apple iPhone or Android Phone with Internet) outside of class. 4. Use other mobile devices (e.g. iPad or Galaxy Tab with Internet) outside of class. 42% 84% 48% Once a day 10% 8% 2% Two or three times per week 24% 6% 8% Once a week 16% 2% 14% N/A
8% 0% 28%
28%
6%
2%
28%
36%
Read the instruction manual
Try to use it with your limited knowledge 40%
Ask somebody to teach you how to use it 32%
Other
N/A
5. Reaction to new technology like other mobile devices (e.g. smartphones, iPhones, iPads, Galaxy Tabs). Educational value 6. Motivation to use new technology like other mobile devices (e.g., smartphones, iPhones, iPads, Galaxy Tabs). 24%
16%
10%
0%
Entertainment value 42%
Business value 8%
The challenge of learning new technology 24%
N/A
2%
Lack of time 7. Impediment of using new technology like other mobile devices (e.g. smartphones, iPhones, iPads, Galaxy Tabs). 10%
Lack of money 50%
Lack of interest 18%
Difficulty level of the technology 20%
N/A 2%
Immediately 8. Time to master new technology like other mobile devices (e.g. smartphones, iPhones, iPads, Galaxy Tabs). 8%
A couple of hours 40%
A couple of days 32%
Weeks or months 20%
N/A 0%
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APPENDIX C. continued. Frequency Summary of the Survey Questionnaire

More teacher instruction about the technology 9. Need to effectively adopt new technology like other mobile devices (e.g. smartphones, iPhones, iPads, Galaxy Tabs). 12% More time to adopt the new technology 34% Hands on practice with the technology 46% Other N/A
4%
2%
SD 10. Mobile devices with Internet offer seamless access to digital information, and hence is a boost to this information (or technology) age. The use of mobile devices can increase flexibility of access to resources (like D2L, slides, notes, YouTube videos, etc.). The use of mobile devices is not generally very secure and so I wouldnt want to use it when I can use my desktop. The use of the mobile devices can improve communication with teachers and classmates. The use of the mobile devices can improve the learning (pedagogic) value of the course and courses are more recommendable to others. With mobile devices I do not need to depend on desktops Do you prefer mobile devices to be used for learning rather than desktop PCs? 2%
D 6%
NS 38%
A 28%
SA 20%
N/A
6%
11.
8%
0%
4%
44%
44%
0%
12.
12%
38%
22%
26%
2%
0%
13. 14.
4% 4%
4% 12%
12% 26%
52% 50%
28% 8%
0% 0%
15. 16.
8% 8%
28% 26%
22% 32%
28% 20%
14% 14%
0% 0%
Notes. E = Effective, N = Not effective, O = Other SD = Strongly disagree, D = Disagree, NS = Not Sure, A = Agree, SA = Strongly agree.
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APPENDIX D. Student Reflection Summary Tables Table 1. Mobile Connectivity

Question item Bio-sketch Group A 1.1 1.2 1.3 Tools used (%) Frequency Time/ hour 29 2.86 0.56 B 71 4 1.05 Online discussion Group A 27 6 1.41 B 73 5.29 1.32 Watching YouTube video Group A 22 4.89 1.3 B 78 2.93 0.89 VoiceThread Group A 19 22 2.29 B 81 8.66 3.1 Creating YouTube video Group A 49 12.06 3.7 B 51 12.39 4.33
Table 2. Mobile Communication

Question item Bio-sketch Group A 2.1 Tools B Online discussion Group A B Watching YouTube video Group A B VoiceThread Group A B Creating YouTube video Group A Board, Phone, E-mail, YouTube B Board, Phone, E-mail, YouTube
Board, Board, Board, Board, Phone Phone, Phone Phone E-mail, Faceto-Face
Board, Board, Board, Board, Phone Phone, Phone Phone Face-toFace
2.2 2.3
Frequency Time/ hour
2.75 0.44
1.96 0.56
3.58 1.12
3.31 0.98
3.38 1.29
2.67 0.77
7.00 2.23
3.85 1.32
8.29 1.13
7.82 2.83
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APPENDIX D, continued. Student Reflection Summary Tables Table 3. Mobile Collaboration

Question item Bio-sketch Group A 3.1 Tools Boar, Phone B Board, Phone FacetoFace 2.78 0.83 Online discussion Group A Board, Phone B Board, Phone Watching YouTube video Group A Board, Phone B Board, Phone VoiceThread Group A Board, Phone B Creating YouTube video Group A B Board, Phone, E-mail, YouTube
Board, Board, Phone Phone, E-mail, YouTube, Face-toFace 4.36 1.43 9.42 2.96
3.2 Frequency 3.3 Time/ hour
4.29 0.36
3.50 1.15
3.77 1.01
3.71 1.14
3.06 1.27
6.00 2.25
6.29 2.90
Table 4. Mobile Learning Experience

Question item Bio-sketch Group A 4.1 Tools E: 53.3 N: 0.0 O: 46.7 68.5 0.53 B E: 75.7 N: 108 O: 3.5 63.9 0.90 Online discussion Group A E: 66.6 N: 6.7 O: 6.7 69.1 0.80 B E: 2.2 N: 1.1 O: 6.7 61.9 1.14 Watching YouTube video Group A E: 90 N: 0 O: 10 71.11 0.69 B E: 82.9 N: 0 O: 7.1 73.17 0.81 VoiceThread Group A B Creating YouTube video Group A E: 5.5 N: 0 O: 4.5 77.6 2.80 B E: 91.3 N: 0 O: 8.7 73.0 2.58
E: 77.8 E: 78.9 N: 0 N: 7.9 O: 2.2 O: 3.2 72.5 1.96 76.5 2.05
4.2 Frequency (units) 4.3 Time/ hour
Notes. E = Effective, N = Not effective, O = Other (unsure, N/A, etc.).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We are grateful to the reviewers for their insightful comments and suggestions that led to significant improvements in this paper.
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ABOUT THE AUTHORS Dr. Daesang Kim is an assistant professor of Curriculum, Leadership, and Technology at Valdosta State University. His research areas include multimedia learning, online learning, and course management systems. He is the first author of Effect of screen size on multimedia vocabulary learning, published in the British Journal of Educational Technology (Kim & Kim, 2012). Email: daekim@valdosta.edu Dr. Daniel Rueckert is an associate professor of TESOL at Oklahoma City University. He has presented in TESOL, SITE, and other conferences on how to use technologies such as wikis and VoiceThread to enhance English language learning. He is also the current president of Oklahoma TESOL. Email: drueckert@okcu.edu Dr. Dong-Joong Kim (corresponding author) is an assistant professor in the College of Education at Korea University. His research areas include discourse analysis and the use of technologies to enhance learning and teaching. He is a co-author of Effect of screen size on multimedia vocabulary learning, published in the British Journal of Educational Technology (Kim & Kim, 2012). Email: dongjoongkim@korea.ac.kr Mr. Daeryong Seo is a Ph.D. candidate in the department of Curriculum, Instruction, & Media Technology at Indiana State University. His research is related to open source CMS, smartphone programming for educational development, social networking services, and mobile learning. Email: dseo1@sycamores.indstate.edu
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Language Learning & Technology http://llt.msu.edu/issues/october2013/rosellaguilar.pdf
PODCASTING FOR LANGUAGE LEARNING THROUGH iTUNES U: THE LEARNERS VIEW

Fernando Rosell-Aguilar, The Open University iTunes U has become the main worldwide provider of educational podcasts but, despite its popularity, little is known about the type of user who downloads iTunes U language resources, or how those resources are used. This paper presents the results of the first major survey (1891 responses) of users of one of the most successful iTunes U content providers in terms of downloads. It presents a profile of the iTunes U language learner, their listening habits, and their opinion of the resources they download. Comparisons are drawn between language learners and learners of other subjects. The results show that in contrast with profiles of learners in other contextssuch as virtual learning environmentdelivered podcasts, identified in previous research (mostly carried out with young university students who download podcasts for instrumental reasons)iTunes U language learners are different. Respondents in this study are mostly middle-aged and employed, and they download resources for personal interest. Users have a high opinion of the quality of the materials, and they believe the materials help them to learn. The results also show that users listen to language podcasts on mobile devices, in sharp contrast with previous research. Finally, the paper discusses implications for further research. Key words: iTunes U, Podcasting, Lifelong Learning, Learner Profile, Mobile Learning APA Citation:. Rosell-Aguilar, F. (2013). Podcasting for language learning through iTunes U: The learners view. Language Learning & Technology, 17(3), 7493. Retrieved from http://llt.msu.edu/issues/october2013/rosellaguilar.pdf Received: November 23, 2012; Accepted: May 13, 2013; Published: October 1, 2013 Copyright: Fernando Rosell-Aguilar INTRODUCTION Teachers have long used audio-visual media for language instruction, traditionally using formats such as vinyl, cassettes, videotapes, CDs, and DVDs, as they became available, in the classroom or language laboratory. With the arrival of digital media, the provision of (first audio, then audio-visual) media content for learners moved online through the use of websites, virtual learning environments, learning management systems, and podcasting. In a relatively short time, podcasting has revolutionised access to media and educational resources. The use of digital audio and video files has become widespread and commonplace across most of the world, helped by the proliferation of resources and the increase in availability and affordability of portable media players. In the field of education, this has afforded unprecedented, easy and convenient access to learning and teaching materials in and outside the classroom. The main agent in the podcasting revolution has been iTunes, Apples digital media store, launched in 2003. From 2005, built-in podcast support has been provided. In 2007, Apple released iTunes U as a repository for educational content provided by universities. Some of that content is restricted to the institutions own students, and some is made publicly available. With this initiative, Apple and the universities that agreed to deliver open content changed access to hitherto exclusive world-class lecturers and materials. iTunes U has now established itself as the main provider of educational podcasts, with over 1 billion downloads between 2007 and 2013 (Apple, 2013). An iTunes U app (software application) was launched in 2012 to provide mobile access and new affordances to the software, such as linking resources (e.g., audio and e-books to form a course).
Copyright 2013, ISSN 1094-3501 74
Fernando Rosell-Aguilar
Podcasting for Language Learning Through iTunes U
This paper reports on a major study of iTunes U users who utilise the resources available there to learn languages. First, it will describe the research carried out so far into the use of podcasting as a language teaching and learning tool. Then, this paper will present a number of questions and hypotheses about the language learners who use iTunes U, and it will provide details of the study that was conducted to answer those questions, shedding light on the aforementioned hypotheses. The results of the study will be presented and discussed. Finally, this paper will offer a conclusion based on the findings and identify areas for further research. LITERATURE REVIEW Podcasting as a Teaching and Learning Tool A number of factors have contributed to the popularity and growth of podcasting. These include the expansion of broadband and wireless connectivity, the ease and relatively low cost to produce podcasts, the adoption of podcasting by major media broadcasters as a way of delivering catch-up services, the shift towards increasingly mobile devices, and the success of the portable digital media player and its integration into other devices such as the mobile phone. In a review of emerging technologies written around the time when podcasts first emerged, Chinnery (2006) highlighted the potential for learning of cell phones, Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs), and podcasting as three separate technologies. Nowadays, the features from these three technologiesall considered to have the potential to aid language learning converge on devices such as the smartphone. The growth in podcasting and its popularity has run parallel to the increase in use of podcasting as a teaching and learning tool, both by enthusiastic individuals and institutions. Following increases in podcastings availability and popularity from 2003, the technology soon caught the attention of early adopters among academic practitioners and researchers. The first reports described the potential uses and benefits of podcasting (Blaisdell, 2006; Clark & Walsh, 2004; Laing et al., 2006, Manning, 2005; Meng, 2005, Sloan, 2005). These included the convenient, portable and easy to use format, its attractiveness, low cost, capability to personalise learning and integrate different types of activity. Early papers also highlighted some drawbacks. Many of these were technical limitations that have been overcome as technology has progressed, but others included pedagogical considerations such as accessibility, increase in teacher workload, digital literacy, learning style issues, and the use of outmoded approaches that do not reflect current theories on teaching and learning. Research moved on to evaluations of podcasting based on its use by teachers and learners (some early studies include Belanger, 2005; Edirisingha, Rizzi, Nie, & Rothwell, 2007; Lee & Chan, 2007; McCarty, 2005). These studies were mostly based on university campuses and produced a range of results (see Heilesen, 2010; Hew, 2009; and Rosell-Aguilar, 2009 for overviews of different projects and their outcomes). The general impression was that some of the perceived benefits of podcasting may not in fact be so beneficial. For example, despite some evidence of students listening whilst travelling (Manochehri, Gromik, & Aw, 2012), many studies found little evidence of transfer of resources to mobile devices, putting into question the benefits of portability and informality (Bennett, 2008; Copley, 2007; Lee & Chan, 2007; Lee, Miller, & Newham, 2009). The hypothesised attractiveness and novelty of using podcast materials appeared to wear off soon, and student practices with the podcast resources they used suggested that they perceived their use as yet another formal learning opportunity: learners engaged with the materials as they would a class assignment. There were also mixed reports about attainment, ranging from disappointingly poor performance (e.g., Daniel & Woody, 2010) to significantly increased scores after delivering podcast-based teaching (e.g., McKinney, Dyck, & Luber, 2009; Reynolds & Bennett, 2008). Many researchers concluded that podcasting may work best to supplement teaching rather than as the main medium of delivery of teaching materials (Bennett, 2008; Daniel & Woody, 2010, Evans, 2008; Heilesen, 2010; Lee & Chan, 2007; Walls et al., 2010).
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Podcasting for Language Learning As a discipline that integrates target language audio recordings into learning and teaching activities, language learning was quickly identified as a potential beneficiary of the affordances that podcasting provides as a teaching and learning tool (Chinnery, 2006; Godwin-Jones, 2005; Kukulska-Hulme, 2006; Stanley, 2006; Thorne & Payne, 2005). Arguments have been put forward to explain how the use of podcasting in language learning is supported by a number of learning theories, including constructivist approaches, informal and lifelong learning, and mobile learning principles, as well as the practices of providing learning objects, chunking, and just-in-time teaching, among others (Rosell-Aguilar, 2007). Podcasting also fits with practices supported by a number of Second Language Acquisition (SLA) theories as being conducive to language learning. One obvious use is the access to target language materials as sources of information about the usage of the language (Ryan, 1997), which have the potential to draw the learner into the communicative world of the target language community (Little, 1997). Gromik (2008) highlighted that podcasting technology provides learners access to resources which are authentic, free, and otherwise not available (p. 50) in territories where the target language is not spoken. Podcasting offers opportunities for active exploration, observation, processing, and interpretation of language, all activities which have been identified as conducive to language learning (Cooper, 1993). The ability to find many resources on a topic allows for narrow listening, the listening to several different input sources on the same topic, (Krashen, 1996). Furthermore, podcasting affords a personalised listening experience, as users can choose when and where to listen and what to listen to, when to pause, rewind, speed up or slow down a recording, or engage in repeated listening. Podcast resources can provide the basis for meaningful and engaging activities, and they offer opportunities to listen to comprehensible input (Krashen, 2003), permitting listeners to focus on specific features of the target language. The advantages of podcasting go beyond the technical affordances it provides. In the same way that the initial introduction of the World Wide Web into education led to an increase in learning materials online, the popularisation of podcasting has led to the proliferation of a wealth of materialsdeveloped by individuals, institutions, or broadcastersthat are of use to the language learner. This material includes both resources specifically designed to aid language learning and target language materials created for native speakers of those languages. Language learners and teachers can use these materials, much like radio and television programmes have been used in language teaching and learning for decades (for recent reviews of identified uses of podcasting for language learning and ideas for its use in the classroom see Lomicka and Lord (2011), and Shinagawa (2012)). An important difference between the use of podcasting for teaching and learning languages and its use for other disciplines is that listening for language learning requires a different kind of listening skill set. While in other disciplines the focus is on the content and meaning of the audiovisual resources, in the field of language learning the focus of listening also liesto varying degreeson form, through which learners become aware of grammatical, pronunciation, or other features of the language they are using or are exposed to (Doughty & Williams, 1998; Long, 2000; Skehan, 2003). Some researchers have pointed out that the major limitation of podcasting for language learning is that, although it provides access to audiovisual resources, it does not afford another essential element of language learning: interaction (Stockwell, 2010). Whilst this is true of the podcasts of their ownfor example, when the learner uses a device that can only play the media such as a traditional iPodthere are a number of ways in which interaction based on the podcast resources can be encouraged. These range from basic-level engagement with ancillary materials that can be provided with the podcasts (e.g., transcripts or print exercises) to more advanced incorporation of other technologies (e.g., in Virtual Learning Environment/Learning Management System contexts, where the resources can be integrated with quizzes and forums, or in combination with other applications available on their device as in the case of smartphones or tablets). In addition, when podcasts are not used individually but as part of a group
activity (in or outside the classroom), they can provide input to engage in activities conducive to interaction such as reporting, discussing, summarising, comparing, contrasting, and so forth. Previous Research into Podcasting as a Language Learning Tool A number of research studies into the use of podcasting for language learning have been carried out. Some initial research focused on student ownership and use of mobile devices (Dias, Pagel, Browne, & Menish, 2007). There were early reports of positive impressions of podcasting as a tool for language learning (Anzai, 2007; OBryan & Hegelheimer, 2007; Sathe & Waltje, 2008). The Sathe and Waltje study had several major findings: 56.7% of their 120 respondents agreed that the iPods they had been lent helped them to learn language better; 77.3% enjoyed doing listening exercises with the iPod; 67.6% felt more motivated to spend time on listening and speaking assignments; and 50.9% believed there had been an increase in their knowledge of the target language. Research on podcasting has also focused on actual language skill acquisition. Lord (2008) carried out a small study with 16 students taking an undergraduate Spanish phonetics class in the United States. The students attitudes and abilities were assessed both before and after the project. She found very positive reactions and an improvement in attitudes toward Spanish pronunciation, as well as at least some degree of improved pronunciation (p. 374). Lord acknowledged the difficulty in determining whether these improvements were the direct result of the podcasting activities or taking the class in general, but she considered the evidence sufficient to warrant further investigation. Ducate and Lomicka (2009) carried out another study into the acquisition of pronunciation and, although they did not find statistically significant improvements, their students viewed the integration of podcast use and production positively. Abdous, Camarena, and Facer (2009) surveyed students from eight language courses and reported that the participants felt that using podcasts had had a positive effect on their study habits, that the podcasts had been a helpful learning tool, and that using the podcasts had led to improvement in their language skills (oral and aural skills in particular) and vocabulary. They concluded that podcasting can be an effective tool which facilitates the completion and evaluation of assignments in foreign language classes (p. 88). In a more recent report, Abdous, Facer, and Yen (2012) presented research carried out in 27 language classes over three years. Their findings suggest that the way in which podcast language learning resources are integrated into the teaching has an effect on grades, with students taking courses that used podcasting as supplementary revision material faring better than those taking courses where podcasting was integrated into the curriculum. iTunes U as a Language Learning Tool How much of the knowledge previously acquired about learning through podcasting applies to the iTunes U language learner? There is some evidence that learners rolewhether users listen because they are students of the subject in the institution that provides the podcasts (referred to in this paper as internal learners) or whether they listen as part of the interested public (external learners)may have an effect on their podcast listening practices (Hrst, Welte, & Jung, 2007). This finding could be related to the differences between intrinsic motivation (driven by personal interest) and extrinsic motivation (driven by the desire to achieve a goal such as passing a course) in language learning (Oxford, 1996); this result may have bearing on teaching delivered through iTunes U. Many of the research projects listed above took place in traditional face-to-face institutions, where the researchers provided podcast resources to their students mostly via virtual learning environments and learning management systems. Participants in these research projects reported lack of transfer to mobile devices and perceiving the activity as academic, which is not surprising given that in most cases students are bound to look at an activity that their teacher has asked them to do as part of their formal studies. In this sense, the motivation of traditional students for engaging (or not) with the podcasts can be considered extrinsic. iTunes U users, in contrast, may use language learning resources to supplement their formal learning or they could be informal learners with an interest in a language who do not regard listening to iTunes U resources as a formal learning
opportunity. In these latter cases, the motivation for engaging with the iTunes U resources would be mostly intrinsic. In this sense, the delivery of resources through iTunes U as opposed to other delivery systems has the potential to make a considerable difference in terms of the audience (internal or external and intrinsically or extrinsically motivated) reached by these resources. This study, therefore, looks at iTunes U as a separate delivery medium different from podcasting in general. RESEARCH QUESTIONS AND HYPOTHESES Based on the research literature, and in the interest of developing a profile of the iTunes U language learner, a survey was developed to gather data to answer four main research questions: 1. Who are the iTunes U language learners? 2. Do they differ from learners of other subjects? 3. How do iTunes U language learners engage with the resources they download? 4. What is the learners opinion of the resources they have downloaded? The survey was organised in different sections, which included:

Personal information: age, gender, geographical location, occupation. Studies and interest in iTunes U resources: whether users are currently enrolled in a language course or are considering taking one; reasons for downloading iTunes U resources; whether the resources downloaded are the main source of learning or supplementary to other learning. Use of iTunes U resources: whether users transfer the resources to mobile devices, where they listen; whether listening is the main activity or whether they listen whilst doing something else. Opinion of the iTunes U resources: whether users think listening to the resources is helping them learn the language; what their rating of the overall quality of the materials is. Taking iTunes U learning further: whether the users would consider paying for content; whether they would be interested in receiving some sort of university course credit based on the iTunes U resources.
Due to the lack of available data about iTunes U learners, eight hypotheses were formulated before the survey was launched about the responses that it would elicit. These hypotheses were based partly on the characteristics of participants in previous research studies that were considered applicable to iTunes U learners, as well as educated guesses based on knowledge of language learners and listeners of podcasts and iTunes U resources. The hypotheses related to: 1. Gender. It is a general perception that men are early adopters of technology, but language learning traditionally attracts more female than male students (HESA, 2012). The hypothesis was that language iTunes U resources would attract more females than males, but the difference in proportion would not be as marked as that of traditional university language students. 2. Age. The majority of users were expected to be young. Podcasting is often associated with a young audience, as is the iTunes store; furthermore, previous research on iTunes U has been carried out with typical university-age students. Despite this, the hypothesis was that a proportion of respondents would be older, in a similar way to the results found by Hrst, Welte, and Jung (2007). 3. Employment status. It was assumed that students would represent the highest proportion of users of iTunes U resources (most students in developed countries have smartphones and portable media players), but not necessarily the majority: part of the iTunes U appeal is that it brings learning to users who would not otherwise have access to it. It was not assumed that
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these students would be enrolled at the institution where the research took place, but perhaps taking courses in another institution and supplementing their materials with iTunes U resources. It was also thought that podcasting might appeal to users who have retired from their working life, who are curious and who have more time to engage with iTunes U resources. 4. Use of mobile learning features. The hypothesis here was that this would be very different from previous research, given that the delivery medium is iTunes U and not a virtual learning environment or learning management system. The hypothesis was that transfer to mobile devices and listening on the go would be higher than previously reported. 5. Engagement. Despite the previous hypothesis, it was expected that language learners would engage in listening as a main activity, as they would be more likely to focus on form than nonlanguage learners. Since some universities provide speech transcripts for their iTunes U files, higher numbers of downloads and use of transcripts might provide evidence of focus on form. 6. Rating. It was predicted that users would rate iTunes U resources highly, as these are free resources from well-regarded universities. 7. Paying for content. It was assumed that the vast majority of users would not be willing to pay for content. As users of iTunes U, they would be aware of the large amount of freely-available materials they can download. 8. Course credit. It was assumed that users would not be interested in receiving course credit, as many would already be formally studying languages, and the rest would be independent learners for whom language learning may be an informal, lifelong process. CONTEXT AND METHODS Context A number of institutions have become key players on iTunes U, providing the largest number of resources and generating the most downloads. The research study for this paper was carried out at the UK Open University (OU), one of the top iTunes U providers in terms of number of downloads (Apple, 2013; Open University, 2012). The OU is a distance learning university. It was established in 1969 and is now the university with the largest number of students in the United Kingdom, with 208,710 registered in 2012 (HESA, 2012). Its languages department is the largest in the United Kingdom, and it offers modules in Chinese, English, French, German, Italian, Spanish, and Welsh. These modules are taught at a distance through a mixed media of print, audio and video materials, interactive digital materials (online or DVD-ROM based), and a mix of online and face-to-face tutorials. The OU joined iTunes U in June, 2008, upon receiving an invitation from Apple. Whereas many universities offer recordings of lectures that have been delivered face-to-face at their institution and then uploaded to iTunes U, the type of resources that the OU offers on iTunes U is quite different. For the most part, the OU collections consist of a number of shorter (115 minutes) recordings which have been designed as distance learning materials, either because they have been repurposed from the universitys own course materials, or designed specifically for delivery through the universitys media channels, including YouTube and iTunes U. As of February, 2013, 428 collections containing 3,261 tracks (1,484 audio, 1,777 video, as well as 423 iBooks) are available for download from iTunes U at the OU (Open University, 2013). In addition, transcripts in PDF format are provided for over 96% of the tracks. The type of language resources that are offered on iTunes U at the OU varies. They represent all the languages taught at the OU and many of the different levels (beginner, intermediate, upper intermediate, and advanced). Some collections for beginner or intermediate levels include a teaching voice in English
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combined with recordings in the target language. Other collections are mini documentaries that explore the cultures of the target languages, in addition to focusing on the language itself. As of February, 2013, the OU had generated over 60 million downloads (Open University, 2013). Almost 90% of the downloads of iTunes U at the OU are from outside the United Kingdom, where the OU is located and best known. The United States is the country where most downloads originate (see Figure 1).
Figure 1. Geographical location of iTunes U downloads from the OU host. Language collections represent around 10% of the total number of collections the OU offers, but they account for nearly a quarter of all downloads generated, making them the most popular resources on iTunes U at the OU. They are also among the most popular overall: the OU language collections often occupy the entire top-10 downloads for language resources on iTunes U in the United Kingdom. Methods The user survey was created using Surveymonkey, and a link to this survey was placed on all the individual pages as well as the home page of iTunes U at the OU. Though the link to the survey was active for 21 months (August, 2009 to April, 2011), almost 95% of the responses were collected within the first 12 months. There are several reasons for this: in August, 2010, the display of external links on iTunes U changed, making the link to the survey less prominent. Also, iTunes U does not display hyperlinks to users who access iTunes U directly from a mobile device. Access to iTunes U from mobile devices grew immensely during the time that the survey was active, another reason for the drop in respondents. In total, 2129 responses were collected. Participants were asked whether they use the iTunes U resources mostly for learning or mostly for teaching. Respondents who indicated that they use the iTunes U resources mostly for teaching (238) were eliminated from the data, reducing the informant pool size to 1891. Of these, 455 (24.1%) selected language learning as the main category of iTunes U resources they downloaded, whereas the number of non-language learners was 1436 (75.9%). The data were statistically analysed using SPSS 20. Given the exploratory nature of the research questions, the data analysis used descriptive statistics only.
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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The responses are presented below in five sections: personal information, studies and interest in iTunes U language resources, use of iTunes U resources, opinion of the iTunes U resources, and taking iTunes U learning further. The results for language learners will be presented in comparison with those of nonlanguage learners where relevant. As they are presented, the results will be discussed in terms of relevance, how they compare to the hypotheses made and previous research and literature on the subject. Personal Information The gender split from the survey participants between language learners and non language learners is presented in Table 1. Some percentages do not add up to 100 as some participants (0.9% of total) chose not to reveal their gender. Presented below, these percentages are the average gender split in UK Higher Education Institutions for language learners and overall (HESA, 2012). Table 1. Gender Split. Male Language Learners (LL) Non Language Learners Average UK Higher Education LL Average UK Higher Education overall 52.5% 56.4% 30.0% 43.6% Female 46.6% 42.7% 70.0% 56.4%
A high proportion of respondents in many previous podcasting research studies was female (e.g., Bolliger, Supanakorn, & Boggs, 2010, Manochehri et al., 2012; OBannon, Lubke, Beard, & Britt, 2011). The malefemale ratio for the respondents in this study is not consistent with these past studies, as the results here suggest that podcasting in general appeals somewhat more to males than females, as had been suggested in Hypothesis 1. Thus, podcasting could prove to be a format that can make language learning more attractive to male students. However, as Table 2 shows, whilst the gender split by age between language learners and non-language learners confirms that iTunes U resources in generalnot for Table 2. Age of LLs and NLLs and Gender Split Between Them. Age Under 15 1518 1924 2534 3544 4554 5564 Over 65 Age LL .9% 6.4% 11.4% 18.2% 19.3% 18.5% 18.2% 7.0% Male LL Female LL 25.0% 41.4% 50.0% 48.2% 47.7% 64.3% 54.2% 59.0% 75.0% 58.6% 50.0% 48.2% 52.3% 34.5% 45.8% 40.6% Age NLL 1.5% 5.8% 15.5% 20.2% 21.3% 19.0% 10.5% 6.2% Male NLL Female NLL 40.9% 71.1% 61.7% 57.2% 54.9% 57.1% 55.0% 36.0% 54.5% 26.5% 37.8% 42.1% 43.8% 42.5% 45.0% 61.8%
Notes. LL = language learner; NLL = non-language learner. The percentages presented in the male/ female, LL/ NLL columns are percentages of the age group for the LL/ NLL category.
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language learningattracted more males than females (non-language learner males outnumbered nonlanguage learner females in every age bracket except under 15) this was not the case for language learning iTunes U resources. Language courses in Higher Education were dominated by females (as shown Table 1). For the language learner respondents of this study, the proportion of male/female users was not as marked, and the results varied with age: the proportion of females was higher than that of males for the under 18 and the 3544 age brackets, even in the 1924 and 2534 brackets, and lower for respondents older than 45. As stated earlier, most studies into podcasting as a teaching and learning tool have been carried out with traditional internal learners (teens to early 20s), with the exception of Hrst et al. (2007). The age of the external users who took part in their study ranged from 17 to 53. Overall, despite the hypothesis that iTunes U would appeal to younger learners (Hypothesis 2), the highest proportions of respondents were quite evenly spread in the age brackets between 25 and 54 for non-language learners (all above 19%). Language learners were overall older than non-language learners (with the exception of a small percentage in the 1518 bracket) and had a much higher proportion than non-language learners in the 55 64 age bracket. The reason for this may be that informal language learning appeals more to older generations who did not have the opportunity to learn at a younger age and now have opportunities to travel abroad and use some language, but this is speculative. Cross-tabulating the data for age and gender shows that among language learners, females outnumber males in the under 18 bracket; in the 1934 bracket they are even; and in the over 35 ranges male users are more numerous than female users. This suggests that the stereotype that podcasting technology appeals more to men than women applies to older generations only and the trend is reversed for younger users, although other factorssuch as nationality or cultural backgroundmay have an effect. The download data (Figure 1) show that approximately 30% of downloads originated in the United States and Canada, and that the United Kingdom only accounts for around 10%. The respondent percentages for geographical location are quite different: 34.8% of all respondents live in North America (United States and Canada), 33.4% in the United Kingdom, and 17.8% in another European country. Geographical location among respondents was considerably different for language learners and non-language learners (see Table 3). Countries such as the United Kingdom and Australia/New Zealand place lower in the list for language learners than they do in the non-language learner list (in the United Kingdom the percentage drop is over 10%). This seems to confirm the tendency to give more importance to language learning in non-English-speaking countries and less importance in English-speaking countries other than the United States. Table 3. Ranked Geographical Location of Respondents Rank 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Language Learners USA / Canada Europe (except UK) UK Central / South America Asia (including Japan) Australia / NZ Other Africa / Middle East Percentage Non-Language Learners Percentage 35.4% 23.5% 23.3% 5.5% 5.5% 3.7% 2.2% .8% UK USA / Canada Europe (except UK) Australia / NZ Asia (including Japan) Central / South America Africa / Middle East Other 36.6% 34.6% 16.1% 4.1% 3.3% 2.6% 1.6% 1.2%
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Hypothesis 3, regarding employment status, was that students would represent the highest proportion of users of iTunes U resources, but that there would also be a considerable number of participants who are retired. The data presented in Table 4 contradict both these hypotheses. Participants in full- or part-time paid employment (including self-employed) accounted for 58.5% of respondents, whereas students only accounted for 17.7% of the total. In addition, only 11.9% of participants had retired. Table 4. Participant Occupation. Occupation In full-time paid employment Student (full time) Self-employed/freelance Retired In part-time paid employment Unemployed Other Prefer not to say Family responsibilities Voluntary/charitable work Student (part time) Language Learners 40.0% 16.6% 11.9% 10.8% 6.6% 4.6% 3.5% 2.0% 1.5% 1.3% 1.1% Non-Language Learners 40.3% 15.1% 11.1% 7.9% 6.8% 5.4% 3.3% 1.7% 3.3% 2.0% 3.0%
The differences between language learners and non-language learners were minimal here, except for a slightly higher proportion of retired people using language resources, as the results presented in Table 2 reveal. Studies and Interest in iTunes U Language Resources Participants were asked whether the resources they downloaded from iTunes U at the OU were the main source of learning for their chosen subject. For 89.6% of non-language learners, the resources were additional to other learning they did, leaving 10.4% for whom the iTunes U resources were their main source of learning. This appears to be consistent with previous research which claimed that most users utilise podcasting resources as supplementary materials. For language learners, the proportion of respondents who considered the iTunes U resources their main source of learning was almost double (19.5%), whereas the remaining 80.5% supplemented their studies with the iTunes U resources. The next question in the survey related to whether participants were currently enrolled in a course in the subject: 29.9% of non-language learners were, whereas 70.1% were not. Once again language learners were different: 21.5% of respondents were enrolled in a course and 78.5% were not. Of those who were not enrolled on a course in the subject, 52.4% were considering taking one (in the case of non-language learners the figure is 54.4%). A possible explanation for these results is that languages are a subject area with a large aural component. It makes sense that language learners used iTunes U resources almost twice as frequently in order to learn. Languages are also a subject area where many people undertake autonomous study, which may also be a reason for the higher proportion of independent learners. Regarding users interest in podcasts, Hrst et al.s research found that their participants motivation for
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listening was different depending on whether they were internal (enrolled in a course at the institution that provides the podcasts) or external (interested public) learners (2007). Whereas internal learners took part in their podcasting activities for credit, external learners did it mostly out of personal interest, although education and work featured among their reasons too. The results of this study showed similar results (Table 5), and the comparison between language learners and non-language learners shows that there were more users who downloaded for personal interest and fewer language learner than non-language learner users who were currently studying the subject. This result supports the previous suggestions that language learning is perceived as a subject that can be learnt independently, perhaps for travel or leisure reasons. Table 5. Interest in Podcasts. Interest in podcasts Personal interest Relevant to current studies Relevant to profession Language Learners 78.9% 11.8% 9.3% Non-Language Learners 69.5% 19.0% 11.5%
Use of the iTunes U Resources Participants were asked if they downloaded individual files or subscribed to whole iTunes U collections. On the whole, most respondents tended to do both (46.9% language learners; 46.4% non-language learners). Language learners reported a slightly higher tendency to subscribe to collections (23.3%) than non-language learners (19.3%), and consequently there was a lower tendency to download individual files (29.7% language learners; 34.3% non-language learners), but otherwise there was no marked difference in downloading habits. As discussed in the literature review, previous research on actual use of podcasts for internal learners found little evidence of resources being transferred to mobile devices. The results of this study show that this was not the case for the participants in this study (Table 6). Table 6. Transfer to Mobile Devices. Transfer to mobile device Always / Most of the time Sometimes Rarely / Never Language Learners 70.2% 14.0% 15.8% Non-Language Learners 62.2% 17.6% 20.1%
At the time the survey was launched, iTunes U content could not be downloaded directly to mobile devices (even though iTunes commercial content could). Instead, it had to be downloaded using a desktop or laptop and then transferred to a portable media player if the user wanted to listen to the content elsewhere. This changed halfway through the survey. The results should not be affected, however, because (as pointed out above) the vast majority of responses (95%) was gathered within the first 12 months of the data collection. It is probably safe to assume that if the pool of participants had included those who access iTunes U directly from their mobile device, the number of respondents who download directly to the device and who listen on a mobile device would be higher, perhaps significantly so. The mobile aspect of podcasting through iTunes U is corroborated by the fact that many users listen on portable devices (Table 7).
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These results fit with Hypothesis 4 about transfer to mobile devices presented above. The data presented in Tables 6 and 7 suggest that language learners are more likely to transfer to and listen on a portable device than non-language learners. There is not enough data available to ascertain whether this is due to the differences in the language learners personal profiles (e.g., their geographical location, age or gender). Table 7. Devices Used for Listening to Podcasts Where you listen Portable device Desktop computer Language Learners 62.7% 11.1% Non-Language Learners 54.9% 27.3% 17.8%
Laptop or notebook 26.3%
Another difference between participants in previous research and participants in this study is how the listening activity was perceived. Previous research had found that learners made time to listen to podcasts and considered listening an academic activity. They often took notes too. The results of this study show that, although listening was the main activity for 40.1% of language learners and 44.5% of non-language learners, more respondents listened as part of another activity, such as exercising, doing housework, or travelling (Table 8). Table 8. Listening as a the Main Activity or Not Is listening the main activity? Language Learners 40.1% Non-Language Learners 44.5% 55.5%
part of another activity? 59.9%
Despite the high level of listening on mobile devices, Hypothesis 5 stated that because language learners might be more prone to focusing on form, they would be more likely to take notes and use the transcripts provided than non-language learners. The results, however, show that few users took notes regularly and most said they rarely or never took notes (Table 9). This contradicts previous research that suggested that there was a correlation between accessing podcast content and taking notes (McKinney et al., 2009). There were no major differences between language learners and non-language learners. This, and the fact that learners listen while doing other activities, suggest that the language learners who use the iTunes U resources may not be engaging in focused listening. Table 9. Note-Taking. Do you take notes as you listen? Language Learners Always Most of the time Sometimes Rarely Never 3.4% 7.8% 32.9% 31.1% 24.9% Non-Language Learners 2.9% 8.0% 34.4% 27.3% 27.4%
The use of transcripts might also be considered evidence of focused listening. Language learners in this
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study were indeed more likely to download them and read them as they listened than non-language learners. Language learners also found the transcripts more useful than non-language learners (see Table 10). The data do not allow us to draw conclusions about whether when these language learners engaged with the content they were focusing on meaning or form (ormost likelyboth to some degree). The transfer to and use on mobile devices, the low use of transcripts and the fact that many respondents listen as part of another activity suggests that many of the learners are listening to the language materials as a casual activity. Table 10. Use of Transcripts. Do you download transcripts? Always / Most of the time Sometimes Rarely / Never Do you read the transcripts at the same time as you listen? Always / Most of the time Sometimes Rarely / Never Do you find the transcripts useful? Yes No Sometimes Language Learners (n = 455) 38.6% 29.3% 32.1% Language Learners (n = 312) 33.2% 42.9% 23.9% Language Learners (n = 309) 72.9% 1.0% 26.1% Non-Language Learners (n = 1436) 21.3% 27.4% 51.2% Non-Language Learners (n = 833) 20.7% 36.6% 42.7% Non-Language Learners (n = 825) 65.9% 2.2% 31.9%
Note. Replies from respondents who ticked never in the first question were excluded from the subsequent two questions.
Opinion of the iTunes U Resources Hypothesis 6, regarding whether respondents think listening to the iTunes U resources is helping them learn the language and their rating of the quality of the materials, was that the responses would be very positive. They were. In response to the question Do you think that listening to the podcasts is helping you learn? 97.2% of language learners selected yes and only 2.8% selected no. The responses from non-language learners were very similar (98.3% positive; 1.7% negative). Research on learning through podcasting has so far produced mixed results: as stated in the literature review, most researchers have concluded that podcasting is useful as a revision tool, but have reservations about its use for independent learning. In contrast with this, the results from this study suggest that podcasting through iTunes U can provide a useful source of learning to independent users as well as those supplementing their learning from other sources with iTunes U materials. Language learning is an activity that lends itself to feeling that one is learning just by engaging with the materials. Most people understand that exposure to the target language is beneficial and audio and video resources are often used in the language classroom. Therefore, it might be expected that language learners would be more positive about the iTunes U resources than non-language learners. Table 11 shows that there were some differences between language learners and non-language learners when they were asked to rate the quality of the materials they listened to. Language learners rate the materials slightly less
positively, with fewer respondents rating them as very good and more rating them OK (although both positive categories together add up to a very similar percentage). Other ratings (variable quality and negative) received similar responses from both language learners and non-language learners. The reasons for these differences between language learners and non-language learners are hard to ascertain. Perhaps the fact that language learning is perceived as something that learners can engage with autonomously leads to higher expectations of the resources available on iTunes U. Table 11. Rating of the Quality of the OU on iTunes U Podcasts. Quality of the materials Very Good / Good OK Not so good / Terrible Variable quality Language Learners 80.1% 17.8% .9% 1.2% Non-Language Learners 86.3% 10.6% .6% 2.5%
Taking iTunes U Learning Further The final section in the survey asked whether users would consider paying for content and whether they would be interested in paying a fee (no amount specified) to receive some sort of university credit based on the iTunes U content. Hypotheses 7 and 8 were that very few people would want to pay for content, and there might be some limited interest in receiving credit. The results showed the opposite: some 49.7% of language learners said they would be willing to pay (at the usual iTunes song price of US$0.99, 0.79, or 0.99), and 68.3% said they would be interested in receiving university credit (among non-language learners, 43.5% would be willing to pay and 69.3% showed interest in university credit). This unexpected result suggests that podcasting could be a source of revenue for content developers (some language learning providers already offer free podcasts but charge for related transcripts, activities, and tuition, cf. Rosell-Aguilar, 2007). LIMITATIONS As most research, this study is affected by a number of limitations. The large drop in participants after the first 12 months that the survey was active (for the reasons explained in the methods section) suggests that a similar study may not be replicable in terms of quantity of responses. Also, the data collected are selfreported, which makes the responses subjective to some extent. The respondents who took part in the survey represent a self-selected sample, clearly interested in iTunes U resources. From this we can assume they have access to devices that can play the resources and possess a certain degree of digital literacy as well as a positive attitude to learning through iTunes U resources. However, it is probably safe to assume that these characteristics are common to the majority of iTunes U learners. In addition, the hugely positive response to whether users think that the iTunes U resources they listen to are helping them learn must be tempered by the fact that this perceived learning is self-reported and has not been otherwise qualified in this study. Whilst it would have been very useful to supplement the study with further research, such as interviews with a number of the respondents, it was felt that asking participants to provide contact details might dissuade some from taking part and therefore impact the number of responses collected. Also, given the wide geographical spread of respondents, it would have been difficult to carry out interviews with participants from different time zones.
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FURTHER RESEARCH Given the limited availability of previous research on external use of iTunes U as a language teaching and learning tool, the scope of this study has been exploratory and mainly descriptive. Research into this field needs to progress and go deeper in other areas such as whether the language that is being studied makes a difference in user attitudes and preferences. Since respondents have chosen to learn through iTunes U resources, it follows that they must have a preference for or at least be comfortable with an auditory learning style. It would be worth researching what effect the delivery through this medium has on learners who have a different learning preference. Building on this, it would be worth conducting further research into the podcast listening practices of language learners: what are the differences between those who listen with transcripts and those who listen without them? Between those that listen as a main activity and those who listen on the move? Do users listen to the entire podcast as a whole or do they pause, rewind, or skip? Do they listen to the same podcast once or several times to improve comprehension? Whilst some of these issues have been covered in small studies (e.g., Gromik, 2008), there is a need for more comprehensive research projects. So far, research into podcasting as a language learning tool has been mostly quantitative and focused on the learning of pronunciation. More qualitative studies are needed to find out more about this and other areas of language learning: whether this learning method leads to improved comprehension of the language, improved pronunciation and or intonation, knowledge and retention of grammar and vocabulary, and an understanding of the cultures of the target language, either as supplementary material or as the main source of learning. In addition, it would be interesting to follow up whether language learners who use the podcasts engage in focused listening or not, as the findings of this study are inconclusive in that respect. CONCLUSION This paper has reported results from the first major study into language learning resources delivered through iTunes U for learners external to the institution that provides them. It had been argued (Cebeci & Tekdal, 2006; Evans, 2008) that podcasts make materials accessible to a wider diversity of learners, but because most studies carried out have used internal learners as participants, there has been no differentiation between podcasts users and traditional students. The results of this study have provided the first profile of the iTunes U language learner and shown that learners in this context are different from the internal users that have been profiled in previous research into podcasting as a teaching and learning tool. Profiling what so far had been an unknown audience is a worthwhile pursuit, as current institutional practices are moving towards activities that generate interest from external learners such as iTunes U, the provision of Open Educational Resources (OERs) and the delivery of Massive Online Open Courses (MOOCs). The results show that language learners have some practices in common with non-language learners, but some of these vary. Language learners who use iTunes U resources from the OU are mostly middle-aged, and there are more males than females, although there is a larger proportion of female respondents among the younger users. There are relatively few in full- or part-time education, and the majority of participants have full- or part-time employment. Most users download resources for personal interest, and nearly a fifth use the iTunes resources as their main source of learning. Users have a high opinion of the quality of the materials, and they believe the materials help them to learn. The results also show that over 70% users (most of the time or always) transfer language learning iTunes U resources to a mobile device and over 60% listen to them using mobile devices whilst taking part in other activities, in sharp contrast with previous research. This evidence supports considering iTunes U as a service that can enable mobile learning and, therefore, providers should take mobile learning design principles into consideration when planning the delivery of resources through iTunes U.
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The suggestion in the results section that iTunes U language learners listen to the resources in a casual way may appear to counteract the potential benefits of focusing on form. This is not necessarily negative: listening to target language materials in an unfocussed manner rather than focusing on form or meaning is a valid activity as well: in doing so, learners may get used to the rhythm and sounds of the target language and notice intonation patterns, cognates or grammatical structures through incidental learning. Although the research was carried out with the users of iTunes U resources from a distance learning institution that makes them available to independent learners, it is likely that the results will largely apply to external learners who use resources from other institutions as well. One important difference between OU on iTunes U resources and those of other providers is that the OU materials are designed as relatively small learning chunks (as described in the context section). This appears to be something that users like, given the huge popularity of OU on iTunes U resources, and may be particularly useful for language learning resources. It is undeniable that podcasting generates interest in the institutions providing such resources, as evidenced by the increase in traffic towards their websites from the iTunes U pages; still, the degree to which this interest translates into further actionsuch as registering for a courseis uncertain. However, the unexpected positive reaction towards paying for content and offering course credit based on podcasting resources opens up new revenue-generating possibilities and directions for institutions of higher education, both in the field of language learning and beyond. This, however, would be against the principles of delivering free educational content and removing elitism from education. An alternative to offering course credit would be to offer online badges for lifelong learning, whichalthough without validity in many formal contextswould recognise the effort that learners have made and might encourage further study.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Thank you to Ben Hawkridge and Peter Scott at the Open University Knowledge Media Institute for their help in placing the link to the survey on all iTunes U at the OU pages and for the provision of download data. Thank you also to my colleague Mara Fernndez-Toro, who kindly provided feedback on an early draft of this paper, and the peer reviewers who suggested improvements to it.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS Fernando Rosell-Aguilar is a lecturer in Modern Languages at the Open University (UK). His research focuses on online language learning, mainly podcasting, mobile applications, CMC learning environments (such as audio-graphic conferencing), digital literacy, and online, open and distance learning design for language learning. Twitter: @FRosellAguilar
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Shinagawa, S. (2012). Adapting the iPhone for language teaching and learning. In F. Zhang (Ed.), Computer-enhanced and mobile-assisted language learning: Emerging issues and trends (pp. 188201). Hershey, PA: Information Science Reference.. Skehan, P. (2003). Focus on form, tasks, and technology. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 16(5), 391411. Sloan, S. (2005). Podcasting: An exciting new technology for higher education. Paper presented at CATS 2005, March, 25th, 2005. Available from http://www.edupodder.com/conferences/index.html Stanley, G. (2006). Podcasting: Audio on the internet comes of age. TESL-EJ, 9(4), 17. Available from http://www.tesl-ej.org/ej36/int.pdf Stockwell, G. (2010). Using mobile phones for vocabulary activities: Examining the effect of the platform. Language Learning & Technology, 14(2), 95110. Available from http://llt.msu.edu/vol14num2/stockwell.pdf Thorne, S. L., & Payne, J. S. (2005). Evolutionary trajectories, Internet-mediated expression, and language education. CALICO Journal, 22(3), 371397. Walls, S. M., Kucsera, J. V., Walker, J. D., Acee, T. W., McVaugh, N. K., & Robinson, D. H. (2010). Podcasting in education: Are students as ready and eager as we think they are? Computers and Education, 54(2), 371378. doi: 10.1016/j.compedu.2009.08.018
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Language Learning & Technology http://llt.msu.edu/issues/october2013/lys.pdf
THE DEVELOPMENT OF ADVANCED LEARNER ORAL PROFICIENCY USING IPADS

