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A HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
FROM THE SEVENTH
TO
PHILOLOGY
CENTURY B.C.
THE
TWENTIETH
CENTURY
AJ).
BY
HARRY
MEMBER
THURSTON
OF THE NATIONAL
PECK,
INSTITUTE OF
Ph.D., LL.D.
ARTS
AND
LETTERS
NetD
THE MACMILLAN
||ork
COMPANY
191
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right* reserved
Copyright,
191
1,
By
THE
MACMILLAN
COMPANY.
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up
and
electrotyped.
Published
October,
1911.
Nortoooti J. 8.
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CARISSIMAE VXORI
PREFACE
Long
experience
has
convinced those
the who
author
that,
as
rule, classical
most
students,
courses, of the
even
are
pursuing
informed
the
advanced
the
are
very
imperfectly
upon which
as
to
history They
subjects
be
they
in
are
gaged. en-
may of
trained while
various
ramifications
Classical
knowing
It
little
or
nothing
anomalous
of
Classical
whole. student
seems
an
thing
his
that
in
any
university
and
entire
should
proceed having
is
to
doctorate
Greek
of the
Latin
field
without
of
ever
had
conspectus
a
which should
he be
familiar
to
with
part;
that,
for
example,
of
he
able
give
that
no
intelligent significance
be
clear
to
account
the
Alexandrian
to
School;
the
not
of
the
Renaissance
sicist clas-
should
him;
and
that
that
Scaliger, Lipsius,
should have
text
Casaubon,
little
more
Bentley,
than
names;
Corssen,
and
Lachmann
be
he
should
learned
nothing
and
genetically
about
literary criticism,
criticism,
scientific Yet
such
linguistics.
is very
often
the
case;
and
for
though
censure.
it is to There
be
regretted,
it is not
reasonable
cause
Vlll
PREFACE
exist
no
manuals
in
a
at
to
information
lucid,coherent
which
a
manner,
the strand
unites
them
parts of
splendidwhole.
which
Grafenhan's
was
in four
begun
1843, is, of
de
quite obsolete
to-day.
Reinach's
as a
Manuel of
PhilologieClassique is
admirable
work
it does
form
continuous
a
The ago,
treatise is
a ment monu-
by
Dr.
Sandys, publishedonly
to
his
and scholarship
wide
reading; yet
volumes
be
a
the
plicity multi-
of details contained
in its three he
unnaturally deter
seeker
The after
student, unless
very
knowledge.
has, therefore,been
written with
present work
to
the
desire
give
comprehensive
and
comprehensible
first developed,
made
knowledge
and of that
of how
classical studies
evolution which
were
gradual
has the
Classical
time
some
Philology a
very
science, possessing at
aesthetic of
same
phases.
It has
seemed
as
best to mention
have
the
helped
sum
on
this
evolution
by adding something
The
to
a
of human made it
knowledge. possibleto
is
adoption of
into
a
such
plan
venient con-
has
compress
volume
of
the
bibliographical
more
will enable
pursue here
tively exhaustouched
particular subjectthat
has
been
PREFACE
IX
upon.
It
is
hoped
to
that
the
book
may
be
of
some
tical prac-
service
students
of
the
classics,
which in
in
helping
studies
them
to
see
and
understand
the
unity
of
their
is
too
often
obscured
by
matters
secondary
Harry
importance.
Thurston Peck.
New
York,
March
29,
191
1.
TABLE
OF
CONTENTS
PAGHS
Preface
. .
.
vii-ix
CHAPTER
I.
The
Genesis
of
Philological
Studies
in
Greece
5-27
II.
The
Pr^-Alexandrian
Period
. . .
28-87
III.
The
Alexandrian
Period
....
88-129
IV.
The
GrjECO-Roman
Period
....
130-191
V.
The
Middle
Ages
192-259
VI.
The
Renaissance
260-288
VII.
Division
into
Periods
289
VIII.
The
Age
of
Erasmus
290-300
IX.
The
Period
of
Nationalism
....
301-384
X.
The
German
Influence
385-455
XI.
The
Cosmopolitan
Period
....
456-458
Selected
Bibliographical
Index
....
461-476
General
Index
477-491
HISTORY
OF PHILOLOGY
CLASSICAL
INTRODUCTION
The
Definition Methods
of
Classical
of
Philology
Treatment
The whole
history of
intellectual
Classical
Philology
that
of
is the
history of the
from
development
of
the
springs
those
cal classiand
the
at
antiquity, and
sciences that have
growth
studies
interpreted and
of
thrown Rome.
light
It will
upon
trace
intellectual
once
history
evolution
Greece
the
and classical
the
of
literatures,
will chronicle
of
science
the
tory his-
Epigraphy,
Palaeography,
Numismatics,
and
Criticism,
Religion.
have been
"philology"
for many writer he
uses
and
centuries.
to
"philologist"
Plato the
in A
no
variously used
was
(428-347
words
B.C.)
the
first
Greek
but
employ
them
""t\o'\o7o?
sense,
and and
"f"i\o\oyia,
technical
in
only
in is
one
general
who
way. of
philologist
or
Plato's
dialogues
to
is fond
talk
who
not.
is much In
given
argument,
whether
philosophical
or
Aristotle,
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
is philology
love of
the Alexandrian
restricted There
so
period and
sense
Rome,
the word
was
often man."
to
a
the
of "a
scholar,""a
the
learned
was
is
in deep significance
fact that it
first
of the almost
applied to Eratosthenes
in his
day,
the
was
supreme
not
merely, or
a primarily,
student
of
language
a
amples ex-
and
but literature,
an
mathematician athlete.
Greece
to
and
one
astronomer,
of the best
geographer and
afforded
He
is
by
refute the
us
cheap gibes of
is versatility
petty
men,
who with
would sound
have
think
that
inconsistent The
scholarship.
word
"philology"
makes
the
speech; second,
learningin finally,
of the
its widest
down
to
From
the
dawn it
Renaissance used of
the
eighteenthcentury
in the
was
oftenest
cluding in-
and history
Thus
criticism
as
well
as
the
humanities.
Classical
Philology is
the
philologywhich
and
Romans.
relates When
at
to the culture-studies
the
great Homeric
Wolf, matriculated
as
Gottingen,he
and made
inscribed
himself
studiosus
the
philologies,
gent, intelli-
by
phrase the
critical
traditional
learning of
INTRODUCTION
the past;
so
that the
day of
his matriculation
(April8, philology."
1777)has
been
modern
opposed
in every
way
to
the
Otfried
not
strive to
establish
to
get
the
with acquaintance
in spirit
abstract
forms, but
to
grasp
ancient
reason,
its broadest
meaning,
in
its works
of
of
There
are
four
recognizedmethods
of
treatingthe
(1)The
with the
or Synchronistic
Annalistic
(2) The
of the history
in the persons
1
Since
the
study
of Sanskrit
as
the scientific
one
of investigation
new
the of
Indo-European
languages
related
another, the
science
the meaning Comparative Philology has arisen to complicatestill more of the word The Germans, therefore, "philology" when simply used. have
to
made
certain
distinctions
which
it will be
convenient
for us,
also,
is when modified by an adjective not adopt. Philology (Philologie) the general study of language; Comparative Philology is better styled logie Philowhile Classical Philology (Klassische Linguistics (Linguistik) ; Klassische is that comprehensive study Alterthumswissenschaft) or
of
antiquity which
of the word der
has
just now
been
defined.
For
see
the
various
ings mean-
"philology" at
to
different
times,
Grafenhan,
Ge-
schichte
Klassischen
Philologie im
Gudeman
Lehrs, Appendix
the
Herodiani
Scripta
1857); (Berlin,
1-4
and
the
references interesting
given by
in pp.
of In
his Outlines
a
of
is
History of
acute
Classical
remarkable there
passage
an a
contained
in Seneca's
30-34,
Haase)
comparison between the different ways in which a philologist, examine Cicero's grammarian, and a philosopherwould respectively Refublica.
treatise De
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
(3)
of
The
Eiodographic by
Method,
which
describes
the
tory his-
philology
The
subjects.
or
(4)
Ethnographic
Geographic
of
Method,
which
cusses dis-
the
philological
history
single
school
or
nation
separately.
In this book it is
proposed
exclusion
to
follow
no
single
but
one
of
these
methods
to
the
of
the
others;
to
give
general
mind the
survey
of
the
whole
subject,
symmetry
each
keeping
;
constantly emphasising
or
in
need
of
chronological
the
and
making
has
clear
part
at
which
nation
each
school
played;
individuals
and
the
same
time
bringing gains
an
into
relief
the
whose
life-work
of
added
meaning
from
knowledge
their
personality.1
See is
Fitz-Hugh,
a
of
System
of
of
Classical
Pcedagogy by 1903)
See
(1900).
Professor and Kroll's his
There Alfred
valuable
history
etc.,
and
classical
Outlines,
3d
ed.
more
(Leipzig
Berlin, (Leipzig,
also
brief
Philologie
1908).
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
horde
of
of virile conquerors
same
from
Thrace
is another
part
the
ethnic
theory.
their
These
conquerors, and
tracing
their descent
through
fathers
worshipping the
or
a
great male
true possibly
Zeus,
were
civilisation
of their
own
Asia, where
cities which
one
an
aristocracy
and
they subsequentlyfounded.1
and theories, it presents it
this is
only
of many it
many
difficultiesas
fact that
we
explains. The
to
importance of
very
a
lies in the
into the of that
it
serves
show
how
far back
past
must
look for
came
anything like
to
beginning
culture
which
afterwards
be
regarded as
and
Hellenic. essentially
The
at Mycenae explorations
Tiryns and
certain of the
arts, leave
us
still at
loss
One
regardingthe
is in justified became sections PelasA
early Greeks.
than
were
populated by
race
comprisingthe so-called
the
Libyans.2
migration from
the
the
north,moving slowlysouthward,
of what Greece.
was
overwhelmed
to
inhabitants original
as
destined
Professor
be
known
afterwards
Hellas, or
in
a
G. W.
1
Botsford
Ramsay,
has described
in the Journal
very
manner interesting
See
of
Hellenic
351;
and and
Gardner, New
Chapters in Greek
History, pp.
York
London, 1892).
2
See
The Sergi,
Mediterranean
Race.
Eng.
trans.
(London, 1901).
GENESIS
OF
PHILOLOGICAL
STUDIES
IN
GREECE
7
bands
the which
nature
we
of
this
migration.1
"
They
came
in
Their
warriors
travelled
foot, dressed
and
arrows,
in skins while
ox-carts.
armed
women
with and
pikes,
dren chil-
and
with rode
bows
in two-wheeled
They
found
Greece,
their
narrow
future
home,
country, with
valleysand
were
few
broad
plains. Everywhere
dense These
forests,haunted
Greeks
and
wolves."
of the Tribal
at
semimere
in their and
habits; since
first
built
of brush
clay,which
have
they readilyabandoned,
shifted their uncertain
new
they
must
habitations.
was
of their with
country the
no
line coast"
nearly straightand
came
harbours.
found
But
those
who
to
the
eastern
near
coast
harbours
at
everywhere
once
"
and
islands
boats
at to
hand.
They began
to
make
small
must
and
push
But
they
have
been
astonished
they
saw
strange black
much vessels,
enteringtheir bays.
Sidon,
'
These
were
ships from
them
1
an
ancient
commercial
men,
city,and
in
'
came
greedy merchant
the Orient
with
countless
York and
gauds
Botsford,A Historyof
See also E. The
and
Greece
zur
(New
London,
i. (Halle, and
1904).
Meyer, Forschungen
Oldest Civilisation Greece
alien Greece
vol. Geschichte,
of
the
(London, 1901);
The
Early Age of
(Cambridge, 1901,
Pelasgians as
were
foil.).A recent,
having
worked
true
this
fruits of which
appropriatedby the
Hellenic
the north.
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
for the
trading with
Greeks
were
the then
were
natives.
as
Though
as
in most the
respects
can Ameri-
barbarous
eager
to
North
to
Indians, they
ways
coast
imitate the
the
east
of
the
foreigners.The
Asiatic
arts
along
welcomed
and
to
From
use
these bronze in
build
Contented for
homes,
they outgrew
from the
their
roving.
Skilled workmen
the native
East
built
chiefs; artists
and
decorated
these
vases
new
painted,carved,
gems. Those
frescoed, made
who
were
polished
to
chieftains
wise well
as
enough
wealth
receive
means
gained power
bronze
as
by
their
weapons in
they conquered
course
their
uncivilised
small
neighbours, and,
of
a
time, formed
kingdoms, each
centring
in
strongly fortified
castle." The
contradictions make which any
an
meet
us
in
all accounts
of
early Greece
But
they
do
give us
as we
character it.
of the is
Greek
much
genius
have the
to
There
were
in plausibility
view
that
Hellenes that
connected racially
were
with
the
one
Celtic
peoples,and
they
not
of originally of
singlestock.
nomadic
Restless, brave,
life for many
mercurial, full
centuries made
their curiosity,
more
a
them
brilliant than
with parallel the
stable.
liticall Po-
Celts,in that
GENESIS
OF
PHILOLOGICAL
STUDIES
IN
GREECE
9 Roman.
they lacked
Their Latins
the national
cohesiveness
a
which
was
seafaringgave
had. On It
them
for
larger outlook
than than
the for
made
other
separation rather
it stimulated
unity.
and
the
hand,
the
intellect,
enhanced
To the
the
tion. specula-
adventurous, ingenious,
and
and inquisitive,
interesting.
The
monument not
a
of antiquity
Greek
culture
why explains
Homeric
the oldest
of
rude
Hellenic
the literature,
epic, is
a
specimen
of the
poeticart,
out
bit of
exquisite workmanship,
management
It is the of
wrought
colour
wonderful
sound.
lightand
final
and
melodious
climax, the
Homeric is
or
Although the
fairly primitive
the
mode of
people, there
their construction
to
that Iliad
a
be
discovered
very much
Odyssey,though
form
was
older, assume
definite fairly
somewhere
in the seventh
writing
Recent poems
as
the Greeks.
these
two
is scholarship
indisposedto
an
each representing
may have been does
however
numerous
the
not
which
us,
der
both
underwent
to
in
parts.1 It
1
indeed,
determine
See
Blass, Die
Mieux
Br6al,Pour
(Paris,1906).
IO
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
whether
student
as
a
there
of
actuallylived
an
individual
Homer. Homeric
The
Classical
Philologyregards the
which
to trace
epic
the the
pursuitsamong
their the be
that
period of
time
when Before
can history
tested
by
facts. been
generaluse
classed for
of
there writing,
the
name
little to
under
of there
formal
was an
although scholarship,
evolution and of the arts
fifteen
centuries
which the
to
must
study
have
explain.
Before of
period there
masters
been
thousands
after that held Thrace
poets who
became We
of the
of the
to
epic.
the
know
that
of of
Greek
this
be
mythical
and
such
as
Thamyris.
Finally,we
Thrace the
that the
more
the
centre
of
cultivation of
shifted from
came
genialshores
is
cribed as-
Ionia, whence
to
Homer.
The
chief is found
importance of
in its relation
a
the
to
epos
for
our
present purpose
and
even,
after
to
fashion, to
philosophy.
in
The
the
part which
the of
Iliad
Odyssey played
was
early period
poems
not
Greek
education
extraordinary.
all
These
was
were,
indeed,
the
In
basis
the
of
trainingthat
we
purely physical.
existed
as
schools,which
know
to
have
early
GENESIS
OF
PHILOLOGICAL
STUDIES
IN
GREECE
II
as
700
as
B.C.,
an
Homer
was
read, not
so
much
as
literature,
but
ultimate
authorityon
and
even were
were
warfare, medicine,
involved Homeric titles to poems, their
lands
which
by
an
appeal to the
consulted
according to the
this is
to
theory of theory is
in fact
poet is
one
who
says
bard
it
Phemius
was a
god that
of
into
my
various
ways
song."
touch of orientalism
in the notion
of Demo-
critus
(in the
are
great poets
sort
that is to
a
by
of
divine
frenzy. Such
belief accounts
for the
placewhich
Homer,
poets, held in
find the
germs
of
many
other
contained
studies.
in them.
to
made
of the unusual
words
each
tions relaall
of the
gods
be
to
other
and
mankind
An
an
thought
from the
to
explained by
or
Homer.
Iliad
as
Odyssey
a
would
silence
debate,
would what
the
as effectually a
pointed text
the the
from
Bible
end
the
controversy among
Bible
is to
Puritans.
Indeed,
Hebrew
Testament what the
orthodox
Jews, what
tians, Chris-
New and
orthodox
Protestant
is to orthodox
were
Muhammadans,
"
to
the
early Greeks.
12
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
reverence
for
at
learning was
their
entertained
among
them
the
authentic minds
historybegins.
of
men
affected the
in later
to
see.
centuries,
Even in
as
we
shall
presentlyhave
its existence which
was
occasion
our
own
days
is discernible scholars
in the have
minutely
made upon
same
critical studies
modern
even
regardingevery topicthat by
Homer.1
It may
was
touched casually
be
added
to
that
much
of the of the
which inspiration
ascribed
the author
to
Iliad and
the
Odyssey, was
called
and
also attributed
the minor
poets, commonly
imitated round
one
a or
the
Cyclic Poets,
themselves
There
were
who
a
largely
certain
Homer
confined
within
cycleof
tradition.
two really
cycles,
the
the
of genealogies and
to
gods
and
and
battles
a
of the
Titans
cosmogony; stories
nected con-
the
Trojan Cycle,based
War. The
at
upon
with
Trojan
the
most
one
celebrated of the
time
Cyclic poems
Homer,
but
were
Cypria,
or
ascribed
to
later to
Stasinus of
Hegesias,the Mthiopis
to
of Arctinus, and
the Nostoi
Agias, not
mention the
the
parodies by Pigres.2There
1
were
likewise
so-called
See,
for
Age, Adam,
with The
pp.
York, 1908) ;
Religious
of
Teachers
2
The
authority for
the
the
Chrestomatheia
See
Proclus Der
(412-485a.d.)in
York, 1898);
B. Munro and
the extracts
Photius.
Welcker,
Successors word
of
Homer
(New by
D.
meaning
of the Studies
a cyclicus,
paper
in The
of Hellenic
(1883).
14
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
"
tyrant,"the
to
brilliant and
committed the
is
a
said
have
commission Pisistratus
of four
learned have
In this, specialists.1
out
a
is said to
plan
The
conceived tradition
by
his
relative and
to
predecessor,Solon.
tradition and
as
referred
is
merely a
is based
only
upon
the
authorityof
later writers
such
Cicero, Pausanias,
the
Tzetzes.
text
Therefore
to
Homeric
It
Pisistratus
custom to
has
been
the
Pisistratus
"
with
an
number extraordinary
artistic.
of
innovations,
he is said plied sup-
Thus,
to
to
sumptuary
and
seed
laws;
so
have
the
with and
that
they might
leave have
Athens erected
themselves
to
to agriculture;
beautiful and
to
buildings;to
have
und
have the
regulatedthe superb
festival
rites religious
1
instituted
See
Flach, Peisistratos
The Greek
seine
litterarische
(Tubingen, Thtttigkeit
part in the
Herodotus
1885).
that work.
nor a
grammarian
(or seventy-two)
in
nor
noticed Plato
modern
times
Thucydides
Homer and
Aristotle,who
any
frequently mention
whatever
to
both
allusion So
this alleged
students
of the
posed disat
as
basis of
fact
all.
One
hold
more
opinion and
of
regard Pisistratus
at
text
of recitation
minute
consideration
lines. particular
infra, p.
20.
GENESIS
OF
PHILOLOGICAL
STUDIES
IN
GREECE
of the
to
Greater his
Panathenaea;
to
have
encouraged Thespis
thus moting proin
produce
the
primitivetragediesat Athens,
and open
to
a
Drama;
have
been
the
first person
Greece
to collect and
Hence
Homeric
case
it is natural
text
standard
should
not
been
ascribed
he
to
or
Pisistratus.
some one
In any
it does
whether is
reason
else
brought
he
pelled com-
it into form.
There
for
to
a
supposing that
the
of the
publicdeclaimers according to
a
portions
and is
poems that
arrangement;
in his time Homer made very few
text
indeed
recension the
was
undertaken
quotationsfrom
by
priorto
The
the
Alexandrian
period exhibit
themselves made that
slight
portant imof
was
variations.
Alexandrians We may
changes.
Homer
read is five
be
confident
with the and
our
identical substantially
hundred years
one
that
which
before
hundred
beginning
of the
Christian from
era.
Thus,
are
fifty-two passages
after and four
a
Homer
cited
by twenty-ninewriters
amount to
cluding in-
They
about
hundred
lines
contain
less than
dozen
not
in the
ever
ordinarytext.1
made of
an
Homeric
two
"
text, it
was
not
we
only
hear
official text of
"
the
"
great epics,since
civic
city editions
Die
or
editions," which
erwesen
See
Ludwich,
Homer-vidgata
als
voralexandrinisch
(Leipzig, 1898).
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
were
standards
at
each
so
in its
own
country.1 The
should
as
important
be
now,
fact is that
found
many upon
"
beginning
sources
of
Text
in have
which,
been
to
a
of
knowledge
drawn certain
extent,
aesthetics of that
language.
was as
to interesting
Solon
Iliad
so
accused
to
a having interpolated
line in the
make
it appear
had
taken
a
War,
so as
and
to
inserted
of
Odyssey
hero
bring in
We
the
name
Theseus,
national
as
of
Athens.
have, therefore, as
of all the times
"
early
the sixth
century, indications
critics in modern
difficultieswhich
beset text
due
to
variant
editions,errors
to
and ignorance,
also conscious
Nor
teratio alwas
suit the
of the transcriber.
text
Homer
the is in
only
a
author
to
for there
story
effect that
detected
was
alteringthe
for it.
oracles
of Musaeus
that he
punished
There is some
prepared edition
1
made
in
Athens, rather
Seven
of these
"
city editions
"
are
noted
"
the
Ionic, and
to
the
last three
were
All of the
editions
supposed
have
been
copies made
The
archetype
for
prepared under
editions
"
the direction
of Pisistratus.
term
"city
is ^86creis
/card ir6\"s.
GENESIS
OF
PHILOLOGICAL
STUDIES
IN
GREECE
than
a
among
had
represented
to
higher form
destined
come be-
Greek
Ionia
world,though
has
yet
won
supremacy.
the with
credit
of
having
first established of
we
regular schools
in Homer
paid
teachingof which
of course, music
trainingwith physical
medicine.
Doric The
some
instruction
in
and the
States such
Sparta
The
and
Crete
had
very much
the
same care
character.1 the
Bidiaei and
was
Paedonomi, under
age
use
whose
seven, arms,
as
a
Spartan boy
the young in
of
of
trained and
man
gymnastics,in the
in choral
was
dependedchiefly upon
his parents.
the
which
givenby
It is stated
by Plutarch copies of
that
the
the
Homeric them
a
Sparta,and
made
knowledge of
had
introduced abroad.
at
home
practicewhich
he
had
observed
Among
the is
earlyas
were
the in
seventh
a
century
B.C., and
as
these and
and
schools
1
then
Source
very
prosperous
condition (Greek
See
Monroe,
c
Book
Roman
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
very
largelyattended, they
Herodotus year 500
must
have mentions
at
been
a
established
long before.
in Chios
(vi. 27)
B.C.;
boys' school
of the
own
in the
and
vasion in-
the
Athenians
one
city
refuge at Trcezen,
to
of the school
thingsthey
arrange their
for their
period
of
temporary
exile.1 The
Mitylena^ans
of the
rightto
state
schools.
B.C., made
Sicily.2
to
teaching
of literature
an
appears
have
been
veloped, de-
adjunct to
of
to
instruction
in morals.
boys
at
school, and
the the
attend
school,was
This the
even anticipated
of learning
alphabet; for
alphabetwas
the
first taught
by
the
read learn
were
But
the
earlyappreciation
and
must
to
understand
prominence given to
which
not
so
this
study,we
took
remember
the
view peculiar He
was
the
Greeks the
a
with
regard to
master
Homer. of heroic
much
rather
great
moral with
poet, the
verse.
He drew
was
teacher, an
ethical
1
guide, who
his characters
10. Plutarch,Themistocles,
Diodorus
GENESIS
OF
PHILOLOGICAL
STUDIES
IN
GREECE
19 the
as
conscious
purpose
men
of
exhibitingin
emulate
was or
their shun.
actions As late
that qualities
Horace
should
who,
we
Romans,
same
concrete,
"
thought expressed.
he says
at
us
While
you
are
"
declaiming at Rome,"
I have
to
his
friend the
more
Lollius,
been
reading over
who
Praeneste and is is
writer
of the
Trojan War,
either is
tells
or
better
what
than clearly
Chrysippus
what is
Crantor
noble
not." And
and
what
base,
expedient and
what
farther
are
"
on,
Again,
as
to
what has
virtue
set
and
dom wisus a
able to
he effect, person
(Homer)
of
on
before
in the
Ulysses."
a
strenuous
was
insistence
thorough knowledge
his moral formal the
a
of
therefore
must
ing. teach-
remember
was
also that
the
education than of
given in
it is
school
us.
much says
less valued
in his Laws
so
by
that
to
Greeks
by
Plato necessary
knowledge
one
writingis
to
only
and range
far
as
enable
or
barely elegance
There
write
and
read;
of
with
is outside may
even
the
ordinary
education.
have
existed,as
against clear
the
were
and
because regularscript,
which
was
writing in
slaves.
"
books
we
done
a
by copyistswho
writes
"
When
say that
person
clerkly
hand the
is not
average
probably wrote
less diffi-
20
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
did not
have,
as
rule, much
as
occasion he
to
use
accomplishment.
of it. it
came
But
was
inasmuch the
more
memorised
his
he learning,
deeply saturated
with So
Homer
about
in As
a
that
a
the very
universal
resulted poems.
general
of It
the
was
Homeric
Mr.
Saintsburywell
acute
says,
that impossible
people so
and
so
philosophically
without
given as
the
Greeks, should
to
be soaked
in Homer
exercise
was
the
Such
to
indeed themselves
the
case;
and
a
thoughtful
great moral
began
who
ask
whether
as
teacher
and
faithless, deceitful,
at
debauched
could
and
be
reallya
moralist
were
contradictions
statements to
pointedout
Then
be
untrue.
a
began
attempt
of
to
give an
or allegorical
Homer,
which
should
the
preserve
authority
life. We
and
facts of human
at
find traces
Solar
Myth
about which
this
time, and
genious in-
the
Rabbinical
Here
not
Bible.
"
the
beginning
"
Literary
Criticism for
though
to do
literary
mere
in the
rightful sense,
and
not
it had
chiefly
other
with
words
the form
a
of Homeric
and
poetry.
1
Nevertheless, it was
beginning;and
10-12
in succeedYork, 1900).
Saintsbury, A
(New
22
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
new
form the
of
and religion
of
philosophy, while
to
he
the
was
arise among
Greeks.
seventh
began
the
be
Greeks
l
"
learned
from
Egyptians.
in
our
Dr. go to
Just as
Americans
time
Germany
of the all
sat
to
scholars
visited the
...
land
instruction.
While
Greek
our
culture
is,therefore,not
admiration.
once
it primitive,
commands of
The
mind speculative
the
transcended of
questions pertaining
It
merely to
wants practical
everyday life.
pierced study
thingsand
revelled in the
science."
Thales
and with
introduced
him
to
the
study
of Geometry
into
Greece
of scientific Astronomy.
as
The
attempt
the circle is
old
as
Anaxagoras.
matics. Mathethe it
pursued philosophers
stands
the
study of
Pythagoras,however,
life and
were,
'See
a
alone.
Around
of personality
mist
this great
as
of tradition such
Greek
Allmann,
La
Geometry from
Thales
Euclid
Tannery,
Geomelrie
and
A History of Cajori,
Elementary Mathematics
2
An
abstract
of
of geometry history
in
is
of Euclid.
GENESIS
OF
PHILOLOGICAL
STUDIES
IN
GREECE
23
remarkable
characters of
was
Moses of
to
Napoleon.
but after
Pythagoras
in the
Samos,
visiting Egypt
at
his residence
Crotona,
in
Southern
of
he
established
from the
to
which, drawn
a
mainly
under
the
tocratic aris-
formed class, of
brotherhood
bound
Pythagoras. They
of
were
by
vow
theories
them
and religion
the
philosophy.
and
Three
hundred
formed
highest caste;
they
were
admitted
judged
them
was
largely
thing some-
There
an
"
they took
oath
of secrecy
accordingto
not to
of their master:
Everything is
them
be
told to
temperance,
which
and self-control,
ethical
"
righteousness
music of the of the
should
make
is to
the
spheres,"that
universe.
and
ran
harmony through
This
of harmony principle
all the
metic, arith-
comprised music,
There is
a
astronomy.
the
story which
scale
he discovered
produced
an
anvil,
those
suspending by stringsother
hammers. respective the so-called the Pons He
weights equal
is said to in have
to
of the
Asinorum
geometry.
souls
"
Religion he taught
transmigrationof
doc-
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
he had
probably learned
in India. his
The
essence
no
teaching;but
of
uine. gen-
the
was
Italian very
wards afterthe
Athenians,
that
Pythagorean
in the
arose,
cult endured
for many
centuries.1
School of
Finally,
sixth
philosophy
numbering
teachers, distinguished
as
having rejectedthe
and
God,
that
with the
Parmenides
senses
Zeno, both
us
asserted
cannot
teach
truth,
the mind.2
with
The
study
of
nature, which
began
the Homer
School, led
to the
originof
of
another
science.
long
been
the
basis
geographicalknowledge.
the other
On
statements, Hesiod
It may
and
be
said
far
without
as
exaggeration that
existed before
geography, so
the seventh
it had
was
the middle
the
century,
the
spread
of Homer.
among The
Greeks
through
poems
children in the
of the
schools,and the
elders who
heard
the declamations
the
rhapsodes,thus
1
became
acquainted with
cities, rivers,
et
Die Pytkagoreer (Posen, 1841); Chaignet, Pythagore Gleditsch, his so-called Golden
la
Verses,
edition Gottling's
of
Hesiod
Schnee-
History of Ancient
Philosophy, pp.
46-52. English
GENESIS
OF
PHILOLOGICAL
STUDIES
IN
GREECE
2$ logue Catatribes.
and
mountains of
of
Greece, and
the
names
the
Ships) with
Hellenic
But
after first-hand
men
knowledge
to
so
had
a
been
more
gained by travel,
exact
learned
began
formulate
that
view
of
physicalgeography,
with
them of
the
science
is said world
as
of
to
Miletus of the
largescale
His
map
he
supposed it to
constructed
a
Hecataeus compatriot,
bronze
which
the
were
sphereof
the
the earth,
of
sea, and
the
courses
of the rivers
not
given. Maps
countries,however, had
were
from
In
persons
manner
who
travelled
the data
on
business
or
from
curiosity.
this
necessary
were
for the
preparation
of
To who
Descriptive Geography
this the
gradually accumulated.
were
great contributors
western coast
Hanno
of
Carthage,
exploredthe
and
of
Himilco,
contact
such the
of
the
Greeks
and
came
into
direct
with the
Persians
Egyptians.3 Hecataeus
adding
a
corrected of
chart of Anaximander,
tary commen-
which
fragments
are
preserved in quotations.4
written
This
by
any
Greek.
See Bunbury, A
History of Ancient
Antichan,
Les
Grands 34-.35Th.
Voyages
(Paris,
1891); and
4
infra, pp.
by
on
Edited
Schaffer
C.
and
Miiller
(Paris,1841).
See
the
monograph
by
Hecataeus
(Berlin, 1885).
26
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
and
Hecataeus
committed
their
Prose. in
Until
been
employed
followed But
even
discussion philosophical
in later times
cast
an
example
Romans. of
by
Lucretius
among the
the
descriptive geography
form, though
aside
restraints
metrical
character.
still maintaining a
highlypoetical
true
it become
turns
prose,
but
was
phrases and
writers.
x
of
rowed borexpression
from
were
the
as
epic
Those
and
who
employed
it
known
Logographi;
their
to
mingle,with
remarks
not
of countries,anecdotes descriptions
and
geographical. In strictly
their works,
was
we therefore,
find the
at
than
comes
simply written.
Herodotus, who
with
development
combined
later with
descriptive geography
also with the
name
the
story of
nations, interwoven
that him he of
"
personalobservations, so
Grafenhan
has
deserves
the
which
given
Humboldt
seen
of
Antiquity."
of the
Thus
it will be
that out
the
study and
of many
criticism kinds of
of Homer
there
came
elements
learning. Homeric
study
fostered
mathematical,
graphical geo-
it led other
poets
to
write
in
imitation
of
their
great
as
model.
a
Though
Homer
ceased gradually
to be
viewed
universal
of the
Greeks,
so
"Koyoypdcpoi.
GENESIS
OF
PHILOLOGICAL
STUDIES
IN
GREECE
27
long given
it endure
a
to
his
poetry, exercised
the
time His
an
influence
he lines
was
which held
made
to
far
beyond
when
be
a
wholly inspired
man's
writer.
great
had
His
were
become
part of every
his
intellectual
equipment.
utterances,
of
phrases,
as
epithets, his
in the Bible the
many
gnomic
firmly
of
in
embedded
daily speech
and
of of
the
Greeks,
are
as
those
the
our
English
own.
Shakespeare
him
we
embedded
the
sources
In
study
are
to
find
of
Greek
learning.
and
Afterward,
in
while
men
forsaking
still turned
him
to
as
guide
a
in morals
master
science,
him
as
great strong
of
language
and
an
unconscious
model
of
yet harmonious
"
expression.
addition
to
[Bibliography.
chapter,
i
see
In
cited
in the
preceding Philologie,
also
;
Grafenhan, Reinach,
;
Geschichte Manuel
Classischen
(Bonn,
2
1843)
Philologie
sur
Classique,
de la
2d
ed.
vols.
chez
(Paris, 1885)
les Grecs
pp.
Egger,
VHistoire A
tique Cri-
(Paris, 1887);
1-51,
Sandys,
History
of
Classical Homer
Scholarship, i.
2d
ed.
(Cambridge,
Griechische
1908); Jebb,
AlterthUmer, Study (London,
(Glasgow,
1887);
;
Schdmann,
Handbook
4th
ed.
;
(Berlin,1897)
Cara,
Gli
Browne,
oj Homeric 1902);
York,
1005)
Hethei
Pelasgi
5
(Rome, (New
E.
oj
Greece, Eng.
What and have
the
trans.,
Greeks
vols.
1868-
Mahaffy,
York
done
for
Modern
Civilisation?
(New
London,
1909).]
II
THE
PR^E-ALEXANDRIAN
PERIOD
(500-322
Throughout in the
B.C.)
seventh
sixth had
and
centuries,
acy suprem-
Greek
culture
To
been
due in the
held
the
by
the
Ionians
of
Asia
which Hellas
Minor. have
them
were
intellectual
efforts In had
been
described
preceding chapter.
and
proper,
a
however,
both
which
was
Athens
Sparta
achieved
prominence
wise and
full of rule of
latent
ties. possibiliand
at
The
tratus
temperate
and the
Solon
which
Pisis-
in
Athens,
institutions
Sparta
each of
were
ascribed
States best
fitted
these
are
play
in
the
important
Athens
roles
and
by
which
they
were
known in almost
history.
Sparta
different
every
respect.
Athens
was
democratic,
brilliant, and
given
first of
all to
to
intellectual
a
activity. discipline,
Sparta
and States
was
aristocratic, subjected
of all for
strict
caring first
had
warlike
power.1
control
that
These
over
two
been which
gradually
touched
acquiring
own;
so
the sixth
territories
their
in
the
century
1
they
Jannet,
became
possessed
Sociales
.
of
civilisation
2d
based (Paris,
See
Les
Institutions
d
. .
Sparte,
ed.
1880).
28
30 Marathon under
ten
were
a
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
(490 B.C.).
Datis and
One
hundred
were
thousand
Persians
Artaphernes
under
pitted there
The
against
Asiatics
thousand routed
Athenians with
great loss,and
sent victory
thrill of Modern
was
Hellas.
of exploit that F. nians the Athebeen says, for
a
it has
misunderstood
"
since.
Professor
K.
Geldner
battle
Probably
the
Greeks,
the
after
having
as
avoided
long time,
and
fell upon
Persians
they
were
departing, already
had have
was
manded com-
after especially
*
their
embarked."
If the able
doubtless
been in
Making
allowances, however, it
since the
to
Persians
abandoned
the
campaign
once
returned
Asia.
Therefore, Athens
influence
new
leaped at
enhanced
which
was
when,
ten
later,the
An
king,
under
enormous
through
Macedonia
Thrace,
and The
an
overwhelming
Spartans, who
of
now
rushed
to
arms,
glorious defeat
routed the
Thermopylae
off in
The while
Persians
Salamis;
both
Athenians
and
Spartans united
behind
also
disordered
Plataea.
troops
of Persia
1
their
Finally,
Sec
(Berlin,1893).
THE
PR^-
ALEXANDRIAN
PERIOD
the
Ionians,
on
the
same
the
sightof
of their who
Grecian
servitude
out
ships,shook
and
the
shackles
men
destroyedthe sixtythousand
been
remained Xerxes.1
two
led forth
by
The
Persian
Wars
may
seem
to
have
had
no
direct
in
relation to the
historyof
Greeks
Classical
to
Philology;yet
fact,
by compelling the
these
put forth
them
splendid triumphs
wherever activity
stimulated
race was
the
Such represented.2
stimulation
serve
as
is the
a
so
result of every
of human Wars
great
war,
and
it may
well
which wasted
vindication
in heavily The Punic
many
historic in
struggles
have
cost
apparently
to the
treasure.
first
real
floweringof
Italian
a
genius.
Wars
which
the
golden
so
Augustan Age.
the
France
was
never
in as glorious, intellectually,
under battle-years
Wars.
Louis
XIV,
and
again amid
the
Napoleonic
The
heroic
made
the Elizabethan
of literature and
superblymemorable
so
in the annals
science; and
1
did her
with
See
Cox, The
for in
Greeks
and the
'Note,
Athenians
example,
activity displayed by
Men the urgent advice of the
the
enlargingtheir city'swalls.
this
of every
station, women,
under children, in
mighty
even
Themistocles,engaged
tombs
to
temples
and
afford
material
for the
32 the Corsican
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
Emperor,
a
when
at
times in her
entirely
success.
alone, with
Warfare
of men,
on
haughty
confidence
both
It
alike
to
by
cast
by
nations
love inglorious
once
joy
the
conflict stir at
the
senses,
imagination.
it is that
a we
Hence
of
find in the
Persian
the
ning begin-
great and
most
splendid career
Athens,
as
Hellenic
won
States, and
which
rouse
such
brilliant victories
and
to
field
the
to
Hellenic
the
centre
now
pride
of all for
make
the
arts
as
cityof
well
were
violet
crown
Hellas, in
the rise of
as
arms.
We
must
look
men
who
for the
ment develop-
of those
studies
two
been
only nebulously
Certain of the
tends ex-
visible in the
men
preceding centuries.
famous
who from
became
early in
of the
this
period,which
Wars
to the
Persian
death
of
Aristotle,won
which
chief distinction
to
through
the
spirati in-
them
because among
assault
Theban
on
Greece.
Conspicuous
the The
Pindar, greatest of
were
all the
lyric poets.
was no
Thebans
Pindar
local
his pour
Hellenic
race;
and
to
Persians
led him
of
the note
patriotic
THE
PILE-ALEXANDRIAN
PERIOD
33
pride.
him
a
Because
of
this,his fellow-Thebans
the Athenians
imposed
to
on
paid back
him
twofold
The
besides
mention
was
a erecting
statue
in his honour.
us
of
Pindar
leads
with The
to
note art
that
among
Lyric
the
Poetry
^olians
most
conscious
form primitive
poetry, and
a
of emotion
a concomitant self-expression,
dance, a primitive
vocal
after
of expression
the
"
play instinct,"seekingnaturally
This
which Then which
rhythmic movement.1
measure,
metrical primitive
peoples.
hexameter dactylic
this
we
by
side with
was
hexameter, however,
in song.
lighter lyrical
Iambic
movement
cultivated
a
Elegiac and
Poetry
and Melic
was
forms
so
transition
to
was
from
the
verse
known
Poetry, which
to
be
sung
to
musical
artistic
not
Terpander of
In the ^Eolic
earlyas
B.C.
contemporary, Sappho,
So the
it
complete and
Scherer,Poetik
varied
form.
jovial poems
W.
York, 1908).
D
34
HISTORY
OP
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
of
Anacreon
time.
(550 B.C.)
Yet it
was
were
composed
a
Pindar's
Pindar,
at
Dorian, who
of the Persian
Simonides
and
nephew, Bacchyl-
splendid
led
Herodotus
victories of
of
Hellas
over
its
eastern to
foes
write which
Halicarnassus
in nine
must
B.C.
in
Asia books
Minor
at
a
his remarkable is
narrative
date the
uncertain,but
the keen
"
which
have
been
about
a
middle
of
fifth
century
a
Herodotus,
great
a traveller,
observer,
the Father
a
collector of
of
sort
facts, interesting
We have
seen,
has been
styled
History."
had who
a
however, that
history of
was
been
cast
written aside
by
the
the
Logographi.2 It
annalistic
once
Herodotus
wrote
dry
form
and
in
prose
style that
is at it
highly picturesque,for
This
retains
genial,
learned, and
his
for the
subjectof
a
is, indeed,
Hellas shows: and
"
great East,
prose
as
the
This
is
of publication
to
of Herodotus of
men
of
not
Halicarnassus,
be obliterated Mattel,
to
2
the end
may
won-
by time, and
great and
the
See
Die
duction intro-
Smyth's
Greek
See p. 26.
THE
PRJS-
ALEXANDRIAN
PERIOD
35 and
"
derful achievements
may
to
not
wrought
be
both
by
Greeks
by
barians bar-
divested
cause
of their
glory
to
and,
wage
over, more-
explain the
which
led them
war
upon
Contemporary
lene,of
lived to the
was
Hellanicus
of
Mityhe
whose
a
works
Though
none
very
old age,
in
406
B.C., he had
of
charm literary
of the
prose.
Nevertheless, he
like
a
something
logical chrono-
arrangement
and
of
history
cepted ac-
mythology;
for
more
and than
regarding them
after of his
were
century
student
death.
He His
likewise
was
profound
Genealogy.
of much
notes
the made
later
historians; while
his extensive
the
of
Herodotus
mine
during
on
travels
were
rich
for writers
DescriptiveGeography.
Wars
War
Just as
so
the Persian
had
given Herodotus
theme,
the
Peloponnesian
who
has
written. who
This
wrote
was
Thu-
an B.C.),
Athenian
history
two
"
between
the
leadingStates
Athens allieson
and
of the race,
her allies on
the
one
side,and
was
Sparta and
of wealth
her
and
Thucydides
man
character. became
an
been
cultivated until it
and delicacy,
instrument
of remarkable
power,
36
finish. and
on
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
He
had
on
the
an
one
hand
the
scientific
spirit,
almost
unrivalled out, he
giftof literary
was
expression. When
of age, with
the
war
broke
all his
faculties at
their very
he
thus, most
the naturally,
*
historywhich
what he
in
eightbooks
for written with
desired it to be,
session poshad
was
e? {jcrrjixa
det).
Herodotus narrative
great charm
anecdote and
of
style. His
illumined
He
was
a
by
the narration
on
of curious the
a
facts.
prose
poet.