Franziska Lys, Northwestern University In this study, I investigate the use and integration of iPads in an advanced German conversation class. In particular, I am interested in analyzing how students learn with this new technology and how it affects the development of their oral proficiency level. Overall, my results suggest that iPads are well suited to practice listening and speaking proficiency at advanced levels, as learners were engaged in meaningful, purposeful, and goal-directed discourse. The learner-centered, task-based language learning approach using iPads facilitated interactions and provided scaffolded assistance. On average, students spent twenty-four minutes a week in video conversations on Face-Time alone. In addition, the required weekly recordings increased from a little over one minute at the beginning of the quarter to more than seven minutes for the last assignment. Although task complexity and linguistic complexity increased over the course of the quarter, students still felt comfortable and competent enough to produce increasingly longer speech samples. Keywords: Technology-Mediated Communication, Speaking, Language Teaching Methodology, Computer-Assisted Language Learning APA Citation: Lys, F. (2013). The development of advanced learner oral proficiency using iPads. Language Learning & Technology, 17(3), 94116. Retrieved from http://llt.msu.edu/issues/october2013/lys.pdf Received: September 7, 2012; Accepted: June 26, 2013; Published: October 1, 2013 Copyright: Franziska Lys INTRODUCTION With the growing emphasis on multiculturalism and globalization, attaining advanced L2 language competence at the college level has become an important topic of discussion in the areas of curriculum, instruction, and assessment (Byrnes, 2007; Byrnes, Weger-Guntharp, & Sprang, 2006). Many believe that it may be difficult for students to attain advanced-level language proficiency in four years of college classroom instruction alone (Collentine & Freed, 2004). Reasons for this that are often given include a lack of class time during the regular four-year curriculum (Rifkin, 2003, 2004, 2005) and inappropriate classroom practices that do not encourage extended discourse as these practices limit the discussion to a question and answer format (Donato & Brooks, 2004; Mantero, 2002). To help students acquire advanced L2 proficiency, many universities provide opportunities for their students to study abroad. Byrnes (2007), however, argues that it may not be the stay in the foreign country but rather the quality and breadth of learning opportunities that help students acquire advanced proficiency. She believes that a well-designed instructional setting may be what is needed to attain advanced level language skills as this offers a richer palette of acquisition-attuned textual varieties and tasks, along with scaffolded learning environments (Byrnes, 2007, p. 3). Whether mastery of a foreign language is best achieved through classroom practice alone or complemented by an extended stay abroad, most language practitioners would agree that becoming an advanced speaker of a foreign language is a lengthy process, and this must involve a combination of various learning opportunities as the process of learning a language does not follow a linear path. Rather, it is a dynamic process that is recursive and repetitive (Byrnes, 2007). The goal of this study is to investigate the oral language development of learners of German in an advanced conversation class. In particular, I will analyze whether a well-designed instructional setting one that allows for additional conversational practice inside and outside of class through the use of
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Developing L2 Oral Proficiency Using iPads
iPadshas a positive impact on the amount and the quality of language the study participants are able to produce at the end of each practice unit and at the end of the nine-week class. One of the motivations for this experiment was that I had taught the advanced conversation class several times before and had been struggling with two issues: a rather short instructional period (nine weeks in a quarter with less than three hours of instruction a week) that provided insufficient practice/speaking time to significantly advance the level of language proficiency; and a lack of opportunities for students to be exposed to a variety of authentic materials. My theoretical framework that guides this research is based on the literature of conversational interactions and the role of instruction in the development of L2. Literature Review Research on Conversational Interactions The idea that language acquisition is fostered by conversational interaction was first developed by Hatch (1978) who proposed that conversational interactions in the target language are beneficial for language learning, especially in the area of syntactic structures. In a similar vein, Long (1981) shows that there are different interactional modifications present in native/non-native conversations and that these modifications are used to insure that each conversational partner understand what the other wanted to say. Long (1996) subsequently expressed these ideas as the interaction hypothesis, stating that language learning is facilitated or enhanced in communicative learning activities when learners negotiate for meaning in an effort to make the input more comprehensible to each other. Equally important for the advancement of language learning and tightly connected to the idea of interactional modification is the input hypothesis developed by Krashen (1981). He argues that exposure to the target language is crucial and that the amount and quality of comprehensible input learners receivedefined as i+1determines how fast they will learn. While many have criticized Krashens construct of i+1 as being vague, there is clear evidence that input and language achievement are related. For example, the variation in speed in child language acquisition can be explained by the quality of input children receive (Ellis & Wells, 1980). There is similar evidence for second languages (L2s) in study abroad experiences. Generally, the longer students stay in a foreign country and the better the input they receive, the more fluent they will be upon return. Subsequent studies on interaction shift the focus from investigating the impact interaction has on learning to questions such as How does interaction create opportunities for learning? and What are the relationships among interactional feedback, internal cognitive processes, and L2 learning outcomes? (Mackey, 2007, p. 10). Conversational adjustments such as for example confirmation checks, comprehension checks, clarification requests, reformulations, or topic-focused questions can modify the input and influence subsequent task performance (e.g., Ellis, 1999; Gass, 1997; Gass & Selinker, 2001; Gass & Varonis, 1994; Larsen-Freeman & Long, 1991; Mackey & Philp, 1998; Pica, 1994; Varonis & Gass, 1985a, 1985b). In her introduction to Conversational Interaction in Second Language Acquisition, Mackey (2007) lists more than forty empirical studies that were published in the last three decades investigating the role of interaction in languages such as English, Japanese, and Spanish. Only one study was listed for German, in which error feedback given by the instructor was correlated with the results of a subsequent grammar test focusing on the German plural system (Lochtman, 2002). A meta-analysis published in the same volume by Mackey and Jaemyung (2007) analyzes the results of 28 recent empirical studies on interaction. From these data, Mackey and Jaemyung conclude: (a) interaction is helpful in the learning of lexical and grammatical target items; (b) learners benefit more when interactional activities target lexical items rather than grammatical items; and (c) there were no apparent differences in learning outcomes with regard to feedback or feedback during interaction. Clearly, the data suggest that interaction is an important factor in oral language development. The next section considers how to promote conversational interactions in instructed language learning situations.
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Conversational Interactions and Instructed Language Learning In his essay Principles of instructed language learning, Ellis (2005) lists ten principles of instructed language learning to maximize language acquisition. Principle 8 deals with interaction (The opportunity to interact in the L2 is central to developing L2 proficiency). For Ellis, who acknowledges that input and output are necessary for acquisition, it is the interaction that is crucial to providing necessary opportunities to negotiate meaning. Ellis lists four key requirements for interaction that were identified by Johnson (1995) to ensure an acquisition-rich classroom environment (Ellis, 2005, p. 218): (a) create a context of language use where learners are attending to language; (b) provide opportunities for learners to express their own personal meanings; (c) encourage students to participate in activities that are beyond their current level of proficiency; and (d) expose the learner to a full range of contexts. These conditions are best achieved, according to Johnson (1995), when the organization of the various tasks and the interactional patterns are less rigid and when the control of the discourse topic is given to the students (Ellis, 2005).1 Giving more control to the learner to decide what, how, and when to learn is also an intrinsic part of van Liers (1996) approach to interaction in language teaching. Borrowing from Vygotskys ideas that social interaction is the key to learning and that language and cognition are interdependent processes, van Lier posits three essential learning principles: awareness (learner must first notice to learn (p. 11)), autonomy (learner must be ready to learn and must be able to decide what he learns, how, and when (pp. 1213)), and authenticity (each learning act must be intrinsically motivated (p. 13)). To conceptualize the learning process, van Lier refers to Vygotskys theoretical construct of the zone of proximal development (ZPD). The ZPD is defined as the developmental zone where potential learning can occur under guidance or collaboration of an instructor or a peer. The guidance an instructor or a peer provides through questioning and discussions is called scaffolding. Within the context of language learning, van Lier defines scaffolding as a multilayeredteaching strategy consisting of episodes, sequences of actions, and interactions which are partly planned and partly improvised (p. 100), with a focus on task-based and content-based activities. In such a curriculum, interaction is the most important element as it stresses the central importance of learning as a social process to provide the necessary scaffolding. Van Lier furthermore concludes that conversational interaction among language learners of roughly equal ability might be particularly useful (p. 193) because it promotes symmetry the equal distribution of rights and duties in talk (p. 175)which in turn creates contingency among learnersthe quality of language use that can most directly be associated with engagement and learning (p. 171). Creating an environment that promotes scaffolded work that is within the ZPDwork that is challenging but also attainable (van Lier, 1996, p. 94)can be a major challenge for language instructors. This is especially true in the case of advanced speakers where opportunities may be scarce to engage in extended meaningful discourse to provide the necessary scaffolding for learning, either because learners do not have the opportunities to interact in the foreign language outside of class, they are not encouraged sufficiently, or they simply do not find the time. Zhang (2009) observed a similar situation with Chinese English learners, who failed to speak English fluently because they had no real need or desire to interact in English. To provide additional scaffolded learning opportunities through engagement with peers in conversational activities and to provide authentic input to boost cultural knowledge about significant political and cultural events in the target language, I experimented with iPads in the advanced conversation class. iPads for Teaching and Learning The use of mobile technology for language teaching and learning is not new (e.g., Kukulska-Hulme & Shield, 2007, 2008) but many instructors hesitate to integrate these devices into the language classroom for lack of understanding how language learning and teaching could benefit from it. Senior eloquently writes that even though countless teachers intuitively teach in more dynamic, interactive, student-
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centered ways, the acquisition model of teaching and learning, for a complex range of reasons, has continued to prevail in face-to-face classrooms in educational institutions throughout the world (2010, p. 138). Godwin-Jones attributes this problem not so much to hardware / software shortcomings but refers to a genuine lack of conceptualization of how language learning could be enhanced in new, innovative ways with the assistance of mobile devices (Godwin-Jones, 2011, p. 7). In a paper presented at EuroCALL in 2007, Kukulska-Hulme and Shield survey the use of mobile assisted language learning in the context of social and collaborative learning and conclude that as of yet, few researchers appear to have considered how to use mobile devices to support a pedagogical approach that is not teacher-led, and that devices that should encourage collaboration seemed to have been employed primarily to support a teacher-learner rather than a learner-learner collaborative approach (Kukulska-Hulme & Shield, 2007, p. 14). These authors were particularly surprised to see that there were few collaborative speaking and listening activities and that of those few, most focused on asynchronous speaking and listening. The synchronous studies they found were mostly text based. In the last two years, numerous anecdotal reports have surfaced that attest to the impact of the iPad on learners of all ages and background (e.g., Mulholland, 2010; Roscoria, 2011a, 2011b) but only a few empirical studies have been published examining the impact of the iPad on teaching and learning. The results, however, are encouraging. Positive learning effects have been found in reading and writing (Harmon, 2012; McClanahan, Williams, Kennedy, & Tate, 2012), in collaboration and engagement (Henderson & Yeow, 2012; Milman, Carlson-Bancroft, &Van den Boogart, 2012), in motivation to learn (Kinash, Brand, & Mathew, 2012; Webb, n.d.), in online research (Webb, n.d.), and in confidence in being in control of the learning (McClanahan et al., 2012). The iPad is also seen as an important tool to extend learning opportunities beyond the classroom (Bennett, 2011; Melhuish & Falloon, 2010). The attempts to integrate iPads into classroom teaching and learning are mostly in the subjects English, Mathematics, Science, and Social Studies. Nevertheless, these studies provide innovative ideas and much needed expertise from the field of learning technology as they demonstrate general principles in terms of ways of using tools, physical spaces, time allocation, means of communication, distribution of roles, resources and so on (Kukulska-Hulme, 2009, p. 158). Measuring Oral Language Proficiency Measuring oral language proficiency is challenging because, in contrast to written language, oral language is often fragmented with frequent elliptical constructions and run-on sentences. In assessing the speech samples, I use two types of measures: a global proficiency rating as well as in-depth measures such as length of language samples, syntactic complexity, and fluency. Reviewing the current literature on oral language assessment, Iwashita (2010) points out that there are problems with both approaches. For example, instructors using more established global rating scales paid more attention to vocabulary and pronunciation when evaluating a speaker at a lower level. As the proficiency level increased, the importance of fluency and grammar increased as criteria. Problematic as well according to the studies Iwashita summarizes is the use of objective assessments such as analyses of learner performances with regard to syntactic complexity, grammatical accuracy, and fluency. Not only are different measures used across different studies (T-units, AS-units, subordinating and coordinating clauses, verb phrases, embedding, and a variety of other structural types), descriptions such as varied or sophisticated used as criteria to assess syntactic complexity (e.g., Wolfe-Quintero, Inagaki, & Kim, 1998, as cited in Iwashita, 2010) are open to interpretation. Iwashita also stresses the difficulty of assessing grammatical accuracy by coding errors. From her review, she concludes that studies of global accuracy (coding all errors) showed little inter-coder reliability and studies recording and analyzing specific types of errors were too narrow to assess overall proficiency. Researchers also do not seem to agree on the definition of fluency. Some use temporal features such as speech production rate, number and length of pauses, or length of fluent speech run (e.g., Freed, 1995; Freed, 2000; Morley & Truscott, 2006), while others consider automaticity of language use as the sole measure. Iwashita (2010) presents a
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comprehensive overview of features and approaches used in the current literature assessing oral language performance. Like Isabelli-Garca (2003), I define fluency of oral speech as the quantity of speech, the length of utterance per answer, the general flow of the speech sample, and noticeable struggle with the language. She adapted her criteria from the ACTFL descriptions an intermediate speakers fluency is characterized by extreme to frequent hesitation, extreme brevity and long pauses. On the other hand, an advanced speakers speech sample generally flows with occasional hesitation and a moderate quantity of speech (Isabelli-Garca, 2003, p. 150). I use the mean length of each sentence (T-unit, an independent clause and all its dependent clauses (Polio, 1997)), as well as the use of independent and dependent clauses in these sentences as determinants of the complexity in the language sample. I add one additional measure to determine progress in language learning, namely the overall length of the recorded speech sample as an indicator of how detailed an answer a student was able to produce. Purposely, I did not limit the lengths of an answer a student could provide, and I analyzed the entire speech sample. I first attempted to evaluate accuracy by counting the sentences that had no errors. There were few such error-free sentences. Moreover, counting error rates to show progression in language learning is problematic as it is not clear what criteria one should use for identifying errors. Clearly, there were big errors and small errors such as an occasional wrong adjective ending. As the language samples increased in length and in complexity, so did the errors, showing a possible interdependence of complexity, accuracy, and fluency which made it difficult to measure them reliably (e.g., Housen & Kuiken, 2009, p. 66). To address these issues, I evaluated the speech samples holistically with modified categories based on the Interagency Language Roundtable scale.2 This scale also took into account accuracy in production.3 4 The Study Part of a larger, two-year investigation at a private research university in the United States, my study examined iPad use and its impact on language learning.5 There were thirteen students in my class. Their proficiency ranged from the intermediate high to advanced low level of language proficiency on the ACTFL scale. The class met for nine weeks, twice a week for one hour and twenty minutes. All students in the class were given iPads to be used to complete course assignments. Using the iPads, students were actively engaged in a variety of speaking, recording, and listening tasks during the quarter inside and outside of class. Each week, students were assigned a set of scaffolded tasks, thematic practices, and assignments that targeted a pedagogically sound progression (Harden, Witte, & Khler, 2006). The design of the tasks followed the ACCESS (Automatization in Communicative Contexts of Essential Speech Segments) methodology described in Gatbonton and Segalowitz (2005). The ACCESS methodology has three phases, as described below. In Phase One (the creative automatization phase), learners engage in a task or tasks, in which functionally useful utterances are presented, used, and elicited naturally and repeatedly. In Phase Two (the language consolidation phase), learners are engaged in tasks that strengthen the control of problematic utterances elicited and practiced during the first phase, focusing on fluency and accuracy. In Phase Three (the free communication phase), learners engage in free communication activities that deal with topics compatible with those of the creative automatization phase. All of the learning tasks require interaction, negotiation of meaning, and exchange of information in the target language. The structure of the scaffolded tasks was consistent across the nine weeks, with only the content changing each week. For example, the topic for the second week was Where students live. As a phase one task, students were asked to view a news segment about the living situation of German students, working with content and vocabulary. This segment was discussed in class through interactive exercises and collaborative group work using Glassboard to practice and strengthen control of new utterances and
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concepts. During the Face-Time chat outside of class, students were tasked with describing and evaluating their own living situations to that of their chat partner (chat partners for the weekly face-time sessions were chosen in the first class session at the beginning of the quarter) using the vocabulary and phrases they had encountered in the news video. Students were focusing on descriptions, comparisons, evaluation, and asking follow-up questions for clarification in this weeks task. The length of each chat session was determined solely by the students. They were asked to keep track of the length of each weekly session and briefly summarize the gist of each discussion for the instructor. As the capstone event of this particular week, each student had to film her/his own room or apartment (or parts of it) with the camera on the back of the iPad while simultaneously describing what the room looked like. Students were free to record as little or as much as they wanted as long as they felt that the task was complete. In designing the weekly recording assignments, I tried to insure that the elicited tasks progressively enhanced the complexity of the language, the subject matter, and the emotional and cognitive engagement of the students. After recording, each video assignment was sent to a private YouTube channel for subsequent reflection on the part of the student, for peer review, and for feedback from the instructor. For additional listening practice, students were also asked to select, listen to, summarize, and present a short news event or news broadcast of their choice every week. While these broadcasts rarely got discussed in detail during class sessions, students were encouraged to discuss them with their chat partner during the weekly sessions. The goal of watching news broadcasts was to increase the exposure to current cultural information and linguistic models to improve cultural literacy and language. Among the built-in features and applications that students regularly used on the iPad were the HD video cameras (one on the back and one on the front of the iPad) and Face-Time, a video calling software. With the video camera, students were able to record speaking events, either taping themselves or other students or events. The Face-Time application allowed students to hold regular chats with classmates and their instructor. In addition to using built-in applications on the iPad, I asked students to download several carefully selected applications for language practice. Among the apps I required were: apps for writing and taking notes (Notes), for viewing German News (n-tv, ZDF, N24, Tagesschau, Swiss News, among others), for editing video clips (iMovie), for sharing information (Glassboard) among students, and various dictionaries and translators. For ease of management, I asked students to download the apps themselves through their iTunes account. To evaluate the effectiveness of the iPad as a learning tool, I asked students to keep track of the length of each chat session. I also evaluated two of the recorded speech samples. Research Questions In my study, I address the following thematic areas and related research questions: 1. Conversation between non-native speaker dyads. a. How much time did students spend in informal extended conversations between non-native speaker dyads outside of class over the course of the quarter using an iPad? b. What was the students assessment of this activity? Did they feel it contributed to learning the language? 2. Open ended recorded speech. a. How long was each open-ended recorded speech sample? Did the speech samples increase over the course of the quarter? b. What was the students assessment of this activity? Did they feel it contributed to learning the language? c. What was the quality of the language produced in the open-ended recorded assignments?
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d. Was there improvement in terms of fluency, accuracy, and complexity of the recorded language in the nine weeks? e. Did the students feel that their language improved? 3. Online news broadcasts and short documentary features. a. Did students regularly engage in watching news broadcasts and short documentary features using an iPad? b. Did the exposure to this authentic material give learners the skill to speak about a wider range of topics on current cultural and political issues? c. What was their assessment of this activity, and did they feel it contributed to learning more about the foreign culture? METHODOLOGY Participants Data were drawn from the oral performances of thirteen students of German enrolled in the class. Of the thirteen students, eleven students completed a final questionnaire, which allowed me to learn more about their language background. Ten of the 11 students were undergraduate students (one freshman, one junior, one sophomore, and seven seniors) and one was a graduate student. Three students were double majors with German as their second major and five students were pursuing a German minor. Ten students were native speakers of English; one was born and raised in Ukraine and had lived in the United States since 2001. Six students had studied German abroad; three students between 10 and 12 months and three between two and four months. The number of courses taken in German by the students ranged from two to 14 courses on the intermediate and advanced level. Judging from their first speaking assignment, their approximate level of proficiency ranged from Intermediate High to Advanced Low on the ACTFL oral proficiency scale (B1 or B2 on the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR)). According to the ACTFL description, students at the Intermediate High and Advanced Low Level should be able to handle with confidence most uncomplicated tasks and social situations related to work, school, and recreation. Students at the Advanced Mid Level of proficiency should be able to handle a large number of communicative tasks relating to work, school, home, and leisure activities, as well as relate events of current, public, and personal interests or individual relevance.6 Data Collection To elicit a variety of speech samples, the students produced eight recordings. These recordings served as the basis for my analysis. I tracked the length of each recording to assess improvement and ease of language production. At the end of the quarter, the students were asked to repeat assignment # 1, recorded as assignment # 8. These two assignments were transcribed to analyze the pre- and the post-course language for quality and cultural content. In addition, I collected self-reported length of the weekly FaceTime activities. About four weeks after the class ended, students were also asked to fill out an online survey about their experiences and attitudes towards using the iPad. Measuring Language Performance My analysis is based on a one-group pretest-posttest design using matched-pairs t-tests. Unless otherwise stated, t-values below .05 are referred to as statistically significant. Under the null hypothesis, the mean of the paired differences is asymptotically normally distributed. In addition, I used the approximation formula to compute the standard error, since the sample size is small. While the distribution in each week may not be normal, the paired differences rapidly converge towards a normal distribution. In addition, I complemented the parametric tests with the non-parametric Wilcoxon signed-rank tests and the inferences
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were the same (results not tabulated). The features analyzed in the present study are: Length of Language Sample: the length of recorded time (in minutes and seconds) as well as the number of individual words produced. Fluency: the rate of speech production based on the number of words produced in the speech sample, expressed as words per second. Syntactic complexity: the mean number of sentences (t-units) at T1 (pre-test) and at T2 (post-test), the mean length of each sentence (t-unit, expressed in number of words), and the proportion of complex sentences (defined as including a dependent clauses) to the total number of sentences. Overall proficiency (which includes the category of accuracy): evaluated holistically using criteria based on a modified ILR scale.7 RESULTS Weekly Face-Time Chats The (self-reported) time spent in oral discussion varied considerably, ranging from sixty minutes a week to as little as five minutes. The average time spent each week video chatting ranged from 22.55 to 29.45 minutes over the course of the quarter. The length did not change significantly from week to week. The description of the data (mean and standard deviation of weekly conversation time outside of class) has been presented in Table 1 (left side). Table 1. Weekly Face-Time Conversation Times and Video-Recording Times Weekly Face-Time (minutes) Week 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 n 11 11 9 11 11 12 12 Mean 29.45 25.82 28.33 22.55 28.18 27.08 23.83 SD 19.20 9.08 13.69 7.61 12.50 11.37 8.10 Weekly Video-Recording (seconds) Assignment 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 n 12 11 12 12 12 11 12 12 Mean 103.42 176.18 228.67 229.58 286.83 421.09 449.08 330.50 SD 22.07 68.81 77.77 100.54 87.97 130.87 242.29 107.98
Note. Weekly Face-Time is the participants self-reporting of minutes of conversation; video recording times are also selfreported and are in seconds.
Weekly Recording Assignments Students submitted eight recorded assignments during the quarter (one a week), each more complex in terms of breadth and difficulty level of vocabulary and task. The length of the recordings increased each week (see Figure 1). The average time for assignment # 1 was 103 seconds (1 minute and 43 seconds) and the average time for assignment # 7 was 449 seconds (7 minutes and 29 seconds). Assignment # 8 (which was the same task as assignment # 1) was on average 330 seconds long (5 minutes and 30 seconds). It is interesting to note that students reported spending much more time speaking and recording each week because they rerecorded the assignments several times before finally submitting them. In Table 1 (right side), I present the length of the final recordings (mean and standard deviation of weekly recording time
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outside of class).
Figure 1. Average Length of Weekly Video Recordings (in Minutes and Seconds) Fluency, Accuracy, Complexity Assignments # 1 and # 8 were fully transcribed and I analyzed the increase in length of the recorded speech samples from the beginning of the course (T1) and from the end of the course (T2) as well as changes in fluency, accuracy, and complexity of the speech samples. In assignments # 1 and # 8, I asked students the same questions to ensure that the observed differences were not the result of the difference in task (How would you describe yourself to a person who has never met you? Describe the differences between the United States and Germany. What makes each country unique?). Time The average length of the language samples at T1 was 104.83 seconds with a standard deviation of 21.91. The average length at T2 was 334.33 seconds. This represents a three-fold increase over the course of nine weeks. The standard deviation markedly increased as well (from 21.91 to 120.06) which attests to the much greater variability in the data at T2. I hypothesized that the time spent would increase and therefore computed the p-value using a one-tailed t-test. As I have reported in Table 2, the average increase of 229.83 seconds is significant, t(11) = 6.50, p = .000, d = 2.27, using a paired t-test. Words Produced Students produced an average of 178.00 words in T1 and an average of 477.33 words in T2, an increase of 299.33 words over the course of nine weeks. Because I hypothesized that the words produced would increase over the nine weeks, I computed the p-value using a one-tailed t-test. As I have reported in Table 2, the difference in means is also significant, t(11) = 6.12, p = .000, = 2.52, using a paired, one-tailed t-test. Fluency Rate I calculated the fluency rate by dividing the total number of words produced in the speech sample by the total amount of time expressed in seconds. Because I did not have a directional hypothesis, 8 the p-values reported in Table 2 have been based on a two-tailed paired t-test. The average fluency rate at T1 was 1.69 (a little over 100 words per minute) and at T2 was 1.42 (a little over 85 words per minute), which represents a decrease in fluency rate of 0.27 (or 15 words per minute). This result is significant, t(11) = -1.99, p = .036, d = -.71 using a paired t-test.
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Syntactic Complexity The average number of sentences produced at T1 was 12.62 and the average number of sentences at T2 was 26.23, an increase of 13.61 sentences over the course of nine weeks. This result is significant, t(11) = 5.29, p = .000, d = 1.70. The average sentence length was 12.77 words per sentence at T1 and 15.75 words per sentence at T2, an increase of about three words per sentence. This result is also significant, t(11) = 2.11, p = .029, d = .56. The average number of simple sentences produced at T1 was 9.54 and the average number of simple sentences at T2 was 17.92, an increase of 8.38 sentences over the course of Table 2. Language Performance and Fluency Measures at T1 and T2 N T1 Seconds Words Fluency T2 Seconds Words Fluency Change Seconds Words Fluency 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 Mean 104.83 178.00 1.69 334.33 477.33 1.42 230 299 -0.27 SD 21.91 56.57 0.4 120.06 193.78 0.3 122 169 0.38 6.50 6.12 -1.99 .000 .000 .036 2.27 2.52 -.71 t-value p-value Cohens d
Note. : Language performance measures the time students spoke and number of words produced. For language performance, the t-values and p-values are the result of paired one-tailed t-tests. For fluency, the t-value and the p-value are the result of paired two-tailed t-tests.
nine weeks. This result is significant, t(11) = 3.24, p = .004, d = 1.00. I also compared simple sentences versus complex sentences (defined as sentences with clauses with inverted word order such as relative clauses or dependent clauses). At T1 students produced an average of 9.54 simple sentences and 3.08 complex sentences; at T2 students produced an average of 17.92 simple sentences and an average of 8.31 complex sentences, an increase of 8.38 simple sentences (significant, t(11) = 3.24, p = .004, d = 1.00) and 5.23 complex sentences (significant, t(11) = 5.01, p = .000, d = 1.43). The average ratio of simple to complex sentences at T1 was.24 and the average ratio at T2 was.31, an increase of.09. With a p-value of .096, this result is only significant at the 10% level (t(11) = 1.39, p = .096, d = .36). I compute the t-values and the corresponding p-values using a paired one-tailed t-test. Table 3 presents the data (mean and SD) for simple and complex sentences and words per sentence at T1 and T2. It also presents the data (mean, standard deviation, t-value, p-value) for the change of simple and complex sentences and words per sentence between T1 and T2. Overall Proficiency and Accuracy Proficiency and accuracy were evaluated by four experienced instructors not associated with the course using the Interagency Language Roundtable scale. Each sample was read by two instructors. It was a blind assessment. Instructors helping evaluate overall proficiency and accuracy were able to reach a reliable inter-rater agreement.9 Of the twelve students evaluated, three received the same score at T2 as compared to T1, four received a slightly lower score, and five received a higher score for their second
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sample. I will discuss the specifics of this analysis in the Discussion section. Results of the Survey Eleven students took the final survey four weeks after the end of the class. The survey results suggest that most students thought that the iPad technology helped them learn the language (see Appendix C for survey results). Eight students agreed or strongly agreed that Face-Time was helpful to engage in speaking activities outside of class. When asked about learning opportunities, seven students agreed or strongly agreed that video chatting was a great way to learn. Eight students agreed or strongly agreed that Table 3. Syntactic Complexity at T1 and T1 and Change of Syntactic Complexity T1 Simple Complex Total Ratio Words/ Sentence Simple Complex Total Ratio Words/ Sentence n Mean 12 9.54 12 3.08 12 12.62 12 0.24 12 12.77 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 12 17.92 8.31 26.23 0.31 15.75 8.38 5.23 13.62 0.07 2.98 t-value SD 4.05 1.61 3.23 0.14 3.76 10.17 3.62 10.32 0.15 3.39 4.05 1.61 3.23 0.14 3.76 3.24 5.01 5.19 1.39 2.11 .004 .000 .000 .096 .029 1.00 1.43 1.70 0.36 0.56 p-value Cohens d
T2
Change Simple Complex Total Ratio Words/ Sentence
Note. The t-values and the p-values are the result of paired one-tailed t-tests.
the iPad camera was helpful in practicing language. When asked about learning opportunities, 10 students agreed or strongly agreed that re-listening/re-recording deepened their learning experience. Eight students agreed or strongly agreed that they felt more confident about participating in class and communicating clearly as a result of using the iPad. Ten students agreed or strongly agreed that the iPad complemented the classroom. Seven students agreed or strongly agreed that the iPad enhanced their learning: it allowed for a more immersive experience (seven agreed or strongly agreed); it encouraged collaboration (eight agreed or strongly agreed); and the collaborative tools engaged them more (seven agreed or strongly agreed). During the quarter, students were asked to watch one cultural news segment a week and discuss in class and during chat sessions what they had learned. Students were asked to keep track and report how much they had engaged in listening/viewing activities. Unfortunately, the self-reported data had many missing values (many students could not recall). In the survey, nine students agreed or strongly agreed that news broadcasts increased their cultural awareness. When asked which applications were most helpful in increasing their awareness and knowledge of current cultural and political events in Germany and Europe, most students listed streaming news broadcasts (10 students strongly agreed or agreed) and online newspapers (11 students strongly agreed or agreed). This is surprising since only two students listed
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learning about German culture as one of their goals for signing up for this class. The easy access to current news broadcasts may have heightened their interest.10 I also asked students to self-evaluate their speaking skills before and after the class as an indication of how they felt about their progress. Using the rubrics of the Common European Framework of Reference, six thought they had definitely moved up one level on the scale, one thought she had moved two levels, and four thought they were at the same level as before after nine weeks of class (see Figure 2). Ten students welcomed the opportunity to use an iPad in the language class. Asked why, one student commented: It was great to use the device as an opportunity to have something more akin to a study abroad experience while still on campus. I would say that 95% of the videos I watched on the device were in German, and I spoke no English, only German, while using Face-Time. There were, however, some criticisms of the use of this technology. Two students did not think the iPad enriched their learning. One commented that it was a hassle and distracted her/ him from the learning environment; one commented that some of the functions could easily be duplicated on a laptop (Skype versus Face-Time) and that she/ he felt more comfortable with a physical dictionary. Only five of the students liked the multi-sensory input of the iPad. Most students liked the versatility, ease, and novelty of the technology. However, for most of them it was a new device and the learning and mastering of the technologies we used was challenging (video-chatting, recording, uploading and syncing the device, video editing).
Figure 2. Self-Assessment of Skills before and after Class using the CEFR Scale. DISCUSSION The results of my study suggest that getting involved in real-time conversational activities through FaceTime is likely to be beneficial in helping improve oral proficiency in the advanced student. Comparing the students recordings from the beginning and the end of the class shows that the oral language proficiency increased over only nine weeks across several dimensions. The added conversation and recording time outside of class with the iPad may not have been the sole reason for an increased proficiency, as the work accomplished in class should have been beneficial as well and should have complemented and guided the tasks outside of class. However, there are a number of studies that have demonstrated the potential of increasing L2 competency using real-time conversational exchange via text and speech (e.g., Beauvois, 1998; Payne & Ross, 2005; Payne & Whitney, 2002), also in German (e.g., Abrams, 2003; Kost, 2004). Having taught the class many times before with limited technology (watching news broadcasts in class), I was surprised to see that the language samples produced at T2 after the iPad practice were much better than what I had experienced previously. The added practice gave students on average up to thirty minutes a week in conversational practice time with their peers. This is a considerable increase when compared to the time students generally speak during class. Given the research on interaction presented above, I would have expected the added practice to yield such results.
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That students felt more and more comfortable with speaking as time progressed is corroborated by the recording assignments. Recording times increased to more than seven minutes (on average) over the course of the quarter as students became more certain of their skills and had more to say. Students commented in the survey that they felt that Face-Time was a great way to learn the language and that relistening/re-recording the assignments deepened their learning experience considerably. Previous research suggests that syntactic complexity increases as learners gain experience in their L2 (e.g., Magnun, 1988). This is also the case here: Sentences became longer (an increase of three words per sentence on average) and more complex as seen by an increase in the ratio of simple to complex sentences of 0.07. The fluency rate, however, decreased between the two samples by approximately 15%, which was unexpected. Still, Norris and Ortega (2009) suggest that accuracy, fluency, and complexity may not develop in a linear fashion but may be seen as interrelated and may constantly change. My results suggest that as the linguistic complexity increased, processing time increased as well as students reflected on how to best express their more complex thoughts. This result is in contrast to Morley and Truscott (2006) who reported a main gain in fluency over 12 weeks for students working in tandem situations as 12% compared with a gain of less than 1% for those studying in the classroom. But this may also be an artifact of the difference in computing fluency. Evaluating overall proficiency and accuracy proved to be difficult. Students tended to use short simple sentences in their first spoken sample. In the second sample, students used longer, more complex sentences. They varied the structure of the language and the content increased in complexity as well (compare language samples in Appendix A and Appendix B). The language in the second sample was less fluent, and tended to be less accurate as it had more errors. This is again consistent with the literature (e.g., Magnum, 1988). Language learning has been described as a product of rule formation and hypothesis testing. As learners try to integrate more sophisticated language, they may reject previously accepted language forms as part of the process of restructuring their evolving language competence. Learning a language, therefore, is not a linear process but the language learner may exhibit a U-shaped learning behavior, a phenomenon widely discussed among psychologists and cognitive scientists (e.g., Karmiloff-Smith, 1992) and one which has also been documented for learning German as an L2 (e.g., Siebert-Ott, 2000). Instructors assessing the spoken samples holistically using a modified Interagency Language Roundtable scale could not always agree on the final scores as some tended to evaluate the more obvious features such as errors and pauses first, indicating that different factors may contribute differently to language proficiency at different levels (Higgs & Clifford, 1982). Sentence lengths and complexity were not always that obvious. Some of the samples were very long and the language varied across the sample depending on the task and the content (i.e., it was easier for students to speak about themselves than to compare two countries). The students, however, did not see it this way: according to the survey, they felt more confident about participating in class and communicating as a result of using the iPad. Analyzing the language samples for cultural topics, students had clearly much more to say about current issues in Germany and Europe at the end of the class, which contributed to the increased length of the samples but also to the less fluent speech. Expressing that you do not know much about Germany is easier than trying to explain the problems in the European Union with Greece. While most students did not indicate that they took the course to learn more about culture, almost all felt that the news broadcasts they had watched on the iPad and had discussed over Face-Time had increased their cultural awareness. Comparing the results of the instructor assessment, three students were rated the same in T1 and T2, five students were rated higher in T2 than in T1, and four students were rated slightly lower in T2. Converting the results to the ACTFL scale11 suggests the following: at the beginning of the class, six students were rated as Advanced Mid, five students as Advanced High, and one student as Superior. At the end of the class, four students were still at the Advanced Mid level and two students had moved from Advanced Mid
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to Advanced High according to their spoken sample. The fact that some students were able to reach a different competency level on the ACTFL scale after only nine weeks of instruction and practice indicates that at least for some students, the additional language practice was crucial. Limitations of the Study There are two major limitations of my study: the small sample size (although the changes were significant at conventional levels) and the absence of a control group. As such, it is difficult to say with certainty how much the added interactional practice contributed to the proficiency gain as compared to what the classroom would have offered alone. Nevertheless, a quasi-experimental design or one group pretestposttest designthe design I employed in this studycan still provide usable data, especially when the instructor has taught the class before without the introduction of technology. Furthermore, it can help formulate important questions and improve the study design for subsequent experiments. In hindsight, comparing the first assignment also introduced limitations, for two reasons. First, there were some technical glitches with the recording and uploading of the first assignment which were resolved by the second week. In addition, some students did not feel comfortable with the technology at first, which may have artificially shortened the amount of time they spoke. Based on my experience, I would recommend using the second and last assignments for comparison, allowing time to work out technical problems and to allow students to adjust to the new learning environment. Comparing the content of assignments # 1 and # 8 assured us that giving the same topic twice was not a problem for the design. Students provided completely different answers indicating that they were not duplicating the earlier work. Morley and Truscott (2006) suggest that the formal interviews they used to assess their students may not have been the ideal way to measure fluency because of the anxiety associated with formal interview settings. In our sample, fluency did not improve despite the fact that students spoke in a very relaxed environment and had the chance to rerecord their final language sample until they felt it was perfect. CONCLUSIONS Overall, my results are consistent with a series of findings from the literature. Specifically, I find that the additional practice afforded by using an iPad indeed increased the amount and quality of the oral production in the learners. The increase in proficiency over nine weeks may not have been the result of simply adding conversational practice. In a study assessing language gain in Spanish speaking students spending a semester abroad, only 12 of the 22 students were able to improve their proficiency by one level (from Intermediate Low to Intermediate Mid), even though they had reported that they had used Spanish outside of class for more than forty-five hours per week (Segalowitz & Freed, 2004, as cited in Tschirner, 2007, p. 111). Students apparently blamed the repetitive and predictable nature of many exchanges with their host family. The increase of proficiency in our study may have been a function of the integrated scaffolded nature of the tasks using iPad technology. In van Liers words: The aim is to pull (without forcing) the students into an ever expanding ZPD so that they gradually become more confident and independent language users in accordance with their growing proficiency (van Lier, 1996, p. 198). Students spent on average almost thirty minutes a week engaged in synchronous speaking activities outside of class. In addition, they spent considerable time recording their speaking. Recorded speaking samples increased over the course of the quarter to seven minutes on average. I found a definite change in the quality of the language when comparing sample # 1 recorded at the beginning of the quarter (T1) and sample # 8 recorded at the end of the quarter (T2). The students produced more language (as expressed in time and number of words). The sentences at T2 were considerably longer and were more complex than the sentences at T1, which tended to be more formulaic in nature. The language at T2, however, was less fluent and less accurate. For one, the students were using fewer formulaic expressions and more complex constructions (increasing the likelihood of errors). The content of the spoken samples was more informed (learners had more to say) but also more complex. The data suggest that fluency does not develop linearly,
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but may fluctuate, depending on the complexity of the language and content and that nine weeks is probably not enough to solidify fluency and accuracy, even though the students language clearly improved. Implementing iPads in the classroom was not without its challenges. The infrastructure needed to be updated (e.g., connectivity, projection system) and the instructor and the students required technical support throughout the quarter. Students at first tried to use the iPad in the same way they would use their computer and were quite surprised at the differences (e.g., how the iPad handled the saving and conversion of documents, especially large files, as well as the production of large written texts) to the point where some students clearly preferred the laptop because they were more familiar with it. Nevertheless, the role of mobile devices in enabling individuals to engage in powerful learning experiences outside the classroom is expanding and evolving dramatically. As instructors, we cannot ignore this development as our future students will expect us to provide access to learning to improve motivation and depth of learning through a myriad of learning tools. Using mobile devices is an effective instructional approach by providing learning opportunities that the more traditional classroom alone cannot furnish.
APPENDIX A. Language Samples (describe yourself) Sample One Das ist Stacy. Ich bin unsicher, wie kann ich mich am besten beschreiben. Vielleicht soll ich mit meinem Alt anfangen. Ich bin einundzwanzig Jahre alt und ich wurde in Kiev geboren. Meine Lieblingsfarbe ist grn. Technomusik und Folkart gefallen mir. Meinen Charakter: ich bin ein bisschen schuchtern und verschlossen und ordnungsliebend aber mit meinen Freuden bin ich ausgelassen und humorvoll. Ich bin immer nervs, wenn ich nach neue fremde Orten reisen muss. Ich bin ein bisschen unsicher ber meinen Zukunft aber ich hoffe ein Phd in Chemie zu bekommen. (Approximate translation: That is Stacy. I am uncertain, how I can describe myself best. Maybe I should start with my age. I am 21 years old and I was born in Kiev. My favorite color is green. I like techno music and Folkart. My character: I am a little shy and reserved and like to keep everything nice and tidy, however, with my friends I am playful and funny. I am always nervous when I have to travel to new, strange places. I am a little uncertain about my future but I hope to receive a PhD in Chemistry.) Sample Two Ich heie Anastasia, aber die meisten nennen mich Stacy, weil es einfacher zu aussprechen ist. Ich komme aus der Ukraine aber ich bin in Amerika seit 2001. Jetzt bin ich eine Brgerin und ich freue mich darber, weil es eine lange Prozess war. Ich bin ordnungsliebend ..., und es ist sehr wichtig in Chemie und ich will eine Chemikerin werden. Ich bin freundlich aber auch ein bisschen schu...schchtern, wenn ich neue fremde Leute treffen muss. Grn ist noch meine Lieblingsfarbe und Rock, Folkrock und Techno gefallen mir. Es kommt auf meine Laune, welche Musik ich lausche. Und ich, wenn ich Zeit haben, dann lese ich Science Fiction. Ich finde die Welten, die sie beschreiben, sehr faszinierend sind. Daher lese ich diese Geschichte. Ich habe eine Schwester und auch eine Neffe und diese Wochenende habe ich Zeit sie zu besuchen. Und ich freue mich darber. (Approximate translation: My name is Anastasia, but most call me Stacy because it is easier to pronounce. I am from Ukraine but I have been in the United States since 2001. I am a United States citizen now and I am glad because it was a long process. I like to keep everything nice and tidy... and this is very important in chemistry and I want to be a chemist. I am friendly but also a little shy ... shy when I have to meet strangers. Green is still my favorite color and rock, and I still like rock, folk rock and techno. It depends on my mood, what kind of music I choose to listen to. And I, if I have time, I read
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science fiction. I find the worlds, which it describes, are very fascinating. Therefore, I read this story. I have a sister and a nephew, and this weekend I have time to visit them. And I am happy about it.)
APPENDIX B. Language Samples (Compare the US to Germany) Sample One An die zweite Frage. So, ich finde Deutschland, es ist kleiner als den USA und auch es ist ein Teil der [unclear] und die Deutsche sind freundlich, aber mehr reserviert als Amerikaner und sie reisen viel auch. Was die Deutschen wichtig finden. Sie finden die Finanzkrise wichtig und auch Schuldkrise und auch natrlich europische Union Politik, weil das ist klar. Und ich glaube auch sie finden Energie, insbesondere Alternativenergie wichtiger als Amerikaner. (Approximate Translation: To the second question. So, I think Germany, it is smaller than the U.S. and it is a part of the [unclear] and the Germans are friendly, but more reserved than Americans, and they also travel a lot. What the Germans find important. They find the financial crisis important and debt crisis and of course politics of the European Union, because that is clear. And I think also they find energy, particularly alternative energy more important than Americans.) Sample Two Mein nchster Punkt ist, was ich ber Deutschland kenne. Zuerst , ... die Deutscher haben Lust fr Politik und es ist nicht nur deutsche Politik, sondern auch ... andere europische Politik, amerikanische Politik, [unclear]Politik. Sie haben auch Lust fr Wissenschaft und neue Technologie, insbesondere Alternativenergie. Ich finde das sehr cool, weil ich habe auch Lust fr Alternativenergie. Es gibt auch viele soziale Probleme in Deutschland wie in den USA. Zum Beispiel in der Schule gibt es Gewalt, in der Schule, die Problemkinder, es gibt viel Armut, es gibt auch viele Immigranten, viele Auslnder in Deutschland. Ich wusste, dass es gibt Auslnder natrlich, aber ich wusste nicht, dass es so viele Auslnder gibt. Zusammenfassend mchte ich sagen, dass Deutschland ist nicht so anders, ... Deutschland nicht so anders als den USA ist. Wir haben beide soziale Probleme. Ehm, aber haben Deutschland und die USA auch viel Lust fr Politik Wissenschaft, Technologie, Reisen. Das ist alles. Danke. (Approximate translation: My next point is what I know about Germany. First, ... Germans have a desire for politics and it is not just German politics but also ... other European politics, American politics, [unclear] politics. They also have a desire for science and new technologies, in particular, green energy. I think it is very cool, because I also like green energy. There are also many social problems in Germany as in America. For example, there is violence in school, in school, children with problems; there is a lot of poverty, there are also many immigrants, many foreigners in Germany. I knew that there are foreigners, of course, but I did not know that there are so many foreigners. In summary, I would like to say that Germany is not so different ... Germany is not so different from the U.S. We both have social problems. But Germany and the United States also have a big desire for politics, technology, travel. That's all. Thank you.)
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APPENDIX C. Survey Results

strongly disagree NA 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
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Overall, I welcomed the opportunity to use an iPad in my language class. Face-Time connection to talk with a partner outside of class. iPad camera to record my own speech samples and listen to it. Dictionary apps to check new words and phrases to increase my vocabulary.
6 4 7 5
4 4 2 3
1 2 0 2
Indicate whether the following Apps were helpful in practicing and engaging in speaking activities. 0 2 1
Indicate whether the following Apps increased your awareness and knowledge of current cultural and political events in Germany and Europe. Streaming news and television broadcasts such as n-tv, ZDF, and Tagesschau. Online newspaper articles. Using the iPad in my class enhanced and enriched my learning in multiple ways. The tools on the iPad allowed for approaches to learning outside the classroom in ways that complemented the formal learning situation in the classroom. The tools on the iPad encouraged people to help each other and to learn from each other. Using collaborative tools on the iPad engaged me more in the subject. Because of the added practice with my partner through weekly Face-Time sessions, I feel more confident to participate actively in small group and class discussions in German. Because of the added practice and individual and group feedback with the weekly video sessions, I feel more confident in communicating ideas clearly, fluently, and meaningfully, especially on topics discussed and practiced in class, but also on topics we have not practiced. The iPad made it easier for me to speak German to other classmates outside of class. I would not have spoken so much German without the iPad. Video chatting with other students (or with the professor) was one of the best ways to learn. To repeat content as often as needed (re-listening to news or rerecording video assignments) deepened my learning experience. Streaming news and television broadcasts helped me understand current cultural and political events in Germany and Europe. 6 7 3 4 4 4 4 6 1 0 2 1 0 0 1 0
3 2
5 5
1 2
What learning opportunities did the iPad provide specifically. 3 5 2 0
1 3 5
6 7 4
2 1 2
disagree 0 2 2 1 1 1 0 0
strongly agree agree
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NOTES 1. In a more recent study involving German as L2, Kasper (2004) also argues for the learning potential of language-activities that are far less pre-structured than tasks (see Eckerth and Tschirner (2010) for an overview of the literature on task-based learning in German as L2). 2. For students self-evaluation in the questionnaire, I used the Common European Framework of Reference scale. To evaluate the recorded language samples, I redefined the assessment rubrics using the Interagency Language Roundtable (ILR) scale. With six levels, ranging from zero proficiency through native proficiency (including plus levels at each stage), this scale covered a wider range of abilities. 3. Magnan (1988) found a significant relationship between Oral Proficiency Interview ratings and percentage of grammatical errors. Iwashita (2010) also showed that in various studies she reviewed, the principal determining factor in evaluating oral language samples globally was grammatical accuracy. 4. In a comprehensive overview on the most recent literature of German as L2, Eckerth and Tschirner (2010) report that the research on oral skills in learning German as L2 is still limited. They list Aguado, Brenfnger and Beyer (2003) who report on current research on the role of attention, monitoring, and automatization in oral language production, and Adamczak-Krysztofowicz and Stork (2007), Bose and Schwarze (2007), and Huth and Taleghani-Nikazm (2006) with regard to L2 pedagogy. 5. Interested language instructors at this studys university (any language/any level being taught) with a coherent plan on how to use and integrate the new technology into their class could apply for project support. Two projects a quarter were chosen. The instructors received an iPad to keep (an effort to get even novice instructors up to speed on the use of iPad technology and selection of apps) and their students received an iPad for the duration of the class. As part of an effort to share new language teaching models and to report on study results, instructors were asked to provide a short research report of their class, and a presentation to the language teaching community detailing how effective the iPad use was and in what ways it changed the learning and teaching environment. The project website at http://mmlc.northwestern.edu/ipad/ provides a description of the two-year study and survey results as well as individual class reports. A news story and student interviews prepared by the at this studys university on two Chinese classes using iPads in the winter 2012 can be found here: http://www.northwestern.edu/newscenter/stories/2012/04/ipad-chinese-language.html 6. The overall goal for the German program at this university is for our best students to reach the Advanced High Level on the ACTFL oral proficiency scale (C1 on the Common European Framework of Reference) by the time they finish their major in German. Given the diverse intellectual potential of students, the lack of experience they may have with regard to study abroad, and the variety of courses students choose to take, we have not set this level as a graduation requirement. 7. The Interagency Language Roundtable scale covers a wide range of language abilities. It has six levels, ranging from 0 (No Practical Proficiency) through 5 (Native or Bilingual Proficiency) with an intermediate level (plus level) at each stage. I used a summarized version for the level descriptions for speaking of the version found here: http://www.govtilr.org/Skills/ILRscale2.htm. 8. As students become more proficient in their L2, they begin to use more complicated and more complex constructions accompanied by increased difficulties with lexical encoding. Fluency rates based on temporal features may therefore temporarily decrease (see also Hilton, 2009). 9. Instructors 1 and 2 evaluated the pre-test assignment of students 1-6 and the post-test assignment of students 7-12. The degree of agreement (weighted Kappa) was moderate (0.486) and fair (0.368) respectively. Instructors 3 and 4 evaluated the pre-test assignment of students 7-12 and the post-test assignment of students 1-6. The degree of agreement (weighted Kappa) was good (0.609) and very good (0.987) respectively.
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10. Students commented that they especially liked Nachrichten Kompakt, a two-minute news summary on n-tv and Tagesschau in 100 Sekunden, a 100 second news-summary on the program Tagesschau. Both programs provided a much-needed overview of current issues facing Europe. 11. I used the conversion to the ACTFL scale that has been suggested by Tschirner (2005).
ABOUT THE AUTHOR Franziska Lys (PhD, Linguistics, Northwestern) is Associate Professor in the Department of German. She is the co-producer and co-director of four documentaries and has developed several multi-media online learning environments. She has published a wide variety of material at the intersection of second language acquisition and computer-assisted language learning.
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Isabelli-Garca, C. (2003). Development of oral communication skills abroad. Frontiers: The Interdisciplinary Journal of Study Abroad, 9, 149173. Iwashita, N. (2010). Features of oral proficiency in task performance by EFL and JFL learners. In Matthew T. Prior et al. (Eds.), Selected Proceedings of the 2008 Second Language Research Forum (pp. 3247). Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Proceedings Project. Retrieved from http://www.lingref.com/cpp/slrf/2008/paper2383.pdf Johnson, K. (1995). Understanding communication in second language classrooms. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Kasper, G. (2004). Participant orientations in German conversations-for-learning. Modern Language Journal, 88, 551567. Karmiloff-Smith, A. (1992). Beyond modularity. A developmental perspective on cognitive science. Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Kinash, S., Brand, J., & Mathew, T. (2012). Challenging mobile learning discourse through research: Student perceptions of Blackboard Mobile Learn and iPads. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 28(4), 639655. Kost, C. (2004). An investigation of the effects of synchronous computer-mediated communication (CMC) on interlanguage development in beginning learners of German: Accuracy, proficiency, and communication strategies. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Arizona. Krashen, S. (1981). Second language acquisition and second language learning. Oxford, UK: Pergamon. Kukulska-Hulme, A. (2009). Will mobile learning change language learning? ReCALL, 21(2), 157165. Kukulska-Hulme, A., & Shield, L. (2007). An overview of mobile assisted language learning: can mobile devices support collaborative practice in speaking and listening? Paper presented at EuroCALL 2007, September, Conference Virtual Strand. Retrieved from: http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.84.1398&rep=rep1&type=pdf Kukulska-Hulme, A., & Shield, L. (2008). An overview of mobile assisted language learning: from content delivery to supported collaboration and interaction. ReCALL, 20(3), 249252. Larsen-Freeman, D., & Long, M. (1991). An introduction to second-language acquisition research. New York, NY: Longman. Lochtman, K. (2002). Oral corrective feedback in the foreign language classroom. How it affects interaction in analytic foreign language teaching. International Journal of Educational Research, 37, 271283. Long, M. (1981). Input, interaction, and second language acquisition. In H. Winitz (Ed.), Native language and foreign language acquisition: Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 379 (pp. 259278). New York: NY: The New York Academy of Sciences. Long, M. (1996). The role of the linguistic environment in second language acquisition. In W. Ritchie & T. Bhatia (Eds.), Handbook of second language acquisition (pp. 413468). San Diego, CA: Academic Press. Mackey, A. (2007). Conversational interaction in second language acquisition. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Mackey A., & Jaemyung, G. (2007). Interaction research in SLA: A meta-analysis and research synthesis. In A. Mackey (Ed.), Conversational interaction in second language acquisition (pp. 409452). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
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Roscoria, T. (2011b). The impact of the iPad on K-12 schools. Center For Digital Education. Retrieved from http://www.centerdigitaled.com/classtech/Impact-iPad-K12-Schools.html Senior, R. (2010). Connectivity: A framework for understanding effective language teaching in face-toface and online learning communities. RELC Journal, 41(2), 137147. Siebert-Ott, G. (2000). Die sprachliche Entwicklung von Kindern und Jugendlichen mit Migrationshintergrund [The linguistic development of children and adolescents with a migrant background]. In Landesinstitut fr Schule und Weiterbildung und Landeszentrum fr Zuwanderung [Regional Institute for Education and Continuing Education and Regional Center for Immigration] (Eds.). Sprachliche Frderung von Kindern und Jugendlichen aus Migrantenfamilien [Linguistic advancement of children and adolescents from immigrant families] (pp. 1834). Boenen, Germany: Druckverlag Kettler. Tschirner, E. (2005). Das ACTFL OPI und der europische Referenzrahmen. [The ACTFL OPI and the Common European Framework of Reference]. Babylonia, 2, 5055. Tschirner, E. (2007). The development of oral prociency in a four-week intensive immersion program in Germany. Die Unterrichtspraxis/Teaching German, 40(2), 111117. Van Lier, L. (1996). Interaction in the language curriculum: Awareness, autonomy and authenticity. London, UK: Longman. Varonis, E., & Gass, S. (1985a). Non-native/non-native conversations: a modal for negotiation of meaning. Applied Linguistics, 6, 7190. Varonis, E., & Gass, S. (1985b). Miscommunication in native/non-native conversation. Language in Society, 14, 327343. Webb, J. (n.d.). The iPad as a tool for education: A case study. Retrieved from http://www.naace.co.uk/publications/longfieldipadresearch Zhang, S. (2009). The role of input, interaction, and output in the development of oral fluency. English Language Teaching, 2(4), 91100.
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Language Learning & Technology http://llt.msu.edu/issues/october2013/wangsmith.pdf
READING AND GRAMMAR LEARNING THROUGH MOBILE PHONES

Shudong Wang, Shimane University Simon Smith, Shimane University This paper describes an ongoing language-learning project, three years into its development. We examine both the feasibility and the limitations of developing English reading and grammar skills through the interface of mobile phones. Throughout the project, reading and grammar materials were regularly sent to students mobile phones. Students read or took part in any aspect of the materials that appealed to them. Information gathered from participants and server logs indicate that reading and learning grammar using mobile devices is regarded as a positive language experience. However, the data also indicate that the success of any mobile learning project could be limited unless certain criteria are applied. This includes (a) providing engaging learning materials that are neither too long nor overly-demanding; (b) a proper degree of teacher monitoring; (c) student involvement; (d) the need for incentives; (e) a respect for privacy; and (f) a safe and secure mobile-learning technical environment. Keywords: Mobile Phone, Language Learning, Reading, Grammar, Efficacy, Security and Privacy Concerns APA Citation: Wang, S., & Smith, S. Reading and grammar learning through mobile phones. Language Learning & Technology, 17(3), 117134. Retrieved from http://llt.msu.edu/issues/october2013/wangsmith.pdf Received: June 30, 2012; Accepted: July 3, 2013; Published: October 1, 2013 Copyright: Shudong Wang and Simon Smith INTRODUCTION Mobile Phones in Education Japan has one of the worlds most advanced cellular networks, and most of the student population there possesses a mobile phone. In part due to the ubiquity of Wi-Fi and WiMAX, smart phone users have become the norm rather than the exception. There are three main reasons for this trend. First, smart phones connecting to Wi-Fi or WiMAX have the same connectivity as computers. Even in the current 3G and 4G environment, the data processing capability of phones gives users far greater flexibility than ever before. The change is not just limited to the wireless environment; mobile phone hardware has seen exponential progress as well. Another reason for widespread smart phone use is that the screen size of some smart phones has increased to five inches or larger and the resolution has improved to around 1980*1080 pixels. Finally, the processing power of mobile phone CPUs also continues to evolve, and the memory cards on smart phones can store dozens of gigabytes of data, comparable with many PCs. It is clear that the gap in the operational functionalities between mobile phone and PC technology has narrowed, providing educators greater freedom for extending learning outside of traditional learning environments. While some limitations for mobile phone use in education existed in the past (Wang & Higgins, 2006), these have begun to dissipate due to advances in information technology. For instance, the problem of small bandwidth has been remedied by the technologies of Wi-Fi, 3.5G, and 4G networks. Similarly, problems associated with manual text input are being resolved through the use of speech recognition technology, touch screens, and styluses. Since the emergence of smart phones in 2007, more and more functions specific to PCs and other hand-held devices have been integrated within mobile phone devices. In Japan, most mobile phones are now equipped with photo and video cameras, Quick Response (QR)
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Reading and Grammar Learning Through Mobile Phones
code readers, voice recorders, MP3/MP4 players and 1seg technology, which allows for mobile reception of terrestrial television, Global Positioning System (GPS), Internet access, email, Short Messaging Service (SMS) and Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS). Applications such as YouTube, Facebook, Skype, Twitter, Flash-embed or Java-enabled multimedia resources are all accessible on mobile phones. In sum: todays digital environment has blurred the differential between mobile phones and PCs. As the price of smart phones continues to fall, they have ceased to be a tool of an elite minority. According to the MyNavi Co. Ltd. survey (2012), 59.3% of Japanese students currently possess smart phones. Whilst we cannot presuppose that such numbers will translate to a high number of mobile language learners, predictions for high future correlations do seem likely. For example, Cheon, Lee, Crooks, and Song (2012) indicate that college students in America are beginning to accept m-learning. Similarly, in Japan, a majority of Japanese students surveyed by Thornton and Houser (2005) preferred to receive learning materials on mobile phones rather than PCs. Current pedagogical theory also shows a parallel enthusiasm for mobile learning. Situated Learning Theory (SLT) (Collins, Brown, & Newman, 1989; Warschauer, 1997) maintains that genuine learning is unintentional and situated within authentic activity, context, and culture. Discussing the effectiveness of Mobile Assisted Language Learning (MALL), Burston (2011) asserts that behaviorist, teacher-centered theories can complement and aid student-centered vocabulary and grammar mobile phone applications. Though it may be too early to judge the effectiveness of mobile phone learning, collaborative, learnercentered pedagogical approaches have undoubtedly informed and inspired developments in mobile learning programs. Language Learning via Mobile Phones Mobile phones are becoming more widely used in learning vocabulary, as is shown in a number of studies (Chen & Chung, 2008; Kennedy & Levy, 2008; Lu, 2008; Pincas, 2004; Stockwell, 2008; Stockwell, 2010; Thornton & Houser, 2005; Yamaguchi, 2005). In one study, Lu (2008) had students learn two sets of English vocabulary words either through mobile phones or by a paper-based format. Students who learned via SMS were found to understand more words than students presented with the paper-based tasks. Kennedy and Levys (2008) research investigated the acceptability of a pushed mode of mobile phone operation; these authors sent short messages containing known words and new words mixed together. They found that the students appreciated the experience of reviewing learnt information and that the students found the message content often useful or enjoyable. Butgereit and Botha (2009) described a system that allows language teachers to create spelling lists or vocabulary lists in English and Afrikaans. The system then generates a fun mobile phone application using multiple texts-to-speech engines to encourage African pupils to practice spelling the words. Cavus and Ibrahim (2009) developed a system to send technical English language words together with the meanings in the form of SMSs. Studies have also shown that MALLs utility is not just limited to vocabulary learning; mobile phones can also be applied to other learning situations. Comas-Quinn and Mardomingo (2009) carried out a mobile learning project to engage learners in the creation of an online resource that focuses on a foreign culture. In their project, students used their mobile phones, digital cameras, and MP3 recorders to select and record samples of their encounters with foreign cultures; students then sent or uploaded these encounters to a cultural blog to be shared with other group members. Chang and Hsu (2011) developed a system to integrate an instant translation mode, an instant translation annotation mode, and an instant multi-user shared translation annotation function to support a synchronously intensive reading course in the normal classroom. The project was designed for personal digital assistants (PDAs), not really for mobile phones. Demouy and Kukulska-Hulme (2010) also reported on a project that allowed students to use iPods and MP3 players, as well as mobile phones, to practice listening and speaking. They found that whilst the use of iPods and MP3 players was readily adopted by project participants, the process of doing activities on mobile phones was deemed less satisfying.
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Despite the challenge of integrating phones into a learning environment, it has been shown that as users become more adept at using digital interfaces, their learning styles and how they perceive the learning material are both likely to change (Stockwell, 2010). Delivering smaller modular chunkssuch as miniessays and grammar quizzesmay be more suitable for better mobile phone learning experiences. Indeed, academics (Rutherford, 1987; Krashen, 1989) have long suggested that acquisition is enhanced when learnt in comprehensible, manageable pieces. With this in mindand in order to address an absence of data on the development of reading and grammar skills via mobile phoneswe initiated a trial in 2009, providing students with English reading and grammar learning materials in small modular chunks. Purpose of the Study Compared with mobile phone vocabulary learning and trial practices with listening and speaking, there is significantly less research on the advantages of mobile phone programs for reading and grammar practice. Waycott and Kukulska-Hulme (2003) reported that students found it difficult to read course materials on a PDA (a mobile device that is not popular with university students in Japan) and that it was generally considered to be inferior to reading in a paper-based format. Lan, Sung, and Chang (2007) explored the potential of mobile technology for reading, but their experiment was limited to tablet PCs and their participant pool only included elementary school students. The research of Huang and Lin (2011) shows that in terms of reading, receiving materials on paper is preferable to receiving resources via mobile phones or email regardless of the length of the texts. Whilst this is an important finding, the study only involved 10 students; furthermore, the study based its findings on the reading of just six texts. In addition to the shortage of research into mobile reading and grammar learning, another important factor which inspired this project is the popularity of mobile phone novels in Japanese. Kawaharazuka and Takeuchi (2010) and Farrar (2009) reported that by 2007, five of the best-selling print novels in Japan were written and read on mobile phones. The prevalence for reading novels on phones was interpreted as a positive indication that students would look favorably on this current project if some of the protocols of writing novels were also adopted for the project. This included frequent use of the line return and the use of short sentences with few modifiers. With these factors in mind we wanted to provide students with a learning opportunity that would help improve their English and allow us to have a better understanding of reading and grammar learning on mobile phones while also giving us the opportunity to assess the degree to which students are motivated to learn outside the classroom on their mobile phones. For these reasons we started a project called Ubiquitous English in 2009. To fully immerse students in a rich learning environment, short English essays and grammar quizzes were sent to students via their mobile phones two or three times a week. Students were then required to complete the activities on their mobile phones in their own time. During the course of our three-year project, several questions came up repeatedly and became a motivating force for the study. These questions include: 1. Are students prepared to read a foreign language and engage with grammar quizzes on their mobile phones? When students read on mobile phones, what kinds of topics motivate and what kinds of topics fail to captivate their interest? 2. When given the choice between accessing material on mobiles or PCs, which device will students instinctively use? 3. What general perception do students have towards reading and grammar on mobile phones? 4. What concerns do students have about learning languages using their mobile phones? By addressing these questions, this paper aims to redress the gap in current research into mobile learning for reading and grammar practice as well as inform future research of important observations regarding this specific student population.
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METHOD The Development of Mobile Reading and Grammar Materials The initial reading materials used within this project were developed by university teachers from the Center for Foreign Language Education, Shimane University, Japan. In order to enhance and extend the program, 10 advanced-level students were temporarily employed to write essays that were to be read by our students. These materials were uploaded by the students and later edited by university teachers. The task of writing short essays, however, was predominantly assigned to the native English-speaking teachers. At the outset of the project, it was agreed that each composition would be no more than 140 words in length, so that each essay could be read in two or three minutes on a small screen (Borau, Ullrich, Feng, & Shen, 2009; Grosseck & Holotesch, 2008). In order to appeal to a majority of first-year students, whose average knowledge of English is at a preintermediate level, all the materials were written in simple and easy-to-understand English. Any words that we thought might cause a problem were annotated with Japanese translations. Vocabulary notes were placed at the beginning of the essay to make readers aware of new vocabulary items before they read the essay. Students could opt to click on the URL attached to the plain text essay and read the Japanese translation, although reading the translation before the essay was not encouraged. There were a number of reasons we chose to use in-house materials in this project. Firstly, creating original reading and grammar materials avoids the ethical and legal issues related to copyright. Japanese copyright law (Chapter 2, Section 1) stipulates that a web page and all other related documents are copyright protected. Teachers may reproduce materials from web pages and use them in the classroom only if they do not unreasonably prejudice the copyright owner (Japan Copyright Office, 2011). In essence, this implies that teachers must be careful to ensure that the only place they use the materials is in the classroom (Heffernan & Wang, 2008). Furthermore, having learning materials created for learners by a teacher who is familiar with the students learning needs is more likely to resonate positively with the students, enhance their classroom learning, and hopefully, increase their motivation towards language learning. Also, from a teaching perspective, creating in-house materials enables teachers to offer material which learners themselves see as relevant and applicable to other situation (Ngeow, 1998). This is also reflected in earlier research on motivation. In one such study, Oxford and Shearin (1994) analysed 12 motivational theories and identified six factors that affect motivation in language learning. One of the factors highlighted was environmental support, which is defined as the extent of teacher and peer support, and the integration of cultural and outside-ofclass support into learning experience. In order to appeal to our young participants, the topics chosen for the mobile learning project were as topical and broad-based as possible. To capture student interest, the topics chosen were not overly taxing and included jokes and riddles. Although listening skills had never been the focus of this project, we were aware that reading accompanied by pictures and audio is always more effective than a text-only format (Fiorea, Cuevasa, & Oserb, 2003; Glenberg & Langston, 1992; Koskinen et al., 2000). Accordingly, since August 2011, all materials in our project have included both audio and visual content to support the readings. Students could then listen to or watch each reading (see essay example in Figure 1, left, and the MP4 formatted animation in Figure 1, right). Alongside the reading text, which was usually a short story, a joke or an anecdote, two types of grammar materials were provided: grammar knowledge and grammar quizzes. In a previous e-learning program, we had discovered that most students at our university are typically weak at using nouns, the subjunctive mood, participles, and negative forms. To address these areas, the grammar interpretations sent to students focused on these items. Each grammar item interpretation was attached with a grammar quiz URL. From a project objective, the grammar knowledge delivery was a form of explicit teaching (i.e.,
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Figure 1. Mini essay (left) and an MP4 formatted animation for this mini essay (right). pushing student learning) whereas the grammar quiz was seen as a test of their understanding (i.e., pulling student learning). Sometimes trivia associated with English grammar were added to the grammar activities in order to increase students motivation. Because most of the readers were first-year students at the pre-intermediate level, part of the grammar section was written in Japanese (see Figure 2).
Figure 2. Grammar explanation sent via email (left) and grammar quiz (right). Participant-Student Subscribers Because the learning materials were mainly delivered via email, our first priority was to obtain students email addresses. As personal information is strictly protected by Japanese law (The Cabinet Office of Japanese Government, 2005), students were under no obligation to provide teachers with their email
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addresses (El-Khatib, Korba & Yee, 2003; Kimura, Komatsu, Shimagawa, Shirahase, & Sekine, 2005). Thus, after distributing handouts to every first-year student, we explained the goal of our project and the purpose of requesting their email addresses. Students were asked to register their email addresses of their own volition and were told that their email address would be used only for this project. They were also told they could opt out at any time. Upon beginning the project, we were aware that many students might be reluctant to share their personal information with an e-learning system (Boston, 2009; Wang & Heffernan, 2010), so we consented to the use of nicknames when students registered their email addresses. In total, as of June 2012, 372 email addresses had been registered with the project. Unfortunately, not all of the registrants became permanent participants, reducing the number of active participants to 208. There were four predominant reasons for the loss of so many subscribers: (a) some students found the program unsuitable for their learning style and chose to terminate their subscription; (b) Japanese students frequently change their mobile phone email addresses in order to avoid spam emails, and some forgot to update this information with the project; (c) many students mobile phones are pre-set by telecommunication companies to prevent receiving emails from PCs; and (d) the emails from the project server were automatically filtered to the spam folder. The Delivery Mode of Mobile Learning Material Once created, the reading and grammar materials were uploaded to the server. These were sent to students through the servers email system as an email in plain text with the URLs attached. The email system was set to send out 20 emails per minute in plain text to lower the possibility that the learning materials be blocked as spam or be treated as suspicious. For every reading text, a simple comprehension exercise was designed to check student understanding. Grammar quizzes were then sent via URLs attached to each grammar point review (see Figure 3). When students opened their email, the reading materials could be read as messages, so students did not need to go beyond the link provided. A comment/quiz system was used for the purpose of student-teacher interaction. All of these systems were designed or customized for mobile phones, but were also compatible with any PC. URL links contained Japanese translation notes, material rank interfaces, and grammar quizzes. Figure 4 indicates the information flow throughout the project.
Figure 3. Quiz interaction with score and explanation.
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Figure 4. Technical work flow of mobile learning material delivery. Registration for the project was always open-ended, but students who joined the project at later dates could not access earlier readings. For these students, a blog system was built to store archived material for the students to browse. We archived all materials that were sent out via emails in web format by using the open-source content management system, WordPress. The web site (http://www.shimadaielearning.saloon.jp/keitai-eigo/) was customized for use on mobile phones. Between June 2010 and June 2013, the archived mobile phone blog site logged 68,166 page views. Data Collection The data from the project feedback were collected using the following methods: online surveys, server log analysis, and interviews. Three consecutive web surveys written in Japanese were conducted among the subscribers in 2010, 2011, and 2012. The data presented in this paper is from the latest survey conducted in April 2012. The surveys URL was sent by email to students and was accompanied by the surveys rationale and questions. Students were informed that their identity would remain anonymous, and furthermore, that they were under no obligation to complete the questionnaire. As the questionnaire was delivered to their mobile phones, we limited it to eight short questions. Seven were multiple-choice questions, and the last one was an open-ended question asking their general opinion about the project (see Appendix). The survey was available online for two weeks from April 2nd to April 16th. The survey questions were grouped into three categories: Questions 1, 5, 6, and 7 investigated which materials students like to read on mobile phones. Question 2 asked about the type of digital learning device that was used to receive materials. Questions 3 and 4 surveyed students overall perceptions of the project. Half of the questions from the survey asked for the students assessment of the learning materials. This is because according to Day and Bamfors Expectancy and Value Model (1998), good material development is one key factor in motivating students to read in foreign languages. It is only when the materials engage the students, (i.e., easy to read, short, with interesting content) that they feel motivated to continue learning (Takase, 2003). Fifty-six project participants answered the questionnaire (n = 56) which represents a response rate of approximately 27%. Whilst the somewhat low response rate does not automatically indicate that the survey was inaccurate or unrepresentative (Taylor, Drummond, & Strang, 1997; Holbrook, Krosnick, & Alison, 2007), data from other project recordsa server data analysis and interviewswere used to
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support the results from the questionnaire. Technically, the system could not detect whether the learning materials sent in plain text via email were read or not. However, the number of clicks on the automatically generated URLs attached to the emails was recorded by the server. The system recorded who took the quiz and when the quiz was taken, as well as any score details. For the archived materials stored on the blog site, the system could also track IP addresses, as well as store the information on the type of material that was accessed. Two types of participants were selected to be interviewed. The first type consisted of users who registered from the onset of the program until the close of the study; the second type included students who joined the program but withdrew after only a short period of participation. In total, four studentstwo males and two females who were all randomly chosen from those who registered with their real nameswere interviewed after class on separate days. During the interview each user was asked why he or she chose to continue with or leave the project. RESULTS Research Question 1: The Appropriacy of the Reading and Grammar Materials The first question asked respondents about their attitude towards the learning materials developed by their peers, referring to the learning materials developed by 10 students recruited from within the university. Out of 56 respondents, 36 (64%) said they enjoyed the essays as well as some of the grammar quizzes written by students. The remaining 20 (36%) indicated their indifference by selecting the neutral option. This is a clear indication that the majority of students welcome reading and learning materials developed by their peers. In terms of student-created materials, we also analyzed feedback from our server logs. This was possible because for each message sent, subscribers were invited to leave comments. Whenever the learning materials were sent out, we included the authors name so that readers could identify the author of the material. On average, the learning materials developed by native English-speaking teachers received three comments each. Interestingly, this number increased on average to five when the materials were written by students (and corrected by teachers). When quizzes were created by students, the average number of students taking part in quizzes also increased from 20 to 25. Whilst the data is not statistically significant (t = 2.33, p < .05), comments from users were very positive as demonstrated below: This is a good try. Actually I didnt realize the essay was written by my schoolmate until I saw the authors name. It feels intimate to read essays written by ourselves, about ourselves and for ourselves. Can I also contribute my essays? These comments show that mobile reading and grammar materials created by students probably increases motivation to read. Furthermore, despite not being authentic (i.e., published, native-English authored) texts, they were by no means regarded as inferior by students. Rather, the appeal or approval probably came from the fact that the writing comes from the students, themselves. For future developments in mobile learning materials, extensive involvement of students in mobile learning material development is worth considering. Questions 5 and 6 were designed to examine which materials were rated the highest. English essays (41%), trivia (34%), and grammar quizzes (27%) were ranked as the most read/accessed materials. Seven percent of students surveyed ranked all materials as the most read, and the same percentage of students said that none were their most read. The results imply that rather than taking grammar quizzes, students prefer to read essays and trivia surrounding language. The fact that essays are preferred to grammar
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quizzes should remind us that materials read or interacted with on mobile phones should not be too demanding. In terms of the different essay genres, these have been ranked below in decreasing order of preference: English jokes and riddles (45%), cultural differences (30%), life/living/entertainment (27%), and topics related to the environment (12.5%) and proverbs (12.5%). Unpopular topics included English learning methodology (5%), science and technology (4%), society (4%), and politics (4%). Our findings from the ranking of essay topics demonstrate that learning through interesting materials, (i.e., English jokes and riddles), or something more esoteric, (i.e., cultural differences, or campus life) can best attract students attention and provide stimulation for any project. Question 7 asked students to rate the suitability of the learning materials used in the project according to their own English level/needs. Sixty-three percent thought that the level of writing was suitable; whilst 37% indicated that they thought the materials were difficult. From this we can state that materials developed by teachers and peers are well suited for and viewed favorably by students. In addition to the above information, we also looked at the access logs of our web materials using a WordPress plugin called Visitor Map. This took a snapshot of the daily traffic between June 1 and June 10, 2012. The number of times each essay was accessed is presented below. Table 1. Web Access to the Mobile Reading and Grammar Materials. Topics Essays Cultural differences Environment Life/living/entertainment English proverbs/ idioms/sayings/quotations English learning techniques Science and technology Society English jokes/riddles Politics Grammar knowledge and quizzes Trivia of English (in Japanese) Total Accesses 76 22 41 46 16 5 17 62 2 9 69 365 Percentage 21% 6% 11% 13% 4% 1% 5% 17% 1% 2% 19% 100%
Note. The above accesses were all from Japanese IP addresses including the entries from Google search engine.
As can be seen in Table 1, essays concerning cultural differences (21% of all accesses) and English jokes/riddles remained the most popular topics among readers. Web access data confirmed students preferences for the materials identified by the survey. Research Question 2: The Position of Mobile Learning Devices Question 2 asked which device each student used for receiving the learning materials. Forty-one (73%) respondents reported that they used a mobile phone. Only 14 (25%) said they used their PCs email
addresses for the project. Only one student reported using an iPad to receive the materials. The data is consistent with the email registration when recruiting subscribers for the project. Of the 372 subscribers, 279 (75%) students registered with their mobile phone, although they were told that PC email addresses were acceptable. This further illustrates the willingness and confidence that first-year students have towards using mobile phones for language learning. These results support the research findings of Thornton and Houser (2005). Furthermore, our results echo recently published figures that show a high use of mobile phones: indeed, 95.6 % of senior high school students in Japan possess mobile phones, of which 95.1% have Internet connection; of senior high school students, 75.6% use the Internet more than two hours every day (The Cabinet Office of Japanese Government, 2011). The same survey results show that first-year university students, typically 18 or 19 years old, have been using mobile phones for some years and have become adept at using them on many levels. This could explain why such a large proportion of our respondents (73%) reported that they used a mobile phone to access the learning materials. Research Question 3: Overall Perception of Mobile Phones for Reading and Grammar Questions 3 and 4 investigated the overall perception of the project by the students. Question 3 asked: How often do you read the learning materials? Forty students (71%) replied that they had read almost all of the materials, 11 (20%) said that they had read everything, and five (9%) indicated that although registered with the project, they had never read any of the content. Question 4 asked if the project was helpful in improving their English reading and grammar ability. Forty (71%) reported positively, saying that they thought the project, in general, was helpful in developing their reading and grammar ability. According to our questionnaire, the project was well-received by the students. As the project was not associated with any mandatory English course, students were free to opt out or disregard any of the learning materials. In spite of this, 20% indicated that they had read all the materials. Furthermore, 71% of participants felt that their reading and grammar abilities had improved by taking part in the project. Ideally, the progress of subscribers reading and grammar abilities should be assessed on a yearly basis. However, as stated earlier, the purpose of this project was to provide a relaxed reading and grammar practice environment for students. We also wanted to explore the impact of delivering informal reading and grammar exercises to mobile phones. As participation was voluntary, and students were not tied to any physical classrooms, any form of assessment would be a significant challenge. Assessing mobile learning outcomes may be difficult if learners cannot be brought together into a controlled testing environment (Wang & Higgins, 2006). Finally, Question 8 was an open-ended question inviting general comments about the project, to which 26 respondents gave comments. Most students (71%) perceived reading short essays on mobile phones as a helpful tool towards improving their reading ability. The comments listed below represent the overall perception of the program: I like the short essays and I thought that every essay was interesting. Although I dont always have time to read the essays, I think it is a good chance for us to be exposed to English. I am too busy to read all of the essays; however I do believe that this is a good way to come into contact with authentic English I like reading on mobile phones. Unlike reading on a PC, I can read any time, anywhere. The words in the essays are sometimes challenging but at the same time the essays are easy to understand. It is a good project!
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These comments capture the students opinion that reading on mobile phones increases their exposure to English. Participants indicated that they liked the mode of reading content delivered by phone. Interestingly, many also commented that they would prefer receiving the material in an ad hoc fashion as opposed to receiving them on specific days each week. One implication of this is that students do not want to make a commitment to study; therefore, receiving the material in a less predictable manner may provide a less formal quality to the program. Similarly many students commented favorably on the short and easy-to-understand format of the reading material. As feedback indicated that students were inclined towards topics on cultural differences, as well as jokes and proverbs, native-speaker teachers integrated grammar and vocabulary components into those topics. Despite the popularity of the reading content, this did not extend to the grammar quizzes, which received less participation than some of the reading materials. On average, each grammar quiz had only 23 volunteer participantsroughly equating to 11% of the total number of active subscribers. In an interview with a student who was active for the whole project, we asked why he felt students were less favorable towards online quizzes. He answered: We are tired with so many classes and do not want to use our brains to think about quizzes after class. Taking quizzes is not like reading interesting essays; it is not enjoyable at all. In addition, our teachers are probably monitoring our performance. It would be embarrassing if I did poorly in the quiz. Therefore, unless it is made into a compulsory assignment, I dont want to do the grammar quizzes. This remark implies that unless there is an element of compulsion to the program, students are reluctant to do anything overly demanding unless it is linked to their overall gradeeven if it is delivered via mobile phones. The lesson here is that optional learning materials designed for mobile phones should not be too challenging: this may reflect the fact that students may also not have the time or the energy nor the tools to engage in study outside of class that is seen as too time-consuming. DISCUSSION Reading on Mobile Phones: Motivation Counts Research suggests that on average, 76.6% of Japanese university students spend more than 30 minutes a day reading or sending messages on their mobile phones; and 79.5% spend more than 30 minutes browsing the Internet on their mobile phones (MyNavi Co. Ltd., 2012). If students were to engage in reading activities on their phone for just a small portion of this time, it could be inferred that measurable improvements in their reading ability could be attained. Given the high usage of mobile phones within the student population, it was assumed that this would translate favorably with regards to our program. However, we severely underestimated one very important factor: motivation. Whilst a significant amount of time is spent browsing or socializing on phones, that time is not likely to be easily relinquished to a less rewarding activity (phone or otherwise). Similarly, if learning of any variety is to be extended onto mobile phones, it must engage students on a level that can compete with free games and social mediaa formidable challenge. As we have noted, given the strong association between phones and gaming, motivating students to use their phone for learning is an ambitious task. This is compounded by the fact that reading in another language is one of the hardest skills to acquire, as it requires higher-level comprehension processes. Therefore, the hard work needed to gain even modest improvement is perhaps the reason why many learners find reading one of the most challenging tasks among the four skills (Ngeow, 1998). Huang (2006) recognizes that with L2 reading learner motivation may be a concern (p. 3), but one which should not impede the learning process. Huang also pointed out that one of the important factors to motivate reading in an L2 is that teachers are available to answer questions. This offers possibilities for
future innovations in mobile learning such as the integration of Mobile Instant Messaging. In the case of a class activity, reading a text under a teachers supervision is obligatory and students are required to answer any questions posed by the teacher. However, for this project, registration was voluntary, as was the reading of essays or taking quizzes. Unlike formalized class study, there were no tests or formal evaluations of the subscribers. Students who entered this project did so of their own volition and with their own agenda. This appears to have lowered the participation. Only those students who already possessed high motivation or directed their study towards a goal-related purpose such as a job or study abroad program remained very active in the project. A future challenge for this project would be how to attract new membership but, most importantly, how to maintain student motivation. Many registered students left the project due to a lack of motivation connected to either material or extraneous factors. The activity of reading project material may in some way compete with or take away socializing or gaming time from students. Thus, firstly, an important aspect of any mobile reading project must be to devise ways to enhance the motivation for reading English content. Secondly, some form of incentive may need to be offered in order to compete with the already high demands of social networks and games on the mobile phone. We interviewed a student who participated in the project for all of 2010 but quit in 2011. Our question was: Why did you choose to join the program in the beginning and what caused you to quit? He replied: In the beginning I thought it was compulsory to read the essays. I also thought that some questions in the mid-term or final exams might be included in the learning materials that the project sent. However, I discovered that this was not the case. In fact the learning materials sent to my mobile had nothing to do with the academic credits. The essays are indeed interesting and informative, but just doing homework from regular English classes is enough. I dont have extra energy and time to read on my mobile phone. I also heard that many of my classmates did not join the project and they were not affected at all, so I decided to quit too. This view may represent a majority of other students who may not want to read and practice English on their mobile phones. No matter how good the reading material is, these students will not be motivated by mobile reading unless: 1. Learning outcomes are linked with a specific course goal and/or that the students performance is eventually evaluated or recognized through course credit. 2. Learning progress and performance are formally monitored. Students need to have assurances that they are in a social arena with their teachers or peers. 3. There is some recalibration of the material during the project to reflect the comments and feedback of students. This can be maintained through close monitoring of the server logs and comments from the students. Reading and Grammar Learning on Mobile Phones: Technical Advantages and Security Concerns There are many technological advantages to using mobile phones for reading and grammar learning. Materials sent via email can be stored in the receivers inbox folder and can be retrieved and accessed at any time. Because students always carry their mobile phones, they can review the reading materials as many times as they want. With 3G and 4G technology development and Wi-Fi enabled for smart phones, the cost of connecting to the Internet is within the means of most students. The concept of mobile phone learning, although not yet prevalent, is likely to become accepted by more and more learners. However, the disadvantages of mobile phone learning are still significant. As stated above, students are not used to reading learning materials on small screens. Taking quizzes or answering reading questions requires them to scroll up and down; interaction on mobile phones is not as easy as on PCs; and most
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importantly, students view mobile phones as their private domain which should remain disconnected from formal study. The distinction is clear: many students accept the concept that learning should be done in class or on a PC, whereas mobile phones are for their personal affairs. Changing this perception may require a shift in thinking as well as teaching. Indeed, given the high ownership rate of mobile phones, it is surprising that university students rarely use the mobile phone as an educational tool. In 2012, on our registration page, we asked the following question: Have you ever used mobile-phone for learning? Sixty-two students (59%) who replied said they have never used their phone for learning. Another factor obtained from the feedback is a concern about security. Japanese students are wary of clicking on any URLs that they are unfamiliar with. They fear that clicking on an unknown URL could result in spam email in the future or lead them to an untrustworthy website. In the interview with an active student, we asked her concerns about receiving the learning materials on mobile. She reported: Clicking an unfamiliar URL sometimes directs one to a bad site. Not only does it cause spam emails, but also there is a high risk of being connected to potentially improper sites. So most of us are very wary about clicking on any suspicious looking links. Indeed, in Japan, Internet fraud cases are becoming a major problem, as there have been cases whereby people have unknowingly clicked on a suspicious web link at work or in the public domain, with embarrassing consequences. In computer literacy courses high school and university students are repeatedly told not to click on any URLs that they are unsure of as computer viruses and personal information leaks may follow. For such reasons, concerns about security are regarded as a significant reason for low participation on grammar quizzes. The discussion above answers Research Question 4: Students do have privacy and security concerns when they learn via mobile phones. CONCLUSION Although quantitative assessments were not carried out on a yearly basis, objective data were collected throughout the project in various ways: through registration records, quiz results, comments and the learning history stored on the server. The data combined with the results of interviews lead to the following conclusions: in general, mobile phone-assisted learning is perceived positively by students as an effective method for improving reading and grammar ability. But for learning to take place, the material must engage the learner, without being too demanding. For young university students, reading topics that focus on cultural differences and student life are the most relevant, as are jokes, and entertaining storieswhich are regular favorites. Items such as grammar quizzes need to be kept to a minimum to avoid the perception of being seen as study. Security is always a big concern for mobile learners. Before launching a mobile learning project, Internet security should be carefully considered. This means that a secure learning platform, a secure mode for delivering learning materials, and a secure way to monitor students progress should be in place. Our study also instructs us of the necessity to empower the students in some form of material development, as students themselves are best placed for knowing their own learning preferences. Additionally, mobile learning content is destined to be short and segmented. Our findings also highlight the importance of respecting a students right to privacy. For a project to have any significant impact on learning outcomes, it must be highly responsive to any feedbackpositive or negative. Finally, in order to compete with the ubiquity of games and social media, it may be necessary to offer students some form of inducement or incentive. We fully believe however, that having incentives is not the panacea, as learning should always bring its own reward. However, linking mobile learning to a formal course evaluation may be a crucial step to improving the efficacy of mobile learning.
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We hope that this study will help focus the attention of other mobile learning practitioners to embrace a mobile phone learning culture. By working as partners with students, educational institutions can build an effective reading and grammar mobile program that places students at the forefront of learning. RESEARCH LIMATIONS AND FUTURE WORK Whilst our conclusions are based on subjective interpretation (surveys and interviews) and objective data (server logs and grammar quiz results), we are aware that this research has some limitations. Firstly, the project consists predominantly of first-year undergraduates, which may not fully reflect the learning style and mobile learning preferences of all undergraduates. Secondly, the measurement of reading and grammar learning efficacy could have undergone more rigorous experimental assessment. Instead, we based our results on students perceptions and server logs, which may not be as reliable indicators of improvement as actual tests. Thirdly, due to copyright concerns, this project used in-house materials as opposed to authentic or abridged authentic texts. To reflect the different preferences of students, it might be better to use a mix of authentic and in-house material. In answer to these limitations we plan to extend our project to include senior students and integrate the use of authentic learning materials. From 2013, all students learning outcomes will be evaluated through regular tests which will be incorporated into our data for further analysis.
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APPENDIX. Survey on Reading and Grammar Study on Mobile Phones (n = 56) Options Responses % Options Responses % 1. Between November 2011 and March 2012, 30 topics were developed by students. What did you think of these materials? Good Neutral Poor Other 36 20 0 0 64.3% 35.7% 0 0 2. On what type of device did you usually receive the learning materials for the project? Ordinary model of mobile phone Smart phone PC Other 25 16 14 1 44.6% 28.6% 25.0% 1.8%
3. How often did you read the learning materials? All the time Sometimes Never 11 40 5 19.6% 71.4% 8.9%
4. Overall, do you think that this project was helpful in improving your reading and grammar ability? Very helpful Somewhat helpful Neutral Not very helpful Not helpful at all 5 35 14 1 1 8.9% 62.5% 25.0% 1.8% 1.8%
5. Which type of learning materials did you prefer? Essays Grammar quizzes Trivia of English language All types 23 15 19 7.1% 41.1% 26.8% 33.9% 4
6. From the essays you read, what were your favorite topics? Environment Life/living/ entertainment Cultural differences English proverbs/ idioms/ sayings/ quotations English learning methodology Science and technology Society Politics English jokes/riddles 7 15 17 7 12.5% 26.8% 30.4% 12.5%
None
7.1%
3 2 2 2 25
5.4% 3.6% 3.6% 3.6% 1.8%
7. Were the learning materials difficult? Very difficult Somewhat difficult 2 19 3.6% 33.9%
8. Any comments about the project are welcome.
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Language Learning & Technology http://llt.msu.edu/issues/october2013/lihegelheimer.pdf
MOBILE-ASSISTED GRAMMAR EXERCISES: EFFECTS ON SELF-EDITING IN L2 WRITING