Thucydides,
other
hand,
combined
with judicialimpartiality
Lord that
manly, moving
was
eloquence.
finest prose and
to
Macaulay
has
ever
said that
his prose
the
yet been
written
by
any
seems
man;2
often
more
this in
be
spiteof
what
to the modern
mind
extreme
obscurity. His
in that
is impartiality
the
remarkable
and in
he
was
writingcontemporaneous
an
tory, his-
that
he To
was
himself
Dr.
Athenian B.
and
"
took There
part
is
the
war.
quote
F.
Jevons:
which
tained enter-
uniformly
favourable
than
owes
the
to
history of Thucydides.
his
to
1
This
high
distinction
as impartiality
narrator;
he
the
the
The of
masterly concentration
eighth book
is
of
is
incompleteand
regarded as
not
work
2
Thucydides himself.
also said of himself
Macaulay
perhaps dare
never
to
believe that
he could
equal the
prose of
he would writer,
attempt
book
Thucydides.
38
also
to
an
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
Athenian, is the
third
great historian
to
a
givelustre
mercenary
the Prse-Alexandrian
a
Period.
Serving as
in
Greek
force raised
by Cyrus
his
to
in experiences
the Anabasis,
work
which
be
read and
in
our
secondary schools
its
both
vivacityof
narrative, and
the
in
observed
seven
by Xenophon
which make
and
up
recorded faithfully
the
an
books
the work.
and
Xenophon
as
historian he
is
an
is inferior to
Herodotus
his
Thucydides, but
admirable
Besides
writer,as
persistent popularity
a
of history
which (Hellenica)
work of
practically completed
unlike whom with the
the
finished un-
Thucydides,
he
wrote
with
contrast
stern
partiali im-
did
not
confine
treatises which
with
Political Science On
(theLacedcemonian
Polity,
well
the
as
Cyropadia, and
Finances) as
famous
quasi-ethical monographs,
Memorabilia is not
of which in
a
is the
of
Socrates.
Xenophon
to
writes
dialect which
purelyAttic,owing
from
the
fact of his
long and
In the introduced
frequentabsences
histories of
set
country.2
there
are
Thucydides
Xenophon
have
been
1 2
delivered
their
troops, by
trans.
statesmen
See A. See
(London, 1894-99).
et
son
Alfred
Caractere
Talent
(Paris,
1873).
THE
PR^E-ALEXANDRIAN
PERIOD
39 and be
to
by
gogues. dema-
speeches do
are
not
pretend to
authentic
narrative
more
records.
They
inserted
with
to partly
enliven the
it by interspersing
to
sum
personaltouches, and
within the
utter.
a
ticularly par-
up
short
compass have in
the been
speakersmight They
form.
are
hold
not
and
true
rence occur-
substance
in
though
authentic
in
Their
historical
writing shows
become
an
art.
certain
of
oratory, rude
far
one
and
in
extemporaneous,
the
must
have
been
known
back
oratory is
of the
accomplishments
chieftain primitive when
are
statesmanship. The
his followers
undoubtedly
Even
occasion
arose.
in the
poetry of Homer
verse.
there
speechesset
oratory
"
down
was,
in hexameter
as
But
this
untutored
Professor
Sears The
describes
it, merely
protoplasmic eloquence."
was
basis psychological
of external power
as
of it
were
not
understood.
The
graces
form
not
came
Such
the
oratory had,
some
giftwhich
possess
of
swaying
and
them
imaginationsof something of
their hearers
own
by communicating
the end
to
their
passion. By
men
of the
sixth
began
of
that recognise is
gift of eloquence,the
be
end in
a
which
persuasion,
could
acquired;so
that
treatise by philosophical
40
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
Diogenes
of
Apolloniathere
is found
embodied,
"
like
trilobite in limestone,"the
"
It appears
to
to
me
that
every
who
begins a
discourse
to
ought
the who
account
state
the
make
stylesimple
were
dignified."
nation
to
so
In
fact, the
Greeks,
a essentially
of be
of
man's
actions
accompanied
all Hence
and
plained ex-
by
his
spoken words,
moral
that
might judge of
it
was
character.
that at
of the Persian
as
to be
highly
to indispensable
statesman,
the
diplomat,
to
use
commander Rhetoric
of
armies.
Oratory,or,
arose,
the
term,
the
thus (pTjTopiKrj),
comprising
both
and practical
speaking. So
was earnestly
"
it cultivated Its
be called at last
one
developmentwas
of the the
steps
which prose.
of poetry and
rise of
esque pictur-
narrative
oratory
"
still further
"
from
composition
life. of Its
helped to
assimilate
was
rapid growth
which
due,
the
democracy by
the of gift
the
government
of the To
State
people.
dominate
reason, at
the
and impulses,
of prejudices
the
peoplewere
See
THE
PRjE-
ALEXANDRIAN
PERIOD
Already for
a
the
judicial pleading,
been
were
definite
'
set
forth. famous
Cicero
in
coloured highly
The
language,and
first manual
their
to professing
speaking is
of
said to
been
by
B.C.
Corax With
art of
formal
a
development of the
at
Corax
opened
school
down
Syracuse in which
in his
he his
Te^i^; and
made of
some
pupil,Tisias,of
to
whom
little is known,
additions
the
rules of Corax.2
Gorgias
Leontini
of rhetoric to
to
Hellas
proper, whither
he went
as
an
bassador am-
ask for
From
of and
Syracuse.
another
residence in Athens
in the
cityof
as a
Larissa
in
Thessaly,winning
as
widespreadfame
teacher the
to
1
both
and publicspeaker
as
cal practiof
of rhetoric.
So far
any
evidences remain
plainthat his
rules looked
highly artificialand
rules divided
an
meretricious
styleof oratory.8
(2) narrative,
Brutus,46.
These
(5) peroration.Both
they called ef*6s,
oration
possesses
Tisias
say,
made
much
of
to
the truth
value which
of what in
an
that is
whole of
the
semblance
appear
makes
an
the
argument
of what
appeal
to man's
3
is just and
to him
right.
are
Two
orations ascribed
extant.
See
Blass,pp. 44-72.
42 Studied
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
a profusionof antitheses,
simile
and
a
metaphor, carefully
quence elo-
apostrophe,and
balanced
other
must
figures, togetherwith
have
made his most of
rhythm,
resemble
finished
the
so-called
Euphuism
in
his fellow-Elizabethans. in
It was,
Greece
of
the
so-called
Asiatic
adopted
in later times
a
by
some
of the Roman
At
Athens, however,
There
were
less affected
mode
who
of
were
great
of the
orators
during
the
middle
those
of
"
Gorgias.
the
Age
of
Pericles
"
noblest
statesman
whom
produced
and the
was
adorned
enriched
city with
Athens
the
to
wealth
him
tributed con-
by
Greece
allied
to
meant
just as
Under
Paris his
the French
France.
patronage, Greek
and
perfection. He
the He
was
Erechtheum,
Odeon,
and
like
as
magnificent
well
as
public edifices.
other which
arts.
were
encouraged
the
centre
literature
of
a
the
in
He
splendid group,
great
Myron.
crowned
was
brilliant with
the laurels of
was
military
himself.
glory.
figure of
Pericles
THE
PILE-ALEXANDRIAN
PERIOD
43
Though
he
records generously
of his
did neither
anything unworthy
flattered the and
that with
he
people nor
all his
limited un-
public money,
is said
to
he have
was
Gorgias
Pericles and
both
Thucydides, but
apply public
.
in speakingbefore practically
was
the
as publishspeeches
study.
in exhibit
a
If
we
examine
these
and
the
historyof Thucydides, we
they
is fatal to effective
though
he is
lackingin
energy.
(436-338
the
by
his mastery of
stylehe
The
2 Age of Pericles,
(London, 1875);
and
and
Abbott,
of
Isocrates
Eloquent"
known He
Cicero's "Father
Eloquence")
for his
perhaps
as
teaching as
be delivered
or
practicalapplicationof
he gave of
speeches to
of
1000 a
by others,and
$250, for
a course
instruction
at
drachmae,
hundred The
about
a
lessons,and
he
had
pupils at
of
revenue
equivalentto $25,000.
a
king
copied
he
Cyprus
set
singleoration.
but
were
These
and
speeches
wherever
merely
delivered On
once,
read
times some-
Greek from
understood.
ten
the
other
hand,
would
spend
five to
years
in
one perfecting
of these show
pieces.
44
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
He
spoke with
own
ease, his
to his
usage;
an
and tends
he had
to
instinctive
the
of harmonious possibilities
was a
language.
It is
deep
the
student
of Isocrates.1
not
until
near
close of the
Prae-Alexandrian
Period
oratory
in the
the
animation well
and
boldness
of
of
Thucydides, and
in
he
understood
the art
go
speaking
like
short, terse
to the minds
sentences
which
would
home
His
arrows
of
an
assembled shows
not
multitude.
superb oration
On
the Crown
resources
only
an
absolute
with and upon
of rhetoric
employed
but
also
fervour patriotic
sinceritywhich
Corax of the
which much
we
had
insisted.2
Greece
was
So
that
teaching in
given orally
an
may
to
tion explananow
as
oldest
in
existence
B.C.
belongs
the
middle
century
the
merely discussed
of
divisions
oration
and
the
manner
presentingits
(who,
arguments.
In the manual
wrote
written
by
Anaximenes
on
by the
'See
way,
nine
books
of criticism
Homer), the
2d ed.
(London, 1893).
last ed.
See
Butcher, Demosthenes,preface to
(London, 1903).
46
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
possible means
of
persuasion. Hence,
the
rhetoric
is the into
an
essential
means
part of them.
which and
truth
of rhetoric rise of
(i) the
by
justice may
the
means
superiorto
falsehood
are
injustice;(2)
to
that persuasion
means
suited
of
seeing both
the weakness
sides of
of
an
and
of
thus
covering disand
adversary's argument;
own
(4)
the
means
of
defending one's
can
case
against all
The
means
possibleattacks
of
that
sets
be
as
made
upon
it.
persuasionhe
"
forth
as
follows:
sworn
proofs,such
the
and
testimony
of
documents, etc.;
are
either
or
by
a
ment; argu-
the
weight of
in his
speaker's
own
character
inspiresconfidence
he works their upon
hearers,and
his listeners
emotional,when
the
of feelings
or
by appealing to proof,he
says,
sympathies
upon the
prejudices.Logical
"
depends
of giving principle
syllogism from
probability." Of
common
the
nature
of
or
such
topic
general
the
special topicdrawn
circumstances. of
Following
division
Anaximenes,
rhetoric
was
with exhortation
as
and persuasion
is concerned
future time
to
expediencyor inexpediency;(2)Fo-
THE
PILE-ALEXANDRIAN
PERIOD
47 defence and
relatingto
past
as
accusation
to
or
time
eulogy
or
censure,
and
usuallyconcerned
or
with The
the
present time
books
of
and
as
to
honour rhetoric
means
distress.
with
first two
Aristotle's
the
deal of
persuasion.The
arrangement.
of
sion exprestreats
and of the
which
art
Under
is included
of
metaphor, simile,and
of sentences, and of
terse
Style.
he style
notes
four varieties:
is the
on
most
exhaustive, analytical,
ever
the
as
subjectthat has
has than been
been
written.
is, however,
truly said,the
that
philosophyof
His
rhetoric rather
mind
was
rhetoric
he
cusses. diswas
intensely analyticaland
causes;
so
that
even
in this
physical. meta-
verging upon
the
sphere of
the
prepared the
in turn
Logic, which
tions, classifica-
furnished
destined afterward
of by the originators
different relation
Formal
Grammar.
as
regarded rhetoric
standing side by
process of insur-
relates to the
48
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
ing
conviction.
reach
The
orator
must
be
dialectician if he
his
would
the
highestexcellence
other
a
in
art; and
his
the
on dialectician,
the
logicmost
of
through
command
the
arts
oratory.
In
Organon,
set
forth
man
logic,
he
developsthe
He
by
laws
which of
discloses the
a
thinking and
modes
of
from cognition
an
study
of man's the
facultyof cognition,
nature
course
to gain striving
into insight
and
formation
and
conclusion.
In the
inquiry
edge knowlup his
doing, he
.
stance, (i)sub-
enumeration
of
are
serves categories
show
how
intimately they
we
connected formal
with
the
classification that
find
in
our
grammar.
provided
Alexandrian
terminology and
other
framework in the
and
grammarians
of
as
following
in which
period,he
both
1
has
been
spoken
the
source
criticism and
ten
or
grammar
find their
to two:
origin.2
(1) substance, tribute; (2)atAristotle's Rhetoric
These
sDio
Cassius, liii.p.
with separately
Reiske
(294 R).
and
is
edited
notes
by Cope
THE
PILE-ALEXANDRIAN
PERIOD
49
philosophywere
became famous
name
all under
popularised by
the
name
class of teachers
of
Sophists{ao^iarai).
any
one
the Originally
Sophist was
given to
of
some
who
subject; special
wellwho
but
about
men
450
B.C.
it
was
educated
who
had
the
travelled from
return
teaching in
middlemen minds
a
for
fee.
They
were
the
untrained
of
learningand
of what
good deal
writers
profoundly by original
in the
and
thinkers.
lecturers peripatetic
States from in
1830
the
to
before of the
lyceums,"and
last two
as
decades.
Some
of great
such ability,
Gorgias
Athens, who
motto
"
the
first scientific
measure
Man
man
is the
must
of
own
every is
be
his
standard
truth, since
was
truth
not
absolute.
on
There
also Prodicus
Ceos, who
on
lectured
the
right
of the
the
rhetoric
la
de
Demosthene
V Eloquence
Bascom, The
50
of
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
use
words
famous and that
(le
mot
juste). Hippias
He
was a man
of of
Elis
was
another
memory
Sophist.
prodigious
the
profoundlyversed
he
learningof
form rather
day, so
so
attempted literature in
He
developed.
piqued
prove
his
by attemptingto
be
that
man
law
to
evil many
was
and
not
are
obeyed,since
contrary
to
it forces
thingswhich
one
In
this he
higherslang of
our
day
Such
describes
as
"
Sophistsas
"
these
an
and
ingenious
Their Even
had
immense courted
popular
thought.
of Athens.
societywas
by
the
leadingmen
their
sation. conver-
Pericles took
of them all
pleasurein
was
Greatest
Socrates, though he
a
class and he
a
believed took
no
himself money
to
be
other
than
Sophist because
were
for his
given in
desultory, Gorgias
conversational
and
Protagoras
their
and
Hippias, the
stands of any his
an
Skeptics derived
as
doctrines; but
Socrates
forth
time.
the
most
inspiring philosophical
teacher
Plato
From
his
drew gave
Aristotle
from
Plato.
Socrates Before
turn
philosophic teaching.
Socrates
his time
had philosophy
been
after physical;
it became
metaphysical and
had
ethical.
Just
as
the
early
Ionians
sought
for
material
originof
the
universe,
THE
PR^E-
ALEXANDRIAN
PERIOD
51
the
man
so
Socrates
thrust
aside
all
of speculations
How
kind
and
"
asked the
The Plato
answer
shall
not
live?
to
this
question was
sought by
merely by Epicureans
and
the
and
Cynics and
whole,
Sophists as majority of
class them
were
held rightly
mere
in
disesteem.
were
smatterers,
for willing
reason. a
glib
and
price to
the
the
worse
appear
the
better
In
end,
the later
were Sophists
mere
times sometalkers,
which technicalities,
so
took
with
place of
it
was
reason,
that
repute.1But
gave
a
the
Sophistsof
impulseto special
the
the theoretical
study of language.
and the
Remembering
importance of rhetoric
men
quasi-
of philosophical principles
such
as
Protagoras and
have arisen
Hippias, it
an
is not
amount
strange that
of
there should
immense
discussion
from
of discovery
laws which
that
thought in
The the
human
speech.
Language Study began
as an
fact that of
adjunct to
plaining ex-
study
two
1
the
fact that
the
pur-
On
the
see Sophists,
Ueberweg, Geschichte
der
52
suit
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
was
conducted
in the
way
so
unlike that
a
of the
tific scien-
and linguist;
before
the
development
were
scientific grammar.
losophe phi-
at
first concerned
very
little with
forms,
their and
to
each
other, or
their arrangement
strove
sentence.
They
of
rather find
dig
what
the
very
heart
language,to
to
out
lay
behind
the
minds
Why
was
certain
combination
a
of representation
one
idea,while
certain
of other
letters stood
In
different idea?
to
relation others
of
sound
thought?
questions
like them
of
first attracted
the
the
philosopherto
very last and
study
remote
problems to
if the
own
modern
to
scientific
linguist.
Hence,
for its
as
ancients
begun
have
language investigate
Grammar;
to
created
as a
but
they took
and from
subjectmerely
means
another
end
the
Etymology.
It is, of
most course, to
be
the
understood
Greeks in the
also
that
even
the
enlightenedof
never
their most
earnest
researches
went
beyond
study
of
their
own
recognisedthe speech
be called
of all.
other
peoples
as
entitled to
language
at
54 such
men.
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
Herodotus
nowhere any he of
even implies
way many
that he knew
countries of
as
of the
languagesspoken in
In in
one
x
that
visited.
passage
he
the
speaks Volga
seven
caravans
merchants
the
region of
needing
seven
languages.
the
on
At
very
much
later
and
period, when
the questioned
tion conversa-
Alexander
Brahmins had The
to
Great the
India penetrated
be carried
through a
series of
interpreters.
in their knew
so no
an Greeks, in fact,displayed
amusing
naivete
astonishment
at
findingso
many
people who
tongues with
Greek, but
ease.
who
were,
spoke barbarian
in
They
fact,apparentlynot
after Latin
learned
was
giftedas
the
even
language
it well.
to
speak
Thus
Plutarch
says
one
Latin, and
young. in
that
Strabo
notes
historical treatises
composed
and
foreign languageswere
read
inaccessible to the
Greeks
never
by them.3
hand,
and
at
an
On of
the other
earlyperiodthere acquired an
the
is mention excellent
foreignscholars
of
command fourth
Greek, men
the
who Egyptian,
"
in Greek
of their
countries respective
24.
2.
annals
Plutarch,Demosth.
19.
THE
PILE-
ALEXANDRIAN
PERIOD
55
which There
the Greeks
is
regardedwith
hint
indifference. supercilious
ancient writer that any
no absolutely
in any
of these
languagesmight be foreign
The
dialects.
even
idea
most
would
have
preposterous
nearest
to
the
to
enlightenedGreek.
such
an
proach apin
the
suggestionof
is found
notes
names
Plato's
Socrates
the
for
Phrygian
Plato
was
objects. But
verge of
a
though
is
evidently only
the
here
upon
the
discoverythat
to
see
made
in the last
century, he failed
he had
set
the
chose had
importance of
fact which
for it words
on
down,
and
the
theory that
few
from of
"
the
Phrygians.
"
his had
own a
language
common
and
that
seems an
barbarian
to
as
people
to
source
never
have
occurred
him;
nor
did
"
so
keen
observer order
Aristotle
he
perceivein languages
discover
in every
the law
of
and
which
tried to
came
realm
nature."
Hence, it
in
about
were
a
acquiringforeign tongues,
they had
their own,
and
a
they entered
the
of investigation
the
subjectfrom
the
the
empirical.
at
once
The
and the
Greek
reason
Xo'70?means
the
spoken word,
of that
which
prompts the
utterance
word.
56
This
the
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
dualityof meaning
in spirit which
both
symbolisesand
illustrates
the
the Greek
philosophers approached
to
a
wished
had
was.
determine
(i)whether
relation; and
thought
necessary
(2)what
that
were
relation
soon
opposing views
schools. truth The
formulated
!
philosophical
because upon all
an
Heracliteans
from
believed
that
is derived basis.
language, language
are
rests
immutable
of
Words
are
either
perfect expressions
sounds.
or
thingsor
a
else
name
they
must
only inarticulate
be either
a
That it is
no
is to say,
name
true
name
at
all.
it
Between
every
name,
therefore,and
natural
the
thing
virtue the
which
of
there signifies,
is
harmony by
which
each
nature
word of the
in itself
inevitably expresses
The
innermost thus
thing named.
arose
held that
language
by
nature
The vo/jlg)).
as
Eleatics,2 on
the other
of
things,
of
slaves,might
no
be
altered at
to
pleasure;
on
that, in consequence,
processes
or on
lightis
of
be
thrown
mental
the it is
nature
thought,by studying
of the after
the forms
a
in which
expressed. One
his slaves the
Eleatics,
the
junctions, con-
named
show
"
thereby
absurdity of
Dr.
about
500
the
Heraclitean
1
doctrine,
which
of
recalls Ephesus,
and
Johnson's
B.C.
of Heraclitus of
Xenophanes
Parmenides
of Elea.
THE
PR.E-ALEXANDRIAN
PERIOD
57
famous
refutation
of
Berkeley's idealism.
the
Language,
convention
Eleatics,arose
by
controversy has
an
interest
far
greater than
It
any
discussion merely linguistic strikes down mind. into the It grazes has
most
could
possess.
recesses
really
man hu-
profound
borderland
of the
the
of
philosophical
since
men
questionthat began
to
puzzled metaphysiciansever
the
mystery
solved
of and
their
being,
"
questionthat
been
solution. the
that, humanly
of
no
It is the Middle
questionwhich
was
scholastic
period of
Realism
Ages
known It is the
the
question of
and
Nominalism.
as
questionwhich,
of the the Freedom
in after of the
times, appeared
Human
to
the
question by
guage. lan-
Will. the
Its discussion
ancient As
led philosophers
it
was
of investigation
claimed the
that
language corresponds
sensation
and naturally
to inevitably
thought,just as
excites
correspondsto
which What is
the
object which
philosophersset
before
themselves
this:
language?
asserted
a
Heraclitus
that power
a
language
which
is the
immediate each
product of
its proper existence.
natural
assignsto
element
thing thing's
the
the
as designation
necessary
of the
Names,
of
he
said, are
like the
natural,not
resemble in
artificial images
shadows
cast
visible
things,i.e. they
by
solid
mirrors,
58
the
true
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
reflected
word do do
sun
in
still water.