Zhi Li, Iowa State University Volker Hegelheimer, Iowa State University In this paper, we report on the development and implementation of a web-based mobile application, Grammar Clinic, for an ESL writing class. Drawing on insights from the interactionist approach to Second Language Acquisition (SLA), the Noticing Hypothesis, and mobile-assisted language learning (MALL), Grammar Clinic was designed as a series of outside-class grammar exercises in the format of sentence-level error identification and correction. 19 intermediate level ESL students at a large Midwestern American university used this mobile application in an English academic writing class during a 16-week semester. A mixed methods approach was chosen to investigate (a) the effect of Grammar Clinic on the efficacy of ESL students self-editing as well as (b) their perceptions of this mobile application as a tool to improve their English writing. Our analyses show that students performance on Grammar Clinic assignments reflects their progress in selfediting. This progress is seen in the positive correlation of the students Grammar Clinic performance with their gains on a grammar post-test, an increase of self-editing corrections, and a reduction in errors in the final drafts of two major paper assignments. The impact of this web-based mobile application was documented using qualitative data that considered the students use of and perception of Grammar Clinic. Keywords: Web-based Mobile Application, Mobile Assisted Language Learning, Interactionist Approach to SLA, Noticing Hypothesis, Self-Editing APA Citation: Li, Z., & Hegelheimer, V. Mobile-assisted grammar exercises: Effects on self-editing in L2 writing. Language Learning & Technology, 17(3), 135156. Retrieved from http://llt.msu.edu/issues/october2013/lihegelheimer.pdf Received: July 2, 2012; Accepted: July 5, 2013; Published: October 1, 2013 Copyright: Zhi Li and Volker Hegelheimer INTRODUCTION Research related to both second language acquisition (SLA) and second language writing has had as its major concern over grammatical errors in L2 writing. Accordingly, the effects of corrective feedback in L2 writing have been extensively studied (Bitchener & Ferris, 2012). Nevertheless, ESL learners selfeditingan important self-regulatory learning step in both grammar acquisition and writing development has not been widely investigated (Bitchener & Ferris, 2012; Diab, 2010, 2011). This study aims to fill that gap and has two purposes: (a) to outline the SLA-informed development process of a mobile application and (b) to evaluate the effect of such a mobile application on the efficacy of ESL learners self-editing, defined as the learners capability to identify grammatical errors and to correct them in their L2 writing (i.e., the development of their grammatical precision in academic writing). This study is situated in an intermediate-level ESL writing class that is not grammar-focused, though the needs for grammar instruction still exist. Therefore, outside-class grammar exercisesexercises that target specific errors and provide corrective feedbackserve this context well. In this paper, we report on the development and implementation of a web-based mobile application, Grammar Clinic, as a supplementary tool for ESL learners self-editing activities.
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Zhi Li and Volker Hegelheimer
Mobile-Assisted Grammar Exercises: Effects on Self-Editing in L2 Writing
BACKGROUND The Role of Self-Editing in L2 Writing Studies related to grammar errors in L2 writing have largely focused on written corrective feedback from teachers. However, the efficacy of corrective feedback has been challenged by Truscott, and the academic debate over the effect and use of corrective feedback continues (Ferris, 2004; Bruton, 2009; Truscott, 1999, 2007). Truscotts (1999) rejection of corrective feedback for its minor positive effectsand his assertion of potentially harmful effectson the development of English learners grammar competence has sparked a series of theoretical arguments and empirical studies. Recently, a number of empirical studies on both short-term and long-term effects of written corrective feedback have lent support to the proponents of corrective feedback (Bitchener & Ferris, 2012; Ferris, 2006, 2010; Sheen, 2007). Nevertheless, this does not mean that the practice of corrective feedback is without its problems. Corrective feedback, by nature, acts as a reactive measure to highlight and address learners weaknesses in their written production. This process can be burdensome to teachers due to time constraints and the necessity to prioritize feedback of various error types. As one potential solution, pre-emptive measures can be taken to raise learners awareness of the typical errors made at their proficiency level, to help them avoid making the same mistakes in new pieces of writing (Long & Robinson, 1998; Ellis, Basturkmen & Loewen, 2001). At the same time, such pre-emptive measures can help complete the learning-writingfeedback-revision cycle. This is where the process of self-editing can play a role in L2 writing, because unlike passive corrective feedback, learners will be required to identify and correct errors actively in selfediting activities. The importance of self-editing during process-based writing classes has been acknowledged by many. Recently, Bitchener and Ferris (2012) described the activity of self-editing as a source of corrective feedback, and more importantly they view the competence of self-editing as an ultimate goal of providing corrective feedback. Self-editing, a learner initiated activity, has been recognized as a critical step in L2 learners writing and grammar development, as it facilitates acquisition processes and promotes learner autonomy (Cresswell, 2000; Fathman & Whalley, 1990; Suzuki, 2008). Polio, Fleck, and Leder (1998) studied this topic when they examined the performances of two groups of ESL learners who were given extra time for self-editing. They found that even though learners showed significant improvement across the writing assignments, both experiment groups, which received grammar review and feedback, did not perform better than the control group, which had no treatment at all in terms of developing grammatical precision in their writing. This finding demonstrates the potential of self-editing in L2 writing; nevertheless, it asks us to reconsider the effectiveness of grammar instruction used in the experiment. To investigate self-editing in terms of the effects of teachers cues on Japanese college students selfcorrection in English writing, Makino (1993) compared the performance of three groups of learners. She found that when no cues were given, learners could make limited and fewer self-corrections of grammar errors, compared with the other two groups that respectively received cues on general error location or cues with specific underlines. This further suggests that training or support of self-editing for ESL learners is necessary. Some comparative studies focusing on self- and peer-editing have shed light on learners actual performances during each stage of the editing process. Suzuki (2008) took a qualitative approach in examining 24 Japanese university students self- and peer-editing processes. By analyzing verbal reports, she found that peer-editing generated more episodes of negotiation whereas self-editing resulted in more text changes focused on word choice and grammar error correction. Diab (2010) also found that peerediting helped reduce more rule-based errors, but not non-rule-based errors, compared with self-editing practice. On the whole, these studies indicate that learners generally can notice their errors during selfediting, but that supplemental instruction or training is also needed. A tailored web-based mobile application may be one option that can provide learners with opportunities to improve their self-editing practices.
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In order to help students improve the efficacy of their self-editing, we designed a web-based mobile application, Grammar Clinic. This pre-emptive measure was implemented in an ESL academic writing class. The design of Grammar Clinic was informed by principles of the interactionist approach to SLA, the Noticing Hypothesis, and mobile assisted language learning (MALL). Designing a Mobile-Assisted Grammar Application Grammar Clinic is an application that asks users to identify sentence level errors and to correct them. It provides instant feedback for its exercises and includes a short grammar handbook. A total of 15 common grammatical error types are identified and used in this application: sentence fragments, run-on sentences, article use, verb use, noun use, adjective use, adverb use, pronoun use, preposition use, conjunction use, relative pronoun use, punctuation use, word choice, word order, and ambiguous expressions (see Appendix A and B) for sample items and for the distribution of item types). These grammatical errors, to some extent, represent the proficiency level of this ESL class because they were identified as the most prevalent error types in a learner writing corpus developed locally using writing from the same level ESL classes. All the items were piloted in an ESL class of the same level and proofread by an experienced ESL instructor in the fall semester of 2011. Each Grammar Clinic assignment consists of a set of 10 items which are selected depending on the distribution of error type, error gravity, and item difficulty. Students are required to identify the only error in each item by tapping on the error and then selecting an error type from four options (see Figure 1 for Grammar Clinic screenshots). Once students identify the error, they are required to correct it, something that usually requires minimal input. After completing a set of grammar exercises, students see their performance report in the format of 10-point score; then, they view detailed feedback about each item. The feedback page is accompanied with a messaging function for student communication with the instructor (see Figure 1).
Figure 1. Grammar exercise application work flow. Interactionist Approach to SLA and the Noticing Hypothesis Drawing on the Input Hypothesis (Krashen, 1985) and the Output Hypothesis (Swain, 1995), the interactionist approach to SLA emphasizes the complete learning cycle, moving from input and interaction, to feedback and output (Gass, 1997; Gass & Mackey, 2007). With an expansion of the term interaction to learner-computer interaction, the interactionist theory has been widely used in computerassisted language learning (CALL) software design and research (Chapelle, 2009; Heift, 2004; Hegelheimer & Chapelle, 2000). In CALL program design, another important theory that has been influential and that has been adapted to include modalities beyond face-to-face communication is Schmidts Noticing Hypothesis (1990, 1993). This hypothesis states that noticing is a necessary condition for learning. We employed the principles in the interactionist approach to SLA and the Noticing
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Hypothesis to guide our design of web-based mobile application in an English academic writing class. According to the interactionist theory, input includes materials that learners should be exposed to for language development; input is typically a target like model, which provides positive evidence to learners (Mackey, 2006). Even so, input should also include negative evidence for learners, information about ungrammatical or unacceptable linguistic production (Long, 1996). The input materials in Grammar Clinic are extracted from a small local learner corpus, which consists of about 100 student essays from the same level of ESL classes at the same university. To keep the input material authentic, relevant, contextindependent, original erroneous sentences in the corpus were modified and then used in Grammar Clinic item writing. Each item in Grammar Clinic is a complete sentence with only one grammatical error. To make the input more noticeable to learners, only one item or sentence is displayed on the screen, and the error alone is highlighted once it has been spotted by learners. This focused visual enhancement can direct learners attention to feedback uptake and follow-up error correction (Heift, 2009). The term interaction in the interactionist approach embodies the importance of a learning environment in which a learner must both interact with input and modify his or her output based on feedback. Within the interactionist approach, an interaction can be either interpersonal or intrapersonal (Chapelle, 2001; Ellis, 1999). During the process of interpersonal interaction, learners will engage in the negotiation of meaning and should notice a linguistic gap (Schmidt, 1993). In intrapersonal interaction, as in typical CALL activities, the learners attention is guided to certain problematic aspects of linguistic materials and is prompted by computer feedback to process the materials or reconstruct their responses with cognitive effort (Chapelle, 2001; Cotos, 2011). This can be regarded as a process of negotiation of form (Heift, 2010). As Grammar Clinic assignments require students to identify and correct only one grammar error per item, intrapersonal interactions are developed as students only direct their attention to the potentially erroneous part of each sentence and process this information consciously. Feedback is usually regarded as a type of negative evidence that helps learners notice the mismatch between their linguistic performance and the target model, thus facilitating their linguistic development (Bitchener & Ferris, 2012). In CALL activities, feedback can be in the form of evaluation plus explanation, following learners intrapersonal interaction with a task on a computer or other devices. Thus, feedback serves to enhance learners development. In Grammar Clinic, feedback is provided instantaneously, so that learners know whether their error identification and correction are indeed on the right track. In addition, a detailed explanation for each item is offered to assist learners in acquiring grammatical rules. A short grammar handbook has been built into Grammar Clinic for learners as a supplementary resource. Output or modified output is the phase in which learners apply what they have learned from their interactions and feedback to their production (Gass, 1997). Modified output is believed to be beneficial in terms of supporting the development of the learners automaticity in their linguistic production (Gass, 1997). Serving as a stage for modified output in the learning cycle, Grammar Clinic in our ESL academic writing class is embedded into the paper writing process and is immediately followed with self-editing and peer review. Mobile-Assisted Language Learning (MALL) With the rapid growth of mobile device ownership,1 mobile learningalso known as m-learninghas recently become a focus of attention in education (Cho, 2009; Kukulska-Hume, 2009). Not surprisingly, mobile assisted language learning (MALL) has also attracted much attention with its perceived advantages over traditional computer-assisted language learning (CALL). Mobility defines this relatively new trend, which includes various aspects in a learning environment, such as mobile technology, learner mobility, mobility of content, and so forth (Kukulska-Hume, 2009). In an overview of MALL, KukulskaHume and Shield (2008) point out that MALL differs from computer-assisted language learning in its use of personal, portable devices that enable new ways of learning, emphasizing continuity or spontaneity
of access and interaction across different contexts of use (p. 273). Despite the favorable perception of MALL, few empirical studies have focused on the effect of its mobility on learners or its potential; indeed, most existing studies related to MALL have considered vocabulary-related research (Godwin-Jones, 2011). For example, Song and Fox (2008) conducted a multiple-case study to investigate how advanced undergraduates at a university in Hong Kong used their Personal Digital Assistants (PDAs) for vocabulary learning. They found that mobile devices were used in various ways for this task. In some cases, mobile device use was integrated with computer use and thus shaped learners vocabulary learning activities. In Taiwan, Lu (2008) conducted a quasi-experimental study on the effectiveness of English vocabulary learning through mobile phone short message service (SMS) lessons for a group of 30 high school students. After a two-week treatment, the SMS lesson group showed more gains in vocabulary recognition as reflected in the comparison of pre- and post-tests of target word recognition. In addition, students were found to hold a positive attitude towards SMS lessons via mobile phones. Unfortunately, Lus delayed post-test of the same target words showed that the students did not retain many of the words learned through SMS. Stockwell (2010) compared the vocabulary learning performance and vocabulary gains from pre-intermediate learners of English, when using mobile platforms and computers/laptops. His studys results indicate that there were no consistent differences on vocabulary activity scores or vocabulary learning improvements between the two groups. In designing Grammar Clinic, we adopted the principles of mobile learning advocated by Herrington, Herrington, and Mantei (2009), which centers on the key feature of mobility. Considering the nature of academic writing and the limitations related to mobile phones relatively small screen size, it would not be very realistic to expect learners to write or edit a paper on mobile devices. Still, it is possible to use mobile devices for grammar learning, which in turn may contribute to improvements in writing quality. Thus, Grammar Clinic is designed to fit mobile devices, with the features of bite-sized and situated assignment sets, simplified user operation, optimal display setting for mobile devices, and cross-platform compatibility. Grammar Clinic assignments were modularized into bite-sized grammar exercises to make them more accessible and to capitalize on the mobility feature of m-learning. That is, students can use their mobile devices to finish Grammar Clinic assignments outside classroom whenever and wherever they want. In light of findings from a local needs assessment of educational technology, we intentionally designed this grammar application for use on various mobile devices as a web-based application, instead of a native application for a specific type of mobile device. According to a local campus-wide survey report of technology access from Kemis, Davis, and Haen (2011), over 99% of the student respondents have cell phones, and over 69% of them own a mobile smart device capable of internet access, including iPhone/iPod Touch, Droid, Blackberry, or Windows Mobile. Given the diversity in mobile devices, we discarded the plan of developing native apps for iPhone/iPod Touch or Android platforms. Instead, we opted for a web-based mobile application for its wide accessibility to student users. By using JavaScript, CSS, and HTML, Grammar Clinic has a flexible layout to match various mobile device displays. This decision is in line with the design principles suggested by Kwon and Lee (2010), that is, we considered mobile display characteristics when designing the graphic interfaces and the content layout (p. 1888).2 To investigate the effect of Grammar Clinic on ESL students efficacy of self-editing and the development of their grammar precision, two research questions were considered in the implementation phase of this web-based mobile application: 1. What was the effect of Grammar Clinic on ESL learners efficacy in self-editing and on the development of their grammatical precision in paper writing? 2. How did the learners perceive Grammar Clinic as a learning application for academic writing?
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METHODOLOGY Implementation of Mobile-Assisted Grammar Application To investigate the effect of using Grammar Clinic on students efficacy in self-editing and to capture their perceptions of this mobile application as a tool to improve their grammatical precision in English writing, a mixed-method approach with a sequential explanatory model was taken, following Creswell and PlanoClark (2011). Quantitative data were collected and analyzed first to describe the students performance on Grammar Clinic and their improvements in self-editing. Qualitative data were then gathered to help explain quantitative findings. Participants This classroom-based study was conducted in an intermediate level ESL writing class. This intact class formed a convenience sample in our study as Grammar Clinic was integrated in the syllabus in that class and all the students were required to use this tool. There were no stand-alone grammar lessons in this course. The writing class met three times a week for the 16-week spring semester of 2012. All 19 undergraduate ESL students in this class voluntarily participated in this study, including 10 male students and 9 female students. Students first languages included Chinese (14), Malay (2), Arabic (1), Korean (1), and Urdu (1). Student ages ranged from 19 to 22, and their length of stay at the university ranged from one to three semesters, with 50% of them being in their first semester in the United States. All participants were classified as high intermediate learners because they had met English proficiency requirements for university admission based on standardized English proficiency tests (TOEFL iBT, 71 or IELTS, 6.0). Their scores on an institutional English Placement Test (EPT) had placed them into this preparatory course of English academic writing. All students were competent users of computers and Internet services. 18 out of 19 students owned a smart phone or internet-enabled mobile device, such as iPod Touch, iPad or other tablets. Materials Grammar Clinic As previously described, Grammar Clinic was integrated into the course syllabus as a pre-emptive measure before students started self-editing all first drafts of major course papers. Accordingly, students were required to use Grammar Clinic regularly as an out-of-class-assignment and external resource. Students were encouraged to use their mobile devices for the Grammar Clinic assignments, but they were permitted to use computers to finish the assignments. Students were permitted multiple attempts on any of the Grammar Clinic assignments, though the data reported here are from their first attempt of each exercise. From a set of ESL learner performance data in a study of an automated writing evaluation tool (AWE) at this same university (Li, Lee, Lee, Karakaya, & Hegelheimer, 2011), fragment, run-on sentence, verb use, article use, and preposition use were found to be the most frequent errors among ESL learners at the intermediate proficiency level. Therefore, considering the frequency differences among various error types and the treatability of these errors, only five rule-based error types were investigated in this study, namely, sentence fragments, run-on sentences, verb use, article use, and preposition use. Grammar Pre/Post Test A 20-item grammar quiz was used as an in-class activity at the beginning and at the end of the semester to gauge students development in grammatical precision. The items in the grammar quiz were in the same format as in Grammar Clinic assignments. They were taken from piloted Grammar Clinic assignments, which were not used in the spring semester of 2012. The reliability coefficients (Cronbachs alpha) for the pre- and post-test quizzes were .726 and .723, respectively, which are acceptable for a 20-item test
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(Alderson, Clapham, & Wall, 1995). Major Paper Assignment There were four major paper assignments in this academic English writing class, a course designed to help ESL learners develop academic writing skills. These assignments included a personal essay (Paper 1), a cause-and-effect essay (Paper 2), a compare-and-contrast essay (Paper 3), and an argumentative essay (Paper 4). Starting at 400 words, the length requirement for each paper increased by an increment of 150 to 200 words. To form a longitudinal comparison of students self-editing activity and writing accuracyand to highlight the possible immediate and long-term effects of students use of Grammar Cliniconly the first major assignment (Paper 1) and the last major assignment (Paper 4) were analyzed. Student Questionnaire In order to understand the ESL learners actual use and perception of Grammar Clinic, an online questionnaire was implemented at the end of the semester. The perception questions were constructed either in the format of statements accompanied by a six-point Likert scale or as open-ended questions (see Appendix C). This questionnaire only elicits students general responses (self-reports) and does not address or record students actual behavior using Grammar Clinic. Records tracking user behavior could be collected either through paper-based weekly reports as in Manochehri, Gromik, and Aw (2012) or using an online behavior tracking tool. Procedures The ESL academic writing class in this study followed a process-based approach, which required students to go through several rounds of revision and editing, writing multiple drafts for each major assignment (see Figure 2). In all the revision and editing work students carried out, the Track Changes and Comment functions in Microsoft Word were used to record all changes. In terms of the purpose of Grammar Clinic, this was made clear to students at the beginning of the semester.
Figure 2. Paper writing process in the ESL writing class. A short in-class demonstration of and training on the use of Grammar Clinic was carried out at the beginning of the semester. The instructor used an iPod Touch and a document camera to demonstrate how to open and add Grammar Clinic to the home screen of the students mobile devices. The instructor explained and showed the functions of Grammar Clinic with a flow chart and then asked the students to explore the specific functions of Grammar Clinic on their own devices. The instructor also briefly repeated the demonstration throughout the first three weeks to make sure students felt comfortable using Grammar Clinic. Grammar Clinic assignments were embedded in the writing processes of the major papers. Between the first draft and second draft of each paper, students were asked to finish three sets of Grammar Clinic assignments on their mobile devices or computers outside class. The interval between the first and the second draft writing was usually three to four days. Peer review, which focused on content revision, was typically carried out three to five days after the completion of the second draft.
In order to answer the research questions in this study, multiple sources of data were utilized for quantitative and qualitative analyses. Students performance on Grammar Clinic was automatically recorded in a server-side database and their self-editing efforts on the second drafts of two major paper assignmentsPaper 1 and Paper 4were manually coded in terms of error type and accuracy by the researchers. Qualitative data concerning students use and perception of Grammar Clinic were gathered to triangulate quantitative findings in this study. Analysis To study quantitatively the immediate effect of Grammar Clinic on the ESL students efficacy of selfediting and on their development of grammatical precision, we compared students self-editing behavior and correction rate of self-editing in the second drafts of Papers 1 and 4. Then, to shed light on the longterm effect of Grammar Clinic, the learners performance on Grammar Clinic was correlated with their score gains between pre and post test measurements, and differences in error rates between students final drafts of Papers 1 and 4. Error rates for each error type were calculated using the formula suggested by Chandler (2003): (error number/essay word count) 100. Errors in students papers were identified by the instructor of the ESL class using the same set of error codes as found in Grammar Clinic. A second trained rater coded 20% of the data set (Gass & Mackey, 2005). The inter-coder reliability, calculated as the complete agreement of coding, was 0.84, which is considered to be acceptable in social science studies (Neuendorf, 2002). Responses concerning students perceptions were tallied. Their responses to two open-ended questions were identified and coded into attitudes towards Grammar Clinic and other concerns, which help explain quantitative findings. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Learners Performance on Grammar Clinic To help them better self-regulate their grammar learning, students were permitted multiple attempts or reviews of each Grammar Clinic assignment during the semester.10 out 19 students tried to practice Grammar Clinic assignments more than once. This may be indicative of their effort to get a higher score on Grammar Clinic or to review the items. For the students who did not try multiple attempts, they may have found it unnecessary to redo items either because of low item difficulty or lack of interest. Only the scores of students first completed attempt in each set of assignments are reported in Table 1, because scores from later attempts could be inflated due to a practice effect. As shown in Table 1, the learners generally scored higher in error identification (8.82 out of 10) and relatively lower in error correction (7.29 out of 10). This is not surprising considering that error correction usually requires productive Table 1. Students Performance on Grammar Clinic Assignments 13 (Paper 1) 46 (Paper 2) 79 (Paper 3) 1113(Paper 4) Total Error identification 8.28 8.62 8.79 9.55 8.82 SD 1.52 1.12 1.05 .53 .79 Error correction 6.92 7.44 7.03 7.95 7.29 SD 2.28 1.27 2.36 1.62 1.39 Overall 7.60 8.03 7.91 8.75 8.05 SD 1.55 1.04 1.34 .98 .86
Note. All scores were averages out of 10 possible points. Assignment 10 was a bonus assignment, focusing on ambiguous expressions found in the students own writing. Assignment 12 was a special assignment, specifically focusing only on run-on sentences and fragments.
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grammar knowledge and more cognitive effort (Diab, 2010). It is encouraging that students improved their Grammar Clinic performance in both aspects: error identification (from 8.28 to 9.55) and correction (from 6.92 to 7.95). However, only three comparisons show statistical significance in a series of paired sample t-tests: error identification scores for Paper 1 and Paper 4 (t = -4.11, 95% CI [-2.08, -0.67], p = .001; Cohens d = -1.12), error identification scores for Paper 2 and Paper 4 (t = -4.43, 95% CI [-1.49, -0.53], p = .000; Cohens d = -1.06 ), and error identification scores for Paper 3 and Paper 4 (t = -3.338, 95% CI [-1.35, -0.30], p = .004; Cohens d = -.91). The Effects of Grammar Clinic In order to investigate the effect of Grammar Clinic assignments on the efficacy of learners self-editing and the development of their grammatical precision, we examined three related sets of variables: the students performance of self-editing on the second drafts of Papers 1 and 4, grammar pre/post-tests, and error rates in the final drafts of Papers 1 and 4. In the ESL writing class, students were required to use the Microsoft Word function Track Changes. All cases of self-editing3 were coded by the instructor using the same error code system as used in Grammar Clinic (see Appendix A). Table 2 shows the averaged occurrences of learners self-revisions and correction rates in the second drafts of Papers 1 and 4. Among the five rule-based error types, the most frequent revision type when editing in Paper 1 is verb use (5.3), (including verb tense, verb form, and subject-verb (SV) agreement), followed by article use (1.4) and preposition use (0.9). The most frequent revision type in Paper 4 is also verb use (1.5). Article use (1.4) is another major area of self-editing. This frequency pattern, to some extent, matches the item type distribution in Grammar Clinic (See Appendix B), which includes 30 verb items, 20 article items, 13 run-on sentence items, 10 fragment items and 10 preposition items. It is noteworthy that the highest average occurrence of editing in Table 2 falls in the category of meaning-based revision Rewrite in Paper 1 (8.7) and 4 (7.9) and Word Choice in Paper 1 (4.9) and 4 (3.7). This high frequency of meaning-based revision reflects the students awareness of writing as a process and their efforts to make more accurate expressions. Comparing students self-editing practice in Paper 1, we find that the students tended to make fewer changes in Paper 4 in general (26.2 vs. 19.5), especially in verb-related types (5.3 vs. 1.5). This may Table 2. Students Self-Editing in the Second Drafts of Papers 1 and 4 Editing type Paper 1 Average occurrence Run-on sentence Fragment Word choice Article use Verb use Preposition use Rewrite Total 0.2 0.1 4.9 1.4 5.3 0.9 8.7 26.2 Correction rate 100% 100% 87% 85% 84% 76% N/A 88.3% Paper 4 Average occurrence 0.3 0.1 3.7 1.4 1.5 0.7 7.9 19.5 Correction rate 100% 100% 90% 70% 94% 85% N/A 92.7%
Note. The error type Verb use includes the cases of verb tense, verb form and SV agreement in learners self-revision process. The category of Rewrite consists of learners insertions of new content, deletions of sentence(s), and/or rewriting of certain paragraphs. The category of Rewrite was not rated in this study.
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suggest that the quality of the learners fourth paper had improved by the end of the semester and that they found fewer grammar problems in their own first draft paper. This finding will be further explained in conjunction with the results of error rates in their final drafts of Papers 1 and 4. The only slight increase of self-editing occurrence is in the case of run-on sentences (0.2 vs. 0.3). A closer look at the students revision record reveals that only two student made revisions on run-on sentences in Paper 1 and four learners in Paper 4. This suggests an increase of learners awareness of sentence-level grammar problems. There are also some distinct differences between students performance of self-editing in terms of overall correction rate (88.3% vs. 92.7%). The category of rewrite was not rated in this study. Except for the categories of article use, an increase of correction rate can be found in two categories (verb tense and prepositions), while the correction rate of run-on sentence and fragment remains 100%. A series of paired sample t-tests were conducted in SPSS 19.0 to investigate whether there were any significant changes in the students self-editing practices between Papers 1 and 4. Despite clear patterns shown in Table 2, no statistically significant differences were found in the comparisons of error categories. To investigate the long-term effect of Grammar Clinic assignments on the development of students grammar ability, the relationship between Grammar Clinic performance and grammar pre/post-test scores was also analyzed. As shown in Table 3, the means for pre-test and post-test were 8.23 and 8.79 out of 20, respectively, indicating a relatively poor performance on both tests and a small improvement from pretest to post-test. Table 3. Descriptive Statistics of Grammar Pre-Test and Post-Test Mean (out of 20) Pre-test Post-test 8.23 8.79 SD 3.56 3.45 Minimum 2.5 2.5 Maximum 15.0 15.5 .726 .723
The descriptive statistics of the two tests reveal that compared with their scores on pre-test, 11 out 19 students obtained higher scores on the post-test, whereas two students obtained the same scores on both tests and six students got lower scores at the end of the semester. Table 4 shows a series of correlation coefficients (Pearsons r) between the learners performances on pre /post tests and on Grammar Clinic assignments. The correlation coefficients associated with pre-test scores and Grammar Clinic performances are low and not statistically significant. These negative correlations between averaged Grammar Clinic performance and pre-test scores (-.101 to -.138) suggest that two different developmental trends existed in the ESL class. Some learners who started with low pre-test scores performed well on Grammar Clinic assignments, whereas some learners who gained higher scores in pretest performed poorly on Grammar Clinic assignments. This finding calls for a closer look at students self-editing and revision processes. Table 4. Correlations Between Grammar Clinic Performance and Grammar Pre-/Post Test Scores Identification score Pre-test Post-test Test gains -.101 .267 .510* Correction score -.136 .051 .114 Total score -.138 .140 .390
Note. Test gains were obtained by subtracting pre-test scores from post test scores. *Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2tailed).
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It is noteworthy that learners performance on Grammar Clinic assignments positively correlated with grammar post-test, even though the magnitudes are small and not statistically significant. The highest correlation in Table 4 is from averaged total identification score on Grammar Clinic and test gains (0.510). The positive correlations suggest that students made some progress in grammar ability. This progress is further supported by the analysis of students error rates in the final draft of Papers 1 and 4. As shown in Table 5, there is a decreasing tendency in the total error occurrence from Paper 1 to Paper 4 (25.8 vs. 20.0). Reductions in normalized error rate were found in three categories from the final drafts of Paper 1 to that of Paper 4: verb use (1.2 vs. 0.6), preposition use (0.3 vs. 0.2), and run-on sentences (0.2 vs. 0.05). The sharp drop of error rates in run-on sentences is very encouraging given the difficulty of this sentence-level error. This indicates that the learners may have gained a better meta-linguistic awareness and made fewer mistakes in their writing. Results of a series of paired sample t-test indicates that the error rate decrease in run-on sentence category is statistically significant (p = .016, t = -2.65 (18), 95% CI [-1.51, -0.17]), whereas all other differences are not. Table 5. Error Rates in Students Final Drafts of Papers 1 and 4 Error type Paper 1 Average occurrence Article use Preposition use Verb use
b
Paper 4 Normalized Error ratea 0.2 0.3 1.2 0.2 0.2 N/A Average occurrence 1.8 1.6 4.3 0.4 1.2 20.0 Normalized error rate .23 .20 .60 .05 .20 N/A
1.4 2.1 6.8 1.3 1.4 25.8
Run-on sentence Fragment Total
Note. a) The error rate is calculated by (error number/essay word count) x 100. b) The error type Verb use includes the cases of verb tense, verb form and SV agreement in learners self-revision process (Table 2).
Only the categories of article use and ambiguous expression show a slight increase in occurrence from Paper 1 to Paper 4 (0.2 vs. 0.23; 0.4 vs. 0.5). Article use has been recognized as notoriously challenging to English language learners to master (Ellis, Sheen, Murakami, & Takashima, 2008). In this study, students were offered a total of 20 article related items in Grammar Clinic. It is not surprising that no obvious progress was found in our analysis (see Table 5), given the nature of article acquisition and limited items on article use. In this classroom-based study, we are not able to attribute directly any improvements to the use of Grammar Clinic, due to a lack of comparative reference (i.e., a control sample that did not use Grammar Clinic). There are a number of compounding factors that may have contributed to the students improvement in their efficacy of self-editing or the development of their grammatical precision, such as collaborative learning during peer review and corrective feedback from the instructor. Future studies on the effect of Grammar Clinic may consider experimental design to have a better control of theses confounding variables. Nevertheless, the analysis results of the students self-editing data and error rates in the final drafts suggest an existence of both the immediate and long-term effects of Grammar Clinic assignments on the students writing performance.
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ESL Learners Perceptions of Grammar Clinic To better understand the effect of Grammar Clinic assignments on the development of students English grammatical precision, the responses to the end-of-semester questionnaire items were analyzed. 17 out of 19 students responded to the questionnaire, representing a response rate of 89.5%, which represents the majority of the class. The first part of the questionnaire was about how students used their mobile devices and how they perceived mobile assisted language learning (MALL) in general. The responses to the question What are the main uses of your mobile devices indicate that 94% of the questionnaire respondents used dictionary apps on the mobile devices. Other major uses of mobile devices include texting friends or using chatting tools (82%), making phone calls (71%), using social networks (65%), listening to music (65%), and sending or receiving emails (53%). Only 41% reported using course management system such as Blackboard/WebCT/Moodle and 24% reported learning foreign languages (including English) on their mobile devices. These responses show many learners in this study did not use mobile devices as a learning platform at this point in time. When asked whether they were willing to use their mobile devices for learning purposes such as completing Grammar Clinic assignments, 71% of the questionnaire respondents gave a positive answer. 82% reported that they completed Grammar Clinic exercises on their mobile devices mainly because it was convenient to do so. For example, a student supported his use of mobile device by saying that we can complete Grammar Clinic assignment anywhere. Only three students reported that they usually used computers or laptop to finish Grammar Clinic assignments and one of them thought that the computer was more convenient. This reflects a different view of using mobile devices for learning, as some students may be reluctant to use mobile technology. Overall, this background information supports the potential of mobile devices as a learning platform. In terms of other questions, in response to Did you use Grammar Clinic on your own when it was not required? only 35% of the students gave positive answers. This means that most students only treated this exercise as a regular class assignment, instead of a platform for active learning of grammar. Regarding the time spent on a single assignment in Grammar Clinic, 35% reported that they spent less than 20 minutes and 64% reported that they spent more than 20 minutes. This duration may include item review or grammar handbook consultancy. Originally, Grammar Clinic was designed to keep each assignment short so that students can complete an exercise in 10 minutes, such as on the bus. Admittedly, this is a dilemma for MALL. On the one hand, instructors and researchers alike want to keep assignments as bite-sized activities, so the application is more manageable in a relative short time period; on the other hand, they hope learners will invest more time on learning. Time management should be balanced in the future design of mobile learning applications. The way mobile applications are integrated into course syllabi can help make mobile learning a routine for language learners. Also, information about user behavior can help teachers adjust the Grammar Clinic assignment configuration for learners, to make assignments more focused by reducing or increasing item numbers. The second part of the questionnaire consists of eight statements about the learners use and perception of Grammar Clinic. This section used a six-point Likert scale with 1 meaning completely disagree and 6 meaning completely agree. The responses to this section are summarized in Table 6. 82% of the respondents agreed that Grammar Clinic was easy to use on mobile devices or computers (M = 4.8; SD = 1.13). 88% of the respondents agreed that the explanations in Grammar Clinic item review were clear (M = 4.9; SD = 0.98). 76% of the respondents agreed that the error types in Grammar Clinic were very typical in their own writing (M = 4.4; SD = 1.01). In regard to the item difficulty, 41% of the respondents thought the assignments were difficult whereas 59% thought they were not difficult. This information brings the issue of item writing to our attention. When items are too easy for some learners, the learning outcome may be compromised due to the limited challenged imposed. Some detailed diagnostic analysis of the existing essays in the learner corpus may be needed to inform future item writing. Certainly, adding an adaptive item selection mechanism would be one good way to address the
potential mismatch of learner proficiency and item difficulty. This system would present an item of a certain error type and difficulty level based on learners performance on previous item(s). As for aspects related to user behavior, only 65% of the respondents claimed that they reviewed the explanations after finishing an assignment. The review of explanations was designed to be a metalinguistic awareness-raising activity and a grammar learning opportunity for learners. This result may have impact on the way in which Grammar Clinic assignments affect the outcome of the learners self-editing. The reason why 35% of the respondents did not review the explanation was not clear. It is possible that some students found the items easy and did not need further explanation. It also could be due to some design issues. The current setting for Grammar Clinic item review is by assignment, instead being an on-demand review for a particular item. Some learners may have found it inconvenient to review items on the current version of Grammar Clinic. Table 6. Selected Responses to Mobile Application Use Questionnaire Statements 1. GC is easy to use on my mobile device or computer. 2. The feedback or explanation on GC is clear to me. 3. The error types in GC are very typical in my writing. 4. The items in GC are difficult for me. 5. I usually read the review pages after finishing an assignment. 6. The practice on GC can help me notice errors in my own writing. 7. The practice on GC can help me notice errors in the essays written by my classmates (peer review). 8. I need more instructions on grammar points in 101C class. 1 Completely Disagree 6 Completely Agree 1 0% 0% 0% 6% 0% 2 0% 0% 0% 18% 6% 3 18% 12% 24% 35% 29% 4 18% 12% 29% 35% 12% 5 29% 53% 35% 6% 29% 6 35% 24% 12% 0% 24% Disagree 1-3 18% 12% 24% 59% 35% Agree 4-6 82% 88% 76% 41% 65%
6%
12%
6%
29%
35%
12%
24%
76%
6%
12%
6%
29%
29%
18%
24%
76%
6%
6%
29%
18%
35%
6%
41%
59%
Other questionnaire results showed that 76% of the respondents believed that Grammar Clinic helped them notice errors in their own writing and in reviewing others papers. This number is very encouraging because it shows a perceived positive effect of Grammar Clinic on students writing development. However, it is noteworthy that 59% of the students agreed that they needed more instruction on grammar points in this English academic writing class. This need may be related the lack of a stand-alone grammar teaching component in the English academic writing class. The short grammar handbook and Grammar Clinic assignment review may not give students a sense of formal grammar learning. The questionnaire also considered the students perceptions about how they were able to interact with the
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different error types on Grammar Clinic. Students were given the list of error types used in Grammar Clinic and were required to check the error types that they could identify and correct in others writing. Interestingly, the top five error types that they were confident in identifying were verb tense (82%), runon sentence (65%), fragment (59%), word order (53%), and conjunction use (53%). However, the top five error types that they felt comfortable correcting were verb tense (53%), noun use (53%), adverb use (53%), article use (53%), and conjunction use (53%). This difference in their perceived ability of identifying and correcting certain types of error prompts us to reconsider the configuration of future assignments. The learners perceptions of item difficulty and their actual performance should be taken into consideration when assembling future assignments. The last section of the questionnaire included two open-ended questions eliciting students feedback about the features of Grammar Clinic. Of the 18 total comments on the two questions, 10 were positive about the convenience and benefits of the Grammar Clinic assignments. For example, one student commented that Mobile device is very useful and portable, but sometimes it is too small to use (for website browsing). Thus, a website like this is much better so that we can see every questions in one page and easy to write the answers. (SJ, all abbreviations are pseudonyms) Another student WK shared his positive view on the representativeness of the items in Grammar Clinic assignments. He commented that I like the sentences which are commonly used by every student. I can detect my common errors in my essay. Other comments pertained to the functionality of Grammar Clinic. For example, regarding the item difficulty, SJ wrote: Since everybody has different level of grammar skills even if we are taking the same class, the program is somehow not suitable to everybody because sometimes some grammatical errors are very easy. Thus, by making different steps or categories, it could be easy for students to recognize which part of errors are week or need to make a progress. Another student XS complained about the usability of Grammar Clinic, saying that Once you accidently close it you have to login in again. Overall, these suggestions and comments can help us make Grammar Clinic more user-friendly and hopefully more effective in promoting ESL learners self-editing efficacy and grammar ability development. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS As with any study, some limitations emerged that we feel need to be addressed in future research. Firstly, only one group of students participated in this research. Ferris (2010) has recommended the use of a control group to investigate the effect of treatment in corrective feedback research. Secondly in this study the performances of all students were analyzed as one group. There were some important individual differences in both pre-test/post-test results and error reductions, which our procedure obscured. More qualitative methods will help investigate individual differences in user behavior and learning gains. Observation, user diary, and user behavior tracking can be implemented in future studies. There are some areas that can be strengthened in future versions of Grammar Clinic. The feedback information in the current version of Grammar Clinic is manually prepared by the instructor. An automatic feedback system based on natural language processing techniques and the use of an academic English corpus will greatly facilitate the applications usability and maintenance. The incorporation of a grammar parser and other natural language processing-based feedback generators would help transform Grammar Clinic into an intelligent system that would provide customized assignments and feedback to
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ESL learners (Heift 2010). Other important features of effective mobile learning should be taken into consideration, such as those suggested by Herrington et al. (2009) (e.g., multimedia environment and cooperative learning platform). The feature of a user action log could be added in the future to track students browsing and interactive behavior. In this way, it would be possible to monitor the students investment of time and their progress on Grammar Clinic. Building on this information, the assignment content and schedule adjustments could be made for learners to optimize learning. The functionality of sharing comments was not well developed and utilized in this particular ESL class, a feature which could help build a learning community and promote collaborative learning. Despite some limitations, the analyses in this study show that the learners performance on Grammar Clinic was positively correlated with their score gains between pre- and post-tests of grammar. In the learners second drafts of two major papers (Papers 1 and 4), increased correction rates in verb use, preposition use, and word choice were found. Along with the decrease in occurrences of self-editing in Paper 1 and Paper 4, the increased correction rates indicate learners improvement in their English grammatical precision. This finding was further supported by the decreased error rates of the final drafts of each major paper. However, the results from multiple paired-sample t-tests reveal that only the error rate of run-on sentences was reduced significantly from the final draft of Paper 1 to that of Paper 4. Overall, Grammar Clinic is a positive example of mobile-assisted language learning as it was perceived by students as a useful learning application in an ESL writing class. Grammar Clinic was regarded as beneficial in helping learners raise their metalinguistic awareness and improve their self-editing ability in English writing. Continued research and development in the realm of MALL is necessary as it will help illuminate helpful factors for the development of a language learning specific application.
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APPENDIX A. Error Types in Grammar Exercise Application Error Type Adjective use Ambiguous expression Adverb use Article use Conjunction use Fragment Noun use Preposition use Pronoun use Punctuation use Relative Pronoun use Run-on sentence Word Choice Word Order Verb use Example There is an interest story about the development of this video game. I cant understand these papers completely because my vocabulary foundation was unstable. People on this island have an extraordinary different way of living. She was having hard time because she didn't have many friends at school. The reason that those inventions are so famous is because they are so successful in serving their purposes. In my opinion, usually is best to take the puppy outside and play with him for a while everyday. Visitors can gain information about aerospace science here. John chose engineering major when he attended into college. Before I came to the United States, many people told you that America was a developed country. However at last we succeeded in making a good film for all the students of the school. Last summer, I travelled with my parents to Dallas where was 400 km from my home. It was my first day in America, Ames was beautiful but too cold. I could image the suffering he had gone through. Many people see him as a hero, no matter what ages or genders are they. The hi-tech education which is provided in these halls are good.
APPENDIX B. Item Type Distribution in Grammar Clinic Assignments Assign ments 1-3 4-6 7-9 11-13 Total
b
Adj 3 3 2 0 8
Adv 0 3 1 0 4
Art 4 2 9 5 20
Conj 1 1 0 1 3
Frga 2 0 5 3 10
Noun 2 1 2 0 5
Prep 2 4 2 2 10
Prn 1 1 0 0 2
RlPrn 2 1 1 2 6
Run 3 1 2 7 13
Vb 8 12 5 5 30
WC 1 0 0 3 4
WO 1 1 1 2 5
Total 30 30 30 30 120
Notes. a) Frg = Fragment, Run = Run-on sentence, Verb = Verb form (including Subject-verb agreement, verb tense), Art = Article use, Prep = Preposition use, Adj = Adjective use, Adv = Adverb use, Noun = Noun use, Conj = Conjunction use, RelPro = Relative pronoun use, WO = Word order, Pron = Pronoun use, WC = Word choice. b) Assignment 10 is a bonus assignment focusing on ambiguous expressions in students writing. Assignment 12 is a special assignment focusing on run-on sentence and fragment only.
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APPENDIX C. Mobile Application Use Questionnaire 1. Mobile device using experience How long have you been at Iowa State University? (including IEOP program.) less than 1 semester 2 semesters 2. 3 semesters Other:
Are you using any mobile devices? (a mobile device can be cell phone, personal digital assistant (PDA), tablet, electronic dictionary and etc.) Yes Other: No What kind of mobile devices are you using now? (including tablets, such as kindle fire, iPad. Please check all that applies.) iPhone/iTouch Blackberry Android mobile phones No mobile device Tablets (iPad, Kindle Fire and etc.)
2.1.
2.2.
Other: What are the main usages of your mobile device(s)? Please check all that applies. playing games using dictionary reading stories (books, magazine and etc.) listening to music (mp3, radio) watching videos (e.g. Youtube) learning foreign language making phone calls using social networks (such as Facebook) shopping online managing my schedule using Blackboard/Moodle/WebCT using GPS/maps viewing webpages sending/receiving emails Other:
2.3.
texting friends or using chatting tools Would you like to use your mobile device(s) for learning purposes, for example finishing class assignments (Grammar Clinic)? Other: Yes, I am willing to use it for assignments. Which device(s) did you usually use for Grammar Clinic assignments? Mobile devices or computers? Please explain your choice. If you do not have a mobile device, please put n/a in the textbox. No, I do not want to use it for assignments. I dont care.
3.
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APPENDIX C. Mobile Application Use Questionnaire, continued 4. How much time did you usually spend on ONE assignment, including reviewing feedback? (for example, assignment 3 with 10 items in it.) less than 10 minutes between 10 to 20 minutes more than 30 minutes Other:
4.1.
between 20 to 30 minutes Did you use Grammar Clinic on your own when it was not required? Yes Other: No What is your impression of Grammar Clinic application used in this class? Please rating the following statements based on your own experience. 1: completely disagree, 2: disagree, 3: somewhat disagree, 4: somewhat agree, 5: agree, 6: completely agree. Grammar Clinic is easy to use on my mobile device or computer. The feedback or explanation on Grammar Clinic is clear to me. (The feedback or explanation is on the review pages.) The error types in Grammar Clinic are very typical in my writing. The items in Grammar Clinic are difficult for me. I usually read the review pages after finishing an assignment. The practice on Grammar Clinic can help me notice errors in my own writing. The practice on Grammar Clinic can help me notice errors in the essays written by my classmates (Peer review). I need more instructions on grammar points in 101C class. Please check the following categories that you can IDENTIFY in editing your draft or reviewing drafts written by others. Verb use (tense, passive voice, linking verb and etc.) Noun use (plural form) Word Choice (wrong word class, ambiguous expression) Preposition use (wrong or missing preposition) Pronoun use (unclear pronoun) Conjunction use (wrong conjunction) Relative pronoun use Run-on sentence Fragment Adjective use (comparative form) Adverb use Word Order Article use (missing or wrong article) Punctuation use Other:
5.
5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 6.
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APPENDIX C. Mobile Application Use Questionnaire, continued. 6-1. Please check the following categories that you can CORRECT in editing your draft or reviewing drafts written by others. Verb use Noun use (plural form) Word Choice Preposition use Pronoun use (unclear pronoun) Conjunction use (wrong conjunction) Relative pronoun use Run-on sentence 7. 8. Can you talk about the features in Grammar Clinic that you like and dislike? Do you have any other comments or suggestions on Grammar Clinic exercise and/or 101C class teaching in general? Fragment Adjective use (comparative form) Adverb use Word Order Article use (missing or wrong article) Punctuation use Other:
NOTES 1. The term Mobile devices in this article refers to any internet-enabled handheld device that has a capability of using internet services. Typical mobile devices include personal digital assistant (PDA), smart phones, and tablets. 2. Though a detailed account of technicality issues is beyond the scope of this paper, interested readers can find more information about web-based mobile application development in Firtman (2010) and Stalk (2010). 3. In our analysis, students revision behavior was also included in Table 2 to present a more comprehensive picture of students effort in writing process. However, only the term self-editing is used for terminology consistency.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS Zhi Li is a doctoral student in Applied Linguistics and Technology, Iowa State University. He holds an MA degree from Hunan University, China. His research interests are language assessment and technology, computer-assisted language learning, and mobile-assisted language learning. Volker Hegelheimer is a full professor in the Department of English and the Program in Linguistics at Iowa State University. His research interests include applications of the WWW and emerging technologies in language learning and language testing. He is the corresponding author for this article.
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Language Learning & Technology http://llt.msu.edu/issues/october2013/burston.pdf
MOBILE-ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING: A SELECTED ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY OF IMPLEMENTATION STUDIES 19942012

Jack Burston, Cyprus University of Technology Over the past 20 years, project implementation descriptions have accounted for the majority of MobileAssisted Language Learning (MALL) publications, some 345 in total. Those interested in MALL applications thus need to read widely to acquire an adequate perspective of MALL implementations. The intent of this bibliography is to facilitate this task by providing a comprehensive historical background of MALL applications from the first published work in 1994 to the end of 2012. To enhance the information contained in these references, over 90% of the entries are complemented by a brief (~80 word) summary. To the extent that the publication provides such information, each annotation identifies the country of origin of the study, native language (L1) and/or the second or foreign language (L2) involved, the mobile technology used, the learning area(s) targeted, the type of learners, their numbers, the duration of the study, and a summary of the results (i.e., learning outcomes and survey opinions). Since nearly 60% of MALL implementation studies appear outside of professional journals, in conference proceedings, project reports, academic dissertations, and so forth, locating copies of these publications poses a major challenge in itself. For this reason, where possible, links are included to copies of the works cited. Key words: MALL, Mobile Learning, Language Learning, Ubiquitous Technology, Project Implementation APA Citation: Burston, J. (2013). Mobile-assisted language learning: A selected annotated bibliography of implementation studies 19942012. Language Learning & Technology, 17(3),157224. Retrievable from http://llt.msu.edu/issues/october2013/burston.pdf Received: February 6, 2013; Accepted: May 16, 2013; Published: October 1, 2013 Copyright: Jack Burston INTRODUCTION In a very broad sense, for as long as formal instruction has existed there has been an interest in freeing learning from the constraints of time and place. Clay tablets, scrolls, then much later printed books were the first technologies employed to meet this challenge. In the latter part of the 20th century desktop computers, laptops, netbooks, and web-based applications greatly facilitated flexible access to language learning materials. The advent of hand-held computer-based devices gave rise to Mobile-Assisted Language Learning (MALL) as we know it today. Since the mid-1990s, MALL has focused on the exploitation of five mobile technologies: pocket electronic dictionaries, personal digital assistants (PDAs), mobile phones, MP3 players, and most recently ultra-portable tablet PCs. Though a young field, some 575 works relating to MALL have been published over the past two decades. The topics covered are varied and include considerations of technical specifications, mobile device ownership, pedagogical design, learning theory, user attitudes, motivational effects, institutional infrastructure, and teacher training, among others. By far, the most frequently occurring type of MALL publications are project implementation descriptions. Based on the references contained in the works
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MALL Annotated Bibliography of Implementation Studies 19942012
themselves, they account for nearly 350 of the total, some 60%. These references are the focus of this bibliography. MALL implementation studies run the gamut from hypothetical design specifications, through one-off lab and classroom experiments, in-course pilot testing, and multiple semester trialing. Publication sources are likewise diverse, with only about 10% of MALL implementation studies emanating from established CALL journals. The single greatest source of MALL publicationsover 45%is to be found in conference proceedings and, here again, in areas outside of CALL such as distance learning, mobile learning, educational technology, multimedia, telecommunications, lexicography, and so forth. The journals in which MALL publications appear are similarly disparate. Other publication sources include project reports as well as a few masters and doctoral dissertations. Those interested in MALL applications, whether for research purposes or as a reference point for their own practical development efforts, thus need to read widely to acquire an adequate perspective of MALL implementations. The intent of this bibliography is to facilitate this task by providing a comprehensive historical background of MALL applications from the first published work in 1994 to the end of 2012.1 While every effort has been made to make this bibliography as complete as possible, it is of course possible that some references may have been missed, especially from conference proceedings and nonEnglish sources. Notwithstanding, overall, the coverage is very broad. To enhance the information contained in these references, and thus to guide their acquisition, over 90% of the entries are complemented by a brief (~80 word) summary. To the extent that the publication provides such information, each annotation identifies the country of origin of the study, native language (L1) and/or the second or foreign language (L2) involved, the mobile technology used, the learning area(s) targeted, the type of learners, their numbers, the duration of the study, and a summary of the results (i.e., learning outcomes and survey opinions). Although it was not possible to consult and provide annotations for the remaining 10%, their references are included for the sake of completeness and in the hopes that other researchers may be able to secure them if interested. Since nearly 60% of MALL implementation studies appear outside of professional journals, in conference proceedings, project reports, academic dissertations, and so forth, locating copies of these publications poses a major challenge in itself. For this reason, where possible, links are included to copies of the works cited. While many of these may be downloaded without cost, the majority require an institutional subscription or have to be individually purchased. ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY Abdous, M., Camarena, M., & Facer, B. (2009). MALL technology: Use of academic podcasting in the foreign language classroom. RECALL Journal, 21(1), 7695. Retrievable from http://journals.cambridge.org This American study evaluated the benefits of integrating podcasts into the L2 curriculum compared to using them as a supplemental/review tool in eight university courses over a semester. Based on responses from 113 students, the studys findings indicate that when instructors integrated podcasts into the curriculum for instructional purposes (e.g., for student video presentations, for student paired interviews, in roundtable discussions), students were more likely to use this technology and to report academic benefits. Abdous, M., Facer, B., & Yen, C-J. (2012). Academic effectiveness of podcasting: A comparative study of integrated versus supplemental use of podcasting in second language classes. Computers & Education, 58, 4352. Retrievable from http://www.sciencedirect.com
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This American paper extends a study of the effects of integrated (PIC) versus supplemental (PSM) podcast usage in university L2 courses first reported in Abdous, Camarena and Facer (2009). Based on final grades over four years with 337 students of Chinese, French, German, Italian, Japanese, and Spanish, the learning outcomes of PIC students were inconclusive. However, a strong effect was found with the results of PSM students, particularly in upper level courses. Only about 28% of students used MP3 players to listen to course materials. Alemi, M., Sarab, M., & Lari, Z. (2012). Successful learning of academic word list via MALL: Mobile Assisted Language Learning. International Education Studies, 5(6), 99109. Retrievable from http://www.ccsenet.org This Iranian paper describes a 16-week study of a mobile phone-based SMS vocabulary program for L2 English. The trial involved 28 university students who received 10 words and example sentences twice a week via SMS. Their learning of 320 head words was compared to that of a control group of 17 who studied the same words using a dictionary. All students improved on a post-test, but with no significant difference between the groups. However, the SMS group showed significantly better vocabulary retention on a delayed post-test. Al-Jarf, R. (2012). Mobile technology and student autonomy in oral skill acquisition. In J. Daz-Vera (Ed.), Left to my own devices: Learner autonomy and mobile-assisted language learning innovation and leadership in English language teaching (pp. 105130). Bingley, UK: Emerald Group. Retrievable from http://dx.doi.org This study from Saudi Arabia describes the effects of using self-study MP3 L2 English lessons (TalkEnglish) on oral skill development. Compared to a control group of 44 university students who received only classroom instruction, an experimental group of 46 used TalkEnglish for 12 weeks as a course supplement. The program was accessible via mobile phone, MP3 player, or computer. Students in the experimental group outperformed the controls in listening and speaking, which was attributed to the extra practice they received through TalkEnglish. Allan, S. (2007). Podcasts and embedded audio to support language learning. Warwick Interactions Journal, 30(2), n.pag. This British report describes a pilot project that investigated the use of MP3 players to enhance the study of L2 German written texts with first and second year university students. This involved creating for the course website downloadable podcasts of vocabulary lists for rote memorization and pronunciation practice as well as 28 poems by Goethe. The poetry resource in particular was very positively received and extensively used, though the majority of students did so directly from PCs rather than downloading to MP3 players. Ally, M., Schafer, S., Cheung, B., McGreal, R., & Tin, T. (2007). Use of mobile learning technology to train ESL adults. In: mlearn Melbourne 2007: Making the Connection: Conference Proceedings (pp. 7 12). This Canadian paper describes the use of a tutorial program accessible via web-enabled mobile devices to teach L2 English remedial grammar to adult education learners. The content of the program included 86 lessons and related exercises (true/false, multiple choice drop downs, changing the order of sentences, matching). The system was tested via
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mobile phones by about 100 adult learners, who demonstrated slight improvements and expressed positive attitudes about using a mobile phone to learn English grammar. Ally, M., & Tin, T. (2009). Mobile phone to improve English pronunciation. Proceedings of mlearn 2009, 8th World Conference on Mobile and Contextual Learning (pp. 171173). Orlando, Florida, USA. Ally, M., Tin, T., & Woodburn, T. (2011). Mobile learning: Delivering French using mobile devices. Proceedings 10th World Conference on Mobile and Contextual Learning (mLearn) (p. 448). Beijing, China: Beijing Normal University. Retrievable from http://mlearn.bnu.edu.cn/source/Conference_Procedings.pdf This Canadian paper investigated the use of iPhones to access web-based grammar and vocabulary lessons for elementary level L2 French. The content consisted of five workplace related lessons, which were trialed by 22 university volunteers during one three-hour session. Participants took an 8-item, pre and post, multiple-choice test to measure learning gains. Overall, students who participated in this study found the format and content of the lessons useful and wanted to take more lessons with this device. Al-Shehri, S. (2011a). Context in our pockets: Mobile phones and social networking as tools of contextualising language learning. Proceedings 10th World Conference on Mobile and Contextual Learning (mLearn) (pp. 278286). Beijing, China: Beijing Normal University. Retrievable from http://mlearn.bnu.edu.cn/source/Conference_Procedings.pdf This conference paper describes a 16-week Saudi Arabian study that used mobile phones linked to Facebook to create an L2 English community of learners. A group of 33 university students uploaded photos, video clips, or texts from their personal out-of-class contexts to Facebook using their own mobile phones and reflected on each others uploaded materials using their mobile phones as well. Overall, students appreciated the implementation of mobile phones and Facebook to connect in-class activities with their outside world. Al-Shehri, S. (2011b). Mobile social networking in language learning: A transformational tool. International Journal of Mobile Learning and Organisation, 5(34), 345359. Retrievable from http://inderscience.metapress.com This article is the published version of Al-Shehri (2011a). It describes a Saudi Arabian project that investigated the potential of mobile phone-based social networking to create an effective L2 English learning environment that promoted studentcenteredness and collaborative language learning. The study concluded that mobile social networking played a major transformational role and fostered the shift from traditional teacher directed instruction to more collaborative, enjoyable, and studentcentered learning. Amemiya, S., Hasegawa, K-I., Kaneko, K., Miyakoda, H., & Tsukahara, W. (2007). Long-term memory of foreign-word learning by short movies for iPods. Proceedings of the 7th IEEE International conference on advanced learning technologies (pp. 561563). Los Alamitos, CA: IEEE Computer Society. Retrievable from http://ieeexplore.ieee.org This Japanese paper is one of several that describe the use of vodcasts to support the rote learning of L2/L1 word pairs. Each vodcast consists of a 5-second still or moving image that includes the pronunciation of the L2 word with its spelling and L1 equivalent displayed as subtitles. A PC application (MultiPod) transfers vodcasts to iTunes for downloading to iPods. Ten university students trialed the system and took a vocabulary
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test two months later, which demonstrated that the system was effective for the learning of foreign words. Amer, M. (2010). Idiomobile for learners of English: A study of learners usage of a mobile learning application for learning idioms and collocations. PhD dissertation, Indiana University of Pennsylvania. Retrievable from http://dspace.lib.iup.edu This American PhD dissertation explored how a group of 45 L2 English university students used a mobile application (Idiomobile) containing a game and quizzes which they could customize to learn idiomatic expressions and collocations. Idiomobile was trialed on mobile phones for a period of one week, for a total average usage of 714 hours. The more learners used the program, the higher they scored on the quizzes in the application. All learners praised Idiomobile for allowing them to learn idiomatic expressions and collocations. Anaraki, F. (2009). A Flash-based mobile learning system for learning English as a second language. Proceedings International Conference on Computer Engineering and Technology. Singapore (pp. 400 404). Retrievable from http://www.journal.au.edu This Thai paper describes the design and development of a suite of 12 mobile flash-based multimedia lessons for the learning of L2 English. The system was tested for four weeks by 76 university students, who downloaded to their smartphones or PDAs three lessons a week for independent study. Post-testing confirmed significant improvement by all students. Participants felt the most significant impact of mobile English learning had been on their pronunciation followed by listening skills and conversation. Anderson, T., Hwang, W-Y., & Hsieh C-H. (2008). A study of a mobile collaborative learning system for Chinese language learning. Proceedings of International Conference on Computers in Education (pp. 217222). Taipei, Taiwan. Retrievable from http://ncu.academia.edu This Taiwanese paper describes the design of a prototype system (StudentPartner) intended to support the collaborative out-of-class learning of L2 Chinese. The system operates with GPS-enabled PDAs combined with a campus map linked to a database server to provide location-aware information, audio recordings of context-appropriate common phrases, and the storage and sharing of learner-produced messages, notes, images and voice recordings. Learners can retrieve their own and each others data and notes anytime, anywhere. Attewell, J. (2005). Mobile technologies and learning: A technology update and m-learning project summary. London, UK: Learning Skills Development Agency. Retrievable from http://www.mlearning.org This British report describes three EU funded m-learning projects that used smartphones (i.e., a PDA with telephone connectivity) to promote the learning of 1624 year olds not enrolled in full-time education. One SMS-based elementary L2 Italian course was trialed in Italy with two groups, one of foreigners (n = 20) and the other of Italian dialect speakers n = 30). A course using MMS/SMS-based tutorials and quizzes developed in the UK to support English L1 literacy and numeracy was also used for L2 English in Sweden. Favorable results are reported, but they are only anecdotal.
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Azabdaftari, B., & Mozaheb, M. (2012). Comparing vocabulary learning of EFL learners by using two different strategies: Mobile learning vs. flashcards. The Eurocall Review, 20(2), 4759. Retrievable from http://www.eurocall-languages.org/review/20_2/index.html This Iranian study describes the results of a seven-week study that compared the L2 English vocabulary acquisition of 80 university students. Half of these formed an experimental group that used a phone-based vocabulary program (Spaced Repetition System) complemented by SMS exchanges with the instructor and Internet resources. The control group used printed flashcards containing English words with pronunciation on one side and corresponding L1/L2 equivalents on the other. The experimental group significantly outscored the control on a 20 item multiple-choice post-test. Baleghizadeh, S., & Oladrostam, E. (2010). The effect of Mobile Assisted Language Learning (MALL) on grammatical accuracy of EFL students. MEXTESOL Journal, 34(2), 7786. Retrievable from http://www.efltasks.org This Iranian article investigates the effect of using mobile phones to record L2 English class discussions intended to elicit grammatical forms under review. For six classes, 20 university students made 23 minute recordings of their speech on their mobile phones and as an out-of-class assignment analyzed their spoken mistakes and commented on them in a subsequent session. These students demonstrated significantly better grammatical accuracy compared to a control group of the same size that did not engage in these review activities. Baolu, E., & Akdemir, O. (2010). A comparison of undergraduate students English vocabulary learning: Using mobile phones and flash cards. Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, 9(3), 17. Retrievable from http://www.tojet.net This Turkish paper describes a six-week pilot test that investigated the effectiveness for L2 English vocabulary acquisition of a mobile phone-based flashcard application (ECTACO) used by 30 university students compared to its printed counterpart used by a control group of the same size. Post-testing confirmed that using the flashcards on mobile phones was more effective in improving students vocabulary learning than using flashcards on paper. Mobile phone users also found learning English vocabulary this way effective and entertaining. Begum, R. (2011). Prospect for cell phones as instructional tools in the EFL classroom: A case study of Jahangirnagar University, Bangladesh. English Language Teaching, 4(1), 105115. Published by Canadian Center of Science and Education. Retrievable from http://www.ccsenet.org/journal The aim of this study was to investigate the potential of mobile phone SMS use as a language learning tool in the L2 English classrooms of Bangladesh. Over five weekly periods of two hours, 100 Bangladeshi university students were sent a lesson on English preposition usage, received a multiple-choice quiz, answered it, and received teacher feedback, all via SMS. While the potential SMS-based instruction was demonstrated, a number of problems were also revealed: cost, small screen size, text inputting difficulties, and lack of teacher training. Belanger, Y. (2005). Duke University iPod first year experience final evaluation report. Center for Instructional Technology. Duke University. Retrievable from http://cit.duke.edu
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This American report describes the experimental trials in a range of disciplines that resulted from the free distribution of iPods to 1600 first year students at Duke University. In foreign languages, the iPods functioned as a complementary resource. Spanish and Turkish courses used them for audio listening. The devices were also used for recording student audio diaries in Spanish and for native-speaker interviews in German. Overall, student and faculty reactions were positive, but recording quality was judged inadequate for language learning. Bo-Kristensen, M., Ankerstjerne, N., Neutzsky-Wulff, C., & Schelde, H. (2009). Mobile city and language guides: New links between formal and informal learning environments. Electronic Journal of Elearning, 7(2), 8592. Retrievable from http://www.ejel.org This Danish paper describes the concept underlying two geotagging applications (Mobile City and Language Guides) that allow high school and university students to create links between formal foreign language instruction and informal learning through location-based, authentic materials. Using their mobile phones, students or teachers can support language learning tasks via the uploading or downloading of Google map geotag information (e.g., photos, audio, text, movies, links, vocabulary), which serve as complements to class-based activities. Bollen, L., Eimler, S., & Hoppe, H. (2004a). SMS-based discussions: Technology enhanced collaboration for a literature course. Proceedings of International Workshop on Wireless and Mobile Technologies in Education (pp. 209210). National Central University, Taiwan. Retrievable from http://ieeexplore.ieee.org This German study describes the design of a prototype system that uses web-enabled PDAs to allow native-speaker high school students to discuss German literary texts via emulated SMS in a classroom environment. Only a general outline is given. Bollen, L., Eimler, S., & Hoppe, H. (2004b). The use of mobile computing to support SMS dialogues and classroom discussions in a literature course. Proceedings of the 4th IEEE International Conference on Advanced Learning Technologies, ICALT 2004. Los Alamitos, CA: IEEE Computer Society. Retrievable from http://www.collide.info This German study describes the design of a prototype system that uses web-enabled PDAs to allow native-speaker high school students to discuss German literary texts via emulated SMS in a classroom environment. Technical details are given, but no actual student usage is reported. Borau, K., Ullrich, C., Feng, J., & Shen, R. (2009). Microblogging for language learning: Using Twitter to train communicative and cultural competence. In M. Spaniol, Q. Li, R. Klamma, & R. Lau (Eds.), Advances in web based learning ICWL 2009 (Vol. 5686, pp. 7887). Heidelberg: Springer-Verlag Berlin. Retrievable from http://www.carstenullrich.net/pubs/Borau09Microblogging.pdf This Chinese paper describes the use of Twitter with 82 L2 English college students over a period of seven weeks. The intent of the project was to evaluate the effect of sending and receiving short informal messages upon the communicative and cultural competence of language learners. Using both stationary computers and mobile devices, students generated nearly 800 tweets per week. The study concluded that the out-of-class use of Twitter provided an effective means of fostering communicative and culture competence without the need for face-to-face contact.
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Boticki, I., Wong, L-H., & Looi, C-K. (2011). Designing content-independent mobile learning technology: Learning fractions and Chinese language. Proceedings 10th World Conference on Mobile and Contextual Learning (mLearn) (pp. 130137). Beijing, China: Beijing Normal University. Retrievable from http://mlearn.bnu.edu.cn This paper reports on a Singapore-based collaborative learning study involving mathematics and Chinese. In the language portion of the study, 37 L1 Chinese primary school children played a Chinese character formation game (Chinese P-P) alternatively using a smartphone compared to a card-based version. Statistically significant increases in Chinese learning were observed in post-testing for the users of the smartphone. The user interface of the mobile device application, however, required modification to better support collaborative interaction among users. Brown, E. (Ed.) (2001). Mobile learning explorations at the Stanford Learning Lab. Speaking of Computers, 55. Stanford, CA: Board of Trustees of the Leland Stanford Junior University. Retrievable from http://cgi.stanford.edu This is the first published American report about the use of mobile phones for foreign language teaching. It describes experimental Spanish L2 vocabulary tutorial programs at Stanford University which utilized voice, voice recognition, email, quizzes, and translations as well as access to online tutors. While students reacted positively to the novelty, serious technical problems (screen size, audio quality, network connections) adversely affected the project. Brown, M. (2012). Tablet computing to cultivate Japanese EFL digital literacy: A study on video production in the classroom. In J. Colpaert, A. Aerts, W-C. Vivian Wu, & Y-C. Joni Chao, (Eds.), The Medium Matters (Proceedings 15th International CALL Conference) (p. 48). Retrievable from http://www.google.com This Japanese paper investigated the potential advantages and disadvantages of the use of tablet devices (specifically the iPad 2) in L2 English classrooms for video production tasks. It sought to determine whether student participation in such tasks assisted in the development of L2 digital literacy. The study also investigated students perceptions when they were using the tablet devices to see whether or not they could be successful tools in the design of a constructivist learning environment. Brown, M., Castellano, J., Hughes, E., & Worth, A. (2012). Integration of iPads in a Japanese universitys freshman curriculum. Proceedings of the JALT CALL Conference 2012. Retrievable from http://journal.jaltcall.org This Japanese paper describes the pilot testing of five iPads with 96 English L2 university students. Four classes of 2325 students used the devices in a technologically enhanced classroom to create of a PowerPoint type presentation, retrieve web-based multimedia resources, make a voice recording, and access a digital class handout. The results indicated that the iPad offered benefits such as speed, video viewing, and versatility but also showed that its usefulness depended on the task and application software familiarity and capability. Browne, C., & Culligan, B. (2008). Combining technology and IRT testing to build student knowledge of high frequency vocabulary. The JALT CALL Journal, 4(2), 316. Retrievable from http://www.jaltcall.org This Japanese paper describes a suite of L2 English language learning applications
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accessible via PCs and mobile phones that use an Item Response Theory algorithm (VCheck) to assess which specific high frequency words still need to be taught. The program (Word Engine) then teaches these words via a system of flashcards and learning games focused on developing automaticity of word knowledge through spaced repetition, extensive graded reading, and listening materials. The system also includes a course management program (V-Admin). Burston, J. (2012). Mobile language learning: Getting IT to work. In J. Burston, F. Doa, & D. Tsagari, (Eds.), Foreign language instructional technology (pp. 8199). Nicosia, Cyprus: University of Nicosia Press. This paper from Cyprus describes a European mobile phone-based project (MobLang) designed to teach basic L2 communicative skills in Albanian, Basque, Irish, Greek, and Turkish to speakers of majority community languages (Spanish, English, Turkish and Greek, respectively). MobLang lessons focus on the acquisition of essential formulaic expressions within an entirely off-line media-rich mobile environment. The system was pilot tested by 85 volunteers representing all the L1/L2 language pairs and received very positive evaluations. Butgereit, L., & Botha, A. (2009). Hadeda: The noisy way to practice spelling vocabulary using a cell phone. In P. Cunningham & M. Cunningham (Eds.) IST-Africa 2009 Conference Proceedings (pp. 17). Retrievable from http://researchspace.csir.co.za This South African paper describes a language learning application (Hadeda) designed to encourage primary and secondary school pupils to practice spelling or memorize L2 English words using their mobile phone. Via a mobile accessible web-based application, teachers and parents prepare English spelling and English/Afrikaans vocabulary lists from which Hadeda, using multiple text-to-speech engines, generates audio vocabulary exercises. The system was pilot tested in a private school with pupils from grades four through seven. Butgereit, L., Botha, A., & van Niekerk, D. (2010). Using cell phones to improve language skills: The Hadeda Project. E-Infrastructures and E-Services on Developing Countries Lecture Notes of the Institute for Computer Sciences, Social Informatics and Telecommunications Engineering, 38, 1119. Retrievable from http://researchspace.csir.co.za This South African paper describes an Internet-based application (Hadeda) which lets teachers and parents of school children use mobile phones to create spelling lists (see Butgereit and Botha (2009)). Using speech synthesis technology, the system generates audio clips and packages them into an application which can be downloaded to mobile phones or accessed via the Internet. Learners listen to the words then type them in for verification. An L2 English and an L2 German version were pilot tested, but no learning results are reported. Callan, S. (1994). Can the use of hand-held personal computers assist transition students to produce written work of excellent quality? Wentworth County Board of Education, Ontario, Canada. This Canadian report is the first published MALL study. It describes the effects of word processing with PDAs, compared to handwritten texts, to improve the English writing skills of 14-year old native speakers. The results, based on student surveys, claim better organization, improved essay writing with spell-check and grammar-check features, and greater flexibility due to the mobility of the PDAs.
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Cavus, N., & Ibrahim, D. (2008). MOLT: A mobile learning tool that makes learning new technical English language words enjoyable. International Journal of Interactive Mobile Technologies, 2(4), 38 42. Retrievable from http://online-journals.org This paper from Northern Cyprus describes the experimental use of mobile phone SMS to teach technical L2 English vocabulary to 45 computer science university students. A webbased application (MOLT) was used to send SMS word pairs every half-hour daily between 9A.M. and 5P.M. A total of 48 word pairs were sent three times for nine days. Responses to a student survey indicated very high approval of the system. All participants expressed enjoyment of learning out of class with the help of their mobile phones. Cavus, N., & Ibrahim, D. (2009). m-Learning: An experiment in using SMS to support learning new English language words. British Journal of Educational Technology, 40(1), 7891. Retrievable from http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com This paper from Northern Cyprus is an extended version of Cavus and Ibrahim (2008). It adds a brief literature review and a discussion of theoretical framework, but is otherwise the same. Chan, W-M., Chen, I., & Dpel, M. (2008). Learning on the move: Applying podcasting technologies to foreign language learning. Paper presented at CLaSIC 2008, Singapore, Singapore. Chan, W-M., Chen, I., & Dpel, M. (2011). Podcasting in foreign language learning: Insights for podcast design from a developmental research project. In M. Levy et al. (Eds.), WorldCALL: International Perspectives on computer-assisted language learning (pp. 1937). New York, NY: Routledge. This paper from Singapore explores the use of podcasting to support the learning of L2 German. A total of 14 podcast lessons were prepared and made available to 225 university students on a weekly basis over a 13 week period. Lessons included listening comprehension and grammar, as well as country and culture information. Only 6% of students accessed podcasts exclusively via MP3 players, with 70% preferring to use only a PC. Overall, students found the lessons useful, especially for test preparation. Chan, W-M., Chi, S-W., Chin, K-N., & Lin, C-Y. (2011). Students perceptions of and attitudes towards podcast-based learning: A comparison of two language podcast projects. Electronic Journal of Foreign Language Teaching, 8(Suppl. 1), 312335. Retrievable from http://e-flt.nus.edu.sg This paper from a Singapore university describes two 10-week long podcast projects with 120 L2 Chinese and 61 L2 Korean students who completed questionnaires and participated in semi-structured interviews to ascertain their perceptions of the podcasts quality and usefulness, and their attitudes towards podcast-based learning. Statistically significant differences were found in the perceptions and attitudes of the two groups related to motivation, expectations, teacher encouragement and experience with mobile learning. Chang, C-K., & Hsu, C-K. (2011). A mobile-assisted synchronously collaborative translation-annotation system for English as a foreign language (EFL) reading comprehension. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 24(2), 155180. Retrievable from http://www.tandfonline.com This Taiwanese paper is a follow-up of the study first reported in Hsu, He and Chang (2009). It describes the effectiveness of a PDA/web-based translation/annotation
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application on the L2 English reading comprehension of 43 university students who used it individually and collaboratively for extensive in-class reading. Testing revealed that groups of 24 achieved significantly higher levels of comprehension than individual students or groups of five. More than 80% of the users considered the system useful and easy to use for individual reading. Chen, C-H., & Chou, H-W. (2007). Location-aware technology in Chinese language learning. IADIS International Conference Mobile Learning (pp. 189193). This Taiwanese study reports on the design and prototype testing of a PDA-based system (CLLS) that uses RFID tags linked via a web-based server to audio and text that provide location specific conversations to support the learning of L2 Chinese by overseas students using public transportation in Taipei. Ten foreign university students tested the system for 20 minutes in a classroom which simulated six transportation stations. The experiment showed that learners were satisfied both with the reaction time of RFID and the content transmitted. Chen, C-M., & Chung, C-J. (2008). Personalized mobile English vocabulary learning system based on item response theory and learning memory cycle. Computers & Education, 51(2), 624645. Retrievable from http://www.sciencedirect.com This Taiwanese paper describes the design of an L2 English vocabulary learning system which is based upon Item Response Theory algorithms and a learning memory cycle. It operates via PDAs linked to a remote management server, client mobile learning system and three database agents: one that recommends vocabulary, one that generates tests, and one that assesses performance. The system was trialed by 15 university students for five weeks and the results revealed significant, though modest (~5%), enhancement of vocabulary abilities and learning interests. Chen, C-M., & Hsu, S-H. (2008). Personalized intelligent mobile learning system for supportive effective English learning. Educational Technology and Society, 11(3), 153180. Retrievable from http://www.ifets.info This Taiwanese article describes the design of a prototype web-enabled PDA-based reading/vocabulary system (PIMS) that was trialed by 15 L2 English university students for five weeks. Using a fuzzy Item Response Theory algorithm that determines users reading abilities, PIMS recommends English news articles to learners and automatically identifies unfamiliar words for study. Test results confirmed that the system could recommend appropriate news articles to individual learners regardless of their initial reading abilities. Chen, C-M., & Li, Y-L. (2010). Personalized context-aware ubiquitous learning system for supporting effective English vocabulary learning. Interactive Learning Environments, 18(4), 341364. Retrievable from http://www.tandfonline.com This Taiwanese article describes the design and prototype testing of the PDA/WLANbased context-aware L2 English vocabulary learning system (PCULS) outlined Chen et al. (2007). PCULS was trialed for two weeks in 12 locations around a high school by 36 tenth-grade students, half of which studied English/Chinese word pairs with the system and half independently of it. 94% of PCULS users showed vocabulary gains compared to only 67% for non-users. 72% of users expressed a preference for the context-aware learning support.
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Chen, C-M., Li, Y-L., & Chen, M-C. (2007). Personalised context-aware ubiquitous learning system for supporting effective English vocabulary learning. 7th International Conference on Advanced Learning Technologies (ICALT 2007), Niigata, Japan. Retrievable from http://www.computer.org This Taiwanese paper describes the design of a proposed context-aware vocabulary learning system for L2 English. The system is intended to operate through a PDA linked to a web server database via an indoor WLAN that identifies the learners location and delivers suitable vocabulary based on this, the current time, the free time available, and learners ability. Chen, C-M., & Tsai, Y-N. (2009). Interactive location-based game for supporting effective English learning. 2009 International Conference on Environmental Science and Information Application Technology 3(1), 523526. Retrievable from http://ieeexplore.ieee.org This Taiwanese paper reports on the prototype testing of an experimental location-aware PDA/WAN-based L2 English learning game. The game, which requires learners to locate a book, integrates virtual objects with real scenes in a university library. The system was tested by 10 university students, 90% of whom agreed it was fun to use and would be helpful for learning English. Chen, C-M., & Tsai, Y-N. (2010). Interactive location-based game for supporting effective English learning. International Journal of Intelligent Information Technology Application, 3(1), 4450. Retrievable from http://voxy.com This Taiwanese paper is the published version of the experimental location-aware PDA/WAN-based L2 English learning game described in Chen and Tsai (2009). The article extensively discusses location detection technologies (RFID, WLAN, BackPropagation Neural Networks) and describes in detail the operating parameters of the game. As reported earlier, the system was tested by 10 university students, 90% of whom agreed it was fun to use and would be helpful for learning English. Chen, I-J., & Chang, C-C. (2011). Content presentation modes in mobile language listening tasks: English proficiency as a moderator. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 24(5), 451470. Retrievable from http://www.tandfonline.com This Taiwanese study investigated the moderating effect of L2 English proficiency upon presentation mode and performance of 162 university students using a PDA-based vocabulary learning program for two weeks. Half of the group had access only to audio; the other half had access to audio and text. Students with lower proficiency focused more on the text. No moderating effect was observed on task performance as students provided with the dual mode outperformed their single mode counterparts across proficiency levels. Chen, I-J., Chang, C-C. , & Yen J-C. (2012). Effects of presentation mode on mobile language learning: A performance efficiency perspective. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 28, 122137. Retrievable from http://www.ascilite.org.au This Taiwanese study describes the results of a PDA-based one-session pilot test which evaluated the effectiveness of the presence or absence of an accompanying written transcript upon the L2 English listening comprehension of 87 university students. The results revealed that the provision of written text facilitated the acquisition of information in immediate recall for learners with lower English levels, but did not appear to effect the schema construction of the English listening comprehension skill.
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Chen, N-S., Hsieh, S-W., & Kinshuk (2008). Effects of short-term memory and content representation type on mobile language learning. Language Learning & Technology, 12(3), 93113. Retrievable from http://llt.msu.edu/vol12num3/chenetal.pdf This Canadian-Taiwanese study investigated the effect of content representation on the short-term rote learning of 24 L2 English/Chinese word pairs by 156 Taiwanese university students during a 50 minute session using mobile phone SMS/MMS. Both quantitative and qualitative findings demonstrated that learners with higher verbal and visual ability achieved better results from learning content with accompanying written sample sentences and/or pictorial annotation than they did from learning content without any annotation. Chen, T-S., Chang, C-S., Lin, J-S., & Yu, H-L. (2009). Context-aware writing in ubiquitous learning environments. Research and Practice in Technology Enhanced Learning, 4(1), 6182. Retrievable from http://www.apsce.net This Taiwanese article describes a context-aware collaborative learning system (ContextAwareWriting) that exploits PDAs equipped with RFID tag readers to allow children to read and write L1 Chinese in different locations, to communicate with other people, and to review their peers writing. The system was trialed for eight weeks by 25 third graders for whom writing improved compared to a control group of 28. Despite a lack of preparation using the PDAs and complaints about small screen size, most pupils were satisfied with the system. Cheng, S., Hwang, W-Y., Wu, S., Shadiev, R., & Xie, C. (2010). A mobile device and online system with contextual familiarity and its effects on English learning on campus. Educational Technology & Society, 13(3), 93109. Retrievable from http://www.ifets.info This Taiwanese study describes a PDA phone/GPS system that provides a ubiquitous, collaborative, location-aware, L2 English learning environment by integrating desktop, web-based, and mobile technologies into a multimedia forum (StudentPartner) that allows users to retrieve data while exploring the campus in English and making English presentations. Ten university students trialed the system for five months and, though usage was low, results show these two activities were an effective and enjoyable method of learning English. Chi, S-W., & Chan, W-M. (2009, December). Mobile Korean language learning: Podcasting as an educational medium. Paper presented at the Korean Language International Symposium to celebrate the 60th Anniversary of Kyung-Hee University, Seoul, South Korea. Chi, S-W., & Chan, W-M. (2011). Learning beyond the classroom: Language podcast as supplementary learning material. Ubiquitous Learning: An International Journal, 3(2), 2140. Retrievable from http://ijq.cgpublisher.com This paper from Singapore describes a three-month podcast project for L2 Korean language beginners. It provides an account of the podcasts design and contents, and students access and usage. Students quantitative and qualitative evaluations of the podcasts design and contents are presented. The paper concludes with a discussion of the implications for the design and development of future language learning podcasts as well as further research.
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Chiang, M-H. (2012). Effects of reading via Kindle. In J. Colpaert, A. Aerts, W-C Vivian Wu, & Y-C Joni Chao (Eds.), The medium matters (Proceedings 15th International CALL Conference) (pp. 176179). Retrievable from http://www.google.com This Taiwanese paper investigates the effect on subsequent motivation to read of doing extensive L2 English reading using a Kindle e-book compared to using a printed counterpart. For a semester, 34 university students read a novel with half using the ereader and half a printed book. According to a student survey taken at the end of the period, use of the e-book did not result in any significant difference in the participants motivation to read. Only a fraction of the participants reacted positively to reading novels on a Kindle. Chin, K-N., Lin, C-Y., & Chan, W-M. (2010). Mobile learning Podcasting for Chinese language learning. In D.B. Xu, J. Da, & P. Zhang, (Eds.), Conference Proceedings of the Sixth International Conference and Workshops on Technology and Chinese Language Teaching (pp. 2634). Columbus, OH: National East Asian Language Resource Center, Ohio State University. Chin, K-N., Lin, C-Y., & Chan, W-M. (2011). Mobile learning Podcasting for Chinese Language Learning. Journal for Technology and Chinese Language Teaching, 2(2), 3749. (In Chinese) Retrievable from http://www.tclt.us Choi, E-J., & Jeong, D-b. (2010). The effects of college students vocabulary learning by using mobile LMS lessons. Multimedia-Assisted Language Learning, 13(3), 279302. (in Korean). Retrievable from http://www.dbpia.co.kr This Korean paper investigates the effects of using mobile Long Message Service (LMS) lessons on L2 English vocabulary learning. A total of 72 L2 English college students were assigned to one of three groups: LMS lessons without student interaction; LMS lessons with teacher-student interactive messages; and a control group using paper materials. Using LMS lessons was more effective than using paper materials for vocabulary learning, but there were no significant differences in performance between interactive versus noninteractive LMS. Chu, H. (2011). The Effect of the Features of Smart Phone Vocabulary Applications on Korean College Students Satisfaction and Continued Use. Multimedia-Assisted Language Learning, 14(2), 91112. Retrievable from http://www.dbpia.co.kr This Korean article explores learners patterns of usage of two L2 English smartphone vocabulary applications and the program features most sought by students. Using their own phones, 32 college students trialed one of two mobile applications for a week. Students accessed the applications mostly while commuting but did not use them often. The program features that students most wanted were the tracking of memorized versus non-memorized vocabulary, examples, audio for pronunciation, and self-control of vocabulary repetition. City College Southampton (2005). Multimedia learning with mobile phones. Innovative practices with elearning. Case studies: Any time, any place learning. Joint Information Systems Committee, City College Southampton. Retrievable from http://www.jisc.ac.uk This British report gives a very general description of the design of an m-learning system developed at the City College of Southampton to support the English language acquisition of its ESOL (English speakers of other languages) students. Participants used camera
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phones (i.e., PDAs with cameras and telephone connectivity) to send location-related text and images via SMS/MMS to a web-based a multimedia message board. This collaborative data collection task served as the impetus for language interaction between students. Clarke, P., Keing, C., Lam, P., & McNaught, C. (2008). Using SMSs to engage students in language learning. In Proceedings of World Conference on Educational Multimedia, Hypermedia and Telecommunications (pp. 61326141). Chesapeake, VA: AACE. Retrievable from http://www.cuhk.edu.hk This paper from Hong Kong investigates the use of the passive reception of mobile phone SMS for vocabulary learning in an L2 English university course over two seven-week terms with a cohort of 12 in the first and 7 in the second. Review questions (and answers) based on the vocabulary of previous classes were sent daily via SMS. Students received the SMS at no cost and did not reply. While 84% of students found the system worthwhile and 83% enjoyed it, none indicated a willingness to use the system if they had to pay for it (~US $5). Comas-Quinn, A., Mardomingo, R., & Valentine, C. (2009). Mobile blogs in language learning: Making the most of informal and situated learning opportunities. RECALL Journal, (1), 96112. Retrievable from http://journals.cambridge.org This British paper describes a mobile blog created to support constructivist, situated language learning during an intensive week of study abroad so that both the eight university L2 Spanish students who travelled to Spain and their 400 classmates who did not could share their cultural experiences and reflections. The intent was for students to send all the data captured on their mobile phones directly to the blog. This proved not to be possible. Also, student participation was very low: two images, three audio recordings and 25 comments. Cooney, G., & Keogh, K. A. (2007). Use of mobile phones for language learning and assessment for learning, a pilot project. Paper presented at the Proceedings of the 6th Annual International Conference on Mobile Learning, Melbourne, Australia. Retrievable from http://www.learnosity.com This Irish report describes a five-week field test by 60 high school students, which among other things, trialed the commercial Learnosity language learning system. Learnosity was used to facilitate school-based oral assessment of L2 Irish via mobile phones linked to an audio server that presented oral prompts from a range of topics. Learners recorded their verbal responses, which teachers later accessed for assessment and feedback. 67% of the students reported having made progress in speaking Irish as result of the pilot project. Cui, Y., & Bull, S. (2005). Context and learner modelling for the mobile foreign language learner. System, 33(2), 353367. Retrievable from http://www.sciencedirect.com This British article describes TenseITS, a prototype PDA-based intelligent tutoring system which was implemented to demonstrate the teaching of L2 English verb tenses to L1 Chinese graduate students. The system is designed to adapt its interaction with users based upon their current knowledge state as indicated by their quiz responses and user-specified contextual factors (e.g., location, concentration level, time available to study, etc.). No actual user data is given.
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de Jong, T., Specht, M., & Koper, R. (2010). A study of contextualised mobile information delivery for language learning. Educational Technology & Society, 13(3), 110125. Retrievable from http://www.ifets.info This Dutch study investigated the effect upon vocabulary learning of object-based compared to location-based information delivery and the effects of user-provided context information compared to automatic context detection. The study was conducted in a 30 minute session by 35 L2 Hindi university students using an iPhone/web-based contextsensitive multimedia phrasebook application. The results showed that learners benefitted more from location-based support, with no clear effect of user-provided versus automatic context detection. Demouy, V., Eardley, A., Kukulska-Hulme, A., & Thomas, R. (2009). The L120 mobile project. Proceedings Mobile Learning and Autonomy in Second Language Acquisition (MLASLA). Toledo, Spain. Retrievable from http://oro.open.ac.uk This British conference presentation compares the usage over a six week period of two mobile applications by 70 university L2 French students, half of whom used MP3 players for listening comprehension and half the commercial Learnosity mobile phone system for interactive speaking practice. Over 60% of the MP3 users consistently accessed the program 24 times per week compared to 2040% of the Learnosity group which consistently did not use it all. Learnosity users raised issues about sound quality, functionality, and cost. Demouy, V., Eardley, A., Shrestha, P., & Kukulska-Hulme, A. (2011). The Interactive Oral Assessment (IOA) project: Using Talkback for practice and assessment of listening and speaking skills in languages. In ICL 2011 Interactive Collaborative Learning. Pietany, Slovakia. Retrievable from http://oro.open.ac.uk This British paper evaluates the use of the commercial Learnosity Talkback interactive response system for the assessment of listening and speaking skills in university L2 French and L2 English learning. Talkback, which is accessible via phone, Skype, or an iPhone app, presents recorded prompts to which students respond orally. Recordings are accessible from the Learnosity website to both students and tutors for marking and online feedback. The trial showed that Talkback offered ease of use, a degree of realism and immediate feedback. Demouy, V., & Kukulska-Hulme, A. (2010). On the spot: Using mobile devices for listening and speaking practice on a French language programme. The Journal of Open, Distance and e-Learning, 25(3), 217232. Retrievable from http://oro.open.ac.uk This British article is the published version of Demouy et al. (2009), which focuses on the listening activities on MP3 players compared to the mobile phone-based Learnosity interactive speaking system. The response rate of MP3 users to the six weekly surveys was 48%, compared to about 10% for Learnosity users. The Learnosity users who did respond indicated a marked preference for using it at home, since interactive speaking activities are not done easily in public places, in front of others or while doing something else. Dempster, P. (2011). Exposing reflection on accommodation and assimilation in mobile language learning. Proceedings 10th World Conference on Mobile and Contextual Learning (mLearn) (pp. 358 360). Beijing, China: Beijing Normal University. Retrievable from http://mlearn.bnu.edu.cn
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This British paper describes the features of a mobile Android-based electronic dictionary application for L2 Chinese (MiniMandarinHowler) with flashcard drilling and quizzing features designed to promote reflective accommodation and assimilation of vocabulary. The prototype is intended to track user-interaction in order to automatically generate learning recommendations for learners. The system is to be evaluated in an informal environment by semi- or un-directed language learners who have differing levels of ability. Deng, L. (2006). Survey of the use of paper dictionaries and electronic dictionaries among college students. Lexicographical Studies, 1, 172181. Deng, H., & Shao, Y. (2011). Self-directed English vocabulary learning with a mobile application in everyday context. Proceedings 10th World Conference on Mobile and Contextual Learning (mLearn) (pp. 24-31). Beijing, China: Beijing Normal University. Retrievable from http://mlearn.bnu.edu.cn This study from China and Singapore investigates student attitudes towards and use of a freely available mobile-phone based e-dictionary application (Remword) for self-directed L2 English vocabulary acquisition. Following a one-month trial period, 13 Chinese university students completed a usage survey, the results of which indicated a high readiness to undertake mobile learning. It also confirmed that they were able to well automate their vocabulary learning with this software in their everyday life. Derakhshan, A., & Kaivanpanah, S. (2011). The impact of text-messaging on EFL freshmens vocabulary learning. EUROCALL, 39-47. Retrievable from http://eurocall.webs.upv.es This Iranian study describes a 7-week mobile phone-based program that used SMS for L2 English vocabulary acquisition with university students. An experimental group of 21 and a control group of 22 were both taught 1520 words per session. Students wrote one sentence for each word for their instructor and three classmates. The experimental group sent these via SMS and the control students brought them to class on paper. A post-test and a delayed post-test administered two weeks later both showed no significant difference in word retention between the two groups. Ducate, L., & Lomicka, L. (2009). Podcasting in the language classroom: Inherently mobile or not? In R. Oxford, & J. Oxford, (Eds.), Second language teaching and learning in the net generation (pp. 111126). This American study describes four podcast projects which each lasted a semester with a total of 68 university students of L2 German and L2 French as well as a teaching methods class. In two of the projects students produced their own podcasts which were linked to a blog assignment. While students expressed a high level of satisfaction with the podcast activities, virtually all of the listening was done from PCs. Few students actually subscribed to the podcasts and none accepted the offer of the free use of an MP3 player to access them. Edge, D., Searle, E., Chiu, K., Zhao, J., & Landay, J. (2011). MicroMandarin: Mobile language learning in context. Proceedings CHI 2011, May 712, 2011, Vancouver, BC, Canada. Retrievable from http://dl.acm.org This Chinese paper compares two versions of a mobile flashcard system (MicroMandarin) for the teaching of L2 Chinese vocabulary. The iPhone-based system presented vocabulary based either on the learners GPS coordinates or word frequency. Twenty-three university students trialed the system using each version of the program for 10 days. Study sessions
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with the GPS version lasted half as long but occurred in twice as many places as sessions with the frequency version, suggesting a complementary relationship between the two approaches. Facer, B., Abdous, M., & Camarena, M. (2009). The Impact of Academic Podcasting on Students: Learning Outcomes and Study Habits. In R. de Cassia Veiga Marriott & P. Lupion Torres (Eds.) Handbook of research on e-learning methodologies for language acquisition. Hershey, PA: Information Science Reference. Retrievable from http://www.igi-global.com This American study reports on the use of podcasting during a 14 week semester in two university L2 courses, a beginners Italian class of 30 students and an advanced level French class of 18 students. Although 70% of students owned an MP3 player only 40% used any of the podcasts. Notwithstanding this low usage, students reported that the podcasts helped them improve their language skills in all areas, including reading, writing, comprehension, and speaking, as well as increase their knowledge of vocabulary and grammatical rules. Fallahkhair, S., Pemberton, L., & Griffiths, R. (2005). Dual device user interface design for ubiquitous language learning: mobile phone and interactive television (iTV). Proceedings of the 2005 IEEE International Workshop on Wireless and Mobile Technologies in Education (WMTE05). Los Alamitos, CA: IEEE Computer Society. Retrievable from http://lcell.bnu.edu.cn This British article describes the design of a system for informal language learning based on a combination of mobile phone and interactive TV technologies. On the basis of a focus group study (see Fallahkhair, Pemberton and Masthoff (2004)), a prototype called TAMALLE was developed that allows learners to use their WAP-enabled mobile phones to access program summaries, vocabulary, and phrases as well as annotations explaining difficult language items and cultural references of the TV programs they are watching. Fallahkhair, S., Pemberton L., & Griffiths R. (2007). Development of a cross-platform ubiquitous language learning service via mobile phone and interactive television. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 23(4), 312325. Retrievable from http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com This British article describes the design and trialing of the TAMALLE system (see Fallahkhair, Pemberton and Griffiths (2005)). for informal language learning based on a combination of mobile phone and interactive TV technologies. The system was tested by 14 paid university volunteers under laboratory observation conditions. Despite the slowness and busyness of the interface on iTV, most said they would definitely use it. The system enables learning from engaging, authentic, materials that are of intrinsic interest to language learners. Fallahkhair, S., Pemberton, L., & Masthoff, J. (2004). A dual device scenario for informal language learning: Interactive television meets the mobile phone. Proceedings IEEE International Conference on Advanced Learning Technologies (pp. 1620). Los Alamitos, CA: IEEE Computer Society. Retrievable from http://eprints.port.ac.uk This British paper describes a focus group inquiry involving a total of 21 university volunteers that was undertaken as part of the development of a system for informal language learning based on a combination of mobile phone and interactive TV technologies. The inquiry sought to determine the requirements of L2 learners, including their use of and attitudes to ICT to support foreign language acquisition. The results suggested that the best strategy would be to add interactive enhancements to existing
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programs viewers might watch spontaneously. Feng, L. (2007). An investigation of palmtop electronic dictionary use. Bilingual Studies, 11, 5759. Fisher, T., Pemberton, R., Sharples, M., Ogata, H., Uosaki, N., Edmonds, P., Hull, A., & Tschorn, P. (2009). Mobile learning of vocabulary from reading novels: A comparison of three modes. In D. Metcalf, A. Hamilton, & C. Graffeo, (Eds.), Proceedings of 8th World Conference on Mobile and Contextual Learning (pp. 191194). Orlando, FL: University of Central Florida Retrievable from http://www.open.ac.uk This Japanese study compares the effect upon L2 English vocabulary acquisition using paper books, e-books with dictionaries, and e-books with adaptive software (ELMO) for vocabulary learning. The experiment was conducted over a period of six weeks with three groups of 13 high school students, each of which used all three resources for two weeks. Most students read only three pages or less out of some 100 pages in each book and learned, on average, only one new word over each two-week period, regardless of the technology. Fotouhi-Ghazvini, F., Earnshaw, R., & Haji-Esmaeili, L. (2009). Mobile assisted language learning in a developing country context. International Conference on CyberWorlds (pp. 391397). Retrievable from http://www.computer.org This Iranian paper describes three language learning applications which were each trialed by 56 persons. A combination of WAP and mobile phone SMS gave government employees access to an L2 English dictionary and review course. Two Java-based applications were created to run locally on mobile phones: a hangman game (Butterfly Shooter) to teach L1 Farsi vocabulary and spelling to fifth-graders and an adventure game (MOBO City) to teach L2 English technical vocabulary to engineering students (see Fotouhi-Ghazvini et al. (2008)). Fotouhi-Ghazvini, F., Earnshaw, R., Robison, D., & Excell, P. (2008). The MOBO City: A mobile game package for technical language learning. In J. Traxler, B. Riordan, & C. Dennett, (Eds.), mLearn 2008 Conference Proceedings (pp. 145151). Beijing, China: Beijing Normal University. Retrievable from http://online-journals.org This Iranian paper describes the design and trialing of a mobile phone-based adventure game (MOBO City) intended to support incidental learning of L2 English technical vocabulary relating to motherboard components. Five university computer engineering students played the game with no explicit vocabulary teaching. When later tested on 46 technical words used in the game, they scored much higher compared to five other classmates who read a related technical manual without a dictionary and another five who read with a dictionary and vocabulary list. Fotouhi-Ghazvini, F., Earnshaw, R., Robison, D., & Excell, P. (2009).The MOBO City: A mobile game package for technical language learning. International Journal of Interactive Mobile Technologies, 3(2), 1924. Retrievable from http://online-journals.org This Iranian article is identical to Fotouhi-Ghazvini et al. (2008). Fung, P., Henmessy, S., & OShea, T. (1998). Pocketbook computing: A paradigm shift? Computers in the Schools, 14 (3/4), 109118. Retrievable from http://www.tandfonline.com
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This year-long British study focuses on the attitudes of some 240 native English-speaking high school students towards the use of PDAs in the preparation of their Record of Achievement, a written portfolio of achievements. Positive student attitudes are reported concerning the usefulness of the PDAs, but only a sixth of the students completed the survey and the results are not supported by any objective data. Furuya, C., Kimura, M., & Ohta, T. (2004). Mobile language learning - A pilot project on language style and customization. In G. Richards, (Ed.), E-Learn 2004, Proceedings of World Conference on E-Learning in Corporate, Government, Healthcare, and Higher Education (pp. 18761880). Chesapeake, VA: Association for the Advancement of Computers in Education. Retrievable from http://www.editlib.org This Japanese paper describes a research project that studied the usage patterns of an SMS-based tutorial program and its effectiveness in preparing for the L2 English TOEIC exam. Nearly 300 university students voluntarily trialed the program on their own phones during two semesters extending over five months. A usage survey revealed strong preferences for studying in short bursts and studying massive volumes of contents away from home or the university. Post-TOEIC test results demonstrated a significant improvement in performance. Gabarre, S., & Gabarre, C. (2009a). Using cell phones in the language class: A preliminary look at some of the possibilities. The 6th Malaysia International Conference on Languages, Literatures, and Cultures (pp. 729740). Putrajaya, Malaysia: Department of English, University Putra Malaysia. This Malaysian paper describes two 2-week experiments that involved using mobile phones to foster communicative writing and speaking skills in the L2 French of university students. In the first, 18 participants used their phones to take pictures on campus accompanied by a written commentary. In the second, 22 students made recordings of a simulated dialogue. Student productions were sent via MMS to an online class forum. Students viewed each others work and commented on it in writing and with audio recordings in the forum. Gabarre, S., & Gabarre, C. (2009b). Delivering pull and push content with SMS, MMS and an LMS in a foreign language course. Proceeding of ICEL 2009 International Conference on E-Learning. Shah Alam, Malaysia. This Malaysian paper explores the preferences of 22 university L2 French students regarding the reception of grammar notes delivered over a 14-week period via SMS and MMS compared to the same information accessible from an e-learning platform. SMSs and above all the MMSs were extremely well received by the learners. Course material was hardly ever pulled from the website by the students. Learners never initiated a request for information using the course website and only on one occasion using the mobile devices. Gabarre, S., & Gabarre, C. (2010a). Utilising mobile phones as a language learning tool. In T. B. Hoon, Y. M. Fung, & Y. N. Thai (Eds.), Language learning: Challenges, approaches and collaboration (pp. 92118). Saarbrcken, Germany: VDM Verlag Dr. Mller GmbH & Co. KG. This Malaysian paper describes the same French L2 experiment with university students reported in Gabarre and Gabarre (2009a), in which mobile phones were used to take pictures and make accompanying textual commentaries as the basis for discussion on a web-based class forum.
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Gabarre, S., & Gabarre, C. (2010b). Shooting short videos in French with mobile phones. Flinders University Languages Group Online Review, 4(2), 93108. Retrievable from http://ehlt.flinders.edu.au This Malaysian paper describes three mobile phone-based experiments with French L2 university students, the first two of which, involving picture taking and audio recording, were previously reported in Gabarre and Gabarre (2009a). In the third, 22 university students working in groups of three spent four weeks using their phones to create a 90 second video clip which they posted on a class forum. Students responded to these postings either with another video, a one minute audio recording or three 50-word written comments. Gabarre, S., & Gabarre, C. (2010c). Using the learners mobile phones to enrich exchanges in a French language course. Proceedings of ICEL 2010, the International Conference on E-Learning (pp. 118125). Penang, Malaysia: ACI. Retrievable from http://books.google.com.cy This Malaysian paper describes a year-long set of activities undertaken by 22 university L2 French students who worked in small groups using their mobile phones to create short audio and video role plays as well as 5-minute video clip presentation. These were uploaded to a class forum and served as the basis for student comments that were similarly recorded on mobile phones and uploaded to the forum. Students out-of-class performances were better and less stressful to do, but students found in-class work easier and more pleasant. Gabarre, C., & Gabarre, S. (2010d). An innovative assessment method for real world learning: Learner created content with a cell phone, YouTube and an LMS. Proceedings of Global Learn Asia-Pacific 2010 - Global Conference on Learning and Technology, Penang, Malaysia (pp. 12021210). AACE. Retrievable from http://www.editlib.org This Malaysian paper describes a 4-week mobile phone-based video recording project in a university course for L2 French tourism and hospitality. Using their phones, 22 students worked together in groups of 34 to create a 510 minute narrated video promoting a Malaysian tourist attraction. Videos were posted on YouTube with a link to the universitys learning management system. The videos submitted were of excellent quality with accurate content and both language performance and intercultural skills showed substantial gains. Garca Cabrero, J. (2002). Third generation telephony: New technological support for computer assisted language learning. International Journal of English Studies, 2(1), 167178. Retrievable from http://dialnet.unirioja.es This Spanish article is the first MALL publication to describe the emergence of the smartphone (i.e., a PDA with telephone connectivity) and its possible application to the teaching of L2 Business Spanish. A prototype lesson, based on a unit from the web-based Tele-EnREDando multimedia tutorial program, was pilot-tested with students, who were positive about the experience. Results are claimed to be equivalent to those attained with the PC/web version of the program, but no details are given. Ghorbandordinejad, F., Aghasafi, A., Farjadnasab, A., & Hardani, A. (2010). Mobile handheld recording devices in the general English classroom. The First Symposium of Educational Technology, CITY, Oman. Retrievable from http://www.google.com.cy
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This Iranian paper investigated the effectiveness of using mobile voice recording devices compared to class notes on the learning of grammar in a university L2 General English class. A pilot study was undertaken with 15 students using voice recorders, MP3 players or their mobile phones to record the class discussion and 15 taking notes with paper and pencil. Based on a test taken a week after the class, students who prepared with the support of the recorded lesson significantly outperformed those who only had access to their class notes. Gilgen, R. (2005). Holding the world in your hand: Creating a mobile language learning environment. EDUCAUSE. Retrievable from http://net.educause.edu This American grant report describes a project that explored the use of different mobile devices (PDAs, laptops, early tablet PCs) as classroom alternatives to the traditional computer lab. These were trialed in various undocumented ways with university students in 26 L2 classes, the results of which were evaluated in two student attitude surveys. Despite the technological constraints of the time, overall students expressed high levels of satisfaction with in-class activities undertaken on mobile devices. Gjedde, L., & Bo-Kristensen, M. (2012).Workplace mobile-assisted second language learning: Designing for learner generated authenticity. In J. Daz-Vera (Ed.), Left to my own devices: Learner autonomy and mobile-assisted language learning innovation and leadership in English language teaching (pp. 183 195). Bingley, UK: Emerald Group Publishing Limited. Retrievable from http://dx.doi.org This Danish study reports on a lifelong learning project in which adult learners of L2 Danish complement classroom instruction with their out-of-class documentation of workplace language and situations using mobile phones to make textual notes, capture still photos and videos, and record their voices and those of native speakers in interviews. These cultural and linguistic artefacts are stored on a server, accessible via mobile phone or PC, and shared with class members. According to teachers, students show greater motivation and engagement. Gromik, N. (2009). Producing cell phone video diaries. In M. Thomas (Ed.), Handbook of research on Web 2.0 and language learning. Hershey, PA: Information Science Reference. Retreivable from http://www.igi-global.com This Japanese paper explores the feasibility of using mobile phones to produce video diaries in a university L2 English course. Seven students recorded weekly 15-30 videos as an independent learning project. The findings revealed that while the majority of the students found merit in this project, some had reservations. Gromik, N. (2012). Cell phone video recording feature as a language learning tool: A case study. Computers & Education, 58(1), 223230. Retrievable from http://ac.els-cdn.com This Japanese paper presents the results of a 14-week project that exploited the video creation facility of mobile phones to improve L2 English speaking skills. Nine university students used their phones on a weekly basis to produce 30-second narrated videos. Compared to a pre-project control video, students on average demonstrated a 46% increase in word production and a 37% increase in words uttered per second. All students agreed that producing weekly cell phone videos in English improved their speaking ability. Guerrero, L., Ochoa, S., & Collazos, C. (2010). A mobile learning tool for improving grammar skills. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences 2, 17351739. Retrievable from http://users.dcc.uchile
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This Chilean paper describes a pilot test with 32 primary school pupils involving the use of a PDA/Web-based software application designed to teach L1 Spanish grammar and correct student assignments automatically. The task of the students was to morphologically classify a word inventory, which they did first individually, then collaboratively in groups of four. Nearly all students found the system easy to use. Over 73% thought the activity improved their Spanish language knowledge and 80% thought they contributed to group knowledge. Gutirrez-Colon Plana, M., Gallardo Torrano, P., & Grova, M. (2012). SMS as a learning tool: an experimental study. The Eurocall Review, 20(2), 3347. Retrievable from http://www.eurocalllanguages.org/review/20_2/index.html This SMS phone-based Spanish project sought to improve the L2 English vocabulary of 13 L2 English university students. Over a period of two semesters, students were sent via SMS three exercises per week based on class content, to which they were expected to respond immediately without consulting any outside resources. An attitude survey administered after the first semester revealed that most of the students found the experience interesting and appealing. Students who took part in the project outscored a control group on a pre-/post-test comparison after the second semester. Hasegawa, K., Amemiya, S., Ishikawa, M., Kaneko, K., Miyakoda, H., & Tsukahara, W. (2007). Promoting autonomous learning: A multilinguistic word learning system based on iPod. Proceedings of the 2007 International conference on ESL/ EFL (pp. 7083). n.p. Hasegawa, K., Amemiya, S., Kaneko, K., Miyakoda, H., & Tsukahara, W. (2007). MultiPod: A multilinguistic word learning system based on iPods. Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Task-Based Language Teaching. Retrievable from http://scholar.google.com This Japanese paper appears to be an early version of the description and evaluation of the prototype Multipod vocabulary learning system presented Amemiya et al. (2007). It is less detailed, but specifies that the system was tested with L2 English, which isnt mentioned in the Amemiya et al. (2007) article. Hegelheimer, V., & OBryan, A. (2009). Mobile technologies and language education. In M. Thomas (Ed.), Handbook of research on Web 2.0 and second language learning (pp. 331349). Hershey, PA: Information Science Reference. This American study gives an overview of the use of podcasting for language learning relative to three types of exploitation: self-study, test-preparation, classroom integration. As well, a program that was trialed by 14 L2 English university students over a period of 15 weeks is evaluated. Almost all students chose to listen to the podcasts on the computer rather than on an MP3 player. The authors conclude that podcasting holds promise but that more research is needed to determine its effects of upon second language acquisition. Hou, B., Ogata, H., Miyata, M., Li, M., & Liu, Y. (2010). JAMIOLAS 3.0: Supporting Japanese mimicry and onomatopoeia learning using sensor data. International Journal of Mobile and Blended Learning, 2(1), 4054. Retrievable from http://www.igi-global.com This Japanese paper is the published version of Hou et al. (2009). It describes the most recent version of the JAMIOLAS system for the learning of Japanese mimetic words and onomatopoetic expressions. JAMIOLAS3 provides media files, dictionary look-up and
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weather information with quizzes based on location. Six L2 Japanese university students using for 20 minutes each a paper dictionary compared to JAMIOLAS3 learned more vocabulary with JAMIOLAS3. Student attitudes towards the system were also positive. Hou, B., Ogata, H., Miyata, M., & Yano, Y. (2009). JAMIOLAS 3.0: Supporting Japanese mimicry and onomatopoeia learning using sensor data. In S-C. Kong et al. (Eds.), Proceedings of the 17th International Conference on Computers in Education (pp. 593597). Hong Kong: Asia-Pacific Society for Computers in Education. Retrievable from http://icce2009.ied.edu.hk This Japanese article describes a further iteration of the JAMIOLAS system for the learning of Japanese mimetic words and onomatopoetic expressions (see Ogata, Yin and Yano (2006); Ogata et al. (2007); Miyata (ELMO). (2008a); Miyata et al. (2008b)). JAMIOLAS3 provides media files, dictionary look-up and weather information with quizzes based on location. Six L2 Japanese university students using for 20 minutes each a paper dictionary compared to JAMIOLAS3 learned more vocabulary with JAMIOLAS3. Student attitudes towards the system were also positive. Houser, C., Thornton, P., Yokoi, S., & Yasuda, T. (2001). Learning on the move: Vocabulary study via mobile phone email. ICCE 2001 Proceedings (pp. 15601565). This is one of a series of conference papers written with P. Thornton and others describing the teaching of English L2 vocabulary in Japan via mobile phones. A half-dozen target words per week were sent for four weeks via SMS of about 100 words (definitions, multiple usage in context, story extracts) to 44 female university students at pre-set intervals three times a day for rote memorization. Compared to students studying the same words via PC and on paper, lessons delivered via SMS resulted in significantly greater learning. Hoven, D., & Palalas, A. (2011). (Re)conceptualizing design approaches for mobile language learning. CALICO Journal, 28(3), 699720. Retrievable from https://www.calico.org This Canadian study reports on the mobile-assisted component of an English for Specific Purposes course that focused on listening and speaking skills. The program exploited webenabled MP4 players to deliver 2-8 minute workplace audio/video podcasts and to access an online class blog. It was trialed for 15 weeks by 12 L2 English college students, who appreciated the mobile resources and particularly the non-reciprocal audio podcasts, which may have been indicative of a general lack of preparedness for autonomous learning. Hsieh, H-C., Chen, C-M., & Hong, C-M. (2007). Context-aware ubiquitous English learning in a campus environment. 7th International Conference on Advanced Learning Technologies (ICALT 2007), Niigata, Japan. Retrievable from http://www.computer.org This Taiwanese article describes the design of a prototype location-aware system to support the situated learning of L2 English in a campus environment. The system operates via a PDA over an indoor WLAN. The client side includes a location detecting agent, the test agent and user portfolio database. The server side includes the courseware broker agent, user account database and English conversation and test database. The system is designed to recommend appropriate English course materials to individual learners based on their campus location.
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Hsieh, W-J., Chiu, P-S., Chen, T-S., & Huang, Y-M. (2010). The effect of situated mobile learning in Chinese rhetoric ability of elementary school students. The 6th IEEE International conference of Wireless, Mobile, and Ubiquitous Technologies in Education (pp. 177181). Los Alamitos, CA: IEEE Computer Society. Retrievable from http://ieeexplore.ieee.org This Taiwanese paper investigated the effectiveness of a situated mobile learning writing program in improving the rhetoric ability of L1 Chinese learners. The study involved 70 primary school children. The research method was a pre-test and quasi-experimental design post-test. Although the mean gain scores of the experimental group were higher than a comparison group, the difference in abilities for hyperbole, description, repetition, personification, and simile between the two groups was not statistically significant. Hsu, C-K., He, Y-Y., & Chang, C-K. (2009). Evaluation of a MALL system integrating instant translation and shared annotation for ESL reading on PDA. In I. Gibson et al. (Eds.), Proceedings of Society for Information Technology & Teacher Education International Conference 2009 (pp. 898904). Chesapeake, VA: AACE. Retrievable from http://editlib.org This Taiwanese paper describes a PDA/web-based L2 English reading program for university students. It provides instant translation via a link to an online dictionary (Yahoo), from which users build individual word glossaries that are shared with a paired student to support extensive collaborative reading. The system was pilot tested with 42 students, who first worked only individually, then with a paired collaborator. The reading comprehension results of the collaborative pairs were superior to those who read only individually. Hsu, H-Y., Wang, S-K., & Comac, L. (2008). Using audioblogs to assist English-language learning: an investigation into student perception. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 21(2), 181198. Retrievable from http://www.tandfonline.com This American study describes the pilot testing of a system that linked mobile phones to the online Evoca voice recording application to create web-based audioblogs for the submission and archiving of oral assignments. The instructor also used the audioblogs to interact with learners, evaluate their performance, and provide feedback. The system was trialed for a semester by 22 L2 English university students. While 82% agreed that the mobile-accessible audioblog was a good language learning tool, only about half actually made any audioblogs. Huang, C., & Sun, P. (2010). Using mobile technologies to support mobile multimedia English listening exercises in daily life. The International Conference on Computer and Network Technologies in Education. n.pag, n.p. This Taiwanese paper describes the design of a mobile web-based multimedia system (MMELE) intended to provide L2 English listening practice for independent adult learners. MMELE provides learners with on-line English listening exercises and off-line practice using downloaded video or MP3 materials. It also provides a Q&A message board so that teachers and learners can ask questions related to learning and solve other problems to promote cooperative learning. Huang, L-L., & Lin, C-C. (2011). EFL learners reading on mobile phones. The JALT CALL Journal, 7(1), 6178. Retrievable from http://www.jaltcall.org
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This Taiwanese study explores learners preferences for reading L2 English on mobile phones compared to paper or e-mail. Ten twelfth-grade high school students were given two sets of texts, one longer (786898 words), one shorter (5460 words). Based on questionnaire responses, the paper format was generally more preferred for both sets. For the shorter set, the mobile phone was more preferred than e-mail. For the longer set, mobile phone was the least preferred mainly because of the small screen and font. Hung, H-C., & Young, S. (2007). Constructing the game-based learning environment on handheld devices to facilitate English vocabulary building. Paper presented at the Seventh IEEE International Conference on Advanced Learning Technologies. Los Alamitos, CA: IEEE Computer Society. Retrievable from http://ieeexplore.ieee.org This Taiwanese paper reports on the rationale of designing a PDA-based L2 English vocabulary acquisition game entitled Wireless Crossword Fan-Tan Game (WiCFG). The game aims to help elementary school students learn English words through collaborative and competitive group learning activities. Moreover, the authors anticipate that it can facilitate students' learning motivation in an interactive learning environment. Hung, H-C., Young, S, & Lin, C-P. (2009). Constructing the face-to-face collaborative game-based interacted environment for portable devices in English vocabulary acquisition. In A. Dimitracopoulou (Eds.). Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Computer Supported Collaborative Learning (pp. 370-375). Rhodes, Greece: University of the Aegean. This Taiwanese study explored the effectiveness of a tablet PC-based Wireless Crossword Fan-Tan Game (WiCFG) on L2 English vocabulary acquisition compared to using a pen & paper version of the same game. One class of 32 primary school pupils participated in this single session study, with half using the WiCFG and half pen and paper. There were no significant differences between the two groups, but learning outcome, motivation, and attitude improved for all learners, especially for lower-achievement learners. Hwang, W-Y., Chen, C-Y., & Chen, H. (2011). Facilitating EFL writing of elementary school students in familiar situated contexts with mobile devices. Proceedings 10th World Conference on Mobile and Contextual Learning (mLearn) (pp. 1523). Beijing, China: Beijing Normal University. Retrievable from http://mlearn.bnu.edu.cn This Taiwanese paper describes the use of a mobile device-based situated learning system that included vocabulary, phrases, and sentence patterns designed to help elementary school children create written L2 English sentences. The six-week study compared the results of 28 pupils who used the system with 31 who did not. There was a significant difference in learning achievement between two groups. Students in the experimental group thought the activities were playful and expressed an interest in situated learning. Hwang, W-Y., & Chen, H. (2013). Users familiar situational contexts facilitate the practice of EFL in elementary schools with mobile devices. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 26(2), 101125. Retrievable from http://www.tandfonline.com This Taiwanese article describes the learning of L2 English in a situated learning environment by primary school children using a PDA-based multimedia program to listen to lessons and record their reading of basic words and completion of simple sentences having to do with their lunch menu. A group of 30 pupils trialed the system during their lunch hour, four days per week, for two months. This group made significantly higher gains in their English vocabulary acquisition as well as listening and speaking skills
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compared to a control group who studied without PDA support. In-Seok Kim, A. (2003). The development of the PDA-based multimedia contents for teaching an English syntax course. Multimedia-Assisted Language Learning, 6(2), 934. Retrievable from http://www.dbpia.co.kr This Korean paper describes the course syllabus and the processes involved in converting a face-to-face university level L2 English syntax course to a PDA-assisted course, designing the PDA program, creating multimedia contents and their integration, and combining face-to-face teaching with students' self-study via a PDA program. Special attention is paid to research on teaching grammatical principles, integrating them to the instructional design for the PDA course, and reporting students' reactions to studying with the PDA device. Ishikawa, M., Hasegawa, K., Amemiya, S., Kaneko, K., Miyakoda, H., & Tsukahara, W. (2007). Automatic Creation of Vocabulary Learning Materials from Short Movies. In T. Bastiaens & S. Carliner (Eds.), Proceedings of World Conference on E-Learning in Corporate, Government, Healthcare, and Higher Education 2007 (pp. 60446051). Chesapeake, VA: AACE. This Japanese paper assesses the effectiveness HodgePodge, a PC application designed to automatically create the short annotated vodcasts used by the Multipod vocabulary learning system described in Amemiya et al. (2007) and Hasegawa et al. (2007). Based on two L2 English tests taken by 10 university students with a delay of two weeks and two months, word retention with vodcasts produced with HodgePodge was equivalent to those manually produced by instructors. Learner-produced vodcasts resulted in even higher retention rates. Ishikawa, M., Kaneko, K., Haruko M., & Norihide S. (2009). Automatic creation of materials for vocabulary learning based on pictures by mobile phones of learners. Proceedings of the ITI 2009 31st International Conference on Information Technology Interfaces (pp. 391396). Retrievable from http://hnk.ffzg.hr This Japanese paper describes an L2 vocabulary learning environment (SIGMA), which allows learners to automatically generate their own five-second audio-video flashcards from still images or videos that are captured on mobile phones and sent via e-mail to a website along with the L1 meaning equivalent and L2 spelling. A prototype version of SIGMA was trialed by 11 university students who indicated that they did not consider the system very easy to use, though they felt that they could learn from it. Jolliet, Y. (2007). M-Learning: A pedagogical and technological model for language learning on mobile phones. In J. Fong & F-L. Wang (Eds.), Blended learning (pp. 327339). This Swiss article describes the design of a collaborative model for teaching beginnerlevel L2 via mobile phones based on an inventory of 50 basic vocabulary modules (20 words) and related short dialogues organized around daily-life themes (i.e., food, transportation, etc.). Learners use a phone link to practice and record pronunciation of the vocabulary and dialogues, which are distributed via email or a website, and role-play the scenarios with other learners via SMS or voice communication.
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Joseph, S., Binsted, K., & Suthers, D. (2005). PhotoStudy: Vocabulary learning and collaboration on fixed & mobile devices. In Proceeding of 3rd IEEE International Workshop on Wireless and Mobile Technologies in Education. Los Alamitos, CA: IEEE Computer Society. Retrievable from http://lilt.ics.hawaii.edu This American study describes PhotoStudy, a prototype annotation system for images that operates on both PCs and mobile phones. The system supports the collaborative acquisition of vocabulary by using student produced images uploaded from mobile phone cameras to produce online multiple-choice quizzes of image-word pairs. PhotoStudy was trialed by 10 L2 English university students, using a database of existing images and multiple-choice image-word pairs. Based on student reactions, modifications were planned for future beta testing. Joseph, S., & Uther, M. (2008). Mobile language learning with multimedia and multi-modal interfaces. Proceedings 4th International Workshop on Wireless, Mobile and Ubiquitous Technology in Education (pp. 124128). Retrievable from http://ieeexplore.ieee.org This Anglo-American paper describes experiences that derive from two earlier mobile phone-based L2 English case studies: the audio discrimination of /l/ versus /r/ with the Mobile Adaptive CALL program (Uther et al. (2005a); Uther et al. (2005b)) and the image-based PhotoStudy (Joseph, Binsted and Suthers (2005)) vocabulary learning application. The authors also provide an overview of the current support for audio and visual interaction as well as developments in the mobile augmented and virtual reality spheres and other possible modalities. Jurez, M., Gonzlez, F., & Farmer, F. (2007). Diseo de una Aplicacin de Mlearning para el Aprendizaje del Ingls para propsitos Especficos [Design of an Mlearning app for the learning of English for specific purposes]. 41 Simposio Iberoamericano de Educacin, Ciberntica e Informtica (SIECI 2007), Orlando, FL. Kadyte, V. (2004). Learning can happen anywhere: A mobile system for language learning. In J. Attewell & C. Savill-Smith (Eds.), Learning with mobile devices (pp. 7378). London, UK: Learning and Skills Development Agency. This Finnish article considers features of context-aware mobile technologies in the design of a multimedia prototype for the independent learning of L2 Finnish by adults in Finland. The system is intended to adjust to personal parameters, the community environment and cultural factors. Only general ideas are presented, no actual system is implemented or trialed. Kargozari, H., & Tafazoli, D. (2012 ) Idiom on the move: Mobile an ubiquitous technology for learning idioms. Proceedings 6th International Technology, Education and Development Conference (pp. 3866 3869). Spain: International Association of Technology, Education and Development. Retrievable from http://www.iated.org Kennedy, C., & Levy, M. (2008). Litaliano al telefonino: Using SMS to support beginners language learning. ReCALL Journal, 20(3), 315330. Retrievable from http://journals.cambridge.org This Australian article is a follow-up of Levy and Kennedy (2005), this time using mobile phone SMS primarily to teach vocabulary and grammar to beginning level L2 Italian university students for seven weeks. In addition, the study sought to investigate the acceptability of pushing SMS to students at a time and frequency determined by the
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researchers. A survey of 58 students revealed general satisfaction with the experiment, though many respondents found even one SMS per day excessive. Kessler, G. (2010): Fluency and anxiety in self-access speaking tasks: the influence of environment. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 23(4), 361375. Retrievable from http://www.tandfonline.com This American study investigated the effect of using MP3 players compared to audio lab PCs upon speaking quality. 40 students in an L2 English course recorded weekly twominute audio journals over a period of ten weeks. All students had to make at least one recording in each environment. 38 opted to do 8 of 10 recordings with the mobile device. Speaking fluency was rated in relation to volume, pausing, utterance length, and rate. In all cases, recordings made using the MP3 player were ranked more positively than those made using the audio lab. Kiernan, P., & Aizawa, K. (2004). Cell phones in task based learning: Are cell phones useful language learning tools? ReCALL Journal, 16(1), 7184. Retrievable from http://journals.cambridge.org This Japanese paper reports on a research project aimed at evaluating the use of mobile phones as tools for classroom-based vocabulary learning. A total of about 120 English L2 university students undertook picture narrative and invitation tasks involving the use of colloquial expressions over a three-week period using PC e-mail, mobile phone e-mail, and audio recordings. Post-tests did not reveal any significant differences in vocabulary acquisition between the three groups. Kim, E-Y., Park, S-M., & Baek, S-H. (2011). Twitter and implications for its use in EFL learning. Multimedia-Assisted Language Learning, 14(2), 113137. Retrievable from http://www.dbpia.co.kr This Korean study explores the use of Twitter microblogging in L2 English classes for three different grade levels: 5, 7, 11. The tweets that were collected over three weeks from 15 pupils in each group revealed that each grade level tweeted with different purposes, and their tweets showed different patterns and distinctive features. It was concluded that Twitter stimulated learners to increase their L2 English output and helped them maintain social interaction with other learners using the target language regardless of grade levels. Kim, H-S. (2010). Three teachers initial efforts to use Twitter for teaching English in public schools. Multimedia-Assisted Language Learning, 13(2), 129154. Retrievable from http://www.dbpia.co.kr This Korean article describes how three L2 English teachers in an elementary, middle, and high school used Twitter microblogging for three weeks with their students. This qualitative case study yielded findings with regard to the teachers interaction patterns with students, which were noticeably different when using Twitter. The three teachers agreed that Twitter enables good writing practice for students of any age and provides a valuable opportunity for them to spontaneously use English for authentic purposes. Kim, H-S. (2011). Effects of SMS Text Messaging on Vocabulary Learning. Multimedia-Assisted Language Learning, 14(2), 159180. Retrievable from http://www.dbpia.co.kr This Korean paper investigates the effectiveness of using SMS in L2 English vocabulary learning. The study involved a total of 62 university students in three English classes. One class was a control group that received only class instruction; the second class received SMS with no interactivity; and the third received SMS with interactivity. Students who learned vocabulary with SMS outperformed the control group, and those who received
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SMS with interactivity learned significantly more words than those without it. Kim, S-K., & Lim, K. (2010). A case study on the effects of microblogging as a learning activity to enhance ESL students cultural knowledge and motivation to write in English. Multimedia-Assisted Language Learning, 13(3), 155174. (in Korean) Retrievable from http://www.dbpia.co.kr This Korean paper explores how Twitter can be utilized to increase the motivation of L2 English students to write in English. The study involved nine college students in New York who generated 326 tweets over a five-week period. Students focused more on content than on grammar in their tweets. The informal nature of posting and the social network of twittering were perceived as positive aspects that increased students motivation to write in English. The character limit and the response delay were seen as negative factors in writing activities. Knutsson, O., Nissil, N., & Rsnen, M., & Carlsson, N. (2011). Participatory design of a mobile application for teenagers language homework. Proceedings 10th World Conference on Mobile and Contextual Learning (mLearn) (pp. 121129). Beijing, China: Beijing Normal University. Retrievable from http://mlearn.bnu.edu.cn This Finnish paper describes the design of a mobile phone-based application (Mobile Study Assistant) that provided Finnish high school students with homework assistance in L2 Swedish. The application, which targeted listening and reading skills using a news reader, dictionary, tutorial, music and movies, was developed in collaboration with 36 students. It was evaluated once by 59 students and a second time by 15 via pre- and postquestionnaires that focused on the attitudes and opinions of those using it for their homework. Kobayashi, C. (2006). The Use of Pocket Electronic Dictionaries as Compared with Printed Dictionaries by Japanese Learners of English. Doctoral dissertation, Ohio State University. Retrievable from http://etd.ohiolink.edu This American PhD thesis compares the use of handheld English-Japanese e-dictionaries (ED) to that of printed dictionaries (PD) based on two studies of Japanese university students. In the first, 279 L2 English students completed a written questionnaire about their lexical processing strategies (LPS). In the second, 22 of the original respondents took a one-week delayed reading test to assess word retention. While ED users looked up words more often, there was no significant difference in LPS or word retention compared to PD usage. Kobayashi, C. (2007). Comparing electronic and printed dictionaries: Their effects on lexical processing strategy use, word retention, and reading comprehension. In K. Bradford Watts (Ed.), JALT 2006 Conference Proceedings (pp. 657671). Tokyo, Japan. Retrievable from http://jalt-publications.org Like the PhD dissertation (see Kobayashi (2006)) from which it is derived, this Japanese study investigates the effects of handheld e-dictionary (ED) compared to printed dictionary (PD) usage among 22 Japanese university students while reading L2 English texts in 6090 minute sessions over a period of seven weeks. While ED users consulted their dictionaries more frequently, there were no significant differences compared to PD users in lexical processing strategies, the success rates of determining word meanings or reading comprehension.
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Kobayashi, C. (2008). The use of pocket electronic and printed dictionaries: A mixed-method study. In K. Bradford Watts, T. Muller, & M. Swanson (Eds.), JALT 2007 Conference Proceedings (pp. 769783). Tokyo, Japan: JALT. Retrievable from http://jalt-publications.org This Japanese study repeats the findings of Kobayashi (2006) and Kobayashi (2007) concerning the use of handheld e-dictionaries (ED) compared to printed dictionaries (PD) among Japanese university students. Written student questionnaires, administered to a group of 97 students in addition to the original 279, confirmed previous findings. Followup interviews and the testing of vocabulary retention led to the conclusion that the superior search speed of ED facilitates textual comprehension, but that it does not increase vocabulary learning. Koyama, T. (2010). Teaching strategies for an effective use of E-dictionary: A pilot study. Studies in English Language and Literature 37, 3544. This Japanese paper presents the results of an experiment of eight weeks duration conducted with 14 L2 English university students which sought to demine the effectiveness of teaching explicit strategies to improve the effectiveness of word look-ups using handheld electronic dictionaries. The strategies were those observed by good language learners described in Koyama and Takeuchi (2009). Although comprehension scores were higher on a post-test, participants looked up fewer words and used fewer strategies than before their training. Koyama, T., & Takeuchi, O. (2003). Printed dictionaries vs. electronic dictionaries: A pilot study on how Japanese EFL learners differ in using dictionaries. Language Education and Technology, 40, 6179. Retrievable from http://ci.nii.ac.jp This Japanese paper is the first of several studies by Koyama and Takeuchi investigating the use of handheld English/Japanese e-dictionaries (ED) by L2 English learners. It investigates the differences in the searching behavior and English word retention of a group of 16 high school and 26 university students when using EDs compared to their printed counterparts during a 20 minute session. No significant differences were found with regard to the number of words looked up, the time taken, nor word retention after a seven-day delay. Koyama, T., & Takeuchi, O. (2004a). How look-up frequency affects EFL learning?: An empirical study on the use of handheld-electronic dictionaries. Proceedings of the CLaSIC 2004 Conference (pp. 1018 1024). Singapore, Singapore: Centre for Language Studies (CLS) of the National University of Singapore. Retrievable from http://kuir.jm.kansai-u.ac.jp This Japanese study describes a half-hour university class experiment which was designed to measure L2 English word look-up frequency, reading time and comprehension based on a short English text (~400 words). One group of 37 students used an English/Japanese handheld e-dictionaries and another group of 35 used their printed counterparts. Users of the electronic dictionaries looked up more words and read their text more quickly, but there was no significant difference in reading comprehension between the two groups. Koyama, T., & Takeuchi, O. (2004b). Comparing electronic and printed dictionaries: How the difference affected EFL learning. JACET Bulletin, 38, 3346. Retrievable from http://ci.nii.ac.jp This Japanese study examines the L2 English dictionary look-up times and word retention of 18 university students in an experiment involving the reading of two short English texts
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(~475 words) using an English/Japanese handheld e-dictionary compared to its printed counterpart. No significant differences were found between search times; however, use of the printed dictionary resulted in significantly better word retention in a recognition and recall test administered seven days later. Koyama, T., & Takeuchi, O. (2005a). How has the difference affected the retention? Two empirical studies on electronic dictionaries. Proceedings of FLEAT-V Conference, 2005 (pp. 16). Retrievable from http://fleat5.byu.edu This Japanese study describes two experiments that evaluate L2 English word retention of university students using an English/Japanese handheld e-dictionary compared to its printed counterpart. The first (see Koyama and Takeuchi ( 2004b)) showed better retention after a week using the printed dictionary. The second experiment measured retention immediately after reading a text. Students (n = 17) using an e-dictionary looked up twice as many words in half the time, but did not retain any more vocabulary than the printed dictionary group (n = 16). Koyama, T., & Takeuchi, O. (2005b). Does an assigned task result in better retention of words?: Two empirical studies on hand-held electronic dictionaries. Language Education & Technology, 42, 119132. Retrievable from http://ci.nii.ac.jp This Japanese article reports on two handheld electronic dictionary (ED) investigations of the effect of task assignment upon L2 English word retention. The first study involved 34 junior college students and the second 61 university students. Both experiments lasted for one session in which participants used an ED to look up English words while reading a text, with part of each group assigned the task of also extracting example sentences. There was no significant difference between the rate of recall or rate of recognition between the groups. Koyama, T., & Takeuchi, O. (2007). Does look-up frequency help reading comprehension of EFL learners? Two empirical studies of electronic dictionaries. CALICO Journal, 25(1), 110125. Retrievable from https://calico.org This Japanese study describes two experiments that evaluate English L2 text comprehension of university students using an English/Japanese handheld e-dictionary compared to its printed counterpart in relation to word look-up frequency and time on task. In both experiments, involving two different groups of about 30 students, the results were the same. Students using e-dictionaries looked up substantially more words in much less time, but did not do any better on the text comprehension quiz than users of the printed dictionaries. Koyama, T., & Takeuchi, O. (2009). How effectively do good language learners use handheld electronic dictionaries: A qualitative approach. Language Education & Technology, 46, 131150. Retrievable from http://ci.nii.ac.jp This Japanese paper compares the L2 English word look-up behavior of five good language learners (EFL/SLA post-graduate students) using handheld electronic dictionaries (ED) with that of five false-beginner level college students. Look-up strategies were investigated using a single session individually conducted think-aloud protocol. The results revealed that the advanced level students were good ED users and that the EDs functions had provided not only good language learners but also false beginners with scaffolding for L2 English learning.
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Koyama, T., & Yabukoshi, T. (2011). A study on E-dictionary strategy training by implementing metacognitive tasks. Language Education & Technology, Kansai chapter Collected Papers, 13, 7991. (In Japanese) This Japanese paper follows up on the Koyama (2010) study that unsuccessfully attempted to teach look-up strategies when using handheld English-Japanese electronic dictionaries (ED) to read English texts. In this experiment, particular attention was paid to teaching eight L2 English university students to internalize the strategies taught and to consciously apply them when using the ED. Kukulska-Hulme, A., & Bull, S. (2008).Theoretical perspectives on mobile language learning diaries and noticing for learners, teachers and researchers. In J. Traxler, B. Riordan, & Dennett, C. (Eds.), mLearn 2008 Conference Proceedings (pp. 184191). Beijing, China: Beijing Normal University. Retrievable from http://oro.open.ac.uk This British paper discusses the potential of using mobile devices in accordance with the Noticing Hypothesis to create language learning diaries based on the electronic capture of examples of language (e.g., using text or voice input), along with observations about how the language is used. The authors offer guidelines to focus on identifying language elements that learners could be encouraged to notice, enabling them to reflect individually and collectively on language usage, and being open to the inclusion of learners own goals. Kukulska-Hulme, A., & Bull, S. (2009). Theory-based support for mobile language learning: Noticing and recording. International Journal of Interactive Mobile Technologies, 3(2), 1218. Retrievable from http://oro.open.ac.uk This British article is the same as Kukulska-Hulme and Bull (2008). Lan, Y-J., Sung, Y-T., & Chang, K-E. (2007). A mobile-device-supported peer-assisted learning system for collaborative early EFL reading. Language Learning & Technology, 11(3), 130151. Retrievable from http://llt.msu.edu/vol11num3/pdf/lansungchang.pdf This Taiwanese article reports on two studies, each involving 52 third-grade primary school children for ten weeks, that focus on the collaborative acquisition of L2 English reading skills. The first assessed the weaknesses of collaborative learning in the classroom. The second describes the evaluation of a tablet-PC based peer-assisted learning system (MPAL) that was developed to address the identified collaborative weaknesses. MPAL was found to promote motivation to learn and enhance oral reading confidence in elementary L2 English learners. Levy, M., & Kennedy, C. (2005). Learning Italian via mobile SMS. In A. Kukulska-Hulme & J. Traxler (Eds.), Mobile Learning: A Handbook for Educators and Trainer (pp. 7683). London, UK: Taylor and Francis. This Australian paper describes the experimental use of mobile phone SMS primarily to promote vocabulary acquisition in a high-intermediate university level L2 Italian class. For seven weeks, at various times and daily frequencies, 18 students were sent word definitions and example context sentences extracted from an assigned class novel. They also received messages on grammar, news, literature and course administration. A user survey revealed the messages encouraged students to look-up vocabulary and grammar points afterwards.
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Leung, R., Lumsden, J., & Fritz, J. (2006). Accommodating special needs users in the evaluation of an mlearning application: A case study. Proceedings of the IADIS Mobile Learning Conference (pp. 177184). Dublin, Ireland. Retrievable from http://www.rockleung.com This Canadian paper is a follow-up to Leung, Lumsden, and Fritz (2005) and describes the preliminary evaluation of a prototype system (ALEX) for low level adult L1 English literacy. Though ultimately intended for use on a handheld device, a proof of concept application was simulated on a touch screen tablet computer and trialed by six adult literacy students in a 90 minute session which involved completing three letter writing tasks: formatting, correcting and revising. Text entry using an on-screen virtual keyboard proved particularly problematic. Lewin, C., Scrimshaw, P., Mercer, N., & Wegerif, R. (2000). The KS1 Literacy Evaluation Project using low cost computers. Open University Centre for Language and Communication. Coventry: Bect This British report evaluates a native English-speaker literacy project that used the Dreamwriter (a special purpose portable electronic word processor) to improve the literacy skills of very young inner city primary school children. Gains in reading comprehension and writing skills (spelling, grammar, punctuation, editing, and re-drafting) are reported, but for only some of the schools involved. Li, C. (2009). SMS-based Vocabulary Learning for ESL Students. MA thesis, Auckland University of Technology, New Zealand. Retrievable from http://aut.researchgateway.ac.nz This MA thesis from New Zealand describes two studies involving the use of mobile phone SMS as a communication tool between the researcher and L2 English university students. The focus of communication was on vocabulary acquisition, through questions and replies about unknown words. In the first study questions were initiated by the researcher for seven weeks, in the second by the students for six weeks. Although not all students liked using SMS, most engaged actively with it in memorizing and understanding new words. Li, M., Ogata, H., Hou, B., Hashimoto, S., Liu, Y., Uosaki, N., & Yano , Y. (2010). Development of adaptive kanji learning system for mobile phone. International Journal of Distance Education Technologies, 8(4), 2941. Retrievable from http://www.igi-global.com This Japanese article is the published version of Li et al. (2010), which describes an adaptive learning system for kanji based on mobile phone SMS/email. Li, M., Ogata, H., Hou, B., Hashimoto, S., Uosaki, N., Liu, Y., & Yano, Y. (2010). Development of adaptive vocabulary learning via mobile phone e-mail. 6th IEEE International Conference on Wireless, Mobile, and Ubiquitous Technologies in Education (pp. 3441). Los Alamitos, CA: IEEE Computer Society. Retrievable from http://ieeexplore.ieee.org This Japanese paper describes an adaptive learning system for kanji based on mobile phone SMS/email. The system sends the contents to learners upon request according to their interests, adjusts the difficulty level of tests to suit the learners proficiency level using an IRT algorithm, and adapts the program to their learning style. It also checks answers and returns feedback to the learner. The system was pilot tested for a month by 10 L2 Japanese university students, who showed improvement and wanted to continue using this system.