"
Those
who
use
the
while object,
noise."
who
not,
are
merely
the
make
an
unmeaning
is,words
nature
immediate
herself,not
but caprice,
due
any
subjectiveinfluence
realities
or
human
correspondingto
have
an
by objective
ness fitThis
necessity; they
and (opOorr)?) is the extreme
was an
abstract
proprietyand meaning.
statement
doctrine which
as
afterward
modified
by Epicurus
to
so
to
make
the
above,
physical, organic
necessity. Against
thesis that
the
names
Heracliteans,the
are
Eleatics
were
defended
their
by
them
men
who
perfectproprietychange
four
about.
propounded
view,
arguments
of
against the
Homonymy.
a
(i)
means
The
argument
both
a
instance, /cXet?
a
key
and
collar-bone.
no
key
each
name
and
collar-bone
have be
lutely absothe
relation to
and natural
other; hence,
for
one
if "Xe"
inevitable
cannot
of
them, it certainly
natural A
name
be
equally the
(2) The
inevitable of
and
of is
are
the
other.
argument
Polyonymy.
man
called in
no
terms
alike; how
of the when
then
one
can
they
all three
be
the
essary nec-
argument
called
of
Change,
as
Aristocles
to
be
Plato.
THE
PILE-ALEXANDRIAN
PERIOD
59 have
(4) The
the verb
we
argument
of
we
formed "f"povelv
no
while ^/aoV^o-t?,
from
8iicaio"rvvr
find In
such
verb
may
Bucaioawelv.
said that
the
general it
among
be
the Heracliteans
bered num-
their
followers
majority of
out
as
the
a
ancient
ception. ex-
great
hold practical
the real,was
ing uncompromis-
depends
men,
"
on
the
common
argument
no
and
conviction
of
words
having
meaning
at
all in
themselves,
but
use
into them
by those who
value
They
the
are
mere
counters, whose
depends
wholly upon
It
was
assent
of mankind.
course,
to
evident, of
a
the
Heracliteans
selves, themnot
after made
little
be
good
not
in
language
in the the
it
could
show
with
case
of many
essential
and
connection
was
objectsdescribed
words had
by them;
it
also time
evident when
that
greatly changed
Hence,
the
since
the
they
were
cussion dis-
was
put back
had
once
from
they
were
then, to
words
as
as
they
been;
this led to
speculation
the
to
the
original
notion
that
created directly
manner
by
the
Deity, men
sought to show
If word
in what
it firstcame is the
into existence.
nature
and
of the
60
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
relation?
If the
in of
name original
was
was
to appropriate
the
The
thing named,
drift general of the
"
what
way
it this
appropriate?
opinion answered
"
question in favour
in its crudest
onomatopoetic theory,not
in which like it has and been his
form,
defended
in modern
by
men
Heyse
and
by
Paul.1
cited
most
by Diogenes
Laertius
Words
in the
beginning did
the very nature
not
by originate
of men, in the
express
case
agreement; but
each
by
of
hearing
pressing ex-
thus accordingly,
just as differently,
people differed
This argues
as
in location
surroundings."
So
is in that
Lucretius2
speech arose
who
cannot
the
children
wonder
speak, begin
men
gesture. And
different
what
mark
ings feeland
by
horses
different
sounds
crows
of the
voice?
same
Even way
dogs
and
gullsand
and
in the
express varying
moods
1
passions.
der bei Sprachwissenschaft den Greichen und
Rbmern,
vols. 2d ed.
of Language (New
2
1028
foil.
62
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
unexplained,too
to refrain prefers
many from
Hence, he
He will not
dogmatic
and
statement.
claim
to
have
well-rounded
to treat
he elects therefore,
to
the
with subject
touch, light
let his
own
with
caution, and
mind
to
observations
of his reader
as
suggestionsand
His
further
speculation.
to
a
humorous
as
that
in
It
the
Cratylus we
in
a
have,
the
it were,
giant at play.
gives us,
way,
chips and
and
more
shavingsof
those
his mental of
one
shavings are
pure
whose
gold than
a
the treasuries
of other
The
enes,
Cratylus is
and
dialoguebetween
is
Socrates, Hermoga
of disciple
the
losophy phi-
Heraclitus.
as
have
arguing
about
and
to
each
opposed
that
of the
Socrates
to
and subject,
then
draws by questions
from
each
his friends
their
theories. respective
Having
his turn
listened
enters
them,
some
Socrates
criticises
each, and
his
own
in in
a
upon
most
of speculations
half-playful yet
Realism and and
discourse. suggestive
Just as
between
as
compromise,
and
justas
between
the
doctrine
of
Predestination
that
THE
PILE-ALEXANDRIAN
PERIOD
63
so
of the Freedom
views
"
Determinism,
mean
"
the the
"
advanced
"
by
Socrates
represent a
and
between
natural
theory
the
of Heraclitus
the
conventional
theory of
Language,
it is also
conventional,
are
conventional.
firstof
It is originally a work of
are,
imitations all,
any
Yet
vocal
like imitations,
other
copying,may
be most
imperfectly
of
executed,and
chance. in
this
imperfection may
exceptional
so
language.
that
had
their
earlymeaning by
obscured
they
name
be
helped out
has
a
convention.
true
is that which
natural
meaning.
intertwined closely
them. So far
to
we
make may
it often
to separate impossible to
as
hope, however,
of it
as
element
can
and
judge
so
derived from
words
accident,we
do
only
by applyingto
many
strict
most
analysis. In
words,
even
words, perhaps
not
are
in their
present
pound. com-
form,
must
first resolve
reach
are
the
the
But
the
simpleforms themselves
been
altered into rather
not
by
the
time.
Hence,
must
in the
resolve words
compose
them, because
these,or
the sounds
64
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
have of
meaning.
This
was
language. They
and
observed
p
sound
motion in
denoted
vastness
length;that
expressed
that uttering
most
agitatedand
and
therefore
thought
involved; that
the
limpid
movement
X, in whose
that
letter to
smoothness
that the sound
as
in Xeto?, of
7
\nrap6v,
the
detained there is
as
slipping tongue
an
so
united
with
X,
given
in \t
impressionof
being "sounded
o
within,"
inwardness;
while
suggests roundness.
names
Thus
impressedthought on
Gesture
use
by
a
is the method
to
which
deaf
would
make
his
meaning
of in
clear,and
the tongue.
language
Yet
words
their
is not
the genesis,
may
from
words
varies
or moral; philosophical
for the
of words
It indefinitely.
or no
may
be
accidental,conventional, metaphysical,
way
in
some
other
secondary,and
so
may
have
of thought or feeling
the
speaker at
the time.
THE
PR^E-ALEXANDRIAN
PERIOD
65
on
Such
set
is
an
views
language as
was
forth
most
in the
Cratylus.They embody
all that
best
and
rational in ancient
contain
yet rejected.
the distinction In his
tion men-
attention words.
an
simple and
compound
makes and
he Lautgeberden,
immense in
advance the
physiologyof language;
certain
speaking of
of similarity
terms
foreignwords
to
the
corresponding
of
a
in
great
discovery. His
is very much
alphabet
that
He
which
the
most
modern
phoneticians
into voiceful
nants conso-
agree to follow.
it is who
,
them separated
letters he
p,
subdivides
true mutes
into
vowels semi-
fi, v,
a)
and
(a(f"0oyya).
Socrates
flood of
on conjectures
the
to
position com-
which
his listeners
suggest
and
him,
playing havoc
know,"
is
with
"
all
phonetic order
the and
system.
of the
You
he
says,
that
form original
word
always being
and
overlaid
bedizened
by people
of
on sticking
off stripping
euphony,
and
and
of ways;
this may
time."
for ornament in
it may
be the result of he
gives
66
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
himself
and
and
alters and
syncopates and
pates apocoin
a
and
sort
stretches until
Hermogenes
"
of
admiration half-skeptical
cries out,
Well, Socrates,
you is
have
knocked
them
it is " from
to
piecesmanfully." KWrjp
"
because aeiOerjp
derives
"
alwaysrunning
about
the
earth;
mind
o
")
tween beand
you
have
only to
and
which
the v, and
another very
Hermogenes
naturally says,
That
Every one
because Cratylus
in its serious in
parts it abounds
its lighter passages
acute singularly
us an
and speculations;
it affords
excellent notion
of
of the
absurdities
of the
word-mongers
the
the
fifth
century.1
their
Many,
guesses
in fact,were
at
of vagaries
at
the
in Sophists
etymology and
it was
not
the
of languageprinciples the
making;
and
only among
this sort of
and philosophers it
that quasi-philosophers is
seen
in this
followed
matter
of
general
interest,one
was
that
a
craze etymologising
something more
of
a
than very
mere
fad.
"
It
was
a
simplyone quickness of
reveals itself
for
manifestation
Greek
the
trait,
imaginationwhich
in an linguistically upon
1
from
almost
earliest times
fondness
childish for
playing
is, in
words,
for
paronomasia,
punning.
This
See
the Introduction
THE
PILE-ALEXANDRIAN
PERIOD
67
an reality,
attest, Scriptures
and
was
never
justas
these
names,
in the book
find
some
of fifty proper
upon
hidden
meanings
in words from
of Odysseus explanation
trama? aarcu
oSva-aofiai
(Od.
xix.
406); of Ate\ v
(II.xix. 91); of
great
(Od. eXe^aipofiaL
the
name
xix.
of
iEschylus on
of Helen, become
'EXeV^ eXeVa?
classic in
lish Eng-
(in Edward
"
I.)
Sweet
Helen,
in her
but heaven
looks;"
and
two
scene tragic
of the
same
found
proper
together.1 It
names
is
playing upon
upon the
and
the
generalbelief in
of
omens
so-called
which
Onomantia, or
both
duction deand
from
so
names,
Greeks
Romans the
a
believed in
devoutlythat Leotychidespledged
a
Samian
people to
who
perfect stranger
happened
to
be
called
Hegesistratus.2
1
Euripides was
called
rpa-yiKbsirvfu"\6yos. Cf.
and in
yEsch.
Prom.
86,
875,
German, Lersch, Sprachphilosophie, 718; Ajax, 574 De Nominibus Graecis,in his Opusc. (Bonn, 1841) ; Sturz,
seem
of
to
have
been
built upon
the basis
XSoj.
Herod,
ix. 91.
68
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
Much
as
the
Greeks
of this
is little evidence
that
they
went
so
far
as
to
the
generalsubject by
as
sake.
treatises On
those
of
Gorgias
On
are
Names,
oras Protag-
Elocution,of Prodicus
and
to
of the
Licymnius
On
Phrases
rhetorical and
oratorical
teachings of
regardingwhich
said. and
nius,1 Licymclassify
This of
however, did
synonyms, may the be
and
partlydiscuss
cognates.
the
border-land
first two
as
historyof
Classical
Philology,
mar. gram-
and
having
some
of appreciation
formal
So far
as
the
Prae-Alexandrians
it
was
came
to
any
ical etymologthree
agreement,
are principles
in
involved
Imitation
in the
(i)
the the
of principle
lose their
in their is
meaning primitive
when
or
and
are
graduallyextended
"
as application,
a
head
"
or" of
a
foot man's
"
appliedto
mountain,
we
speak
of thought as "bitter,"
of made
"A See
his voice
as
sweet
Antiphrasis (Kvrfypaais)
and
of
which the
much,
which
of Polus
they
who
also
called
a
making
on
of
also wrote
treatise
rhetoric.
Schneidewin
70
tile found
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
upon
it
(a/",
that word
are
was spelling
grammaticus
did speaking, of
the time
of which but
not
mean
grammarian,
that
simply a
was
person
to
ordinary
write.
education,
"
is,one
who
able
read
and had
our
Nevertheless,as
formed of the around word
was
a alreadysuggested,
nucleus
been
sense
which
soon
grammatical teaching in
to
be
developed. Etymology
Protagoras
of
was
favourite
subject of
discussion.
Abdera
the first to
and
also
on
genders.2 Prodicus
while
tise trea-
synonyms;
two
Plato is regardedas
having recognised
and (ovofia)
it draws
a
distinct parts of
speech,the
distinction
noun
the
verb them
(prjfta) ; but
is not
the
which
tween be-
tinction dislogical,
correspondingto
and who
between
subject
predicate.The
also goes
true
distinction and
is made mentions
by Aristotle, conjunctions
much
further
a term (a-vvBeafiot),
since it includes
term
every
1
kind
of
connecting particle.The
170
apOpa
he
(Cambridge, 1887-1905).
prayer,
as our
of
and
of
gender,
he
divided
nouns
either
own,
regardedas masculine,
things
the
as
all female He
uses
creatures
feminine, and
was
all inanimate
neuter.
the term
sense
7"?k"s which
of
afterward
adopted by
ans grammari-
in the
"gender" (Lat.genus).
THE
PILE-ALEXANDRIAN
PERIOD
71 and articles.
as
used He
not
in
an
indefinite way
of both
pronouns
between distinguished
tenses, and
classifies verbs
those which He
only
to
"active"
us as
and "neuter"
"passive,"but
and
are
known
"deponent."
has
something to
one
say of
though punctuation,
"
he mentions
only
the
he
punctuationmark
of the
short
mark
a
placed beneath
sentence.
our
line which
ends
This
"
and Trapaypafyrj,
it is the
of origin
or
word
a
graph," paraof
applied to
connected
sentences. to
no
long
sentence to
to
It is further
be
noted
totle Aris-
givesnames
form did
not
as
subjectand
predicate. All
tinction dis-
at
the time
or logical
metaphysicalin
Alexandrian
Later, the
the
Stoics
and
the
scholars
narrowed
definition of grammar
meaning
of the
became
familiar
even
while
still significance
survived.
Literary Study
of scientific. Persian
was
now
undertaken
from
the
point standmore
Literary Criticism
which
became
period
was
immediately
most
followed
the
Wars
the
richest and
The
fruitful in the
of Homer had
intellectual been
of history
Greece.
poems
their lines
this
something supernatural
set
divine; and
is feeling
forth in
popularbelief also
from him
passed on
to the
72
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
were
his successors,
just as
certain of
an
branches
of the Christian
Church
Thus the the
assert
ApostolicSuccession. generalreverence,
and
lyric poets
in this
great dramatic
We have
seen
poets
that
ennobled rude
form
said to have
by
Pisistratus
great
Euripides, produced
masterpieces almost
contemporaneously. Comedy
to
thrive and
found
its most A
exponent
of its
in
form
comedy,
less
personalin
was allusions,
Aristophanes
himself
(Middle
fected per-
by Menander
All these
at
were
Comedy.
were
plays,both
the
tragediesand
comedies,
duced pro-
prizes
given accordingto
rhetoric and
people.1 The
study of
and
the
Greek
famous
mind works
led at
once
careful
as
study of
Such
the
most
well
poetry.
when
of
as exegesis,
Plato
poem
of
to
Simonides the
in the
Protagoras, taking up
as questions
meaning
So at first.
of certain words
in the poem;
awarded
then
as
to the
by
committee
of
five
judges chosen
by
lot.
THE
PRjE-ALEXANDRIAN
PERIOD
73
of Simonides; consistency
on
and
Thus
the
poem
as
whole. in
says the
Socrates
"
great
deal which
might
is
a
be
said
praiseof
but finished,
to
would the
be
tedious.
I should
ever, howlike,
point
he
general intention
do
so
of the
poem." length.
the
And
then
is
proceeds to
at
considerable and
This
belongsto
the
science
we
of
Hermeneutics,
or
exposition.In
But it was
Republic
have
^Esthetic who
Criticism.
a
Aristotle in his
Poetica
produced
brief and
work
of true
aesthetic criticism,
which, though
and
profoundthought as
of
it to-dayperhapsthe most
widely studied
Butcher
all his
to
writings.1Professor
calls attention
emphasises an
He
"
important fact
study of
Greek
art.
says: The
"
distinction between
out
fine and
In
was
first
brought
art
we
fullyby
struck than
Aristotle.
historyof
between
It
was
Greek
two
are
rather
by
the
union
the
a
forms
of art
by
their
use
independence.
and
loss
the
of spheres
in
practice
the useful
common
the
things of
and
longer gave
But
the
maker
to
the
the
theoretic
See
Fine
Art
(London, 1902).
with Poetics,
This
a
volume
critical text
and
translation their
of the
most
admirable
meaning.
74
distinction
HISTORY
OP
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
between
fine and
we owe
useful art
needed
to
be
laid
down, and
fine art outside
an as
to Aristotle
a
the firstclear
conceptionof
the
mind,
politics, having
moral
end
that
of education
ment." improve-
A famous doctrine of
passage
of
tragedy that
and
hunger
and
for
weeping,"1 and
of
"poetry
feeds
waters
passionsinstead
them." starving
his ideal State. desirable
Thus
he would
on Aristotle,
the other
the
hand,
"
to
kill the
or
to starve
emotional
that
gence regulatedindulof
our
of the nature."
to
maintain
the balance
an
Professor
Butcher, summarising
explanation
a
metaphor
and
"denotes
effect pathological
on
on
soul,analogous to
the
body."
thought,as
he
it,may interprets
emotions of
expressedthus:
fear
" "
Tragedy
emotions
act
pity and
men
kindred
and
The
by
the
of excitation
relief. pleasurable
feelings
called forth
by
the
are tragicspectacle
are
removed, but
quietedfor
and
the time.
outlet pleasurable
Republic,x.
606.
THE
PR^-
ALEXANDRIAN
PERIOD
75 which
demand
and satisfaction,
can
indulgedhere
It is
more
popularlysupposed that
Unities is set forth
Dramatic This
in the
of Aristotle.
is not
since Aristotle
"
definitely
"
demands the of
a
namely, that
within
constitutes the be
unity
play," the
the
successive law
incidents should
and
connected
togetherby
One
time may
of necessary
a
probablesequence.
the
not
of suggestion
unityof
and
these
were
actually
formulated
an century by Castelvetro,
Greeks
of Aristotle's time
of and literature.
more
regardedtragedyas
them it
the
was
highest form
more
Certainly to
in its
moving
even
profound
We
must
of interpretation
life than
the
is
epic.
than
remember, however,
more
blended
with
arts.
painter'scolouring,and
there,and
men living
instrumental
music, too,
found
are
is sculpture
in the
who is not
impersonate the
literature pure
characters.
Hence
the
a
acted
drama
and
simple,
but it is
1
melange
cit.pp.
Butcher, op.
See
Spingarn, Literary
Renaissance,
pp.
90-101
(New
York, 1908).
76
One
most
now
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
dwells
remarkable possess. in other
upon
Aristotle's Poetica,because
it is the
we
specimen of
But criticism
to
be
found
cus
and writers,
came
in especially
to
Heraclides he
Athens, where
written upon
under
He
is said to have
many
language,and
Only fragments of
a
these of
was
remain, though
on
have
synopsis of
There
has
one
the
also Theo-
phrastus of
two
left
fragments of Style.
and In of
works,
second
On
Comedy
to
and
On
the
he
is said
have
of metres
solecisms.1
Much criticism their
must
have
been
given orallyby
dramas another.
the
Sophistsin by
the
lectures;and
in the
one
themselves
This
was
in playwrights
case
the especially
who
with fond
poets, above
tophanes, all,Aris-
was
of
^Eschylus. praising
It is said that
whole
passage
Aristophaneshad
criticism is to
'See
made found
such
be
in the
Pontici
on
parodiesof
Vita
et
serious works.
Voss,
De
Heradidis
and
2
by
Rabe de
on
Egger,
wrote
Histoire
a
la
Later
Antiochus
of
Alexandria
book
Comedy.
See
Athenaeus, xi.
78
known the The
as
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
the
whose Sillographer,
the
silli
{aiXkoi) guyed
1
teaching of
classic
tragedy
burlesqued,though
at
later
period, by Rhinthon
gave
or
rise to
the
tragedy (IXaporpaycpSia)
be said also that
a
la
tragUie pour
It must
a
certain
ironical
spirit appears
to
collection
some
by
intended
point out
of the
absurdities in Homer
There
are
(UpofiXr/fAciTa).
that
evidences
duringthe
perioda good
authors.
edition special the
Aristotle himself
use
as
edited
of his
"
Alexander pupil,
edition."
Great,
also
"
edition
the casket
It is
tradition
that
Lycurgus
with
(c. 350
B.C.), the
the
Athenian
(not to
be confounded
Lycurgus
statues
cal mythi-
bronze
to
the three
Euripides,
and
made
authentic
the
copiesof
their
playsto
be made
preservedin
after this
a
publicarchives.
These
were copies
copies. Concerning
itselfis
if the
State
codex
prepared by
a
"Squints." 'Literally
See
etc.
2
theatrical
slang,
"It's
scream!"
Paul, Be
Sillis
Parodie
chez les
Grecs,
Wilamowitz,
in Hermes,
id.,Introduction
to the Hera-
kles of
THE
PILE-ALEXANDRIAN
PERIOD
79
not
Lycurgus
was
very
cally criti-
work
of
great importance in
down
to
the time
of
Alexandrians, it
in
standard
edition and
was
great
esteem.
probable,however,
that
it
no
did really
lack of
rest
upon
was
editions,nor
to
so
could
chosen arbitrarily
text
have
attained
much
that
the
long existed,
the
families
an
the
tragic poets.
in each
inal origbe
codex made
instance,an
Homeric
assertion The
that
cannot
regarding the
text.
codex, original
contained
notes
however
and may
carefully copied,must
have
stillhave
been
with
supplied with
the version
used
marginal by
being compared
theatre. More
the actors
than
this,however,
of
it is
to impossible
for,regardingthe
survives. Attention other
was
methods
recension,no
actual evidence
much
the
are
earlier
given to
a
Music
than
to
the
arts, and
treatises
none
study of spoken of
have
on
it had with
scientific character.