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Liang, J-K., Liu, T-C., Wang, H-Y., & Chan, T-W. (2005). Integrating wireless technology in pocket electronic dictionary to enhance language learning. Proceedings of the Fifth IEEE International Conference on Advanced Learning Technologies (ICALT 05). Los Alamitos, CA: IEEE Computer Society. Retrievable from http://ccv.src.ncu.edu.tw This Taiwanese paper describes the design of an L2 English vocabulary learning system (ELMD) based on a pocket e-dictionary (PED)/server application. PEDs equipped with a plug-in card provide a short range RF link to a classroom server, local data storage, and program execution to allow students to communicate with the teacher and each other while working on vocabulary exercises and doing dictionary look-ups, a record of which is kept on the server. Students can also use the locally installed PED resources for out-of-class learning. Lin, C-C., & Yu, Y-C. (2012). Learning English vocabulary on mobile phones. In J. Colpaert, A. Aerts, W-C. V. Wu, & Y-C. J. Chao (Eds.), The medium matters (Proceedings from the 15th International CALL Conference) (pp. 416420). Retrievable from http://www.google.com This Taiwanese paper describes a mobile phone MMS-based L2 English vocabulary learning program that was trialed by 32 junior high school pupils for four weeks. Nine words a week were delivered in one of four modes: text (syntactic category, Chinese translation, example sentence), text + audio (word/sentence pronunciation), text + image, and text + audio + image. Student evaluations of the system were very positive, but the effects of different presentation modes on vocabulary learning were not significantly different. Lin, C-P., Liu, K-P., & Niramitranon, J. (2008). Tablet PC to support collaborative learning: An empirical study of English vocabulary learning. In Fifth IEEE International Conference on Wireless, Mobile, and Ubiquitous Technology in Education (pp. 4751). Los Alamitos, CA: IEEE Computer Society. Retrievable from http://www.computer.org This Taiwanese paper studies the effect of hand-drawn sketches using the Group Scribbles application on web-linked tablet PCs to support the in-class collaborative learning of L2 English vocabulary by primary school children. The system was trialed by 20 fifth graders during an 80 minute class session. The outcomes after the completion of learning activities showed the system increased vocabulary learning, aroused students motivations and improved their mutual interactions. Lin, C-P., Young, S-C., & Hung, H-C. (2008).The game-based constructive learning environment to increase English vocabulary acquisition: Implementing a wireless crossword fan-tan game (WICFG) as an example. In Fifth IEEE International Conference on Wireless, Mobile, and Ubiquitous Technology in Education (pp. 205207). Los Alamitos, CA: IEEE Computer Society. Retrievable from http://www.computer.org This Taiwanese paper, which follows up on Lin et al. (2007), describes the development of a web-enabled PDA-based scrabble game (WiCFG) intended for high school students. The game promotes the collaborative learning of L2 English vocabulary by engaging students in group competition which encourages creative thinking, requires learners to discuss their ideas, and share their English vocabulary knowledge with each other. Lin, C-P., Young, C-S., Hung, H-C., & Lin, Y-C. (2007). Implementation of the scrabble game on the mobile devices to increase English vocabulary acquisition. Conference Proceedings Computer-supported Collaborative Learning (pp. 438440). Retrievable from http://gerrystahl.net
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This Taiwanese conference presentation describes the pedagogical considerations underlying the architecture of a PDA-based scrabble game intended to promote the learning of L2 English vocabulary through group collaboration and competition. Lin, C-Y. (2011). Develop Chinese podcasting material-podcast units and its application in beginner Chinese classes. CLS 10th Anniversary Symposium. Singapore, Singapore: FASS. Lin, N., Kajita, S., & Mase, K. (2007). Story-based CALL for Japanese kanji characters: A study on student learning motivation. The JALT CALL Journal, 3(1,2), 2544. Retrievable from http://www.jaltcall.org This Japanese article describes the design and trialing of a mobile-based system intended as a textbook complement to support the learning of kanji by L2 Japanese students through the creation of mnemonic stories, which learners record orally to help memorize characters. The effect of the system on learner motivation (not learning results) was evaluated in a trial with eight university volunteers for two weeks using a specially configured COWON iAudio device. The results showed that the story-based kanji system positively affected student motivation. Lin, N., Kajita, S., & Mase, K. (2008). Mobile user behavior and attitudes during story-based kanji learning. JALT CALL Journal, 4(1), 318. Retrievable from http://www.jaltcall.org This Japanese article investigates the usage patterns and attitudes of eight volunteers who trialed the story-based mobile kanji learning system described in Lin, Kajita, and Mase (2007). System user results were complemented by a survey of six L2 Japanese learners who used the same mnemonic technique without the mobile program. The results showed significant correlations between user behavior and self-reported user attitudes and general agreement among the system non-users that a mobile system would be useful for learning kanji. Lin, N., & Mase, K. (2006). An audio-based approach to mobile learning of Japanese Kanji characters. Proceedings of the 5th World Conference on Mobile Learning, Banff, Alberta, Canada. This Japanese paper describes the design of a PDA-based audio-only system intended as a textbook complement for the passive review of kanji characters by L2 Japanese learners who are only required to listen. Using voice synthesis, the program presents in random order the names of 2000 kanji characters and their subcomponents. A prototype web-based program tested the relative effectiveness of having students learn the meaning of kanji characters as opposed to learning their subcomponents, with learning the parts being the more effective. Lin, Y-T., & Chen, H-J. (2012). Investigating the effects of podcasts via smartphones on foreign language learning. In J. Colpaert, A. Aerts, W-C. V. Wu, & Y-C. J. Chao (Eds.), The medium matters (Proceedings 15th International CALL Conference) (pp. 446449). Retrievable from http://www.google.com This Taiwanese paper reports the preliminary results of a study of the effect on L2 English learning of podcasts sent to student smartphones via e-mail. Twenty-five college volunteers participated in the study, which exploited publicly available podcasts targeting specific vocabulary items and grammar points sent to them twice daily for a month. A post-test after the first two weeks confirmed large gains in listening ability, vocabulary learning and grammar knowledge.
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Liu, J. (2008). Dictionary use and English vocabulary acquisition: A contrastive study of paper dictionaries and palmtop electronic dictionaries. Journal of Suihua University, 1, 117118. Liu, J., Yu, S., & Ran, M. (2008). Research on the communicative mobile English learning model. In Fifth IEEE International Conference on Wireless, Mobile, and Ubiquitous Technology in Education (pp. 6064). Los Alamitos, CA: IEEE Computer Society. Retrievable from http://ieeexplore.ieee.org This Chinese paper describes a language learning system (CMEL Model) based on the Noah NP860, a specialized mobile device designed to support the independent, extracurricular, acquisition of L2 English by primary school children. The program, which includes family education activities, mainly consists of reading, listening and information look-up. 71 pupils and their parents tested the system for three weeks. Post-tests confirmed learning gains and students, teachers and parents all expressed their acceptance of the system. Liu, P-L., & Chen, C-J. (2012). A study of mobile-assisted photo-taking for English phrase learning and sentence making. In J. Colpaert, A. Aerts, W-C. V. Wu, & Y-C. J. Chao (Eds.), The medium matters (Proceedings 15th International CALL Conference) (pp. 762765). Retrievable from http://www.google.com This Taiwanese paper explores the effect of mobile phone-based photo taking upon L2 English phrase learning and sentence making performance. Compared to a control group of 49 students who copied and imitated example English sentences, 68 students created their own English sentences based on photos taken with their mobile phones. In post- and delayed post-tests the experimental group performed significantly better than the control, and in particular used more concrete adverbs or adjectives, and more vivid action words. Liu, T-Y. (2009). A context-aware ubiquitous learning environment for language listening and speaking. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 25(6), 515527. Retrievable from http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com This Taiwanese paper describes the pilot testing of a server-based mobile learning system (HELLO) for L2 English listening and speaking first reported in Liu, Tan and Chu (2007). It consists of three games, two of which involve location-aware task-based activities: one is played individually with a virtual learning tutor, the other collaboratively with other learners. The system was trialed for eight weeks by 64 seventh graders equally divided into an experimental and control group. All test results of the HELLO group were significantly better than those of the control group. Liu, T-Y., & Chu, Y. (2010). Using ubiquitous games in an English listening and speaking course: impact on learning outcomes and motivation. Computers & Education, 55(2), 630643. Retrievable from http://pdn.sciencedirect.com This Taiwanese paper is a more detailed account of the study first reported in Liu (2009). It describes the pilot-testing over eight weeks, 45 minutes per week, of the location-aware HELLO language learning system for L2 English listening and speaking by 32 seventh grade students plus a control group of 32. HELLO consists of three task-based games, the one most preferred by students being an individual treasure hunt played with a virtual online tutor. All test results of the HELLO group were significantly better than those of the control group.
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Liu, T-Y., Tan, T-H., & Chu, Y-L. (2007). 2D barcode and augmented reality supported English learning system. Proceedings of the 6th IEEE International Conference on Computer and Information Science (pp. 510). Los Alamitos, CA: IEEE Computer Society. Retrievable from http://ieeexplore.ieee.org This Taiwanese conference presentation is the first of several by Liu and colleagues that describe the HELLO language learning system. HELLO integrates PDAs, 2D barcodes, the Internet, augmented reality, mobile computing, and database technologies to support L2 English listening and speaking. A prototype of the system was trialed for four weeks in a college to evaluate the effects of the learning system and student attitudes towards it use. Results indicated that the technology was useful for English learning. Liu, T-Y., Tan, T-H., & Chu, Y-L. (2010). QR code and augmented reality-supported mobile English learning system. In X. Jiang, M-Y. Ma, & C-W. Chen (Eds.), Workshop of Mobile Multimedia Processing 2008, Lecture Notes in Computer Science 5960 (pp. 3752). Retrievable from http://www.springerlink.com This Taiwanese paper describes the ongoing development of the mobile handheld HELLO context-aware language learning system reported in previous articles by Liu and colleagues. This study focuses on the use of QR codes to determine user location. Pilot testing of the QR-based system was undertaken over a period of four weeks by 20 university students playing two games, one of which involved an online virtual tutor. Student questionnaire responses indicated that most participants found HELLO easy to use and useful for assisting learning. Looi, C-T. et al. (2009). Anatomy of a mobilized lesson: Learning my way Computers & Education, 53(4), 11201132. Retrievable from http://ac.els-cdn.com This paper from Singapore is the first of two that describe the use of PDAs to teach L2 English to primary school children. The experiment lasted two hours and involved 30 pupils who took photos with PDAs around the schoolyard to exemplify newly learned prepositions. This was followed in class by the use of the PDs to draw prepositional relationships and the sharing of the sketches and photos in group discussions. It was concluded that the use of the mobile device succeeded in creating highly personalized and differentiated instruction. Lu, M. (2008). Effectiveness of vocabulary learning via mobile phone. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 24(6), 515525. Retrievable from http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com This Taiwanese paper investigates the effectiveness of mobile phone SMS on L2 English vocabulary learning. One week, half of a group of 30 high school students received a printed list of 14 target English/Chinese word pairs while the other half received via SMS two target word pairs twice a day. The next week the two groups swapped the way they received a second set of 14 word pairs. Vocabulary tests at the end of each week showed learning gains for all students, but no significant differences remained after a three-week delay. Lumsden, J., Leung, R., DAmours, D., & McDonald, D. (2010). ALEX: A mobile adult literacy experiential learning application. International Journal of Mobile Learning and Organisation, 4(2), 172 191. Retrievable from http://www.inderscience.com This Canadian paper describes the design of a mobile-based application (ALEX) intended to support basic L1 English adult literacy in an out-of-class, experiential,
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environment. ALEX consists of a series of self-guided support tools. In particular, it contains a dictionary that exploits a speech-to-text and textto-speech application to allow semi-literate adults to look up words and retrieve word definitions. It also permits users to maintain a list of words specific to their needs. A prototype of ALEX was implemented on desktop PC. Lumsden, J., Leung, R., & Fritz, J. (2005). Designing a mobile transcriber application for adult literacy education: A case study. Proceedings of the IADIS International Conference on Mobile Learning (pp. 16 23). Qawra, Malta. Retrievable from http://www.rockleung.com This Canadian paper is the first of a series by Lumsden and colleagues that describes the development of a handheld system to support basic L1 English for low literacy adults. The functions of the program were elaborated in collaboration with four adult literacy students during five 6090 minute focus group sessions. The result was a paper description of a range of tools that addressed practical everyday life-centered activities (e.g., reading package labels). It included a dictionary, thesaurus, and a facility to record words for future reference. Markett, C. (2003). SMS speak my speak: A feasibility study of the use of mobile phone text messaging with learners of English as a second language. Unpublished manuscript, Trinity College Dublin. Markiewicz, J-K. (2006). Personalised and Context Sensitive Foreign Language Training supported by Mobile Devices. MS thesis, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway. Retrievable from http://ntnu.diva-portal.org This Norwegian Masters thesis describes the design and prototype development of the personalized context-adaptable mobile-based PALLAS language learning system. The goal PALLAS is to teach a foreign language by encouraging students to use the language in real-life settings. The system is intended to deliver appropriate content based on the users personal attributes, location, and environmental context. A partial implementation of the system was trialed only by the author solely as a proof of concept. Martn, M., & Beckmann, E. (2011). Simulating immersion: Podcasting in Spanish teaching. In B. Facer & M. Abdous (Eds.), Academic podcasting and mobile assisted language learning: Applications and outcomes (pp. 111131). Hershey, PA: IGI Global. Retrievable from http://www.igi-global.com This Australian paper describes and evaluates a program involving the intensive use of Academic Podcasting Technology (APT) in the teaching of L2 Spanish to university students over a four-year period in which students became active users and producers of Spanish language podcasts in a simulated immersion environment. The program received very positive feedback from students and provides a pedagogically-sound model for the effective use of APT in immersive-style language teaching. McTaggart, M. (1997). Palms take root in East London. The Times Educational Supplement. 20 June 1997, p. 23. This British study was part of the Docklands Learning Acceleration Project that examined the use of word processing and PDAs to improve basic literacy skills of some 600 seven year old native English-speaking students in 15 primary schools in central London. The aim was to increase the amount of childrens reading and writing. Only brief anecdotal reports are given.
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Meurant, R. (2007). L2 digital literacy: Korean EFL students use their cell phone videocams to make an L2 English video guide to their college campus. Proceedings of the 2007 International Conference on Intelligent Pervasive Computing (pp.169173). Los Alamitos, CA: IEEE Computer Society. Retrievable from http://rmeurant.com This Korean article describes a one-week long task-based project intended to promote the L2 English learning of university students through the use of their own mobile phones. Using the camera on their phones, individual students created a video guide of their campus, some of which included interviews. They posted these via MMS to the instructor who then uploaded them to a video blog on the English language version of a Korean social networking website (Cyworld.com). Students then commented on each others guides. Meurant, R. (2008). The key importance of L2 digital literacy to Korean EFL pedagogy: College students use L2 English to make campus video guides with their cell phone videocams, and to view and respond to their videos on an L2 English language social networking site. The International Journal of Hybrid Information Technology, SERSC 1(1), 6572. Retrievable from http://rmeurant.com This Korean paper is essentially the same as Meurant (2007). Miyakoda, H., Kaneko, K., & Ishikawa, M. (2011). Effective learning materials for mobile devices: Image vs. Sound. In S. Barton et al. ( (Eds.), Proceedings of Global Learn Asia Pacific 2011 (pp. 1683 1690). Chesapeake, VA: AACE. Retrievable from http://media.dwds.de This Japanese paper describes a vocabulary learning environment that allows instructors and learners to create flashcards for mobile devices and compares the effectiveness of their use with two groups of University students, with 59 and 40 participants. Students had five minutes to learn 15 L2 English/Japanese word pairs under one of four test conditions: text only, text + audio, text + video, text +audio + video. Contrary to expectations, with both groups the presence of visual data did not positively affect learning outcomes. Miyakoda, H., Kaneko, K., Ishikawa, M., & Shinagawa, N. (2010). Online multilingual vocabulary system and its application in L2 learning. International Journal of Cyber Society and Education, 3(1), 1 14. Retrievable from http://www.academic-journals.org This Japanese paper describes the vodcast-based vocabulary learning system previously presented in Amemiya et al. (2007), Hasegawa et al. (2007), and Ishikawa et al. (2007), which consists of three modules: HodgePodge, PodBase, and Multipod. This study also repeats the results of L2 English tests taken by 10 university students with a delay of two weeks and two months, which showed better word retention than with pen and paper rote learning. The system was also trialed by three students for the teaching of L2 Japanese onomatopoeic expressions. Miyata, M., Ogata, H., Kondo, T., & Yano, Y. (2008a). Supporting Japanese mimetic words and onomatopoeia learning with wireless sensor networks for overseas students. Proceedings of ICCE2008 workshop on Mobile and Ubiquitous Language Learning: Perspectives on Context, Supplementary Proceedings of ICCE2008 (pp. 211216). Taipei, Taiwan: ICCE. Retrievable from http://www.apsce.net This Japanese article is one of two nearly identical papers (see Miyata et al. (2008b)) describing the design of an improved version of the JAMIOLAS system for the learning of Japanese mimetic words and onomatopoeic expressions by L2 Japanese university students (see Ogata, Yin and Yano (2006); Ogata et al. (2007)). In JAMIOLAS2 Phidgets
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(worn sensors) are replaced by palmtop computers with RFID readers which can direct learners to tagged objects and ask multiple-choice questions about them. Miyata, M., Ogata, H., Kondo, T., & Yano, Y. (2008b). JAMIOLAS 2.0: Supporting to learn Japanese mimetic words and onomatopoeia with wireless sensor networks. Presented at the International Conference on Computer in Education (pp. 643650). Taipei, Taiwan: ICCE. Retrievable from http:// http://www.apsce.net This Japanese paper is one of two (see Miyata et al. (2008a)) describing the design of an improved version of the JAMIOLAS system for the learning of Japanese mimetic words and onomatopoeic expressions using palmtop computers with RFID readers which can direct learners to tagged objects and ask multiple-choice questions about them. Twenty university students (16 Japanese and four international L2 Japanese learners) field tested JAMIOLAS2 for 10 minutes. Foreign students found the system more informative than did Japanese informants. Monk, B., Ozawa, K., & Thomas, M. (2006). iPods in English language education: A case study of English listening students. Journal of Language, Culture and Communication, 8(1), 85102. Retrievable from http://ci.nii.ac.jp This Japanese paper presents a two-semester case study involving 169 University L2 English majors who were given iPod Shuffles to listen to podcasts. However, since the written transcripts of the podcasts were available, only 18% of students used the iPods for activities related to the learning of English, compared to 70% for listening to music. Only 15% thought that faculty had used podcasting effectively. 64% of students indicated that they had never or hardly ever used their iPods for listening to English while traveling to and from campus. Moseley, D., Higgins, S., Bramald, R., Hardman, F., Miller, J., Mroz, , & Stout, J. (1999). Developing writing skills in Years 3 and 4 with Palmtop computers. Effective pedagogy using ICT in literacy and numeracy in primary schools. Newcastle upon Tyne, UK: University of Newcastle. This British study describes the effects of the use of PDAs upon the writing behavior of native English-speaking year 3 and 4 primary school students. The study, which involved 24 pupils over a period of one term, reports increased motivation to write, revise and redraft written work across a range of ability.
Motallebzadeh, K., Beh-Afarin, R., & Daliry Rad, S. (2011). The effect of short message service on the retention of collocations among Iranian lower intermediate EFL learners. Theory and Practice in Language Studies, 1(11), 15141520. Retrievable from http://ojs.academypublisher.com This Iranian study investigates the effectiveness of mobile phone SMS compared to printed paper for the rote learning of L2 English collocations. For five weeks, 40 university students received twice weekly seven collocations with definitions and example sentences. Half of the group received these via SMS, the other half as a printed hand-out. Students took two quizzes in the same format as the presentation mode. Participants in the SMS group showed significantly better vocabulary retention than the ones in the printed paper group. Motallebzadeh, K., & Ganjali, R. (2011). SMS: Tool for L2 vocabulary retention and reading comprehension ability. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 2(5), 11111115. Retrievable from http://ojs.academypublisher.com
Jack Burston
This Iranian study investigates the effectiveness of mobile phone SMS compared to printed paper for the rote learning of L2 English vocabulary. For 16 sessions, three times a week over a period of five weeks, 34 university students were sent a total of 50 words with definitions and example sentences. Half of the group received these via SMS, the other half as a printed hand-out. Based on the results of a post-test, participants in the SMS group showed significantly better vocabulary retention than the ones in the printed paper group. Munteanu, C., Lumsden, J., Fournier, H., Leung, R., DAmours, D., McDonald, D., & Maitland, J. (2010a). ALEX Supporting low-literacy adults through mobile computing. Proceedings of the ACM SIGCHI Conference on Human Factors in Computing Systems (CHI 2010). New York, NY: Association for Computing Machinery. Munteanu, C., Lumsden, J., Fournier, H., Leung, R., DAmours, D., McDonald, D., & Maitland, J. (2010b). ALEX: Mobile language assistant for low-literacy adults. Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on Human Computer Interaction with Mobile Devices and Services (MobileHCI 10) (pp. 427430). New York, NY: Association for Computing Machinery. Retrievable from http://delivery.acm.org This Canadian study is related to the work done on L1 English adult literacy by Lumsden, Leung and Fritz (2005) and Leung, Lumsden and Fritz (2006). It describes the three-week trial by five adult low level literacy students of a prototype of the ALEX application carried out using a 7 tablet computer. The system included a (Harper-Collins) dictionary and thesaurus with a near spelling feature to facilitate look-ups, a text-to-speech feature to assist reading definitions, and a speech recognition system for pronunciation practice. ALEX was well received by the learners. Munteanu, C., Molyneaux, H., McDonald, D., Lumsden, J., Leung, R., Fournier, H., & Maitland., J. (2011). Showing Off your mobile device: Adult literacy learning in the classroom and beyond. Proceedings of the 13th International Conference on Human-Computer Interaction with Mobile Devices and Service (MobileHCI 2011) (pp. 95104). New York, NY: Association for Computing Machinery. Retrievable from http://delivery.acm.org This Canadian study involved 11 volunteers who trialed for six-months a support program (ALEX) for L1 English low level literacy adults described in detail in Munteanu et al. (2010a) and Munteanu et al. (2010b). The application was implemented on a 7 tablet computer, which was loaned to participants for in-class and out-of-class usage. Based on semi-structured oral interviews and informal teacher observations, students rated the mobile device very positively, found it easier to use than a paper dictionary, shared it with others, and used it unobtrusively in public. Murphy, P., Bollen, D., & Langdon, C. (2012). Mobile technology, collaborative reading, and elaborative feedback. In J. Daz-Vera (Ed.), Left to my own devices: Learner autonomy and mobile-assisted language learning innovation and leadership in English language teaching (pp. 131159). Bingley, UK: Emerald Group Publishing Limited. Retrievable from http://www.emeraldinsight.com This Japanese paper investigates the potential of a web-based environment using iPhones, laptops, and tablet computers to promote collaborative L2 English reading through the support afforded by computer-mediated feedback. Two types of feedback were compared, computer-generated only or elaborative feedback from an instructor. The system was pilot tested by 95 university students using classroom laptops. Scores attained on a reading
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comprehension exercise revealed no significant difference between the feedback modes. Murphy-Judy, K. (2011). iStudyabroad. In B. Facer & M. Abdous (Eds.), Academic podcasting and mobile assisted language learning: Applications and outcomes (pp. 133146). Hershey, PA: IGI Global. Retrievable from http://www.igi-global.com This American paper describes mobile learning technologies and techniques that enhance and extend the study-abroad experience beyond that of a small group that actually travels. It considers how well-chosen resources, along with carefully structured and planned activities, can enhance various aspects of language acquisition and social interaction. In particular, it focuses on lessons learned from trial and error across a range of technologies and borders. It ends with suggestions for ways to optimize iStudyAbroad today and tomorrow. Nah, K-C. (2009). Language learning through mobile phones: Design and trial of a wireless application protocol (WAP) site model for learning EFL listening skills in Korea. Saarbrcken, Germany: LAP Lambert Academic Publishing. Nah, K-C. (2010). The use of the internet through mobile phones for EFL listening activities. Proceedings Applied Linguistics Association of Korea 2010 Annual Conference (pp. 197-205). Retrievable from http://www.academia.edu This Korean paper describes a three-month study that investigated the attitudes of 20 university students towards the use of mobile phones to access Internet-based L2 English listening exercises. Students could refer to new vocabulary meanings and grammar points and discuss the topic with other participants on the mobile discussion board. The learners attitudes towards using the site on the mobile Internet changed after the experiment. Both positive and negative attitudes decreased and consequently, neutral responses increased. Nah, K-C. (2011). Optimising the use of wireless application protocol (WAP) sites for listening activities in a Korean English as a foreign language (EFL) context. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 24(2), 103116. Retrievable from http://www.tandfonline.com This Korean paper investigates changes in student attitudes towards using mobile phones to access the Internet to improve their L2 English listening comprehension. A 12-week trial by 30 university students of a specially designed listening comprehension WAP site revealed a 20% increase in neutral attitudes with 8% and 12% decrease in positive and negative attitudes, respectively. The decrease in positive attitudes was attributed in particular to the extra expense for the Internet connection and the limitations of mobile phone technology. Nah, K-C., White, P., & Jeong, D-B. (2006). The attitudes of EFL students toward the use of a wireless application protocol (WAP) site for learning EFL. In Y. M. Hyun (Ed.), 2006 International Conference of Modern English Society of Korea (pp. 409419). Daejeon, Korea: Modern English Society of Korea. Nah, K-C., White, P., & Sussex, R. (2008). The potential of using a mobile phone to access the Internet for learning EFL listening skills within a Korean context. RECALL Journal, 20(3), 331347. Retrievable from http://journals.cambridge.org This Korean study investigates the attitudes of language learners toward using mobile phones to browse WAP sites for L2 English listening comprehension. A WAP site, accessible only via mobile phone, was trialed by 30 university students for 12 weeks. In
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addition to listing comprehension materials, the site also incorporated a discussion board which was used to exchange course information and to help complete pre- and postlistening activities. Overall, language learners expressed positive attitudes towards the use of the WAP site. Nguyen, V., & Pham, V. (2011). Learner open modeling in adaptive mobile learning system for supporting student to learn English. International Journal of Interactive Mobile Technologies, 5(4), 22 29. Retrievable from http://online-journals.org This Vietnamese paper describes the design parameters of a personalized context-aware mobile learning application (CAMLES) intended to help L2 English learners prepare for the TOEFL test. The system, which operates on Java-enabled mobile phones, adapts its grammatical contents based upon the learners location, amount of time available to study and learner's knowledge level. A prototype was pilot tested by 35 university students who indicated that interactive user modelling is helpful in supporting the learning of English. Obari, H., Goda, Y., Shimoyama, Y., & Kimura, M. (2008). Mobile technologies and language learning in Japan learn anywhere, anytime. Proceedings of the WorldCALL2008 Conference (pp. 201204). Retrievable from http://www.j-let.org This Japanese article summarizes the results of four experimental mobile phone-based L2 English applications for university students. In the first, 300 students received SMS grammar and vocabulary tutorials for five months in preparation for the TOEIC exam. The second and third exploited video clips for listening comprehension of news programs, one with a group of 11 learners, the other with 20 students. The fourth application targeted the rote learning of 50 words under different conditions and was pilot tested by 136 students for three weeks. Oberg, A., & Daniels, P. (2013). Analysis of the effect a student-centred mobile learning instructional method has on language acquisition. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 26(2), 177196. Retrievable from http://www.tandfonline.com This Japanese paper investigated the in-class self-paced instructional use of the iPod Touch to access an online L2 English textbook-based program of listening and quizzes. The results of 61 university students who used the iPods for 15 weeks were compared to those of a control group of 61 who used only the printed textbook as instructed by their teacher. The iPod group scored consistently higher than the control in post- tests. The experimental group also indicated very positive attitudes towards self-study iPod-based learning. OBryan, A., & Hegelheimer, V. (2007). Integrating CALL into the classroom: The role of podcasting in an ESL listening strategies course. RECALL Journal, 19(2), 162180. Retrievable from http://journals.cambridge.org This American paper reports on the 15-week use of podcasting (including video) as a complement to a university L2 English listening strategies course with an enrollment of six students. Podcasts could be accessed directly from a website or downloaded to a computer or MP3 player. They were integrated into the curriculum to summarize a concept covered in class, act as a bridge between classes, and/or to introduce new material referenced in a subsequent class. Overall, the podcasts were viewed very positively by the students.
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Ogata, H., Hui, G-L., Yin, C., Ueda, T., Oishi, Y., & Yano, Y. (2008). LOCH: Supporting mobile language learning outside classrooms. International Journal of Mobile Learning and Organisation, 2(3), 271282. Retrievable from http://www.inderscience.com This Japanese article essentially repeats the description of the mobile-based LOCH system design and experimental field test results presented in Ogata, Yin, and Yano (2006), with the inclusion of a third set of foreign university L2 Japanese learners that brings the total number of users to 22. As with the other reported student and teacher evaluations, participants found the system useful and valuable. Ogata, H., Kondo, T., Yin, C., Liu, Y., & Yano, Y. (2007). Computer Supported Ubiquitous Learning Environment for Japanese Mimicry and Onomatopoeia with Sensors. In T. Hirashima et al. (Eds.), Proceedings of ICCE 2007, Supporting Learning Flow through Integrative Technologies (pp. 463470). Fairfax, VA: IOS Press. This Japanese paper is a follow-up of Ogata, Yin, and Yano (2006), which describes the context-aware JAMIOLAS system for the learning of Japanese mimetic words and onomatopoeic expressions (MIO) by L2 Japanese university students. JAMIOLAS operates through Phidgets, sensors which are worn by learners who are alerted to the presence of MIO-related objects and asked questions about them over a wireless network. Ogata, H., Miyata, M., Hou, B., & Yano, Y. (2010). JAMIOLAS2: Supporting Japanese mimetic words and onomatopoeia learning with wireless sensor networks for overseas students. International Journal of Mobile Learning and Organisation, 4(4), 333345. Retrievable from https://inderscience.metapress.com This Japanese article is a follow-up to Miyata et al. (2008a) and Miyata et al. (2008b). It was published after the more updated Hou et al. (2009). It describes the version of the system for the learning of Japanese mimetic words and onomatopoeic expressions that uses palmtop computers with RFID readers to direct learners to tagged objects and ask multiple-choice questions about them. Ogata, H., & Yano, Y. (2003). How ubiquitous computing can support language learning. Computer and Information Science, n vol n., 16. Retrievable from http://goo.gl This Japanese paper is the first of several articles written by these authors describing the design of CLUE (Collaborative Learning support system with a Ubiquitous Environment) and its implementation to support collaborative ubiquitous language learning. CLUE is intended for use with L2 English as well as L2 Japanese university students in Japan. Using PDAs, GPS, and RFID tags linked to a web server, CLUE shares with all users on the network appropriate vocabulary, sentences, and polite expressions based on where learners are located and with whom they are interacting. Ogata, H., & Yano, Y. (2004a). CLUE (CLUE: Computer supported ubiquitous learning environment for language learning). Information Processing Society of Japan, 45 (10), 23542363. Retrievable from https://0853b2ac-a-62cb3a1a-ssites.googlegroups.com This Japanese paper describes the implementation and experimental trialing of the CLUE system introduced in Ogata and Yano (2003). The program consists of three subsystems intended for use with L2 English as well as L2 Japanese university students in Japan. The first system supports sentence learning, the second assists the learning of L2 Japanese polite expressions, the third supports the learning L2 English vocabulary based on the
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identification of objects using RFID tags. Ogata, H., & Yano, Y. (2004b). Knowledge awareness map for computer-supported ubiquitous languagelearning. In J. Roschelle, T-W.Chan, Kinshuk, S. Yang (Eds.), Proceedings 2nd IEEE International Workshop on Wireless and Mobile Technologies in Education: Mobile Support for Learning Communities (pp.1926). Los Alamitos, CA: IEEE Computer Society. This Japanese paper describes the design of CLUE, the collaborative ubiquitous learning system presented in Ogata and Yano (2003), and evaluates a week-long field test of a PDA + GPS/Wireless LAN prototype which provided 89 location-aware L2 English expressions. The trial compared the vocabulary retention of three university students who used the prototype to three others who studied the same vocabulary list on paper. A post vocabulary test revealed that CLUE users had learned 21 expressions compared to seven for the control group. Ogata, H., & Yano, Y. (2004c). Context-aware support for computer-supported ubiquitous learning. In J. Roschelle, T-W.Chan, Kinshuk, S. Yang (Eds.), Proceedings 2nd IEEE International Workshop on Wireless and Mobile Technologies in Education: Mobile Support for Learning Communities (pp. 2734). Los Alamitos, CA: IEEE Computer Society. Retrievable from http://ieeexplore.ieee.org This Japanese study reports on a user survey evaluation of lab experiments involving two context-aware vocabulary learning systems based on the PDA+GPS/RFID/Web infrastructure described for the CLUE system in Ogata and Yano (2003). In the first, 18 Japanese high school students used the JAPELAS system to find polite Japanese expressions for a role play. In the second, six high school students used the TANGO system to answer English L2 questions about RFID-tagged objects. Students expressed satisfaction with both systems. Ogata, H., Yin, C., El-Bishouty, M., & Yano, Y. (2004). Computer supported ubiquitous learning environment for vocabulary learning. International Journal of Learning Technology, 5(1), 524. Retrievable from http://www.google.com.cy This Japanese study reports on a user survey evaluation of a lab experiment involving the context-aware TANGO vocabulary learning system based on the PDA+GPS/RFID/Web infrastructure described in Ogata & Yano (2004c). In this experiment, 8 L1 Japanese university students and 8 foreign university students used TANGO to learn English L2 words about RFID-tagged objects in English and Japanese, respectively. Overall, students thought the system was helpful, but no objective learning effectiveness data is reported. Ogata, H., Yin, C., Paredes R., Saito, N., Yano, Y., Oishi, Y., & Ueda, T. (2006). Supporting mobile language learning outside classrooms. Paper presented at the ICALT Conference 2006, Kerkrade, The Netherlands. Retrievable from http://ieeexplore.ieee.org This Japanese paper extends the data from one to two trials of the experiment described in Paredes et al. (2005) using the mobile LOCH learning system to support the collaborative task-based learning of L2 Japanese. The two one-day field trips involved 13 foreign university students and two teachers. Learners were given tasks that required them to use Japanese in real life situations (e.g., interview someone, gather information, buy something) and to collect and share data with each other, which participants found useful and valuable.
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Ogata, H., Yin, C., & Yano, Y. (2006). JAMIOLAS: Supporting Japanese mimicry and onomatopoeia learning with sensors. Proceedings of the 4th International Workshop on Wireless, Mobile and Ubiquitous Technologies in Education 2006 (pp.111115). Los Alamitos, CA: IEEE Computer Society. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org This Japanese paper is the first of a series of articles by Ogata, Miyata, and colleagues describing the context-aware JAMIOLAS system for the learning of Japanese mimetic words and onomatopoetic expressions (MIO) by L2 Japanese university students. JAMIOLAS operates through a tablet PC via Phidgets, sensors which are worn by learners who are alerted to the presence of MIO-related objects and asked questions about them over a wireless network. Osaki, S., Ochiai, N., Iso, T., & Aizawa, K. (2003). Electronic dictionary vs. printed dictionary: Accessing the appropriate meaning, reading comprehension, and retention. In M. Murata, S. Yamada, & Y. Tono (Eds.), Dictionaries and language learning: How can dictionaries help human and machine learning? (pp. 205212). Urayasu, Japan: The Asian Association for Lexicography This Japanese paper compares the performance of 167 Japanese university students on L2 English vocabulary acquisition using handheld English/Japanese electronic dictionaries (ED), their printed counterparts (PD), and no dictionary (ND). In a reading comprehension test ED users outscored PD and ND was the lowest. Both dictionary groups also took an immediate and one-week delayed test of word definitions and word retention. ED users scored better than PD on word definitions but there was no significant difference on word retention. Osman, M., & Chung, P. (2010). Feasibility study on mobile and communication technologies for language learning. IADIS International Conference Mobile Learning (pp. 265268). Retrievable from http://eprints2.utem.edu This Malaysian paper investigates the feasibility of using mobile phone text messaging with communication technologies to support the collaborative acquisition of L2 English. Six students participated in the study for 10 days, half using a blog and half a wiki. They were sent five types of messages at fixed intervals: update reminders, lesson reminders, multiple-choice questions, web links, and feedback requests. The majority of the participants had positive attitudes towards the technologies and agreed their use could help them in learning English. Osman, M., & Chung, P. (2011). Language learning using texting and wiki: A Malaysian context. eCASE & e-Tech International Conference (pp. 18881903). n.loc: Knowledge Association. Retrievable from http://eprints2.utem.edu This Malaysian paper is a follow-up of Osman and Chung (2010). It describes a 38-day pilot test over of a combination of mobile phone SMS and wiki to support the collaborative learning of L2 English by 26 university students compared to a control group of 35. The study showed that the writing of the experimental group was better than that of the control. However, students in the experimental group did not like to use a wiki for collaborative learning and they much preferred working from home on desktop PCs to using mobile phones anywhere. Palalas, A. (2009). Using mobile devices to extend English language learning outside the classroom. In D. Metcalf, A. Hamilton, & C. Graffeo (Eds.), mlearn2009: 8th World Conference on Mobile and Contextual Learning Proceedings (pp. 179183). Orlando, FL: University of Central Florida.
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This Canadian paper is the first of a series describing experiments undertaken with the iPod Touch to facilitate the out-of-class learning of L2 English for Specific Purposes. Twelve college students pilot tested vocabulary-based podcasts for 15 weeks. While participants expressed high levels of satisfaction with the program, minimal levels of interaction were observed and the connectivity features of the mobile devices were hardly utilised. Learning was thus limited to non-reciprocal listening and rote memorisation of vocabulary. Palalas, A. (2011a). ESP for busy college students: Is the blend of in-class, online & mobile learning the answer? The IALLT Journal, 41(1), 108136. Retrievable from http://www.iallt.org This Canadian paper describes a hybrid L2 English for Specific Purposes accounting course that included a mobile component based on a web-accessible iPod Touch program which provided vocabulary and listening podcasts (with video). The program was pilot tested by 12 college students for 15 weeks. It was concluded that the iTouch allowed for effective learning and teaching of listening, but the cost of the device and Internet connectivity were rated as the greatest barriers to iPod Touch effectiveness in a learning context. Palalas, A. (2011b). Mobile-Assisted Language Learning: Designing for your students. In S. Thousny & L. Bradley (Eds.), Second language teaching and learning with technology: Views of emergent researchers (pp.7194). Dublin, Ireland: Research-publishing.net. This Canadian paper, a sequel to Palalas (2011a), describes the pilot testing of an iPod Touch-based program designed to support the learning of L2 English for Specific Purposes. It was trialed by 21 college students for ten weeks during which time participants used the iPod individually to create audio dictionaries and collaboratively to build an online repository of idioms. The majority of tasks involve listening comprehension practice, followed by recording of audio files which capture the usage of English in the real world. Palalas, A. (2012). Design Guidelines for a Mobile-Enabled Language Learning System Supporting the Development of ESP Listening Skills. PhD thesis, Centre for Distance Education, Athabasca, Canada. Retrievable from https://www.google.com.cy This Canadian PhD presents the results of an 18 month study that is the culmination of research previously reported in Palalas (2009), Palalas (2011a) and Palalas (2011b). The goal of this project was to develop guidelines for the design of a web-based mobileenabled learning system intended to improve the listening skills of college level L2 English for Specific Purposes students. Using desktop PCs and a range mobile devices, over 100 students undertook a series of eight tasks that depended critically upon listening comprehension to complete. Palalas, A., & Olenewa, J. (2012). Mobile-assisted language learning: Enhancing student learning with mobile phones at George Brown College. Contact North/Contact Nord, n vol n., 15. Retrievable from http://www.contactnorth.ca This Canadian paper explored the use of the iPod Touch as an L2 English for Specific Purposes learning tool which was pilot tested by 100 college students who used the device to create personalized audio dictionaries which they posted to a class website to produce an audio-visual idiom definition repository. Student teams also went on scavenger hunts, getting hints, directions, and maps through the iPods, completing language challenges and
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solving puzzles. Students shared their reflections on the learning to a voice-based blog. Palfreyman, D. (2012). Bringing the world into the institution: Mobile intercultural learning for staff and students. In J. Daz-Vera (Ed.), Left to my own devices: Learner autonomy and mobile-assisted language learning innovation and leadership in English language teaching (pp. 163181). Bingley, UK: Emerald Group Publishing: Limited. Retrievable from http://www.emeraldinsight.com This study from the United Arab Emirates describes the use of mobile phone cameras by L2 English university students who took pictures of their everyday life to introduce themselves and their culture. Firstly, this was done by 15 volunteers for the benefit of newly arrived foreign instructors. Secondly, 22 students wrote a paragraph based on the photo they took as an English composition course assignment. It was concluded that the use of mobile phone cameras was an effective means of fostering learner autonomy and intercultural exchanges. Papadima-Sophocleous, S., Georgiadou , O., & Mallouris , Y. (2012). iPod impact on oral reading fluency of university ESAP students. Proceedings GLoCALL Conference. n.pag. October 18-20, 2012. Beijing, China. This Cypriot study reports the results of an experiment that sought to measure the impact of iPod Touches upon L2 English oral reading skills. The six-week project involved 15 university students who downloaded three texts with accompanying audio recordings that served as models of pronunciation. Participants used the iPods to listen to the models and record their own pronunciation. The iPod-supported activity helped students increase their automaticity in speed and accuracy and improve the prosodic features of their oral reading. Paredes, R., Ogata, H., Saito, N., Yin, C., Yano, Y., Oishi, Y., & Ueda, T. (2005). LOCH: Supporting informal language learning outside the classroom with handhelds. Proceedings of IEEE International Workshop on Wireless and Mobile Technologies in Education (pp. 182186). Los Alamitos, CA: IEEE Computer Society. Retrievable from http://ieeexplore.ieee.org This Japanese paper describes the prototype testing of the LOCH learning system for foreign university L2 Japanese students. LOCH provides text and voice communication between instructors and students and as well supports collaborative task-based learning through the collection and sharing of multimedia data in real life situations via GPAequipped PDAs linked to a web server. A group of two teachers and seven foreign students trialed the system during a one-day field trip and found the system interesting and valuable. Pearson, L. (2011). Exploring the effectiveness of mobile phones to support English language learning for migrant groups. Journal of the Research Centre of Educational Technology, 7(1), 90105. Retrievable from http://www.rcetj.org This British paper describes a 10-week project that sought to explore the potential of a mobile phone-based L2 English language tutorial program (Anspear English) within a predominantly Bangladeshi community of immigrant adult learners. The application was used by one group of 15 as a supplement to their language course and also by a second group of 29 independent learners. The project findings indicated increased confidence levels for both groups and extensive use of the mobile phone resources within families.
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Pearson, L., & Anspear (2011). Family-centred learning for Eastern European migrants using a mobile English language application. Proceedings 10th World Conference on Mobile and Contextual Learning (mLearn) (pp. 714). Beijing, China: Beijing Normal University. Retrievable from http://mlearn.bnu.edu.cn This British paper describes a 14-week project that explored the use of a mobile phonebased L2 English language tutorial program (Anspear English) as a family-centred learning tool for Eastern European migrant families who had recently arrived in the United Kingdom. The application was used by 20 adult learners as a supplement to their language course as well as for independent study. Participants experienced increased confidence levels across English language skills, and particularly felt more confident in their writing abilities. Pemberton, L., Winter, M., & Fallahkhair, S. (2009). A user created content approach to mobile knowledge sharing for advanced language learners. Proceedings of mLearn 2009 (pp. 184187). Beijing, China: Beijing Normal University. This British work-in-progress paper describes the design of a mobile phone/web application (CloudBank) that combines social networking and user creation features with mobile phone communication and information retrieval functionality to create a collaborative tool to support a community of language learners. The application was discussed with two groups of international university students, one with 11 that focused on issues of functionality and terminology plus a core of six learners who focused on issues of detailed interaction design. Pemberton, L., Winter, M., & Fallahkhair, S. (2010). Collaborative mobile knowledge sharing for language learners. Journal of the Research Center for Educational Technology, 6(1), 144148. Retrievable from http://www.rcetj.org This British paper essentially repeats the description of the CloudBank project reported in Pemberton, Winter and Fallahkhair (2009). The system is intended to help international university students adjust to life in their host country by enabling them to collect and annotate via mobile phone interesting language and culture related content found in everyday life and to upload these content items to a repository. From the repository, the information can be integrated into websites, blogs, and profile pages, and alerts to subscribing mobile phones. Prez, B., Vigil, M., Nkleva, D., Jimnez Jimnez, M., Lpez-Mezquita Molina, M-T., del Pino Morales, F., & Sanchidrin Rodrguez , L. (2011). The Esepod project: Improving listening skills through mobile learning. ICT for Language Learning International Conference. Retrievable from http://www.pixelonline.net This Spanish paper describes ESEPOD, a podcasting project accessible via mobile phones that provides extensive L2 English listening practice complemented by collaborative online interaction. The project uses six-minute BBC broadcasts and was trialed by two groups of about 30 university students for seven weeks and ten weeks, respectively, using individual and cooperative blogs. More recently, Facebook discussion groups were used, resulting in increased student interaction. Participants acceptance of the project has been satisfactory.
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Perry, B. (2003). The use of pocket electronic dictionaries (PEDs) by Japanese university students. The Review of Liberal Arts, 105, 165176. Petersen, S. (2007). Mobile community blog: Enhanced support for mobile collaborative language learners. Proceedings of the 2007 International Symposium on Collaborative Technologies and Systems. Los Alamitos, CA: IEEE Computer Society. Retrievable from http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu This Norwegian article follows-up on Petersen, Chabert, and Divitini (2006) and describes the implementation of a multimedia class blog accessible via mobile phone to maintain a community of learning between university L2 French study-abroad students and their stayat-home teacher and classmates. Despite highly rating the idea of the blog, students only made 24 contributions over an 11 week period. This low level of participation was attributed to the lack of support for SMS/MMS blogging and general absence of a sense of community. Petersen, S., Chabert, G., & Divitini, M. (2006). Language learning: Design considerations for mobile community blogs. IADIS International Conference Mobile Learning 2006. Dublin. Retrievable from http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu This Norwegian article, a follow-up to Petersen and Divitini (2005), describes the design of a multimedia class blog accessible via mobile devices (phone, PDA, smartphone) to maintain a community of learning between university L2 French study-abroad students and their stay-at-home teacher and classmates. The blog focuses on the discussion French cultural topics (e.g., films, music, cuisine) to foster the exchange of ideas and data (text, images, sound, video), provision of feedback and maintenance of social interaction while students are away. Petersen, S., & Divitini, M. (2005). Language learning: From individual learners to Communities. IEEE International Workshop on Wireless and Mobile Technologies in Education (pp. 169173). Los Alamitos, CA: IEEE Computer Society. Retrievable from http://www.idi.ntnu.no This is the first of several Norwegian papers by Petersen, Divitini, and colleagues dealing with the use of mobile technologies to support L2 acquisition through collaborative social interaction in communities of learners. Two scenarios involving university students of L2 French are considered here: part-time students using MP3 players and mobile phone SMS to stay in touch with a class and full-time students studying abroad in France using text messages to share information with their stay-at-home teacher and classmates. Petersen, S., Divitini, M., & Chabert, G. (2008). Identity, sense of community and connectedness in a community of mobile language learners. ReCALL Journal, 20(3), 361379. Retrievable from http://journals.cambridge.org This Norwegian paper is an extended version of Petersen, S. (2007). It focuses in particular on the failure of a mobile-accessible class blog to create a community of learning between university L2 French study-abroad students and their stay-at-home teacher and classmates. Based on informal interviews with three students, it is concluded that participants lacked any sense of community from the start and could not establish their identities via the blogs, which are better suited to supporting existing communities than to creating new ones.
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Petersen, S., & Markiewicz, J-K. (2008). PALLAS: Personalized language learning on mobile devices. Proceedings 5th IEEE International Conference on Wireless, Mobile and Ubiquitous Technology in Education (pp. 5259). Los Alamitos, CA: IEEE Computer Society. Retrievable from http://www.idi.ntnu.no This Norwegian paper follows up on Markiewicz (2006) and in particular provides greater detail about the personal and contextual parameters of the mobile-accessible PALLAS language learning system. Personal factors to which the prototype system is intended to adapt its content delivery (e.g., exercises, texts, bilingual dictionary, exercise results) include the learners age, skill level, native language, interests and courses taken. Environmental factors include location, time, day and the mobile device that is used by the learner. Petersen, S., & Markiewicz, J-K. (2009). Personalized and contextualized language learning: Choose when, where and what. Research and Practice in Technology-Enhanced Learning, 4(1), 3360. Retrievable from http://www.idi.ntnu.no This Norwegian paper is essentially the published version of Petersen and Markiewicz (2008). It confirms the continuing prototype status of the mobile-accessible personalized context-adaptable PALLAS language learning system. The authors explain that, due to the lack of any content, the system has not been used by language learners and no user evaluation is available. However, the design of the system was evaluated by three university L2 French teachers, who overall were very positive about its potential usefulness. Petersen, S., Procter-Legg, E., Cacchione, A., Fagerli, O-T., & Nefzaoui, S. (2012). Lingobee: Creating a buzz in mobile language learning. MLearn 2012. Beijing, China: Beijing Normal University. Retrievable from http://www.academia.edu This paper presents three case studies undertaken in England, Italy, and Norway. These involved 63 volunteer international students of L2 English, Italian, and Norwegian between two weeks and three months using a web-linked smartphone-based application (Lingobee) that allowed students to collectively create multimedia entries for language and culture learning. Each study involved two groups, one that used Lingobee entirely on its own and one with teacher guidance. Groups lacking support made much less use of the application. Petersen, S., Sell, R., & Watts, J. (2011). Let the students lead the way: An exploratory study of mobile language learning in a classroom. Proceedings 10th World Conference on Mobile and Contextual Learning (mLearn) (pp. 55-61.) Beijing, China: Beijing Normal University. Retrievable from http://mlearn.bnu.edu.cn This Norwegian paper describes an exploratory study of the in-class use of mobile phones to access a server-based L2 English vocabulary repository (Cloudbank). The program enabled advanced language learners to collect, describe, and share multimedia language and culture-related content they came across in everyday life. The system was trialed for three months by 28 primary school pupils whose main focus was on the acquisition of figures of speech in English. Cloudbank proved a success in the classroom for both teachers and students.
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Pitts, C., & Weschler, R. (1999). Gadgets and gizmos: Gimmicks or godsends? Proceedings of the 1998 Japan Association of Language Teaching (JALT) International Conference (pp. 106110). Retrievable from 2012 from http://jalt-publications.org This paper describes the results of an experiment with 23 Japanese university learners of L2 English which focused on the relative look-up speeds of English words using a handheld English-Japanese e-dictionary compared to its printed counterpart. The results demonstrated that e-dictionary look-up was 23% faster. A survey also revealed that students used electronic and paper dictionaries in the same way and did not take advantage of the mobile devices portability or extra speed. Pyke, N. (1997). 1m heals reading blight. The Times Educational Supplement. 31 January 1997, p. 1. This British study was part of the Docklands Learning Acceleration Project that examined the use of word processing and PDAs to improve basic literacy skills of some 600 seven year old native English-speaking students in 25 primary schools in central London. The aim was to increase the amount of childrens reading and writing. Only brief anecdotal reports are given. Reinders, H., & Cho, M-Y. (2010). Extensive listening practice and input enhancement using mobile phones: Encouraging out-of-class learning with mobile phones. TESL-EJ, 14(2), n.pag. Retrievable from http://www.tesl-ej.org This Korean study reports on the use of a mobile phone-based audiobook to provide extensive out-of-class L2 English listening practice. To enhance a focus on form and meaning, the application slightly raised the volume of each occurrence of selected grammatical features in the book. The system was trialed for a week by 68 university students, most of whom were enthusiastic about using mobile phones for learning. Some, however, found the volume changes distracting and a number did not complete the reading assignment. Reinders, H., & Lewis, M. (2009). Podquests: Language games on the go. In M. Andreade (Ed.), Language Games (pp. 7685). Alexandria, VA: TESOL. Robertson, L.& The Le@rning Federation (2009). Mobile application for language learning: MALL Research Project Report. Curriculum Corporation, 148. Retrievable from http://www.ndlrn.edu.au This Australian report describes a six-week pilot test of the commercial mobile phonebased Learnosity language learning system by 95 L2 Indonesian students in 11 postprimary schools from grades 7-11. The project involved students viewing stimulus materials (photographs, a map, a menu, a travel brochure), listening via a mobile phone to questions in Indonesian about those materials, and recording their oral responses in Indonesian. Overall, teachers strongly supported use of the system, but 48% of students indicated they would only like to use it occasionally and 25% never. Ros i Sol, C., Calic, J., & Neijmann, D. (2010). A social and self-reflective approach to MALL. RECALL Journal, 22(1), 3952. Retrievable from http://journals.cambridge.org This British paper investigates over an eight week period the patterns of behavior that could be established from language learners use of MP3 devices by having six L2 Icelandic and six L2 Serbian/Croatian university students log their use of the devices in a diary, by having the teacher observe or elicit information in classroom discussions and
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conducting ethnographic- style interviews. It was concluded that MP3 devices could allow students to adopt a social practices approach and use a variety of locations to enact and rehearse a personal voice. Ruan, G., & Wang, J. (2008). Design of English learning system based on mobile technology. Proceedings of International Conference on Computer Science and Software Engineering (pp. 1062 1065). Los Alamitos, CA: IEEE Computer Society. Retrievable from http://ieeexplore.ieee.org This Chinese paper describes a language learning system that incorporates three applications for L2 English learners. The first uses web-enabled mobile phones to provide speaking practice by having students record responses to question prompts. The second supports vocabulary learning by sending a word or expression via SMS during class time. Students then use these in class conversations or a web-based text chat application, which they access on laptops in class. Students and instructors regarded the system very favorably. Ruge, B. (2012). Learning Greenlandic by SMS: The potentials of text messages support for second language learners in Greenland. In J. Daz-Vera (Ed.), Left to my own devices: Learner autonomy and mobile-assisted language learning innovation and leadership in English language teaching (pp. 197 212). Bingley, UK: Emerald Group Publishing Limited. Retrievable from http://dx.doi.org This paper from Greenland describes the use of mobile phone SMS in the teaching of L2 Greenlandic to adult immigrants. The method consisted of daily language-based minitasks sent by SMS and carried out face-to-face in collaboration with local L1 Greenlandic mentors. For eight weeks adult education students combined their SMS tasks with classroom instruction, web-based exercises, and video conferencing. The SMS-mentoring system helped overcome social and practical barriers that prevent learners from practicing the language. Salameh, O. (2011). A multimedia offline cell phone system for English language learning. International Arab Journal of e-Technology, 2(1), 4448. Retrievable from http://www.iajet.org This Palestinian study describes the design of a prototype mobile phone off-line multimedia language learning system primarily intended to support L2 English reading and listening comprehension. Each Flash-based lesson consists of several slides containing text, picture and audio followed by multiple choice comprehension questions. Pilot testing of the system by 60 university students revealed that it worked correctly on 73% of their (mostly Nokia) mobile phones. Overall, student evaluation of lesson content was very positive. Samuels, J. (2003). Wireless and handheld devices for language learning. Proceedings of the 19th Annual Conference on Distance Teaching and Learning, Madison, WI. Retrievable from http://www.uwex.edu This paper describes three experimental semester-long projects which trialed web-enabled PDAs used by American university students as an in-class alternative to a computer lab. The first project focused on an L2 Norwegian grammar and vocabulary review program involving a single class. In the second, PDAs were used to support 30 minute text chat sessions in an L2 French course consisting of six classes. In the third project, two Latin classes used PDAs to mark vowel length to learn scansion in Latin poetry.
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Sandberg, J., Maris, M., & de Geus, K. (2011). Mobile English learning: An evidence based study with fifth graders. Computers & Education, 57(1), 13341347. Retrievable from http://jacobijnsandberg.files.wordpress.com This Dutch article reports on the trialing of a smartphone-based GPS and off-line L2 English vocabulary learning game with primary school children. Two groups followed up a classroom lesson about zoo animals with a zoo visit guided by their GPS-equipped phones. Twenty-four of the pupils had access to the mobile phones only at the zoo, while 22 were also allowed to take the phones home for two weeks. A control group of 29 had classroom lessons only. Pupils who took the mobile phones home performed the best on a 50 word vocabulary post-test. Saran, M., Seferoglu, G., & Cagiltay K. (2008). Use of mobile phones in language learning: Developing effective instructional materials. 5th International Conference on Wireless, Mobile and Ubiquitous Technologies in Education (pp. 3943). Los Alamitos, CA: IEEE Computer Society. Retrievable from http://ieeexplore.ieee.org This Turkish paper describes the use of mobile phone MMS to support L2 English vocabulary acquisition. At fixed intervals, three times a day for 10 weeks, a total of 120 words were pushed to 32 prep school students. The system allowed learners to see the definitions of words, example sentences, audio pronunciations and related visual support, and take multiple choice vocabulary quizzes. Though objective data is given, it is claimed that using MMS in enhancing vocabulary knowledge was very effective and that all students provided positive feedback. Saran, M., Seferoglu, G., & Cagiltay, K., (2012).Mobile language learning: Contribution of multimedia messages via mobile phones in consolidating vocabulary. The Asia-Pacific Education Researcher, 21(1), 181190. Retrievable from http://ejournals.ph This Turkish paper investigates the effectiveness of using mobile phone-based multimedia messages (MMS) in learning L2 English vocabulary compared to delivery through web pages and printed form. The MMS included the definitions of words, exemplary sentences, related visual representations, word formation information, and pronunciation. The fourweek trial involved 103 English preparatory school students and tests indicated that students who were sent MMS learned more words than those who studied the web- and paper-based materials. Saran, M., Seferoglu, G., & Cagiltay, K. (2009). Mobile assisted language learning: English pronunciation at learners fingertips. Eurasian Journal of Educational Research, 34, 97114. Retrievable from http://www.ejer.com.tr This Turkish study compared the effectiveness of a mobile phone MMS L2 English pronunciation application to delivery of the same materials via a website and printed handouts. The materials consisted of 80 word definitions, example sentences, related pictures, plus for the MMS and the web application, pronunciations. The materials were provided to three groups of eight preparatory school students, one for each condition, for four weeks. The MMS group performed nearly as well than the control groups in a posttest.
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Schibeci, R., & Kissane, B. (1995). Learning with palmtop computers. In R. Oliver & M. Wild (Eds.), Learning without limits -Proceedings of the Australian Computers in Education Conference, Vol 1 (pp. 9198). Claremont, Western Australia: Educational Computing Association of Western Australia (ECAWA). This is an early Australian study involving the use of word processing on palmtop computers (PDAs) with native-speaking English language fifth-grade primary school students. Two classes were allocated the PDAs for three terms of an academic year for inclass and home usage. Although use of the PDAs improved presentation and facilitated spell checking, no significant improvement nor decline in writing skill was observed. It was concluded that the benefits outweighed the financial, human, and educational costs. Scinicariello, S. (2006). Podcasts in the language curriculum: integrating language, content, and technology. Paper presented at the EuroCALL 2006 conference, 47 September 2006, University of Granada, Spain. Shao, Y. (2011). Second language learning by exchanging cultural contexts through the mobile group blog. In S. Thousny & L. Bradley (Eds.), Second language teaching and learning with technology: Views of emergent Researchers (pp. 143168). Dublin, Ireland: Research-publishing.net. Retrievable from http://research-publishing.net This paper from Singapore describes two studies that used a mobile group blog (Nottsblog) to foster the linguistic and cultural integration of foreign university students in the United Kingdom. The first involved 12 newly-arrived Chinese students who described over a month their own activities and shared observations of British culture. The second involved 23 prospective British students in China who spent a 30 minute session reading the Nottsblog. Students in both groups reported that the blog gave them a sense of belonging to the online community. Shao, Y., Crook, C., & Koleva, B. (2007). Designing a mobile group blog to support cultural learning. Proceedings of mLearn07 (pp. 223226). Beijing, China: Beijing Normal University. This British paper reports on the design of a mobile-enabled group blog intended to foster the local cultural learning of international university students. The study was carried out over three weeks with 16 newly-arrived mainland Chinese students. Analysis of blog activity revealed five types of learning: awareness, information gathering, information transfer, information sharing, and feedback. Participants agreed that the use of mobile phones to capture visuals and send texts facilitated the understanding of the local culture. Sharpe, P. (1995). Electronic dictionaries with particular reference to the design of an electronic bilingual dictionary for English-speaking learners of Japanese. International Journal of Lexicography, 8(1), 3954. Retrievable from http://ijl.oxfordjournals.org This Japanese study gives the first published general introduction to handheld EnglishJapanese e-dictionaries and their advantages and disadvantages. It focuses particularly on the design of e-dictionaries intended for Japanese learners of English as an L2. Ways to improve look-up methods are considered in relation to their effectiveness for use by beginning and intermediate level language learners. Shimoyama, Y., & Kimura, M. (2008). Development of and effectiveness in vocabulary learning content for mobile phones in Japan. World CALL 2008 Conference (pp. 138141). Retrievable from http://www.jlet.org
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This Japanese paper investigated the use of mobile phones for the learning of L2 English vocabulary in a six-week study that involved 137 university students. Firstly the study revealed that there were no significant learning differences whether English/Japanese word pairs with audio occurred alone or with an illustration or example sentence. Secondly, it was confirmed that anytime, anywhere learning fit in well with students learning style. Lastly, the study showed that the use of mobile phones had little effect upon students learning strategies. Shinagawa, S. (2012). Adapting the iPhone for Language Teaching and Learning. In F. Zhang (Ed.), Computer-enhanced and mobile-assisted language learning: Emerging issues and trends. Hershey, PA: IGI Global (pp. 188201). Retrievable from http://www.igi-global.com Shizuka, T. (2003). Efficiency of information retrieval from the electronic and the printed versions of a bilingual dictionary. Language Education & Technology, 40, 1533. Retrievable from http://ci.nii.ac.jp This paper describes the results of a 50 minute experiment with 77 Japanese university learners of English which measured the time taken to look up English words and usage examples using a handheld English-Japanese e-dictionary compared to its printed counterpart. Word look-up speed was substantially quicker with e-dictionaries and this advantage was multiplied by the users familiarity with e-dictionaries. There was no significant difference between the two dictionaries in the time taken to find examples. Song, Y. (2008). SMS enhanced vocabulary learning for mobile audiences. International Journal of Mobile Learning and Organisation, 2(1), 8198. Retrievable from http://inderscience.metapress.com This paper from Hong Kong is an extended study of the hybrid website + mobile phone SMS vocabulary learning program described in Song and Fox (2005). Twice a day, four times per week for four weeks, between four and six thematically related words were sent via SMS to 10 volunteer adult L2 English learners. The experiment demonstrated that the use of SMS can work as a reminder and as a motivator for learning. Test results demonstrated a marginal improvement in performance and a positive learner attitude towards the use of the combined technologies. Song, Y., & Fox, R. (2005). Integrating M-technology into web-based ESL vocabulary learning for working adult learners. Proceedings of IEEE International Workshop on Wireless and Mobile Technologies in Education 2005 (pp. 154158). Los Alamitos, CA: IEEE Computer Society. Retrievable from http://ieeexplore.ieee.org This paper from Hong Kong reports on a pilot study that explores the use of mobile phone SMS to support the L2 English vocabulary learning of working adults. The system was trialed for four weeks by 10 volunteers as a complement to a web-based multimedia tutorial program. New words and expressions were delivered via SMS twice a day, four days a week. Test results demonstrated a marginal improvement in performance and a positive learner attitude towards the use of the combined technologies. Stockwell, G. (2007). Vocabulary on the Move: Investigating an intelligent mobile phone-based vocabulary tutor. Computer Assisted Language Learning, 20(4), 365383. Retrievable from http://www.tandfonline.com This is the first of four Japanese studies comparing the use of L2 English vocabulary learning software on web-enabled mobile phones and PCs. The study involved 11 university students over a period of 13 weeks. The program required students to choose,
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write or match words, definitions or translations. Mobile phone usage was very low, with eight of 11 students using their phones little or not at all. Learners generally spent more time per task when they used a mobile phone, but achieved lower scores than when completing the tasks on the computer. Stockwell, G. (2008). Investigating learner preparedness for and usage patterns of mobile learning. ReCALL Journal, 20(3), 253270. Retrievable from http://www.f.waseda.jp This Japanese study is a follow-up to Stockwell (2007). It evaluates the use by 75 university students over 13 weeks of an L2 English vocabulary program available on both PCs and web-enabled mobile phones. The study sought to identify how and why learners did or did not use mobile phones for language learning. 61.3% of students did not use mobile phones at all; 22.7% tried them, but quit. Students felt that PCs were faster and easier to use. Learners were not prepared to pay for using mobile phones for nonrecreational purposes. Stockwell, G. (2010). Using mobile phones for vocabulary activities: examining the effect of the platform. Language Learning & Technology, 14(2), 95110. Retrievable from http://llt.msu.edu/vol14num2/stockwell.pdf This Japanese study evaluates mobile phone compared to desktop PC usage of a webbased L2 English vocabulary program by 175 university students over a three-year period. In effect, it collates the results of Stockwell (2007) and Stockwell (2008) with the outcomes of a similar 2009 study. Though still limited, mobile phone usage was higher in the last year (35.6%) than in the first (17.4%) and second (14%) years. Lessons took consistently longer to complete on mobile phones, but there was not much difference in the scores achieved as a result of the platform. Stockwell, G. (2012). Mobile phones for vocabulary learning: do smart phones make a difference? In J. Colpaert, A. Aerts, W-C. V. Wu, & Y-C. J. Chao, The medium matters: Proceedings 15th International CALL Conference, (pp. 572574). Retrievable from http://www.google.com This Japanese study compared the use of smartphones versus non-smartphones and desktop PCs to access a web-based L2 English vocabulary program. It lasted one semester and involved university students, of which 13 owned smartphones and 26 non-smartphones. As in previous studies (Stockwell (2007); Stockwell (2008); Stockwell (2010), most students used a PC in preference to either type of mobile phone to do exercises, which took longer to complete with phones. There was no noticeable difference in scores achieved using either type of phone or a PC. Summerfield, G. (2011). Crossing classroom settings and academic disciplines while crossing geographical boundaries. In B. Facer & M. Abdous (Eds.), Academic podcasting and mobile assisted language learning: Applications and outcomes (pp. 147158). Hershey, PA: IGI Global. Retrievable from http://www.igi-global.com This American paper examines how university learners enrolled in a one-month L2 Italian abroad program benefitted from a curriculum which used iPods as repositories of study materials as well as tools for the recording of interviews. This study suggests that the use of technology was able to extensively engage students in language- and culture-based tasks and was able to cultivate collaboration and creativity while providing students with a real sense of an abroad classroom and a wealth of information and resources at the fingertips.
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Sweeney, T., Sharples, M., & Pemberton, R. (2011). Toponimo: A geosocial pervasive game for English second language learning. Proceedings 10th World Conference on Mobile and Contextual Learning (mLearn) (pp. 417420). Beijing, China: Beijing Normal University. Retrievable from http://mlearn.bnu.edu.cn This British study describes the design of a prototype mobile-based game (Toponimo) for L2 English vocabulary acquisition. Toponimo is a client/server application. The client runs on Android 2.2 devices and connects to a centralized server either via a Wi-Fi or a 3GS connection. The aim of Toponimo is to support the acquisition of vocabulary by linking words or phrases to physical locations via GPS data. Words are collected by the learner and shared with other learners in a social game. Tabatabaei, O., & Goojani, A. (2012). The impact of text messaging on vocabulary learning of Iranian EFL learners. Cross Cultural Communication, 8(2), 4755. Retrievable from http://www.highbeam.com This Iranian paper describes the results of a two-month mobile phone-based study into the effectiveness of SMS for L2 English vocabulary acquisition. 30 high school students wrote sentences for between five and six words per session, which were sent via SMS to the instructor and fellow students. A control group of 30 did likewise by exchanging written papers. The SMS group significantly outperformed the control group on a vocabulary post-test. Both students and their teachers had positive attitudes toward the application of SMS on vocabulary learning. Tai, Y. (2012). Contextualizing a MALL: Practice design and evaluation. Educational Technology & Society, 15(2), 220230. Retrievable from http://www.ifets.info This Taiwanese paper describes the design and pilot testing of an L2 English program that exploits the communication and multimedia capabilities of smartphones to complete a set of problem solving tasks intended to generate authentic interaction, discussion, and negotiation among language learners. It was tested by 35 primary school children, working in groups of between three and four, who used mobile phones out of class to collect and share Internet-based data and communicate with each other and their teacher to obtain information and guidance. Tan, T-H., & Liu, T-Y. (2004). The mobile-based interactive learning environment (MOBILE) and a case study for assisting elementary school English learning, Proceedings of the 2004 IEEE International Conference on Advanced Learning Technologies. Los Alamitos, CA: IEEE Computer Society. Retrievable from http://ieeexplore.ieee.org This Taiwanese paper describes an experimental L2 English vocabulary learning system (MOBILE) for primary school children based on web-enabled student PDAs linked to a multimedia resource database on a teachers notebook computer. For 12 weeks, 22 students trialed the system, which allowed them to download learning materials, browse the web, take notes and do tutorial exercises. A series of six pre-/post-tests confirmed that use of the system resulted in significant vocabulary gains. A student questionnaire demonstrated high levels of user satisfaction. Thabit, K., & Dehlawi, F. (2012). Towards using MP4 players in teaching English language: An empirical study. Journal of Engineering, 2(8), 2528. Retrievable from http://www.iosrjen.org This Saudi Arabian paper describes the trialing of a commercial L2 English learning program (Cambridge University Training Center), which was transferred to MP4 players
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and distributed to 15 university students for voluntary usage for one month. A post-test confirmed that students who had access to the MP4-based materials outscored a control group of 44 classmates who had no such access. A survey administered to the experimental group indicated a high level of MP4 device usage and satisfaction with the program. Thornton, P., & Houser, C. (2001a). Learning on the Move: Foreign language vocabulary via SMS. EdMedia 2001 Proceedings (pp. 18461847). Norfolk, VA: Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education. This conference paper describes the same experiment involving the teaching of English L2 vocabulary in Japan via mobile phones as reported in Houser et al. (2001). A half-dozen target words per week were sent for four weeks via SMS of about 100 words (definitions, multiple usage in context, story extracts) to 44 female university students at pre-set intervals three times a day for rote memorization. Compared to students studying the same words via PC and on paper, lessons delivered via SMS resulted in significantly greater learning. Thornton, P., & Houser, C. (2001b). Learning on the Move: Vocabulary Study via Email and Mobile Phone SMS. In C. Montgomerie & J. Viteli (Eds.), Proceedings of World Conference on Educational Multimedia, Hypermedia and Telecommunications 2001 (pp. 18961897). Chesapeake, VA: Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education. Retrievable from http://www.editlib.org This conference paper describes the same mobile phone-based L2 English vocabulary learning experiment as that which appears in Thornton and Houser (2001a). A half-dozen target words per week were sent for four weeks via SMS of about 100 words (definitions, multiple usage in context, story extracts) to 44 female university students at pre-set intervals three times a day for rote memorization. Compared to students studying the same words via PC and on paper, lessons delivered via SMS resulted in significantly greater learning. Thornton, P., & Houser, C. (2002). M-learning in transit. In P. Lewis (Ed.), The changing face of CALL (pp. 229243). Lisse, The Netherlands: Swets & Zeitlinger. This is the published version of the study described in the conference proceedings of Houser et al. (2001), Thornton and Houser (2001a), and Thornton and Houser (2001b). Thornton, P., & Houser, C. (2003a). EduCall: Adding interactivity to large lecture classes in Japan via mobile phones. In D. Lassner & C. McNaught (Eds.), Proceedings of World Conference on Educational Multimedia, Hypermedia and Telecommunications 2003 (pp. 18711874). Chesapeake, VA: Association for the Advancement of Computing in Education. Retrievable from http://www.editlib.org This Japanese paper describes a prototype audience response system that was trialed by 25 L2 English students during one university lecture. The system used student mobile phones connected to a website to conduct anonymous polls and administer comprehension checks several times during the lecture. Working in groups of three, students discussed questions and then submitted their responses, which were automatically collated and displayed to the class. The system provided greater interactivity and feedback than in a traditional lecture.
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Thornton, P., & Houser, C. (2003b). Using mobile web and video phones in English language teaching: Projects with Japanese college students. In B. Morrison, C. Green, & G. Motteram (Eds.), Directions in CALL: Experience, experiments & evaluation (pp. 207224). Hong Kong: English Language Centre, Hong Kong Polytechnic University. This article summarizes three MALL studies undertaken in Japan with university students of English L2: Learning on the Move, EduCALL, and Vidioms. Learning on the Move is described in Thornton and Houser (2001a), Thornton and Houser (2001b), and Thornton and Houser (2002). EduCALL is described in Thornton and Houser (2003a). Vidioms was a class experiment, involving about 30 female students during one ten minute session, to test the feasibility of using short video clips and animations to teach English idioms via mobile phones and PDAs. Thornton, P., & Houser, C. (2004). Using mobile phones in education. In J. Roschelle et al. (Eds.) Proceedings of the 2nd IEEE International Workshop on Wireless and Mobile Technologies in Education (pp. 310). Los Alamitos, CA: IEEE Computer Society. Retrievable from http://www.it.iitb.ac.in This conference presentation summarizes three previous studies undertaken with female Japanese university students. The first relates to a 2001 survey of mobile phone penetration, which revealed 100% ownership with a 99% rate of SMS usage, sending and receiving on average 200 per week. The second, Learning on the Move, is described in Thornton and Houser (2001, 2002). The third, Vidioms, is described in Thornton and Houser (2003b). Thornton, P., & Houser, C. (2005). Using mobile phones in English education in Japan. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 21(3), 217228. Retrievable from https://resources.oncourse.iu.edu This is the published version of the study described in the Thornton and Houser (2004) conference proceedings. Todd, R., & Tepsuriwong, S. (2008). Mobile mazes: Investigating a mobile phone game for language learning. CALL-EJ Online, 10(1), 116. Retrievable from http://callej.org This Thai article describes the pilot testing of a mobile phone-based English L2 reading maze game. Three short stories of between 50 and 70 pages each were created for the game, which involved students selecting how the storyline progressed. Because of screen size limitations, most pages comprised only one or two sentences. Glosses were provided, mostly in Thai, for words, phrases or difficult language points. The program was trialed for a couple of weeks by 28 university students, who reported mostly favorably on the experience. Tschirhart, C., OReilly, C., & Bradley, C. (2008). Language learning On The Go. In J. Traxler, B. Riordan, & C. Dennett (Eds.), mLearn 2008 Conference Proceedings (pp. 279288). Beijing, China: Beijing Normal University. This British article discusses the pedagogical and technical issues surrounding the development and trialing of five online L2 French language learning applications for the Nokia N95 mobile phone. Prototypes were developed for vocabulary (understanding instructions), grammar (relative pronouns), video (listening comprehension), oral grammar presentation (pass compos), and word search (descriptive words). The applications were tested by eight university students, who gave a very positive response towards mobile learning.
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Tseng, C-C., Lu, C-H., & Hsu, W-L. (2006). A mobile environment for Chinese language learning. In A. Mndez-Vilas et al. (Eds.), Current developments in technology-assisted education (pp. 243246). Badajoz, Spain: FORMATEX. Retrievable from http://www.iis.sinica.edu This Taiwanese article describes the general design of a PDA/Web-based system intended to teach basic L2 Chinese words and phrases to foreign spouses in adult education classes. No details are given, only a hypothetical user scenario is presented. Uther, M., Singh, P., Zipitria, I., & Uther, J. (2003). MAC: An adaptive, perception-based speech remediation s/w for mobile devices. Artificial intelligence in education (AIED) (pp. 110). Amsterdam, The Netherlands: IOS Press. This British paper is the first of three articles relating to a mobile adaptive CALL program (MAC) intended to help Japanese speakers of L2 English to perceptually distinguish the /r/ versus /l/ phonemic contrast. This article focuses on the design of the system and the algorithms used to present learners with more trials in the area where they make most mistakes. Initial tests of the MAC algorithm with a control group found a good fit between the observed and predicted behavior of the MAC adaptation. Uther, M., Singh, P., Zipitria, I., & Uther, J. (2005a). MAC: An adaptive, perception-based speech remediation s/w for mobile devices. Artificial Intelligence in Education (AIED) workshop on language tutoring. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: IOS Press. This British paper is a follow-up to Uther et al. (2003). It similarly describes the design parameters of the mobile phone-based adaptive CALL program (MAC) and provides details of the algorithms used to create /r/ versus /l/ phonemic discrimination exercises for Japanese learners of L2 English. Computer-based simulations of the mobile application found a good fit between the observed and predicted behavior of the adaptation algorithms. Uther, M., Zipitria, I., Uther, J., & Singh, P. (2005b). Mobile Adaptive CALL (MAC): A case-study in developing a mobile learning application for speech/audio language training. Wireless and Mobile Technologies in Education, IEEE International Workshop (pp. 187191). Los Alamitos, CA: IEEE Computer Society. Retrievable from http://ieeexplore.ieee.org This British case-study describes a ten-minute experimental test of the Mobile Adaptive CALL application, first described in Uther et al. (2003). MAC was designed to assist Japanese L2 English learners perceptually distinguish the English /r/ versus /l/ phonemic contrast. It adapts to the proficiency level of the user by tailoring phonemic discrimination practice in response to learners recognition errors. The system was trialed on a mobile phone by four non-Japanese university students, who were generally positive about its overall design. Vihavainen, S., Kuula, T., & Federley, M. (2010). Cross-use of smart phones and printed books in primary school education. Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on Human Computer Interaction with Mobile Devices and Services (pp. 279282). Retrievable from http://delivery.acm.org This Finnish paper describes the pilot testing of a web-based system for the teaching of L2 English that exploited smartphones to support the reading of L2 English by primary school children. Over a period of three weeks, 25 pupils used smartphones to take a picture of a page from the book they were reading and sent it to a web server that identified the text and returned to the learners three types of tutorial exercises: missing words, crossword
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puzzle (out-of-class), and text listening (in-class). The system was highly rated by the students. Wang, F., Chen, X., & Fang, W. (2011). Integrating cell phones into a Chinese high school EFL classroom: Students attitudes, technological readiness, and perceived learning. Journal of Educational Technology Development and Exchange, 4(1), 91102. Retrievable from http://www.sicet.org This Chinese paper describes 74 high school students attitudes towards and readiness to use mobile phone technology as an L2 English language learning tool. Students were placed in groups of between three and four and over a period of four weeks given the task of using their mobile phones to capture images of English street logos and signs to be used as the basis of a PowerPoint presentation. Survey results confirmed that students were ready and able to use mobile phones for language learning and felt that they had learned a lot from this activity. Wang, X. (2003). Palmtop electronic dictionary for Chinese EFL students: Help or hindrance?. Teaching English in China, 26(1), 2-5. Weschler, R., & Pitts, C. (1999). CALL to PEDAL: From computer assisted language learning to portable electronic devices for autonomous learning. Journal of the Kyoritsu Women's University Department of International Studies, 16, 2040. This early Japanese study gives a general description of handheld electronic dictionary (ED) features and investigates their use among university L2 English learners. It reports on a survey of 86 ED students which revealed that they used them mostly for reading, very little for listening and they didnt value much the word pronunciation feature of the devices. A single session class experiment with 47 students demonstrated that word lookup was 23% faster with EDs compared to comparable paper dictionaries. Weschler, R., & Pitts, C. (2000). An experiment using electronic dictionaries with EFL students. The Internet TESL Journal, 6(8) n.pag. Retrievable from http://iteslj.org This paper describes the same e-dictionary experiment as that reported in Pitts and Weschler (1999). The study involved 23 Japanese university learners of L2 English and evaluated the relative look-up speeds of English words using a handheld English-Japanese e-dictionary compared to its printed counterpart. The results demonstrated that edictionary look-up was 23% faster. A survey also revealed that students used electronic and paper dictionaries in the same way and did not take advantage of the mobile devices portability or extra speed. Wong, L-H., & Looi, C-T. (2010). Enculturating self-directed seamless learners: Towards a Facilitated Seamless Learning Process framework. Proceedings of the IEEE Seventh International Conference on Wireless, Mobile and Ubiquitous Technology in Education (pp.18). Los Alamitos, CA: IEEE Computer Society. Retrievable from http://www.computer.org This paper from Singapore presents two case studies, one of which involved the acquisition of L1 Chinese vocabulary first reported in Wong et al. (2011a) and Wong et al. (2011b). It describes the activities of 34 primary school children who were given smartphones to use for 10 months in school and out of class to take photos in real-life contexts illustrating Chinese idioms and conjunctions, about which they co-wrote paragraphs that they posted onto a wiki space for peer review. The children were very positive about the experience.
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Wong, L-H., Boticki, I., Sun, J., & Looi, C-K. (2011a). Improving the scaffolds of a mobile-assisted Chinese character forming game via a design-based research cycle. Computers in Human Behavior, 27 (5), 17831793. Retrievable from http://www.sciencedirect.com This paper reports on the Singapore-based study that was part of the collaborative learning research described in Boticki, Wong and Looi (2011). It was trialed with 37 L1 Chinese school children who spent two sessions playing a Chinese character formation game (Chinese P-P) using a smartphone compared to a card-based version. Most of the participants (~80%) preferred the card-based game, which allowed them to easily engage in trial & error strategies. As a result, the design of the smartphone game was changed to facilitate group experimentation. Wong, L-H., Boticki, I., Sun, J., & Looi, C-K. (2011b). Improving the mCSCL approach of a mobile Chinese character forming game via a design-based research cycle. Conference Proceedings Computersupported Collaborative Learning (pp. 168175). Retrievable from http://gerrystahl.net This paper reports on the Singapore-based study that was part of the collaborative learning research described in Boticki, Wong and Looi (2011). The content is essentially the same as that of Wong et al. (2011a). It describes 37 L1 Chinese school children who spent two sessions playing a Chinese character formation game (Chinese P-P) using a smartphone compared to a card-based version. Most of the participants (~80%) preferred the cardbased game, which allowed them to easily engage in trial & error strategies. Wong, L-H., Chai, C-S., Chin, C-K., Hsieh, Y-F., & Liu, M. (2011). Leveraging ubiquitous technology for seamless language learning: From Move, Idioms! to MyCLOUD. Proceedings 10th World Conference on Mobile and Contextual Learning (mLearn) (pp. 232240). Beijing, China: Beijing Normal University. Retrievable from http://mlearn.bnu.edu.cn This paper from Singapore discusses the design parameters of a server-based seamless language learning system (MyCLOUD) for primary school children intended to foster the learning of L2 Chinese vocabulary via tablet computers. MyCLOUD is to be progressively integrated into the curriculum of grades three, four, and five over a three-year period. The student module will consist of My Mictionary, a cloud-based personalized e-portfolio dictionary and a wiki-like CoMictionary for the sharing and peer-review student-produced artifacts. Wong, L-H., Chai, C-S., Chin, C-K., Hsieh, Y-F., & Liu, M. (2012). Towards a seamless language learning framework mediated by the ubiquitous technology. International Journal of Mobile Learning and Organisation, 6(2), 156171. Retrievable from https://inderscience.metapress.com This paper from Singapore is a follow-up to Wong et al. (2011a) and Wong et al. (2011b) regarding the design of a seamless language learning system (MyCLOUD) intended to address the challenges of young learners of L2 Chinese. It describes the prospective MyCLOUD initiative and discusses some methodological issues pertaining to it. The framework is intended to explore ways to close the loops in both the seamless learning perspective and the language learning perspective through an ongoing learning process mediated by ubiquitous technology. Wong, L-H., Chen, W-L., & Jan, M. (2012). How artifacts mediate small group co-creation activities in a mobile-assisted language learning environment?. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 28(5), 411 424. Retrievable from http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com
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This paper from Singapore focuses on the initial, in-class, preparatory stage of the smartphone-based L1 Chinese idiom learning program described in Wong et al. (2011a) and Wong et al. (2011b). It analyses interactions within small groups in a class of 34 primary school pupils in relation to a pedagogical approach based on mediation by artifacts and distributed cognition. The goal of the project was to nurture learners abilities to autonomously identify and appropriate in situ resources as mediating artifacts to construct individual and social meaning. Wong, L-H., & Chin, C-K. (2012). . (Development of a curriculum design framework for the mobile-assisted idiom learning process through design-based research). Chinese Language Education, 9(2), 6578. Wong, L-H., Chin, C-K., Tan, C-L., & Liu, M. (2010). Students personal and social meaning making in a Chinese idiom mobile learning environment. Educational Technology & Society, 13(4), 1526. Retrievable from http://www.ifets.info This paper from Singapore is the first of a series describing an application (Move, Idioms!) for the learning of L1 Chinese idioms through the out-of-class use of smartphones linked to a class wiki. For nine weeks, 40 primary school children were given smartphones to capture photos of real-life contexts exemplifying 29 idioms, to construct sentences employing the idioms and to send their images and text to their class wiki for sharing and peer review. The children, however, used the smartphone more as a gameplaying toy than a learning tool. Wong, L-H., Hsu, C-K., Sun, J., & Boticki, I. (2013). How flexible grouping affects the collaborative patterns in a mobile-assisted Chinese character learning game. Educational Technology & Society, 16(2), 174187. Retrievable from http://www.ifets.info This paper from Singapore describes a study of 15 L2 Chinese school children who trialed a smartphone-based collaborative Chinese character formation game (Chinese P-P) as described in Wong et al. (2011a) and Wong et al. (2011b). Pupils spent six one-hour fortnightly class sessions alternatively working either in a single group or multiple groups of their choosing. They adapted well to playing the games in both modes by figuring out strategies to maximize their winning chances and in the process gained orthographic awareness of Chinese characters. Wong, L-H., Liu, M., Chin, C-K., Tan, C-L., & Gong, C. (2011). Using mobile technology to extend inclass Chinese idiom learning to daily life: A pilot study. In C-K. Chin (Ed.), Teaching and learning Chinese as a second language: An international perspective (pp. 247263). Nanjing, China: Nanjing University Press. Wong, L-H., & Looi, C. (2010). Vocabulary learning by mobile-assisted authentic content creation and social meaning-making: Two case studies. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 26(5), 421433. Retrievable from http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com This paper from Singapore describes two case studies involving 40 primary school children. The first, which is a follow-up to Looi et al. (2009), lasted two hours and focused on taking photos with PDAs to exemplify L2 English sentences using newly learned prepositions. In the second case study, previously described in Wong, Chin, Tan and Liu (2010), pupils used smartphones for nine weeks to take pictures exemplifying L1 Chinese idioms. However, they did not treat the smartphone as a learning tool and used it more as a
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toy for game-playing. Wong, L-H., Song, Y., Chai, C-S., & Zhan, Y. (2011). Analyzing students after-school artifact creation processes in a mobile-assisted language learning environment. In T. Hirashima et al. ( (Eds.), Proceedings of the 19th International Conference on Computers in Education. Taoyuan, Taiwan: Asia-Pacific Society for Computers in Education. Retrievable from http://www.nectec.or.th This paper from Singapore is a follow-up to the pilot testing reported in Wong et al. (2010). It describes the integration of a smartphone-based system (Move, Idioms!) into the L1 Chinese curriculum in a class of 34 primary school children over a 10 month period during which pupils took photos in real-life contexts related to Chinese idioms, made sentences with the idioms, and posted them onto a wiki space for peer reviews. Due mostly to parental restrictions, only a minority of photo artifacts were created outside of the home or school. Wu, T., Sung, T., Huang, Y., Yang, C., & Yang, J-C. (2011). Ubiquitous English learning system with dynamic personalized guidance of learning portfolio. Educational Technology & Society, 14(4), 164180. Retrievable from http://www.ifets.info This Taiwanese paper describes a reading-based L2 English learning system which uses PDAs or smartphones with RFID tag readers and WiFi network connectivity to provide learners with location-appropriate texts to read. The system offers translations, pronunciation and explanations of words, sentences, paragraphs, and articles. A reading guidance algorithm proposes texts based on a dynamically maintained learner portfolio. The system was trialed for eight weeks by 113 university students, most of whom agreed about its usefulness. Yamada, M., Kitamura, S., Shimada, N., Utashiro, T., Shigeta, K., Yamaguchi, ., & Nakahara, J. (2011). Development and evaluation of English listening study materials for business people who use mobile devices: A case study. CALICO Journal, 29(1), 4466. Retrievable from https://calico.org This Japanese study reports on the effectiveness of a smartphone + web server program on the improvement of L2 English listening comprehension. It specifically targeted sales staff in a large Japanese company and was based upon audio-video clips of workplace scenarios and accompanying tutorial exercises .The program was trialed by 39 volunteers who used it on their own time for three weeks. Results showed that the materials were effective in enhancing learning motivation and improving listening comprehension performance. Yamaguchi, T. (2005). Vocabulary learning with a mobile phone. Program of the 10th Aniversary Conference of Pan-Pacific Association of Applied Linguistics, August 2-4, 2005. Edinburgh, UK. Yang, J-C., Lai, C-H., & Chu, Y-M. (2005). Integrating speech technologies into a one-on-one digital English classroom. Wireless and Mobile Technologies in Education (pp. 159163). Los Alamitos, CA: IEEE Computer Society. Retrievable from http://ieeexplore.ieee.org This Taiwanese paper describes a classroom trial of an experimental PDA-based speech recognition program intended to provide L2 English oral practice for L1 Chinese primary school children. The game-based system was tested in one 90 minute session by 32 sixth grade pupils who practiced pronouncing single words and short sentences. No significant difference in correct pronunciation matches were observed, but students reported an increase in confidence to speak and a high level of approval of the system.
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Yang, T-Y., & Chen, H-J. (2012). Investigating the effects of a mobile game on EFL learners vocabulary learning. In J. Colpaert, A. Aerts, W-C. V. Wu, & Y-C. J. Chao (Eds.), The medium matters: Proceedings 15th International CALL Conference (pp. 697700). Retrievable from http://www.google.com This Taiwanese paper describes the pilot testing of an Android-based mobile phone vocabulary game for the teaching of L2 English vocabulary. The application was trialed by nine university students. Based on the comparison between their pre- and post-test scores, the subjects were able to learn several new vocabulary items. A survey showed that students considered the mobile game helpful in improving their vocabulary knowledge, and they also recommended several ways that it could be improved. Yildiz, S. (2012). Use of iPad Applications to Introduce English as a Foreign Language to Young Turkish Learners. 2012 CALICO Symposium, University of Notre Dame, June 1416, South Bend, Indiana. This conference presentation describes the pilot testing of iPad-based English learning apps with young monolingual Turkish children and outlines the design of a mobile L2 English vocabulary acquisition system for such learners. Eight pre-schoolers in Turkey freely explored four childrens English vocabulary programs for a period of seven weeks. On the basis of this experience, 10 learning objects with a bilingual English/Turkish interface are being designed in separate thematic units to expose children to basic English vocabulary. Yin, C., Ogata, H., Tabata, Y., & Yano, Y. (2010). Supporting the acquisition of Japanese polite expressions in context-aware ubiquitous learning. International Journal of Mobile Learning and Organisation, 4(2), 214234. Retrievable from http://www.inderscience.com This Japanese paper describes the design and user evaluation of JAPELAS2, an enhanced collaborative prototype version of the context-aware vocabulary system described in Yin et al. (2004). JAPELAS2 is based on a PDA+GPS/RFID/Web infrastructure that allows users to interact with multiple partners and share information about polite Japanese expressions with other students. Based on a survey of about 10 L2 Japanese university students who trialed the system for 90 minutes, the vocabulary presented was appropriate and useful. Yin, C., Ogata, H., Yano, Y., & Oishi, Y. (2004). Supporting Japanese polite expressions learning using PDA towards ubiquitous learning. The Journal of Information and Systems in Education, 3(1), 3339. Retrievable from http://yebisu.cc.kyushu-u.ac.jp This Japanese paper reports on a user survey evaluation of a lab experiment involving the context-aware JAPELAS vocabulary learning system based on the PDA+GPS/RFID/Web infrastructure described in Ogata and Yano (2004c). In this experiment, 18 native-speaker Japanese high school students and 10 L2 Japanese university students used the system to provide polite Japanese expressions for a role play. Both groups of students expressed satisfaction with the system, but no objective learning effectiveness data is provided. Yonally, D., & Gilbert, S. (1995). Electronic dictionaries in the classroom!? Bah, Humbug!. The Internet TESL Journal, 1(1), n.pag. Retrievable from http://iteslj.org This is a brief article about the availability in Japan of handheld English/Japanese edictionaries for use by L2 learners of English and Japanese. The article enthusiastically and uncritically promotes the use of these devices for L2 learners, enumerating their general advantages for teachers and learners of both languages.
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Zhang, F. (2012). Combining the body and mobile technology to teach English pronunciation. In F. Zhang (Ed.), Computer-enhanced and mobile-assisted language learning: Emerging issues and trends (pp. 202219). Hershey, PA: IGI Global. Retrievable from http://www.igi-global.com Zhang, H., Song, W., & Burston, J. (2011). Reexamining the effectiveness of vocabulary learning via mobile phones. Turkish Online Journal on Educational Technology, 10(3), 203214. Retrievable from http://www.tojet.net This Chinese study investigates the effectiveness of rote learning L2 English vocabulary via mobile phone SMS compared to printed media. One group of 32 university students studied a total of 130 words delivered via SMS five-at-a-time twice daily for 26 days. A control group of 30 received the same vocabulary on a printed word list, which participants studied at their own pace. The SMS group significantly outperformed the control group on an immediate post-test, but a delayed test indicated no significant difference in vocabulary retention rates. Zhang, P. (2004). Is the electronic dictionary your faithful friend?. China English Language Education Association Journal, 27(2), 2328. Zurita, G., Nussbaum, M., & Sharples, M. (2003). Encouraging face-to-face collaborative learning through the use of handheld computers in the classroom. Human Computer Interaction with Mobile Devices and Services. Springer Verlag Lecture Notes in Computer Science 2795, 193208. Berlin, Germany: Springer. Zurita, G., & Nussbaum, M. (2004a). Computer supported collaborative learning using wirelessly interconnected handheld computers. Computers & Education 42(3), 289314. Retrievable from http://www.sciencedirect.com This Chilean paper describes the experimental use of wirelessly linked PDAs in a classroom environment to foster the math and reading ability of L1 Spanish primary school children. The trial ran for 20 days, 3545 minutes per session. In the language part of the experiment, 21 first graders worked collaboratively in triads to construct Spanish words from three syllables given alternatively on printed cards and via a PDA program. Significant learning gains were noted for both conditions, but the PDA usage fostered better interaction and negotiation. Zurita, G., & Nussbaum, M. (2004b). A constructivist mobile learning environment supported by a wireless handheld network. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning 20, 235243. Retrievable from http://www.cblt.soton.ac.uk This Chilean paper is a follow-up to Zurita and Nussbaum (2004a) and describes a classroom experiment that compares the ability of two groups of 12 L1 Spanish primary school children working in triads to construct Spanish words from three syllables presented to them via either a wirelessly linked PDA program or printed cards. The trial ran for 20 days, 15 minutes per session for the PDA group and 25 minutes for the control. The PDA group had significantly higher post-test scores on word construction with less time on task and less teacher support.
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NOTE 1. A few of the works have a publication date of 2013, but actually appeared online earlier.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to express my gratitude to the libraries at the University of Cyprus and the Cyprus University of Technology for their valuable assistance in obtaining the bulk of the papers in this bibliography. Thanks as well are due to the numerous colleagues who generously contributed copies of their papers to the database. The help provided by Glenn Stockwell, Mike Levy, and especially Gloria Chwo is likewise much appreciated.
ABOUT THE AUTHOR Jack Burston holds the position of Honorary Research Fellow in the Language Centre of the Cyprus University of Technology. His current research is focused on Mobile-Assisted Language Learning. Jack has been a member of the CALICO Journal Editorial Board for the past 10 years. He served as Software Review Editor of the CALICO Journal for 13 years and is as a former member and chair of the CALICO Executive Board. E-mail: jack.burston@cut.ac.cy
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October 2013, Volume 17, Number 3 p. 226
Call for Papers: Digital Literacies and Language Learning

Special Issue Editors: Christoph Hafner, Alice Chik, and Rodney Jones As digital media have become ever more pervasive in our lives, the concept of digital literaciesthe skills and abilities needed to read, write, and communicate in digital mediahas gained prominence (Jones & Hafner, 2012; Knobel & Lankshear, 2007). In part, the unique affordances that digital tools offer for communication are leading to a rethinking of fundamental concepts of L2 literacy and language education. At the same time, digital literacy practices play an increasingly important role in the lives of English language learners, with the virtual world of digital media now making up a very important context for L2 learners (Chik, 2012; Thorne & Black, 2008). In the context of L1 literacy development, there have been calls for integrating digital literacy practices in formal settings (see Davies & Merchant, 2009; Gee & Hayes, 2011; Selwyn, 2013). In L2 contexts, the issue of digital literacies has received much less attention. This special issue will address the challenges of digital literacies in language teaching and learning, with a focus on both the independent digital practices of L2 language learners as well as innovative pedagogical applications for such practices in classroom contexts. Possible topics include, but are not limited to: Language learners use of new forms of digital expression and digital literacy practices, e.g.: o Computer-mediated communication o Critical literacies online o Collaborative writing online o Blogs and wikis o Multimodal storytelling utilizing digital video/images o Social networking sites o Digital gaming o Virtual worlds o Remixing and mash-ups o Sharing and commenting in participatory communities Digital practices of language learners outside the classroom Digital practices and language teaching pedagogy New roles and identities of language learners in digital media Gender and digital practices Please consult the LLT Website for general guidelines on submission (http://llt.msu.edu/guidelines/ index.html) and research http://llt.msu.edu/research/index.html); please also notice that articles containing only descriptions of software or pedagogical procedures without presenting in-depth empirical data and analysis on language learning processes or outcomes will not be considered. Please send your letter of intent and a 250-word abstract by February 1, 2014 to llt@hawaii.edu Publication timeline: February 1, 2014 February 15, 2014 July 1, 2014 October 1, 2015 Submission deadline for abstracts Invitation to authors to submit a manuscript Submission deadline for manuscripts Publication of special issue
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Volume 17 Number 3 October 2013 Special Issue on MALL Articles