,
Many
though
of them writer
descended
music
was
times. of
The
earliest known
a
Lasus
Hermione,
said
contemporary
have
of
Xenophanes and
teacher of
Pindar.
Simonides, and
He is
a
to
been
the
the
figureof
importance in
of Greek history
music,
introducingin
80
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
the
dithyramb
it
an
much
greater freedom
of
of
rhythm
in
music,
the the cially espe-
givingto
number Seven
accompaniment By
some
and flutes,
adding to
among
were
of voices.
he The
was
numbered
Sages
devoted
of
to
Greece.1
Pythagoreans
them,
the
music, among
wrote
a
famous
Archytas
of
Tarentum,
case
who
In the
us
of many
of the is
as
that writings
have
descended
to
by report only, it
inasmuch subject,
name
impossibleto be
poetry and music
used
certain
were
so
of their
exact
closely
Movai/crj was
of either. indifferently
perhaps
any
in the
andrian Alexthat
Age, by Aristoxenus
still remain The ascribed
of which
now
we
have
is portion, which
there
some
fragments,edited by Saran.2
of classical music
to
foundation
among vEolian
was
by
them
Terpander, an
is said
to
of Lesbos
have
four; but
says
seven
Pausanius3 four
to strings
the
that
the
lyre.
was Flute-playing
not
scientifically
studied
The
of
of the
ancients
modern
music
was part-singing
unknown,
there
beingonly
See
Diog. Laert.
i. 42.
'Edited
(Leipzig, 1893).
to music.
'iii.12.
THE
PR^E-
ALEXANDRIAN
PERIOD
difference of octaves,
chorus. Another
as
when
men
was
and
boys
sang
in the which
same were
difference
in the
modes,
each
other
semitones
Greek
two
music
modes,
therefore,as
with which
names we
againstthe
are
modes These
(major
seven
and
minor)
got
acquainted.
modes
their
from
peoples
Hypolydian).1
had
two
used
by
the Greeks
tinct dis-
Those
notation older
derived from
which of
alphabet
form
retained
two
digamma,
besides
ancient
and iota,
of lambda.
Only
come
few
specimens
to us, the
of Greek
musical
a
notation
to
have
down
at
last
being
upon
hymn
the
Apollo found
a
Delphi
in
1893
been
carved
fragments of
Oscar
stone.
It has
reconstructed
"
by
Greek
1
melody emanated
Engel,
The Music
See
of the
de la
(London, 1866);
et Theorie
Musique
Musik
des
oj Ancient
Greek
Developed (New
buch For
a
York, 1898);
der classischen
ii.3, 3d Allerthumswissenschaft, of
(Munich, 1901).
simple account
pp.
O
earlymusic, see
Music,
13-45
82
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
and
metre
were
given by
music Nero
was
the
musical
at
accents
of and
the
was
words."1
Greek admired.
introduced
gave
Rome
greatly
public
Domitian the
entertainments
resembling modern
a
concerts, and
which
were
large structure,
he
called
musical Greek
same
exercises that
held
there under
his direction.2
painting reached
with
sculpture. Even
from
trace
was
fresco-painting
ing vase-paintus
had
borrowed
we can
the
Egyptians,and
how
continuous
development. began
Athens
as
One
may the
believe
that the
graphicart
in Greece
earlyas began
the
to
use
eighth
Eumaresof
distinguish
of various in
chrome mono-
in his
paintings, probably by
heretofore
or
colours, since
on
worked
walls
whitened
clay.
who
But
soon
the after
greatest painterswere
the Persian
wars.
those
appeared
was
Polygnotus
the art,
of Thasos
called
the
discoverer
of
of
four colours
his
"
red
in
"
yet gave
varietyto
Soon
shading.
be learned
and
afterward
scene-painter,
1900). (Leipzig,
writers,such
copy what
as
JSee
2
Fleischer, Die
can
Reste der
Little
about
Capella
Boethius,
they merely
they
the Greeks.
THE
PR.E-ALEXANDRIAN
PERIOD
83
spective per-
Agatharchusof Samos,
and His
discovered
which
on
new
of principles
wrote
a
shading,on
were
subjectshe
book.
methods and
followed
The
panels by Apollodorus of
which he
Athens
others.
school
founded
was
two
copied
nature
with
wonderful
Parrhasius
of
Ephesus.
Encaustic
painting
his
"Black bull
famous
in
modern
times.
Great
attained
by
work
of
very
graceful. We
scarcelyany
remains
Grecian
are
paintingsof the
upon
found
Greek
learned from
be
the Greeks
by
tians, Egyp-
it cannot
proved greatlyim-
upon
their models.
or (obsidian)
cutting gems
metal
they used by
sharp stone
drill which
were
minute
disk worked
cut
the
deeper parts
a
of the pattern.
The
tools
charged with
little for made
sort
of emery
powder.2
and
The
Greeks
cared
cameos
a
the
Egyptian scarabs,
the The
preferred
of onyx,
dark
xSee
background.
Woltmann
and
oldest
A
Greek
jewellerwhose
trans.
Woermann,
(New
Cros
and
Polychromie in
Sculptur (Aschersleben,1882).
N. xxvii.
Pliny,H.
76.
84
name
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
has
come
down
to
us
is Mnesarchus, the
600
father of
most
the
B.C.). The
times
was was
famous
of fourth
gem-cutting in
century
the Great
B.C.
Greek He
Pyrgo-
teles in the
the
only artist
his did
whom
Alexander
It may
would
ness. likethe
be added
stones
that not
such
love
become
of
a
precious
as
pearls and
emeralds
passion.1
Period may
The
with
Prae-Alexandrian
the death of of
be viewed
the
as
ing end-
of Aristotle
complete
The of
Greece
by
the
Macedonian
the
kings.
decadence the
Macedon,
most
in fact, marks
been
and original
in striking
genius of
the
The
Greeks,
whether this
or political, literary,
philosophical.
the
historyof
periodreveals
have
in Greece
gradual
the
development
of history that
and
decline that
other nation
been
repeated in
every
history has
the in
same
extended creative
we
sufficient time
same
giveplay to
forces. So
and
the
destructive
Greece
find
at first
vigorous and
quick-wittedpeople,in comparativelysimple
literature that
art
1
its formative
a period,cherishing
and
with
springsup
the
result of conscious
native
than
See
as
the spontaneous
The
outpouring of
genius,
Middleton,
(Cambridge, 146-173
Arch'
Handbook Fowler
40-50,
Wheeler, A
of Greek
86
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
There
is some
developed culture
because originality,
and thus makes
standards
dead
level of excellence
takes
place of
The
man
few
man
manifestations striking
is
more
of creative the
power.
average is less
but intelligent,
at
exceptional
no more
until original,
last
men exceptional
exist.
Society becomes
formulas.
and
reduces
to everything
are
giveplaceto
form."
slaves to what
with
they call
form
to
good
be
But
consistent
good
imaginativeand
be eccentric.
astic enthusiThus in
and
a
original.This
is held to
highlycivilised community
the
the whole
drift of
thought is
commonplace;
and
and speculative
idealistic systems
not
give way
to
sort
of
go very far
beyond
day.
epic
is
supplanted by
In
drama
with
its many
cious meretri-
allurements.
the drama
itself the
intense
and
first
Sophocles are
by
rather
cynical plays of
ing amus-
to the
and elegant
comedy
of
Menander,
takes it out
with
its urbane
dialogueand
of pure
and
its
which realism,
1
of the
realm
poetry.2
pp.
See
257-60
his
(Cambridge, 1895) ;
Dramas,
2
Decharme,
trans.
Euripides
and
the
Spirit of
pp. 74-92.
Eng.
(New
York, 1906).
Horace,
Sat. i. 4,
46-47.
THE
PR^E-
ALEXANDRIAN
PERIOD
87
The
Prae-
Alexandrian
Age yielded
to
ends,
the
then,
critical.
when
the
creative
impulse
for serious
had
largely
men,
What
remained
therefore,
to
was
not
to
attempt
been
anything produced
Thus
new,
but
rather
study
criticise,
what
had
already
to
"
to
analyse,
into
to
and
classify.
sciences
there
came
especial
prominence
to
the
that
are
lateral col-
and
subsidiary
literature
and
linguistic
and
study
formal
"
hermeneutics,
lexicography,
text
criticism,
grammar.
[Bibliography. chapter,
translation
see
In
"
to
the of
books
already
cited
in
this
the
anecdotal
Diogenes
Laertius, English
English
translation
(London, 1854);
3-59
1853),
with
(London, i-"
PP-
History
and
Tlie
0/ Criticism,
(New
Greek
1900);
(London,
Growth
Influence
Tragic
Drama
of
Classical
Haigh,
Comidie
of
the
Greeks
(Oxford,
Croiset,
1896);
An
Denis, Abridged
La
Grecque, of
Greek
vols.
1886);
translation Law in
History
Literature,
(New
Taste,
pp.
York,
37-221
1904);
(London,
and
Courthope, 1901).]
Life
in
Ill
THE
ALEXANDRIAN
PERIOD
A.
The
Alexandrian
School
In
the
year
306
B.C.,
Demetrius
Phalereus,
been
over
statesman,
to to
orator,
having
and in time
sentenced the
was sea
Athens,
passed Egypt.
when traced
name
the
infant
city
of
It
exactly
the
twenty-five
Great,
of
years with
the
Alexander
had,
hand,
gave his
the
and that The
to
general plan
as
the
city to which
the
most
he
to
which
he issued
made of
a
peremptory
the entire
orders world.
it should commands
a
be
the
metropolis of
cannot
king
natural
city; but
that
a
the
advantages
Alexandria
when
were
such
great
sure
commercial
to
community,
flourish upon
live and
throughout succeeding
a
Alexandria
situated in it. that Down of
lay
the
projecting tongue
of the Mediterranean
to
came
of
land,
so
whole Nile
trade there
centred the
the
its wharves
barbaric
Africa.
over
To
vast
the treasures
caravans
"
by
silks
spices and
and
jewels
from
to
88
India, and
of which
enormous
gold
silver
even
the
names
were
scarcely known
contemporary
geographers.
THE
ALEXANDRIAN
PERIOD
89
country, from
even
In Asia
were
the
vessels of
and
every and
East, to Spain
Gaul
Britain
in
the West.
To the outward eye, Alexandria
was
extremelybeautiful.
great boulevards,
Through
shaded
its entire
length
trees, and
amid
ran
two
by mighty
diversified
by parterres
of
flowers
which One-fifth
fountains of the
splashedand
whole
gleamed.
Greek
as
city was
kings
who
succeeded In
Alexander,
it, before
there
and
was
the
Royal
the
Residence.
long,were
were,
palacesof
reigningfamily; and
with
and foliage
while
Grecian
sphinxes
suggestionof
eye
oriental
strangeness. As
the
on
looked
the rocks
seaward, his
of the
a
beheld, over
blue
water,
sheltering pyramidal
a
island,Pharos,
which
Ptolemy
hundred
lighthouseof
cost
marble
four
height at
of
eighthundred
among when the
silver talents
seven
justly
At
wonders took
world.
Demetrius than
one
more
thousand
and inhabitants,
was
humming
with
people were
alert,energetic,
ambitious
for its
a
proud
future. sublime
more
of Alexandria's
and distinction,
planned
a
it with
destiny, giving it
circumference
of
than
miles, and
90
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
was
a
justabout
man
to
assume
styleand
and of
title of
king, was
His
so
of
largeconceptions
been
was a cubine con-
liberal
ideas.
mother that
had
Philipof Macedon,
to
Ptolemy
believed
whom A
a
to
be had
half-brother served
a
the
he
with
conspicuous success
statesman,
and science
a
great
true
soldier and
consummate
also
Greek
literature.
of the
wars
In of
fact, he had
Alexander.1
written
narrative
a
still carrying on
contest
was
campaign against
and ready al-
the
was
turning
the
his
magnificent
of his
glory
splendour
the
moment psychological
for
were
some
remarkable
achievement. Here
All the
was
a
conditions
rich, populous,
youthful city,
the possessing
Hellenic in
a
yet growing up
Hellas.
Its
broader
new
than
little
people were
with
a
receptiveto
by
Greece
once,
contact
and itself,
not
filled with
desire to
gain
only
of the
the
commercial,
The
intellectual
premacy su-
world.
first Greek
king
of
Egypt
JThis
narrative Anabasis
was
largely used
by Arrian
The
in
work, the
can
of Alexander.
be found
in the Didot
edition of Arrian
THE
ALEXANDRIAN
PERIOD
resources.
He
was
gifted
a
trained
taste, and
was
splendidenthusiasm
The alone suggestion
a
noble
refining.
needed
to
in opportunities
way
that
a
should
worthy of
from
their the
inherent
Such possibilities.
suggestioncame
Phalereus.
a man as
himself
was
a
well fitted to
influence
was
independent
the
ruler
Attic
King Ptolemy. He
of
among
last of the
his native
orators
distinction.
three
He
had
and
governed
city so
been
a
ably that
hundred
in
ninety statues
He of
was
had
erected
by the Athenians
also
Menander,
and
pupil
head
of
Theophrastus,
the
succeeded
To the him
Aristotle at
was
the
of
Peripatetic
tion recita-
School.
due
by
He
was
Rhapsodes, after
the author
had
himself
books
the have
Iliad
and
four
text
criticism.
to
No the
one
could
have
been
better
to
he
advise
the
king
in whatever of
related
project for
one
advancement
to
is not which
that surprised
soon
him
is ascribed the
rendered and
Alexandria
intellectual
the sequent submediate im-
capitalof
the
world
profoundly influenced
and Roman
were
historyof Greek
fruits of his wise
learning. The
two
"
counsel
the estab-
92 lishment
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
of
great Museum
(to Mvaelov),
and
also the
foundation
An
was
Alexandrian is
account
Museum
It
attached
the
beautiful
rounded sur-
quarter of the
city,overlookingthe
harbour, and
of
marvels
decorative
It
contained
an
observatory for
a
its astronomers,
was
publiclecture
were
room.
In
second
who
drawn
to
the
Museum and
all countries
an
dined
like together,
the master
to
fellows of
were
English
and
college.Attached
the
Museum
botanical
whole At
gardens. zoological
was
The
object of the
institution first
a
to
no
encourage
so teaching,
original research.
that the Museum
was
bore
in
resemblance
Later which
to
to
the
Carnegie Institution
in
essence
a
ton. Washing-
it became
great universityin
his
as own
the
on
specialty,
as
students
numbered
The
at
one
time
many
teen fourthe
thousand.
were professors
we
by
1
the
whole
body; while
p. 203.
the
administration
Athenaeus,v.
Strabo,xviii. p. 794.
See also
Museum
197-237;
Weniger,
(1895);Walden,
The A
Universities
of Ancient
Education
Greece,pp.
the before
1909); Graves,
History of
Middle
94 have been
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
thus
or
made.
Galen
mentions of
the
autographa
and
originalcopies purchased
of its
^Eschylus, Sophocles,
which Library,
to
Euripides were
at the
for the
is
believed
time
greatest fame
and death
on
have
contained
between
volumes.1
were some
thousand the
six hundred of
thousand
there Private
before
Demetrius
volumes of
its shelves.
were
collections
that and
seen
Aristotle
purchased,as copies.
endowed
well
It
as
rare
editions
can
be readily
side
of
an
school
by
side with
would
systematic and
been previously
study
up
at
often At
very every
inadequate materials.
of
in last,
highly
trained
and
men,
provided
any
with
every
for facility
freed
from and
could pecuniaryanxiety,
labour
haste
as
without
rest,
the
mass
apportioningtheir
of
work
to
bring
into
a
play
great
peculiartalents
of data
"
each, and
accumulating
and
of
facts, results,
each
succeedinggenerationfound
in turn it added.
to which
Hence,
in spirit
once
scientific
See
(Breslau,1838); Birt,
Livres dans
Das ch.
x
Antike
Les
I'Antiquite,
(Bologna,
1884).
THE
ALEXANDRIAN
PERIOD
95
the is
every
direction
followed
of the
almost and
immediately Library
and
upon what
establishment
Museum
roughly
and
somewhat
There the
"
School.
from
in
Alexandrian school
"
and
sense
training, given to
or
but
that
there
word
was
no
at
when
we
speak
or
of
School,
In
the of
tain cer-
Pythagorean School,
these
a
the
men
Stoic
were
School.
each
number
of able
all dominated
by
ideas
common
philosophical principlesand
a
common
and
holding
such
was
fast to
not
theory.
The had
no
But
men
at
Alexandria
who
the
case.
learned
lived and
the
together in
held
most
no
the
Museum in
common.
singlephilosophy
activities
theory
Their
took
diverse
direction.
a
The
possessedtogetherwas
methods.
"
love of science
far
more
It would
"
be
proper
were
speak
of the
schools
a
at
reallymany,
astronomy,
school
a
"
school
of
of
school
of
school
medicine,
school
of
philosophy,a
of
a school literature,
of grammar
and
school Yet
'See
of textual criticism.1
these
St.
different schools
VEcole
had
one
characteristic
so
Hilaire,De
I'Ecole Schools
d'Alexandrie
(Paris,1845); Simon,
Vacherot,
Histoire Histoire
de I'Ecole de Critique
Kingslates re-
(Cambridge, 1854)
is
and disappointing
side. philosophical
96
far in the
some common
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
as
to
give a
sort
of
family likeness
and scholars,
to
all
in
productionsof
measure
the
Alexandrian in
thus
to
us justify as
speaking of
the
"school." exhibit
a
Just
certain the
the
writings of
instinctive
freshness
are
thought, so
in erudition.
writingsof
smell
Alexandrians
steeped
all
They
of the
lamp.
this
else,
they
are
learned every
no
productions; and
work single that
came
trait that
belongsto
It is A the
seen
German
aptly said:
It is
though
vidual indi-
reproduce itself
in each
work." such
as
Therefore
of the
Poetry,
that
Callimachus,
reader
at
Aratus, and
turn
a
Apollonius,
treatise.
suggestingto
So Philetas died from who
every
learned
writer It
was
of
elegies,
deed, he, inlexicon
scientific
study.
an
Homeric and
morbidly anxious
of the the
about
the rhetorical
grammaticalmerits
of the
language
or ecliptic,
in which the
they
wrote
equinoxesand
solution
of the
torians his-
with
notes. archaeological
thus,
in
at
even first,
most
abstract
lectures
were
given
1
verse.
It
was
age
of
scholarencyclopaedic
See Couat, La
THE
ALEXANDRIAN
PERIOD
97
ship; and
no
it
tingesthe
the treatises
Alexandrian
on
epics
and
and
dramas
less than
is what influence
grammar the
lexicography.
Influence,
"
This
an
is meant that it
was
by
Alexandrian
so
afterward
powerfully felt
at
Rome, where
the
reproduced itself in
less than
the
polymath, no
in the lines of
learned
It is
poets.
the
whole
tendency
of the that
andrians Alextheir
toward
reflection
was
and
research
work
in pure
literature
of of
a
void
philosophy was
marked
by
the
eclecticism.
The
highest philosophy,like
in addition
to
mere
an learning,
subtletyand
the
study
now
of
mathematics, of
in many
mechanics,
respects
so
and
sure
of
physicswas
and fruitful,
to
in its results
as
be the
can
admiration
of
the of
scientific men
to-day; while
of that
no
one
overestimate in the
enduring value
systematiclabour
and
study
in the criticism
far
as
were
their best in
to
what preserving
had What
come
them
the
was
preceding centuries.
vast
they
of of
of
their
in amount
more
and
than the
devoid
names
Little
epics and
and lyrics
dramas
98
are
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
known
to-day.
volumes
but
so
Here
and
were
few
even
fragments tell
admired
at
of vast
which which
and
so
Alexandria,
treatment
or
were
obscure
as
in their deserve
technical
has
come
to
reduced
The
the
to study of style
exact
science.
of
epic
;
lyricpoets ; Lycophron
Alexander
of
Colchis,the
comic
poets
second
The
Callimachus librarian,
Cyrene (c.
one
275 and
made B.C.),
catalogueof
which
may
the
Library in
said
to
twenty books
for
a
be
have
foundation third
an
scientific
study
of
of Greek
literature.
librarian,
admirable
Eratosthenes
wrote B.C.),
on
treatise
in at
a
on
geography
another
the bear
Old
upon
Comedy,
the
books, bringingto
ject subThe
knowledge and
excellent
taste.
fourth has
(c. 200
B.C.),
been
styled "the
who is said to in
It is he
are
now
invented
the and
accents
which
employed
writing Greek,
he
also
system
of
punctuation.
used
Likewise them
suggested
critical
signs
in his editions
of Homer, famous
Hesiod,
writers.
or
other
the
Hypotheses
densed con-
plots to
notes
and
THE
ALEXANDRIAN
PERIOD
99
Most
important of
known
as
have
become
"the
"
canons
of Greek
antiquity. The
the
Alexandrian and it
prepared with
and
greatest care,
of the
final
as
judgment
those
names
Alexandrian
Greek
literature
to
of
writers
works
embodied
the
very
were
highest
thought
excellence in their
to
be models The
details of
the
Canon
are
as
follows:
(i) Epic
Poets, Homer,
(2)
Iambic
Hipponax.
Philetas,Callimachus.
(5) Tragic
Poets
Euripides, Ion, Achaeus, Agathon. Tragic Pleiades), Alexander Corcyra, Sositheus, Homer phanes
or
the
Philiscus of -/Etolian,
the
Sosicles,Lycophron.
(Old
Comedy),
Pherecrates, Plato.
1
Comedy),
Classical
Antiphanes,
Philology, 3d ed.,
See
11-13
Gudeman,
Outlines
pp.
2
The
meant (Kavdbv)
then
to
penter's car-
rule;
whatever made really
that, in
as a
figurative sense,
or as norm.
the
word
came
denote
served up
model
canons
The
Canon
Alexandrinus above.
is
of several
may
be
seen
in the text
IOO
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
Alexis.
(New
Comedy),
Menander,
Philippides, Diphi-
lus, Philemon,
(8)
Orators
(the
ten
Attic
Hyperides, Dinarchus.
Theophrastus.
the
same
(10)
with
Poetic
one
Pleiades
(seven poets
of
epoch
another), ApolloniusRhodius,
the
Younger, Lycophron,
Ni-
felt to be necessary
that
a
owing
to
the great
multitude
of books
was
began
to appear
Age.
of
There
certain
apprehension lest
weight
of
a
numbers
should
claims
real
flood
merit, and
be lost in
to
serve
of innovation. did
serve
as
Canon of be
some
was
intended
and
it
standard
comparison by judged;
and
which it
all literary
thus of
preserved
definite
our
laws
own
literary expression.
the lishment estab-
standpoint of
Alexandrian
times
of the and
some
Canon
led
to
wrought
the
both
good
harm. of the
It
undoubtedly
greatest works
works
of that
antiquity;but
would be
to
the
loss of other
to
were
of inestimable latter
not
value
the
modern allowed
to
classical
These philologist.
works
perishjust because
they
were
102
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
heavilycharged
parts like
its
a
with
reading in
the
As dictionaryof antiquities.
a
second,
times.1
proverb even
age
are
in ancient
More
the
the and
so-called "didactic
epics" of
astronomy
translated cander
venomous
into Latin
on cures
by Cicero),and
for
went
more
of
Colophon
creatures.
poison and
on,
As
time
the
work literary
of and
the far
and
more
pedantic
literature,
the
the
of spirit the
pure
until it
to
an
far from
beginningof
Christian The
era.2
Alexandrian
Philosophy
It that
was
was
always
characterised The
most
by
eclecticism.
originated nothing.
arose
school interesting
in
Egypt
or
after the
at
Library
rate,
became
due
to
established
the
Jewish
of
was,
to largely
influence
Jewish
rabbis
to
began
into earlier
widen
some
so religious teaching,
as
it
philosophical conceptionsof
was a
Greeks.
in which
result
body
of
philosophy and
The
most
theology were
elaborate
expounder
was
Aristobulus,an
on
whose
commentaries
the
teachare
Suidas
called it
very
"poem
of shadows."
The
scholia
by
Tzetzes
however,
3
See
Couat,
1882). (Paris,
THE
ALEXANDRIAN
PERIOD
ings of
Greek
were
Aristotle,
Pentateuch.
of
Three
later,when
be
influence
was
Christianity began
but
to
felt,Neo-Platonism
were
thereby modified;
hostile
to
the
and Christianity;
and
hands forth
as
of Iamblichus
a
Julian the
for
Apostate, was
and In the the the
set
substitute
both
tianity Chris-
older and
pagan
faith.1
of
Pure
Alexandrians
beyond
the
strict limits of
classical
philology. It
however, be
which
were
sun
well
to
merate enu-
some
results striking
measurement
attained.
These
comprise the
tarchus treatise of
on
of the
and the
moon
by
Aris-
Samos
(310-250 B.C.);
(c.300
first
geometry by Euclid
B.C.) ;
the
of the
by
Archimedes
matics mathe-
(287-212 B.C.),as
to
the first
the
same
of application
hydrostaticsby
on
scholar;
the
first
scientific treatise
conic
sections
out
by Apolloniusof Perga
Eratosthenes
by
the
(275-194
the
later called
Julian Calendar;
the solar year
determination
six
of the true
length of
(within
no
whom time
real advance
astronomy
sixteen
was
made
until years
the
of
the
Copernicus,
1
hundred
later;
See
1901).
104
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
invention of the
finaly,
construction
nickel-in-the-slot machine,
toys by Hero
to (c.125 B.C.),
whom
also been
ascribed
writings on
the
solution
of
of
the
the introduction As
among the he
algebra.1
the essentially
so
Aristophanes was
the
great (fu\6\oyo";
was
Alexandrians,
Aristarchus
essentially
in Samothrace, his
stupendous labours
afterwards,and
him that
text
even
his
name
to
day, proverbial. It
its
is with
criticism
reached
highestdevelopment
until recent
It is evident in in
a
literary study
of
an
author, pursued
soon
thorough
systematic way,
the of integrity
will
result
to questionsrelating
especially
exist
when
has from
been
long dead
one
and
to
there
variant
which that
has
choose. been
texts
already been
toward
shown
something had
done and
was
the
taken with
texts
of the
great dramatists.
in
a
This
work
up at Alexandria
of spirit
scientific
and inquiry
went on,
ample
means
for its
prosecution. As
of
time
See
Berry,
Short
History
York,
Astronomy
Great
Astronomers
(New
1899); Ball,A
History of
Mathematics
York, 1906);
THE
ALEXANDRIAN
PERIOD
05
definite School
of Criticism
was
established. be
The
first the
were
of
Ephesus, may
The
regarded as
his duties
school.
fact that
partlythose
him
to
cataloguer, purchaser,and
interest especial that
one
classifierled
work of making
sort
look
upon
the
so collections,
finds him
preparing a
and
of
corpus of the
Homeric He also
epic
and
lyricpoets
into
a
elaboratingthe
ambitious work.
of glossary
Philetas
an
more
put forth
edition
which
may
be
called the
the
b.c.
Odyssey.
Hence
It
was
before publishedshortly
is called
the
year
274
Zenodotus
or
work
the
8t,6p6eo"n"
Recension. In
preparingthe
kinds
text
of Homer,
Zenodotus
introduced
the
as
four
of corrections:
(1) Elimination,
he
complete absolutely
as
omission
of certain
regarded
of certain
as
marking
so
lines
very
doubtful
to
their justify
of the
Fink,
der A
order
of certain
Mathematics Allerthum
History of
im
Mathematik
on
treatise them
was
Hiero's
ingeniousmechanical
Pneumatics of
year
toys with
illustrate
in in
Greenwood,
(London, 1851).
the
1700
algebra, this
on
realityan
back
invention
to
Egyptians.
B.C.,
The
first treatise
an
algebra dates
before
his
the
an
when written
Ahmes, eight
edited
Egyptian
years
scribe,copied part
time.
of
algebraic work
of Ahmes
hundred
The
book
has
been
by
Eisenlohr
(Leipzig, 1877).
106
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
stitution of
a
new
readingsfor
the old.1
attention appear His
As
to to
was
natural in
the
vocabulary
been
made
of Homer,
have
chiefly upon
done
era
proof of
and
what
could be
a new
by
of
study
of word
one
phrase began
philological study,and
received style, criticism those of
a
in which
language,
as
very
close attention.
to
The
to
of text than
now
began
be
extended
texts
Homer. of the of
We
have
already
ander Alex-
mentioned
tragicpoets by
the comic
iEtolus, and
edition of than
poets by
The
ntW/ce?
Callimachus, previously
a
more really
of catalogue
the books
Alexandrian
on
critical
an
observations
the
volume,
a
cation indi-
of the first and its size.2 in the The studies treatise In it he This
was
of each, and
note
ing regard-
librarian, Eratosthenes, of
has
whose
scientific
a
something
on
been
the Old
Comedy
in not
books.
seems
to have
given for
the
only a
ject sub-
complete and
of
excursus
1
critical treatment
of the
an
language and
the
on
comedies,
such themes
but
as
also
were
exhaustive
series of
may
be
Fasti
foil. (Oxford,1824-1834).
See
THE
ALEXANDRIAN
PERIOD
importance,
"
of
theatres,the
the different
costumes,
the
generalsubject.1
His
successor,
self himThe
tury, cen-
the
at
hand.
entire
for
an
so classified,
needed
only a great
had
some
mind
to
put it
done
to
the
use. possible
Much
of
alreadybeen
of principles and
a
toward
establishment
but criticism;
were now
the results of be
previoussuccesses
and full, in
failures
to
utilised to the
whole
broad
and
liberal
a
spirit.The
sphere of
of
a
Greek
literature became
in in
a
labours
Aristophanes; and
set to
taking upon
heavy
task, he
was
work
criticism
not
"
wholly verbal,
is, criticism
It
was
it upon
even
wholly diplomatic,
comparison
was
that
based
the it
of
manuscripts.
of these, and
and inspired
tempered by
sorts.
the
of various
known
as
markings
three
Aristophanes. These
two
the two
the accents,2
1
quantitymarks
short),
The
Berhardy, Eratosin
thenica
'Breathings and
Greek
however,
were
not
regularlywritten
a.d.
the seventh
century
108
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
the mark
of
inserted separation
not
between
words
where
the
be obvious,the
the
hyphen (a
connection,
line drawn
under
in
compound
mark
words), and
elision
or
either to
was
the
a
foreignname.
/c,
It
,
after
word
ending in
was
%,
or f i/r,
p.
double
an
consonant
found
in the the
middle
of
word,
apostrophe was
letters.
placed
above
first or
between
Besides
the two
use
of the its
full
depended
upon
position.
the
full
stop. The
a
point on
line
a
semicolon.
The last
The
point in
middle
use
was position
comma.
disappeared from
it was
in
the
ninth
we
replacedby
the mark
which
call
comma.
Aristophanes also
texts.
edited
a
a critically great
number
of
He
prepared
he
a
supplement
compose
on
to
the
catalogue of already
the
one
Callimachus;
helped
treatise
the and
given; he
wrote
on
metres,
scientific work
lexicography,of which
stillpreserved.1
in detail upon
can
fragments are
We of need
not
dwell
the much
critical methods
better
seen
be
in
the work
1
pupiland
are
The
fragments
Aristophanes
edited
ByzantiiFragmenta (Halle,1848).
IIO
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
v.
7).1 It
was
probably because
of the the
reasons
of his for
knowledge
of these
approached
that
to
work A. Wolf
of
recension
sceptical
His main
of F.
of the
and
tions corrup-
of the
to note
three
preceding centuries.
It is
can
interesting
be
seen
the
best
by taking up
us
of the concrete
scholia.
of
an
author
by Aristarchus involved
of the
five processes:
determination
accents;
(3) the
the
determination
forms; (4)
and of
an
explanationof
criticism the final his work
(5)/cpto-ts,or
and authenticity the author
proper,
judgment
as a
passed
upon In
and
whole.
text
carrying out
all the but
his work
as
employs
sources
of information in
a
by
his
ecessors pred-
always
far spirit
more
scientific than he
a
had
use
been. of
Thus,
like
Zenodotus,
studies
the
that
knowledge
of the
substance
Yet
be
based
upon
knowledge
to the
language.
rare,
1
he does
not
confine himself
as an
archaic,
considers
or
He,
2 "analogist,"
See
Studiis
Homericis
(Konigsberg, 1833 ; 3d
Textkritik
ed.
1882); Ludwich,
Aristarchs pp.
Homerische
1884(Leipzig,
91-98 (Glasgow,1887).
Infra, pp.
19-120.
THE
ALEXANDRIAN
PERIOD
III
these
as
being
less
important,from
and
as
the
very
than rarity,
the words
the work
phrases that
a
lend
and
to individuality
are
whole
and
which,
sense.
they
ample, ex-
to
the Homeric
So, for
eoSe
"
remarks
that
never
in
"
Homer,
here
"
always
";
has the
meaning
"
thus
"
and
or
thither
that
while
fidWetv
refers
always
of
to
the
ovrd^etv
is used
or striking sense
close
7roVo"? that and usage
of
"flight";that
to
is
employed especiallyin
the Iliad
means
reference
the him
combat;
mountain,
of
'O\vfnro"; in
so on.
actual
a
This
careful
to
study gave
decide
standard
when
called upon
in two
between
two-
such
was
case
he
gave
the
reading that
of the
the
more
consistent
with
the
general usage
poet (to
WlfJLOV TOV
TTOlrjTOV),
text, he ascribed
as
great weight
and tophanes Aris-
manuscript authority,just
had done and
to
seems
Zenodotus Aristarchus
before
him; but
exhibits
scripts manu-
an
acuteness not
in
the
work them
of his
sors. predeces-
He
"
grouped
determined
generallyin
by comparison
its value find
"
both
a
by
the
internal of
a
evidence
canon.
of Thus
codex
we
in
the
establishment
private
editions,"the work
of individual
112
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
made among
under
which and
State he
* supervision;
and
"
popular editions,"
are more
that
rate inaccu-
those
accurate. fairly
no
That
Aristarchus of
as are
made
such in
minute their
"
divisions families
"
and and
subdivisions
"
"
manuscripts
found in the
groups
texts
work
of modern
critics in
of
to the
tant imporwere
variants of
of words
particular verses;
narrow,
limits
tions addiThis
divergencebeing very
were
the
omissions
of
common
comparativelyunimportant
basis of of the
a implies
embodied tradition,
Pisistratidean
vulgate
The
Zenod-
possiblythat judgment
is
seen
recension. with
of
Aristarchus,as contrasted
of the for
in
his treatment
so-called formulaic
too
lines.
This
line repetition,
line,was
much of
"
for
Zenodotus, who
it,
of
baneful in
dream the in
Agamemnon
occurs
three
times
book.
Aristarchus, however,
of the
rightly saw
this
so
naif redundacy
it stand. he
was
he
On
the
sceptical,
for this
very much he
to
his altering
text
; and
conservatism
has and
been
censured
in modern
times, for
by Wolf instance,
Lehrs. often
1
Aristarchus introduce
an
questionedand
emendation.
not
See p. 15.
THE
ALEXANDRIAN
PERIOD
113
he
The
most
important of
these
were
(1) The
6/3e\6"; or spit, -,
lines
were
to
indicate that
"
a
"
line
was
spurious. Such
This
said to be
athetised
(aOerelv).
scholars. either for
to
obelus is stillused
in critical texts
or
by
German
(2) The
SlttXtj, S-,
"
"J
to
or
-$, used
to exposition,
some
especial point,or
or
mark
word
only once,
as
to
indicate that
the construction
is the
in Attic denote
Greek.
that the
dotted
to diplS, "-,
reading
Aristarchus
differed from
to
that
of Zenodotus.
verse
asterisk, *,
one
mark
genuine formulaic
him
as
distinct from
regardedby
it was spurious, it
spurious. If
in
one
the
repeatedverse
two
was
marked
the
of the
or
places where
to prefixed
occurred, with
asterisk
the
obelus
the line.
D, antisigma, denote
and
the
stigma, r,
the
same
were
used
The is
of repetitions
idea.1
alone,denoted stigma,
to interesting
onlysuspectedspuriousness.It
that out
60
know
of
were
the
15,600 lines
of
the
the
Odyssey, 11
of
one
athetised.
were
criticisms in any
Aristarchus
not,
apparently,
were
embodied
1
spread
passage
sense
For
instance,Iliad,viii. 535-537,
the For last-named
account
marked, and
seemed
to
so
was
538-541, because
of the former.
repeat the
the best
of these
critical
signs see
Gardt-
114
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
over
the
development
of
never a new
or
the
statement
principle. Hence
canonised
so
his
critical work
text.
was
in
one
singlestandard
Hence,
work
to
also, it is
Aristarchus Aristarchean and in
difficult to himself
from
"
what distinguish
that the
out
is the
of the
which
belonged
of This in the
School,
who felt
we
even
to
great number
his ideas.
as
students
scholars
carried
difficulty,
Augustan
tain ascer-
fact,was
and
in ancient
times,
Age;
find
Didymus
Homer
a
Chalcenteros
were
tryingto
what
"
readingsof
approved by
Aristarchus
and The
this
only about
imperfectknowledge
of
have
to
of the
to
the critical
roundabout
us.
work way
Aristarchus
notices
as
whole
is due
come
in which
of it have
down Homeric
mus, Didy-
the
writingsof
of
Alexandria, a contemporary
on
Didymus,
treatise
by Aristarchus
this matter,
to
B.C.
in his text
work;
incidentally quoted
marked with
wrote
arguments
About
relating
the year
the
verses
these
a
signs.
on
160, Herodianus
treatise poems.
on
the accentuation
Nicanor about the
and
same
prosody
time between made
of the
Homeric
a
improved
the
an
work
200
Homeric 250
a.d.
punctuation.
some
Now
years
and
unknown
scholar
epitome
of these and
four writers
"
"
Didymus,
such
a
Aristonicus, Herodianus,
Nicanor
in
way
THE
ALEXANDRIAN
PERIOD
115
the Homeric
as
to form
continuous
criticalcommentary
of the Four Treatises
on
text.
The
Epitome
"
of
simply
as
the
Epitome,"
and the
in
the
a.d.
Viermanner
Scholien),1 was
the
in
a
tenth of the A
century
Iliad. of the
copied
Codex
No.
into is the
margin
famous
of
codex
This
very
Codex
Venetus
Iliad,
tains con-
454,
in the the
Library of
St. Mark
in Venice. somewhat
It
(1)
from its
Epitome, undoubtedly
as
altered
form, original
scholia.
we
the MS.
language,etc., shows;
is almost the
and
(2) other
from
of the which
This
only
source
can
get any
definite
knowledge
views
of Aristarchus. the
It is also the
only MS.
are
in which The
critical
signs of
Aristarchus
were
first edited
by
Villoison in
Text
1788.1
reached antiquity
followers
were
criticism in His
its
Aristarchus.
often
of
great
seems
their attention
have
been
directed
more
and criticism,
to
become The
of
narrower
and
more
pedanticas
in
time
went
on.
Alexandian
School
was,
grammatical scholarship,
with
accurate,
too sort
careful,and
a
perhaps
a
great
fondness
strict
rules, and
ity uniformthat
of Procrustean in
to willingness
absolute
language and
in its laws
by crushingout
in the second ed.
idio-
See Hiibner's
Encyclopddie,pp. 37-40
(Berlin, 1892).
Il6
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
matic
freedom
of both of
a
form
and
which expression
is the
attribute
living language.
died
at
Aristarchus, who
were
about
143
B.C.,
critical
continued may be
Alexandria
by
his of
successors,
whom of
noted
Hermippus
drawn upon
Smyrna,
much biographies,
who
by Plutarch;
on
wrote
in
to
trimeters,a work
B.C., and
a
the fall of
Troy
1444
mentary com-
the Homeric
a
catalogueof
the Gods
the
in
ships.
He
wise like-
composed
which
"
treatise On
books twenty-four
information The been
was
treasury of minute
and
curious
freelyand
of
extensively piratedby
Aristarchus after him
B.C. was
successor
Ammonius,
came
-c.
his of
to
pupil;and
Alexandria
have written
Didymus
10
Chalcenteros
(c. 65
a.d.),
who
is
said
nearlyfour
thousand
books, lexicographical,
archaeological.1
a
year of
75
B.C.
there
"
appeared anonymously
the first of its kind drew
"
great
which
mythology
from
many
of the
extensively.One
and the
mentator com-
should also
speak of
grammarian Tryphon,
lived in the less and
B.C.
Theon Alexandrian
who
first less
century
a.d.
The the
School grew
important after
the
middle
was
good part of
Alexandria
Library Julius
of
destroyed during
1
siege of
by
See
Blau,
De of
Aristarchi
Discipulis(Jena, 1883); by
Moritz
and
the edition
the
fragments
Didymus
Schmidt
1854). (Leipzig,
Il8
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
which gamum,
was
organisedat last
which
arose
in the and
famous
School
at Per-
to
meet
was
Pergamum
the coast
an
town,
about It
teen fifwas
of
Mysia
in Asia Minor.1
by
dynasty founded
Eumenes
in the Alexandrian
a
Age; and
arts
263
B.C.
I became
patron of the
to sculptors
and
his court,
had
the Middle
Athens, and
successor
the
Peripatetic philosophe
was
Lycon.
I, who
assumed
of Eumenes
Attalus
over
title of
then
king, won
to
victories books
the
invadingGauls,and
began
was
gatherthe
for the
grounds
the
academy
like that
in
Athens,
and
sought
and
to
mathematicians.2
The
his
king himself
taste
was
scended condefor
authorship,though
victories of
over
sculpture. His
in
a
the Gauls
A
were
set
magnificentbronzes.
copy
as
of "the
one
of
these in marble
is the famous
more
Dying
and
Gladiator," but
now
properly "
Dying Gaul,"
at
preserved in
artists whom of
for
the he
Museum Capitoline
Rome.
Of
the
patronised,one
who
wrote
on
recalls
art
especially
likewise Pergamum,
Antigonus
1
Carystos,
and
from
The it
was
name was
parchment {pergamena)is
derived
where
2
first made.
to
It
his work
on
Conic
Sections.
THE
ALEXANDRIAN
PERIOD
on
natural
phenomena.
Pergamum
which
sea rose
was
the
Acropolis,a
it
thousand
were,
the
level,and
a
as protecting,
the court
goddess Athena,
and adorned
vast
quadrangle
bounded
of
by
colonnades
by majesticstatues
other
were
Homer,
great writers
carried
B.C.
of
the past.
the
and
similar works
until
to
out
by
III
kings
Pergamum
in 133
Attalus
bequeathed
The varied Stoics
was
the Roman
were,
on
people.
the
scholars in their
Pergamum
than
whole,
more
interest the
those
of
Alexandria.
the
The
controlled
teachings,and
who (c.168 B.C.), Aristarchus rule in
was
real
to
Crates
of Mallos what
became
to
gamene
School
Aristarchus his
reverenced
while language,
based
which
teachings upon
exception;and
were
the catchwords
distinction
avaXoyta and
mere
avcofxaXia.1
verbalists of
regarded the
Alexandria
text
speciesof contempt.
the especially
text
He
held
of
that
and criticism,
Crates derived
On the The in
criticism
Homer,
Chrysipon
ivu/xaXla expression
from
pus,
Anomaly.
found
fragments Wachsmuth,
School
see
of De
Crates Cratete De
commentary
them and
on
will be the
Mallota Aula
i860); (Leipzig,
Attalica
Pergamene
For
Wegener,
on
hagen, (Copensee
1836).