Announcements & Call for Papers

About Language Learning & Technology

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Language Learning & Technology http://llt.msu.edu/issues/october2013/commentary.pdf

October 2013, Volume 17, Number 3 pp. 1-5

MOTIVATION MATTERS IN MOBILE LANGUAGE LEARNING: A BRIEF COMMENTARY

Copyright 2013, ISSN 1094-3501

Motivation Matters in Mobile Language Learning

Motivation Matters in Mobile Language Learning

Motivation Matters in Mobile Language Learning

Motivation Matters in Mobile Language Learning

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October 2013, Volume 17, Number 3 pp. 622

IMPLEMENTING GLOSSING IN MOBILE-ASSISTED LANGUAGE LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS: DIRECTIONS AND OUTLOOK

Copyright 2013, ISSN 1094-3501

Hansol Lee and Jang Ho Lee

Implementing Glossing in MALL Environments

Hansol Lee and Jang Ho Lee

Implementing Glossing in MALL Environments

Hansol Lee and Jang Ho Lee

Implementing Glossing in MALL Environments

Language Learning & Technology

Hansol Lee and Jang Ho Lee

Implementing Glossing in MALL Environments

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Language Learning & Technology

Hansol Lee and Jang Ho Lee

Implementing Glossing in MALL Environments

Language Learning & Technology

Hansol Lee and Jang Ho Lee

Implementing Glossing in MALL Environments

Language Learning & Technology

Hansol Lee and Jang Ho Lee

Implementing Glossing in MALL Environments

Language Learning & Technology

Hansol Lee and Jang Ho Lee

Implementing Glossing in MALL Environments

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Language Learning & Technology

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Language Learning & Technology

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Implementing Glossing in MALL Environments

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Language Learning & Technology

Hansol Lee and Jang Ho Lee

Implementing Glossing in MALL Environments

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