Aulus
Crates.
'
some
discussion reference is
Analogy
and
to
Anomaly,
Aristarchus
ii. 5, Gellius,
"
where
a
directlymade
and
la est
v "
7 /
est similium
similis dedinatio;
.dvufiaX
inaqualitas Anomaly,
see
declinationum also
sequens." 156-158.
On
Analogy
and
Sandys, op.
120
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
ought to embrace
the whole
mass
of
problems
"
"
historical,
in
philosophical suggested
saw
the
Homeric
poems.
He
in the
allusions to the
cosmical
and
astronomical Homer
more
of the teacher
Stoics.
than The
as a
In
fact, he regarded
importance of
is found
text
of his desire to he
saw
gories alle-
there, he
propose the
large
in which
principle
Thus,
anomaly
full
play to
his
ingeniousmind.
represents cautious
a
reluctance
to alter what
it,
the
down
Bentley
to
on us
have
a
come
of his Homeric
tary commen-
the
Aristophanes; a catalogueof
that which
and may
a
Callimachus
on
made
of the
work
be noted, en
of the
sent
as
study
an
of grammar
Rome,
B.C.1
which His
most
city he
was
ambassador
was
in 157
important
in the
successor
Demetrius
B.C.
Magnes,
who
wrote
who
on
flourished synonyms
and
together
biographies.
1See
infra, p.
157.
THE
ALEXANDRIAN
PERIOD
121
It the
might
seat
well be assumed
a
that Athens
should
have
been
was
of
such
indeed it had
the
been
case.
the of
time
of
Pericles,
even
called it
"the
Greece," and
long kept
the
fire of the
learningbright. beginning of
the
before
and
immediately after
an
Christian
Era, it contained
plished accom-
lectured to students
The
all
was
parts
the
Universityat
result of two
of the
the
isation organ-
philosophers youths,were
and
in
Ephebi, or
into
a
enrolled
was
primarily
educated
intended both of
Two way
of the State.
They
were
the nucleus
what
body
of this
a
of
the
university.
changes in
university.These neglectof
the
changes
(i) The
all
were
Not
(2) Membership
or
even
longer confined
Athenians
Greeks.
These
of young
men,
a
organisedand
of
enrolled,free regularly
as
follow such
course
training
to
any
line of
study
advocacy
122
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
of the
popular men.
the
a
The
schools
of
for
philosophers supplied
from
influence
necessary
a
to military college
great
schools
wars
of
philosophy had
been
or
since
the
time
of the
Macedonian
were
at flourishing
These
the
Academic
Platonic
School,
Peripatetic
Epicurean.
had petuate perthe
or
Aristotelian
School,the
from
Each
of these schools
an
received
endowment
sufficient to
it.
Plato
had
purchased a
small
garden
Eleusinian
Way,
of Academe,
drachmas.
and
philosophicsuccessors,
to
Polemon,
continued the
teach
in the of
same
spot; their
to
friends
learningadded
for the
the
bequeathed
sufficient funds
support
an demic aca-
and philosopher,
chair.
thus
endowed practically
Theophrastus,
and
us
valuable
property
text
near
the
come
Ilyssus;
down
to
Theophrastus,in
in
has
ment endow-
So
Epicurus left
of
an
his property
nucleus
endowment
like
manner
probably in
four
made
independent.
1
these
schools
of
phi-
v.
2.
14.
xx. 10.
Diog. Laert.
THE
ALEXANDRIAN
PERIOD
23
a taught gratuitously,
teachers
of
rhetoric,grammar,
clustered.
as a
literature,
The of
logic,physics,and
soon
mathematics of Athens
world
learned
to
think
great
seat
learning
renowned.
flocked to
to
quarter and
to
country.
enrolled
have
necessary
become
Ephebi,
tors, instrucThe
lectures became
as
as
they
chose.
number
tus
students
to
names as
enormous.
Theophrasmen.
alone
many
two
thousand
The of
we
records show
them
of many
race.
being
of the
Semitic took
later
sources
matriculation
wore a
placeearlyin
of the
the year;
that
students
gown
like that
undergraduates
at the
with
was
ardour;
for
that
at
the theatre
specialgallery
at
reserved
courses
them;
were
a
the the in
of lectures
under exacted
generaldirection
the
of
shape
that
of
an
annual of
the
university
Library;
at
breaches
were discipline
punished,as
student
to
cease
and
to
was professor
so close,
that
for
student that
"
take
course
very
"
cutting; and
the
Most
students
of the
themselves
young
touted
for the
professors.
enthusiasts
for
124
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
11
became
mere
are
all
anxiety to get
This
audiences
to
larger and
their
fees
increased.
they
over
carry
post themselves
as
the
cityat
beginningof
the year;
each
newcomer
disembarks
off at is best
once
hands;
they
or
carry him
to the house
countryman
his
own
friend who
at
professor."
Private
tutors
were ("f"v\afce";)
often
employed. They
them
on
looked
over
the
students'
notes, "coached"
most
the
subjectsin which
them
seems
they
were
helped
there
at to
their exercises.
have
At
the
been
to
an
examination.
Freshmen
seem
a
have
been
to subject
over
sort
of
hazing.
Gregory, in
some
funeral address
his friend
Basil,recalls
We
of the
one
memories the
a new
freshmen.
find
not
of haze
to
feeble
health.
Sometimes
officers of
and in
a
were university
subjectto similar
of the tutors who
annoyances, tossed
Liba-
one
was
blanket.
to
likewise other
in the
famous East
schools
and
given over
higher education
JEshave
Tarsus, in
the
Asia
Minor,
had
faculties
representingall
branches
of
126
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
A and that
gloss (yXaxraa)was,
in the
name
of language
the Greek
critics
text
grammarians, the
given to
word
in the
II.
course
of
time,ordinary words
new
may
become
may
may in
acquirea
a
shade
of
meaning, or
As the
employed
would
technical
and
sense. peculiar
these
benefit all
words
of the
such.
to
generalreader, the
Thus, Plutarch
yXSxra-awas
the words those
given to
which
speaks of
the
purelypoetical language,and
Audiendis
that
are
to the
uses
obsolete medical it of
of Hipparchus. expressions
21.
* 4-6).
provincialisms (Poet.
synonymous 8. (i. 15;
term
Quintilianemploys
to
voces
the
yXaxra-rnxara
minus that
usitatas needed
cf. i. 1. 35).
Originally
defined
use
the
word
explanation was
the word
simply
in
common
by writingits simplersynonym,
(ovofia Kvpiov,
Then word the term in the
Arist), in
yXaxraa
and
the
meant
margin
the
of the text
beside
it.
pair of words,
in the
i.e. the
text
its
as
word explanatory
margin,
the two
being viewed
Ultimately
With
these
the
explanationalone
ceased be
called
yXcaaaa.
but the
glosses
to
"
purelylexical and
became
encyclopaedic
in
1
character,
Cf. id. Rhet.
iii. 3. since
2.
As
early as
of
the
fifth century
B.C.,
we
find
a
Democritus
Abdera
(c. 410
B.C.) wrote
them
(Uepl T\u"r"rt"ov).
THE
ALEXANDRIAN
PERIOD
the
purpose
or
chief
"
of
these
glossographerswe
of
already mentioned,
of In
Philetas
Cos,
Zenodotus,
and
Aristophanes
Herodianus.1
collected and
Byzantium,
later
Aristarchus, Crates,
were glosses
times, the
as
regularly
on
arranged
"
running
commentaries
the
language of
the text,
the best-known
collectors of these
and its the
piler com-
the
the
as
Etymologicum Magnum.
word
"
In
developed
in the
meaning,
same sense
gloss
Very
name
"
is to few
be
understood
come
as
down
exist
to
are
us
with the
attached;
such
usuallywritten
a
the
margin
or
between
the
lines
of
codex
and
copiedfrom
the work
evidence
The much
scholia
having been
itselfwas
written
written.
when
are
the codex
as
Scholia
those
margin
between
known
glossa marginales;
called
interglossce
written
the
lines
are
lineares.2
Something
among
must
be
said
as
here
any
must
of
the
study
of
Art
the Greeks.
evidence
have been
remains, their
very
on earlywritings
limited is
in extent
so
far
they
the
concern
aesthetics.
A.D., alluded
There
year
250
to
thirty-five
list of the
glossographers.
2
See
Mat
thai, Glossaria
Graeca is
most
important (Gk.)
scholia
20-21.
Cf. also
37-40,
(Berlin,1892).
128
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
a scarcely
mention
of any
formal
discussion
on
the
history
The
an
of
architecture, sculpture,painting, or
also the
music.
historians,and
incidental way,
and art, artists,
detached
works the
to
of art.
As
in
literature, so
in
music,
selves them-
the
Greeks
more
of
to
Prae-Alexandrian
than
to
Age
devoted
creation
criticism. of his
Philostratus Lives
was
of
the
to
Sophists,that
B.C.) of Elis
wont
disputeon
Democritus model living
we
the
that the
of Abdera
work
on
(Hepl ZcoypaQias).
in practical
Other
know,
were
their character
by
artists for
or
matical mathe-
demonstration
produce
acute
beauty
in the
human
however,
criticisms of
Aristotle ; and
we come
by
the
beginningof
are
Period,
aesthetic.
dotes anec-
to criticisms which
not
Thus, Duris
and
of Samos
was
among
aphorisms
the
with
regard
painting. Many
busied themselves
of representatives
1
School Peripatetic
The
first of these
canons
was
B.C.
After
came Polyclitus,
many
write
was
upon there
the much
technical written
sculpture;
but
not
the his
Vitruvius who
in the
preface to
names
number
of writers
concerned
themselves
with
THE
ALEXANDRIAN
PERIOD
20
in
the
same
way.
As
rule,
the
artists
themselves
"
men
who
understood
sculpture
treatises.
and
bronze
casting
in
"
were
the
authors
of
these
At
Pergamum, sculpture,
the Canon
lar, particuhave
much
attention
was
paid
there
to
as
we
already
Sculptors
seen,
and
it
was
that
of
Ten
'
was
probably
of the Ten
drawn
up
to
match
the
drian Alexan-
Canon
Orators.
Most
of
our
tion informa-
with
regard
to
these
early Pliny
writers
comes
from
Roman
scholars,
late
Greek
especially
writers
from
the
Elder;
and
or
else
from
such
as
Strabo
Pausanius
and
Lucian.2
Quintilian,
See
xii.
10.
7.
Jones,
Greek
Select
Passages (London,
from
Ancient
Writers
Illustrative
of
der
the
tory His-
of
ischen
Sculpture
1895)
and Fowler
Overbeck,
and
Geschichte
griech-
Plastik
(Leipzig, 1909).
1894)
Wheeler,
Greek
Archaeology
(New
York,
IV
THE
GR^CO-ROMAN
PERIOD
Tradition
to the
ascribes
B.C.
the
date It
was
of
the
founding
of
long,however,
or
before
Roman deserves
acquired
of
attained
anything
name
culture,politelearning,or literary
the
race,
philological study.
a
Unlike inland
sea.
Greeks, the
apart
small from
Romans
were
rugged
race,
an
the
magic along
and the
the
mystery
was
of the
The
settlement
many
Tiber
pastoral
commerce
and
agriculturalfor
with external
centuries,
having little
in whom
constant
danger
from
formidable
it could intensest
came
strictest
and discipline
the
interest.
Thus,
in
a
the
mans Ro-
to
possess
the
was
civic virtues
high degree.
Primarily, their
and formed
to
a
ideal
of
love
the
Their
arts
were
patriciate was
arts
of the
fightingmen.
and
Their
relating
military science
statesmanship
and
was
religion. One
a
distinctive
quality which
purpose.
they possessed
when and had effort
wonderful
tenacity of
their enemies
Later,
they
had
had
vanquished
a
throughout Italy
characteristics
centuries which
builded
great
out not
nation, the
in them
been
were
wrought
to
by
of toil and
130
be
seen
THE
GJLECO-ROMAN
PERIOD
131
only
others
in what and
they created,but
into
in what
they
took
from
transmuted
something that
became
almost
purely Roman.1 By
where
an
the fourth
a
century
B.C.
they were
own was
literature of their
evolution
Their
quiteindependent of
annals
were
any in
set down
Their
It
laws
were
with
is,
the
Romans
should from
have
been
learn
while Laws
by
heart
long
the
Homeric
to
were
poems, the
Roman
children
compelled
Yet there
memorise
at
of the Twelve
Tables.
Rome in
at
least the
lyrics sung
first
in artless
not
as
rhythms.
an
Lyric Poetry
in the
were were
at
Rome
was
found,
exotic, but
lullabies that
songs
nenicBj the
crooned
chanted Drama unknown. away
1
"
the spells,
charms, the
over
in other of the
that
A
"
to
a
the
sort
accompaniment
of find
dance.2
native
not
extemporaneous
even
comedy
of
a
was
We
the
traces
gradual
more
drift
from
the ancient
versus
Italicus to the
regular
pp. 1-59
See
Pais, Ancient
Legends of Roman
der lateinischen
on
Sprache (Leipzig,1905).
"
very
early Latin
the
in
Duff, A Literary
History of Rome,
pp.
(Paris, 1903).
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
of the Saturnian
measure.
This
a
last, though
it
was
rude,
it
was
was
capable
of
reallyartistic treatment,
what Nor the ameter dactylichexdoubt
as
to to
the
earlyRomans earlyGreeks.
was
the
is there any
that Oratory
has been
to
was
said,belongsto rightly
statesmanship."1 Eloquence
or
for
the also
senator,
for
we
the
the
can
commander
army
in the
even
Therefore
not
come
reasonablyassert
with
that
had
into have
contact
Hellenic
influences,there
would
still
been
created, slowly,but
a
only
in form
literature but
and
both
content.2
had and
There
Romans authentic the the
1
been
some
desultoryrelations
farther back than
between
the
the Greeks
is recorded
by
history. From
Romans had
Greeks
of Campania
Etruscans
The
also the
acquired certain
almost publication in
280
B.C.
was
dates ante-
formal
It
was
delivered
by Appius
read and
94.
Claudius
studied
2
against the
at
of peace
offered
by Pyrrhus, and
See
Rome
centuries.
Sears,op. cit., p.
A
See
History of
the
Rome
(New
der romischen
See
Language,
pp.
1-12
"Recent
Society(1901);and
Clodd, The
134 Rome
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
the treasures
The
which
she
had
been
garnering for
centuries. of
effect upon
the whole
was
ment subsequentdevelopand
the
people
them
profound
lasting.
The
ablest minds
of grasped the significance and the Metelli Scipios this time comed wela so-
the revelation.
By
there
was
set
gibes
order.
of Cato
other
of
In
time, thousands
of the
highest attainments,
and
scattered
over
Italy as
hostages,ambassadors,
The be found first evidence
teachers.
Influence Andronicus
as a
of Hellenic
Livius
is
probably to
(c.250 B.C.),
in literature when
a
by birth
after
Greek,
was
brought
slave to Rome,
a
and,
his native
language.
verse.
It
was
he who
a
translated the
and
a
into Saturnian
It
was
rude
uninspired piece
schoolbook for
it remained generations
boys
and
girls. In
dramas He
240
B.C.
he set upon
the stage
which
he
constructed laboriously
models.
likewise
being commissioned
of
1
by
hymn
and
Juno.1
See
Gnaeus
Naevius, who
der romischen
freeborn
Ribbeck,
Geschichte
Dichtung, 2d ed.,i,p.
foil.
Mommsen,
p.
(New
"The
Earliest
Literature"
in Nettle-
ship,Essays
in Latin
Literature
(Oxford, 1885).
THE
GP^ECO-ROMAN
PERIOD
135 the
zen
of
Latin
town
in
ning begin-
of Latin
literature.
had
the
his
He
wrote
much,
adapting often
based
did
not
upon
Roman
history.
attack
For
these
and
elsewhere
he
hesitate to
the most
powerful patricians,
was
the especially
and
a
Metelli. and
oned imprisin
banished
died in exile.
He
was,
truth,
Satur-
Roman
verse,
clung to
the native
nian
Punka,
writingof
which
War, he
/Eneas of
introduced
Roman
that
legend
links the
was
Trojan
with
history. Thus,
was
he
the precursor
for Vergil,
his Epic
long read,
To Naevius
and
are
parts of it
also due
are
embedded
in the JEneid}
the
Quintilian long
afterward Not
only
Naevius
but he held
which repetition
poets;
so
that when
was
he died neither
he left behind
Greek in
nor
mass
of literature which
imitated
from
was
in form. if Rome
those who
felt the
prove
1
had
Also, on
never
deft touch
Quintilian, x,
1, 93.
the
Roman
and
2
24-43
(Oxford, 1895).
Alliterationis
Botticher,De
and
on
apud
Vi
et Usu
(Berlin,1884);
Latin
dynamic
repetition, Abbott,
of
in Repetition
(Chicago, 1902).
136
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
Hellene, it would
stillhave
given birth
Professor
to
prose
and
verse
worthy of
in
great nation.
this Roman
Duff
has
said, rightly
speakingof
This native
missing:
"
as
yet
lacks the
solemn
highestdistinction
dignified
"
styleand
grace,
but is
no
less often
ful power-
and
it is
always masculine.
disdained
to
However
products
of
Rome
be
was
as
feeble and
nected disconcannot
with
follow.
Impotence
the be it
create; and
of later
and
own.
early work
Genius
it all,
had
issue.
It contained
can
germs
success.
cannot
can
be borrowed:
modified
developed. Above
That
was
borrow, and
Rome.
make
the
case
with
In endued remain
truth, no
with
nation
the possessing
able
a mere
power
of
growth, long
energy,
and
to
make
can history,
imitator. for
In
thousand
its
directions
own
strike
out
itself, conquering
ambitions, and
character.
achieving
great thingswhich
literature is
a
alter its
to
own
Since, then,
and the
mirror
reflect
this character
achievements
that
are
allied with
it, it will
presence
soon
reflect
the
of innumerable
changing
it remains its
own
of the in
golden sands
thought.
after
a
For
while
but leading-strings,
time
out
and masterpieces
us
them
way.
Let
take
an
example
modern with
compare States.
the literature of
England
1
THE
GR/ECO-ROMAN
PERIOD
137
The
were
languageof
at
nations
first too
cumbered
the
to
attempt in any
books
or
serious way
art. literary
They
English
humble shaken
they
But
imitated
them
in
pathetically
had
new
Republic developed
bonds political
had
its literature
began
to
show
new
that
it,
attainingindependence.
new
It found
themes
sees
and
it had
modes the
of
treatingthem.
model in
One
the
in
English
Irvingand
had grown such
Cooper.
conscious Emerson
After
that,and when
own
the young
nation
of his
power,
there
arose
authors
Bret
as
and
Thoreau, Walt
and
a
Whitman,
others
Howells
to
score
of
who
were
American
the very
core
in all
they
wrote.
And
so
in Rome In
very it
little time.
ends with
sense,
Gnaeus
afterward
there
literature whose
technique
were
from
Hellas, but
Latin
and spirit
character
Roman.
literature,in
of Italian
fact,
was
revolutionised
by
two to
men,
both the
birth, who
which
by,theirgenius
freed it forever earlier
gave from
Latin
initial
impulse
to
any
slavish subservience
the
Greek.
wrote
The his
language in
measures,
which
Livius
even
Andronicus
stumbling
and
which
that
Naevius
used
clumsily, though
would
with
force,lacked
138
make also
an
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
it fit for
poetry and
and fuller
to
It lacked should
ampler
the
vocabulary which
prose
was
give
varied
both
to
poet and
of
the
writer
more
instrument
c.
expression. It
made Titus of
Quintus
Ennius
(230-
172
B.C.)who
the Latin
Maccius
new
language
Plautus
(c.254-184 B.C.)
to
it
wealth
words, which,
be
sure,
in
his time in
a
did not
all win
general acceptance,
the
but
which
later
century
received
approval
of
the
still
greater master,
Like like Livius
Cicero.
Andronicus,
Ennius
was
teacher;
to
and his
helped
make
innovations literary
to the tact
successful,
"
circumstance in
and
Ennius
to
held
world
give weight
his in
teaching
letters many
and
example.
of the young
had
nobles State.
the
head
of the
was
of several of the
even
and Scipios,
to the
has
been
who
said to have
was
taught Greek
for his
a
Elder
was
Cato,
Greek.
famous
was
hatred
man
of of
all that
Ennius
himself
most
engaging
and
refined;
these natural
the
and gifts of
work
Nasvius.
correct
taste
were
rebelled
at
which
which
were
the
THE
GILECO-ROMAN
PERIOD
39
best that
could
it had
be
written
under
been
the
limitations
of the
languageas
He
set
hitherto
used
for
literary purposes.
of the Greek
into infusing
it some the
were
the lightness,
The
smoothness, and
Greek
two
grace.
:
of this
first,
the obstinate
or
by
his
to predecessors
verse
on
the natural
word-accent, which
second
kept the
and the
because (partly
limitation),
now
number extraordinary
an
He long syllables.1
was
attempted
Roman much
experiment
destined
to
give to
only
stateliness but
style. With
innovations
refrained
from
making
There,
he
any
in
iambic
trochaic
a
poetry.
which
tradition
not
care
had
to
verse
already
combat;
and
a
established
but
new
usage
to
an
did
he
turned which
new entirely
kind render
of
to
theme,
of
a
natural
new
system
been
had
Prosody.
mooted used
exist
no
It has
question whether
at
the
dactylic
the time
verse
hexameter
of Ennius. that
can
been
all in Latin
before
There
remains literary
of such
be
called confidently
wrote
genuine. According
to
Varro, Plautus
it cannot
his that
own
epitaph in hexameters,
the
but
be shown
tion composiThe
so-
of the
the Annates.
called Marcian
the
in hexameters,though possibly
not
quotationsgivenby Livy do
1
this justify
view.
Yet
Horace,
Ars
Poetica,250-260.
140
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
even
if some
few
at
imposing
extended
this metrical
work literary in
form
had
been
written
the field
in
it; and
Ennius,
to himself. entirely
As it
make
in the matter
arouse
of forms
and
quantities
a
would
familiar
own
like
changes in
he effected
as
more
sphere.
may
alterations that
by
"
his
example
be
roughlysummarised
of
a
follows:
as
metrical accent
of
a
guished distin-
word.
(2)A diminution
Ennius
varyingquantities.
the
as syllables
regarded as
short
nearlyall
any
to
been previously
were dactyls
doubt,
as, for
instance,
easy. vowels
made he
and possible
(3)By
way
of
compensation
consonants
regarded all
mute
(nota
and
liquid)
(4)The
in
m
elision of
a
final
vowel, or
syllable ending
made
little
before
of
a
vowel.
Ennius
himself
also
account
final s, in this
long after.1
Greek (Bonn, 1876); Miiller, and
Birt, Historia
Hexametri
Latini
Latin
Versification, Eng.
Metrik
trans.
altromischen
(Berlin,1892); and
the
by Gleditsch in Iwan
Latinorum du
Saturnio
Versu
Poetry, pp.
24-74
York, 1906).
142
HISTORY
OP
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
ably added
verbal
source,
most
to
the
vocabulary
which
of
the
came
language.
from
The
enrichment and
one
it needed
at
another seemed
a
which
would
first sighthave
one. unlikely
It is in Titus
Maccius
Plautus and
that
one
finds,after
the
modern,
course,
closest
many
to
modified, of
on
by
the
whole
true
enough
was
be
striking. Like
the
Shakespeare,Plautus
of
a
of humble
originand
native
country
to
town.
Like
his education
sort
seems
have
been
men
of chiefly rather
which
books.
comes
from
association
with
was
with
Like
to
a
he Shakespeare,
at
firsta subordinate,
ised modern-
attached old
wrote
theatre;then
hack
plays; and
little care
dramatist a finally,
for fame, but his with
apparently
his
with
thought of
age
audience
always
wrote
before
mind.
ways
in which of Elizabeth
an
Plautus
and
resembles There
in many
was
the age
James.
in the
was
air the
of stirring
to
a
spirit. The
power,
nation
awakening
an era
sense
and
Rome of
entering
was
upon
of
conquest
supremacy.
touched
by something of the
as
mercurial
temper
Greece, just
of the
was
the
England
of
Shakespeare displayedmuch
of France. in
gayety and
ness reckless-
Rome,
too,
was
facingthe Carthaginians
armies
the confronting
off
and
the
fleets of
Spain.
The
of Duilius victory
Mylae,and
THE
GR^CO-ROMAN
PERIOD
I43
defeat
and
of the
Armada
by Drake,
of the New
own
the
conquest of Sicily,
"
the colonisation
own
World,
these,each
and
in
its
time
to
and
in its
way,
was
stirred Rome
an
their
depths.
There
intellectual and
both the Roman
quickening which
the
was
stimulated
look
English people
new,
to
with
favour
upon
whatever
and original,
strong.
whom
If the
wrote
not
were
people
much
for
Plautus
and
Shakespeare
they lived
were
alike; if the
the
cast
so dissimilar,
of mind
the
richness
masters
of of
intellectual endowment
of
these
two
great
The
language have
of In
course,
are
kinship of
all is
their own.1
in
differences,
immensely nothing of
Shakespeare's favour.
of spirit pure
Plautus
there
the
poetry
which
wrote.
breathes
His
tone
degrees lower.
The
fact that
he
wrote
comedy
alone, while
the
Shakespeare composed
occurrence
immortal
tragediesas well;
the foolish
of the old
man;
same
types
"
old man,
the
austere
the
man,
swindlingslave,the
and the
precise young
and the
the
the
lying, foul-mouthed
courtesan, the
and parasite,
bullying soldier,
"
all this
repetition, vigour,
we
the despite
writer's
inventiveness extraordinary
and
becomes
1
monotonous
and
perhaps
makes
us
feel that
comments
in the firstvolume
of his Romische
144
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
have
been
the slums
world.
of its coarseness
vulgarity,
which
imposed
on
Plautus
to
by
the
conditions
upon
an
under
he wrote. warned
not
Forbidden
touch
Roman
and topics,
that did
by
the
fate of the
Naevius, with
audience the
yet contain
well-bred
portionof
to
community,
his
not
a
and
upon
being
thus
forced practically
of the
model
must
plays
cise criti-
Comedy
Greeks, one
was
severely. Plautus
him. had
working
his
a
in
own
which
hampered sorely
were
Then, too,
been
not
He other
himself
slave and
had and
consorted Terence
saw
on
slaves;and
he
never,
a
great. He
which verges
the gutter.
of all
we
audiences the
most
delightedto
must
reproduced
Plautus
not
upon with
stage. Hence
a
compare
Shakespeare as
where dramatists said that and
are
speare of Shakewhole, but with those portions themes and the motives of the
two
the
similar.
Judged
in this way,
it cannot
be
Plautus
is inferior.
His
sharpers and
and whom
slaves
and
courtesans true to
richly
humorous
as
doubtless
quiteas
those
Shakespeare
Falstaff
drew. into
Pyrgopolinicesis
Latin. of
merely
Sir
John
MegarPolonius,
onides in the
Trinummus
brother
THE
GR^ECO-ROMAN
PERIOD
45
of
from
of Plautus. from
we
But
the
but literary,
now
from
at
the
linguistic,
and it his
have
to
look
Plautus;
After
and
more
owes
of the him.
enormous
debt
which
language
unaided
He
awkward, cramped,
of
ungracefuldialect
a wide expressing
instrument
speech fit
ease
for
of human
thought with
was
a
and
clearness and
precision.Plautus
great language-
maker, and
not
merely an improver.
at
His
once
caught at
an
priate appro-
verbal form.
then
was,
had
and
not
the word
he had
he made
wished,
it, it
he
in
made
the word;
when
a
cases ninety-nine
out
of
hundred, the
very word
which the
it
the
languagelacked,so
actual
necessity.Plautus
His
seems
inexhaustible.
No Latin writer coined
is as boundless fertility
his
wit.
afterward,ever
of Plautus with
many
words.
The
comparison
the from
Apuleius shows
lies.
exactlywhere
words
ness greatmere
of the former
or eccentricity
Apuleius coins
take
out
because
the
ones. fitting L
Plautus
phrase, a
146
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
the
existing vocabulary is
To the
sum
too
poor
to furnish
an
equivalent.
proves
it up in
of Plautus of
poverty of the
the
language;
the
invention
Apuleius
proves
Plautus
who,
the
in this Latin
period of transition,
The words
doubled
that he
to
the
capacity of
were
language.
made
by
him
formulae
much
which
scribed1 dehe
:
"
with
made
to the
insight. The
additions various
which
heads
Latin
(1) Words
borrowed
Greek:
e.g. dica
and of
long
a
pounds: com-
son
pander,
"
flitch of bacon
scribed de-
of
ham.
is very
semi-comic
way
tried to
"
the
learned
in did
Pacuvius Latin of
seriously attempted,
compound words,
"
that
is,the formation
failed
as
but
Plautus
Pacuvius.
(3)New
near
words
formed
after the
analogy of other
or
words
which
they stand
1
in the text,
which
suggest them:
THE
GR,ECO-ROiIAN
PERIOD
147
e.g.
by atticisso;and by
charmido
recharmido
and
decharmido
(from Charmides).
words made freely
(4) Compound
and
e.g.
after theregenerally
adopted
into
the
language:
opiparus, parcieven
Words
and
are
of
this
class
to
are
either
based
shade
osor,
upon of
words existing
or
modified invented
give a different
meaning,
they
of
necessity: e.g.
else
and
they
are
verbs
boldlyformed
out
of
nouns existing
adjectives:
e.g. paro,
parasitor, pergmcor,
seen common
It will be
that Plautus
use.
enriched His
the
language
with
were
words
for
word-formations
which it is it be
a
brought
the
seem
new
about
with from
that the
unerringjudgment
very
moment
makes
word,
Latin it is
so
when If
uttered,
Greek
If it
and
utterlyindigenous.
as
word,
be
a
modified
to
take
upon
an
on
Latin
form.
new
word,
it is formed it be is
the
word
analogy
used
of words
a new
already existing. If
sense,
old
in
this
new
sense
given it where
the context
is the him
makes first of
the
new
sense
absolutelyplain.
Those who
wrote
Plautus
language-makers.
his methods T. Lucretius
followed
for the
employed
Thus
to
though they
Cams,
a
learned.
B.C.,
in the
first century
gives
far
as
Roman
literature
terminologyso philosophical
he
148
needed
Cicero
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
it in
forth setting
the
teachingsof
materialism.1
stilllater
to
thoughts
for which
the
Latin
then
had
equivalent.2When
the
Christianity
writers such
as a
spread over
and
Empire,
and
African
Tertullian
Augustine
but
St.
Jerome
introduced
theological vocabulary ;
on
they all
fashioned
their words
of Roman his
the
which principles
Plautus
in the
earlydays
culture had
fantastic
grasped by
instinct.3
ture, literaRoman
while
Plautus,
as
was
Shakespeare.
Thus the Latin
side continuous.
language and
a
literature developed
by side, in
The drama
growth
steady and
Pacu-
was
enriched
by
Marcus
vius, who
His
seen
represents a succession
he
was
doctrina,for which
so
long compounds,
of
in his introduction
sense
philosophical
as
corpus in the
of
men,
aXa6t\a is;
rerum
summa,
"the
universe."
See
Vocabulis
to
Quibusdam Lucretianis
42-47
his
Lucretius,pp.
ratio
See
3
Schmidt, De
. . .
Latinitate Christiana
Tertulliani
De
Tertulliano
Lingua
Cooper, Word
Formation
in the Roman
Sermo
150
of
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
while life;
a
later
Decimus still, of
converted hideous
a tain cer-
satire into
whip
saw
and scorpions,
the
vices that he
about
grim
irreverence
which
be
styledthe
Greek
influence
was
what
we
have
philosophicalwriting among
a
In 155 B.C.,
Carneades,
the New
a
vehement with
to
and
rapid speaker,representing
came scepticism,
Academy,
upon
Athens.
While
there,
the
he
with
on eloquenceand subtlety
advantages
he
justice.The
next
day,
with
equal day
quence, elo-
refuted
in
of the
before.
This that
no
was,
human
knowledge
standard he
is uncertain His
and
have
him
absolute
of truth.
was
orations
to
won
much
applause,but
sent
back
Athens
were
without
loss of
time, as being
one
whose from
tenets
essentially
"
immoral.
Nevertheless,
this time,
"
philosophy
and disciples
that especially
found Roman
expounders
gave
to
among
Romans.1
is new;
philosophers
we owe
the world
as
nothingthat
the
yet
to
such
Aca-
writers
1
Lucretius
Epicurean, to
Cicero
Le Poeme
the
de
See ed.
Lucrece,
Ciceron
4th
Philosophiquesde
et Leurs trans.
(London,
(New
(Glogau, 1883).
THE
GILECOROMAN
PERIOD
151 of literature
as
demic, and
which
a
to
Seneca
the
a body pseudo-Stoic,
is both
valuable
ing supplybeen
knowledge
Greek
treatises which
have
lost. the
poets in
in originality,
to
power, inherent
His
he makes
the
materialism his
millions, even
of the
at
the present
day.
technique in
but the
hexameter
and of his
is stillimperfect;
genius of
tual spiripassionate
make him
melancholy overcome
in
some
and style
respects a model
for
Vergiland
the
cloyingly
Ovid. exquisite
Epic poetry
in which
was
continued
wrote
from
the
until
rough
Saturnian in
Naevius
his Punka
poem
it culminates
"
the
splendidnational
of all that
was
of the Mneid
marvellous
and Roman with
summate con-
mosaic
finest in both P.
Greek
literature, woven
skill. the Pharsalia
togetherby
VergiliusMaro
epic
of
of
almost
contemporary
and
events,
but
ceeded suc-
followingthe only
to largely
on
model
Naevius
Ennius,
in
writing brilliant
world's
lines which
have
The
added
the
collection of
and
epigrams.
as
epic
Grecian
theme,
the end
known
the
Thebais, by
among the
Statius,marks
Romans.1
of serious
epic poetry
Lyric poetry
1
in native
rhythms,
delta Poesia
as
antealreadysaid,
See
Storia Gubernatis,
152 dates
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
Hellenic
was
influence,though
But
we
of
course
this
early
that
poetry
informal.
have
set
already noted
honour of
Livius Andronicus
at
composed
in lyric
Juno
was
the
However,
this attempt
not
language was
could of
yet adapted
It
we
was
Quintus
for
that
to
find
lyric poetry
Latin;
Catullus,an
easy metres
Italian
the core,
poured forth
of
a
sapphicsand
longing
In many but
heart
surcharged
was an
with
intense
respects Catullus
in the love
Alexandrian
to
by
ing; train-
Lesbia, his
the
tortured
mingling of
hate
to
are
so
free from
seem
pedantry
of Alexandrianism of Gabriele
make
him
no
the
predecessor
with
d'Annunzio.
With
such
passion, yet
infinite grace,
to must
his be
Horace subject,
Catullus,and
of
verse lyric
to-day
among
the
with
perfectease
and lyrists, than
was
the
more
difficult
of the and
more
Grecian
remained
any of his
less Alexandrian
truly Roman
verse
in
Rome
especially
"
and
Tibullus,
temporaries, con-
nearly so,
See
and
Sellar,The
also du Horaz
1843); and Weissenfels, Meril, Poesies Populaires Latines (Paris, (Berlin, 1899).
THE
GR.ECO-ROMAN
PERIOD
53
Roman
prose
"
Cato
the
Censor
(234-149 B.C.)
soldier,statesman,
produced
what would
works
militaryscience,
of vast he
and agriculture,
us,
a
to-day be
interest discussed
to
treatise entitled
in Origines,1
which
the
the Roman
people.
Some
to
to medicine, respectively
epistolary composition,and
we
anecdotes.
Practically
Re of
all that
a
have
Rustica,
a
practicalhandbook
Romans of their
at
own
the
management
farm. the
Other
annals
comparativelyearlyperiod wrote
language until
with its
the time
This
very
form
of
narrative,
to
background, patriotic
so
attractive
the
Romans;
find
that, after
written
Cato
and
his
we contemporaries,
History
and
Cicero Caesar
himself,whose
and G.
famous
Julius contemporaries,
a
Sallustius,reached
may
very
high degree of
eminence.
indeed, Sallust,
whom he
be
thought to challenge
Titius
Thucydides,
the
imitated,just as
almost
as
Livius, in
had
Augustan Age,
After Annates
a
wrote
as delightfully
Herodotus.
him
Tacitus, in
and the of
his
two
remarkable
works, the
writing to
we
climax
excellence; for
that of
after
him
on
find
Suetonius
The
fragments
collected in
commentary
by
Bormann
denburg, (Bran-
1858).
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
Caesars
or
else
epitomes
and
fragmentary
sketches.1
In among novel
their
prose-writingthe peoples,prose
in which
Romans
developed,
form
first
western
fiction in the
of the
and
romance, But
they were
imitated
were
by
the
later Greeks.
in fiction
as
almost
have
out
so-
might
expected from
blow, single
as
concrete, struck
in the
realistic novel
called Satira
of Gaius
Petronius
is wonderfully well
as
modern
in its sound of it
in its treatment
learning. Only
choicest much
portion
remains, yet it is
literature
as
of the
a
fragments of
that the would
mon com-
ancient otherwise
well
clew to
be obscure Lucius
language of
people.
Medaura in
Africa,represents
short stories
earlier form
as
of
fiction in which
are
known (generically
a
lesians), Miare
strung togetherby
thread
are
of
plot,but
The
historians
to Mommsen's
history of Rome.
biography, see
De
West, Roman
Suringar, De
Romanorum is found
(Leyden, Autobiographis
in the form St. of letters
"
biographical material
of
Jerome, St.
Cassiodorus.
(London, 1843).
THE
GR^CO-ROMAN
PERIOD
55
not
as
yet
It
woven
into that
anything
these
two
like
definite
are
unity of
form.
is odd who
writers
practically
left behind
the
them
only
ones
in Roman
literature
have The
anything
same
like
completed
works.
Greeks
of
a
the
vast
period as
of The
Apuleius. and
number
later,poured forth
of which have
number
romances,1 a
best of them
been
Helio-
preserved.
is the
jEthiopica by
the
century, and
and Chloe.
curiously
author
a
The
of
unknown,
modern A
but
has exercised
from
strong
Pierre
written
influence
to
upon
fiction
St.
fimile Zola.
collection of
imag'nary letters
the second
by Alciphron, a give us
In there is very
Greek
sophistof
century a.d.,
life in Athens.
of piquant pictures
to
Bohemian forms of
addition
were
these
various
pure
literature,
in Latin
written
Epigrams
of which
seem
the master
to
have
relished
and
no
less the
in
pointed lines
the
of
Plautus
and
Horace of
Lucan and
poetry, and
in
sententious
aphorisms
Seneca he
Tacitus
1
prose.2
These
accorded
well with
of spirit History
la Grece
See
(Paris,1862); Dunlop, A
dans
Collignon, Etude
brand Peck's
2
Petrone
by Hildeto
to
his edition of
the Introduction
translation
of the Ccna
York, 1908).
See
and
see
for the
Bernstein,Versus
in Ccesares Priores
156 homely
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
wisdom
that
was
to
the Romans So
what
speculative
philosophywas
type and
fered to The
ever
to the
Greeks.
comedy
of the farcical
were
the
cynicalshrewdness
almost every the
of the
pre-
tragedyat
is that
periodof
surface
or were
culture. Romans In
truth
only
on
Hellenised
either
in
language
men
in literature. in the
wrote
so-called
urbanus, correspondingto
In the easy
converse
the
Castilians.
of
a
dailylife, among
much
looser and
the The
was
sermo man
cotidianus in
of Cicero's
the
more
street
spoke
the
nothing
time
than
the older
Latin
at
was
one
been
the
current
everywhere,
be the boleth shib-
but
held
by
to
literati to
ignorance.1As
ornate literature,
orations,
epics,and
us
carefully
penned
histories have
come
we
down know
to
bearingthe impress
for the
of Grecian
models; but
existed
an
that of
people at
largethere
immense
mass
popularcompositions,
sometimes
at not
"
transmitted
and orally
lines sung
of the
common
by
children
play, the
well
as
umphal tri-
as soldiery,
fables,
acrostics.
Against Terence
must
tion Forma-
must
See
set
of
158
crates
"on
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
(c. 100
and B.C.),
the
other The
explainingeverything
great name
in the latter
man
the
itself. Terentius
school of
Varro caused
(116-28 B.C.), a
him Varro
to
was
which prodigiouserudition,
most
be
styled
one
"the
learned
of the of all
Romans."
of tosthenes Era-
the
great scholars
and
time, to be compared
among the
with
Aristarchus
the
and
sen
Lipsiusjust after
in very of
recent
Renaissance, and
Before
years.
giving any
incident has
account, should
to
however,
be
his
labours, an philological
influence In the year native of 80 which
B.C.
mentioned,
the
continued
came
the present
a
day.
there of
to
Rome He
roving scholar,a
been had trained both
probably
Alexandria.
at
had
in his native
cityand
the
Pergamum.
each This
He
listened to the
was
disputesof
of linguists doctrines.
school,and
person, middleman the mind
as we
well
versed
in all their is
an
Dionysius Thrax,
who
admirable the
type of the
mind
stands
between
creative
and
day, grammar,
an
have
alreadyseen,
was
not
so
much
art
in itself
as
an
made
digests of
down the
the
lectures in
a
which
he
had
manner.
attended,
This mind
"
putting
was
results
most
didactic the
what precisely
appealed to
and
Roman One
dogmatic.
treatise
certain
ciples prin-
which
made
it the firsttreatise
on
Formal
Grammar.
THE
GR^COROMAN
PERIOD
59
Translated
and from
standard
text-book,
terms
to
us
the technical
of
formal A
grammar
employed
in modern
languages.1 grammarian
we
Roman
contemporary
Praeconinus later
not
name
of this Greek
was
L. ^)lius many
Stilo,of whom
have
notices
in his
to
of the
fragments of
first Roman
was
writingsdo
deserve
the
the
an
of
knightly
a
rank,
aristocrat
by
and training,
no
had
gift
of natural and
office, political
merely wrote
Greek
of the
orators.
type of the
for
patrician
and scholar,
had
the true he
taste patrician's
came
antiquarian
knowledge.
Therefore
to
be
profoundlylearned
ancient
authorityupon
in the matter of
to everything relating
Latin, both
of the earlier in Grecian
while
and antiquities
in the usages
"
language.
1
Cicero
styleshim
was
most
learned
into
In the fourth
was original
Armenian,
has
the
us
somewhat
version
given
tain. con-
back
five See
more
chapters than
manuscripts
the French
the edition
by Uhlig (Leipzig,1883);
et
lation trans-
Dissertations the
(Paris,1824).
in
Cf.
also cit.
and foil., in
account
Steinthal, op.
grammatical terms
in
Greek,
with
their Latin
equivalents,
Gudeman, Thus,
we
Outlines have
3d ed.
pp. 30-32.
xpo"os
=
6vopa
nomen," noun";
=
7rTcD"ris
casus*
"case";
genus,
"gender"; ZyKkuris
Aptd/xoi= numerus,
in
modus, "mood";
As Latin
irpoauirov
"number."
case
pear ap-
Greek, it was
firstcalled "the
(casusLatinus),and
by
ablativus. Quintilian,
l6o
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
literature
as
well
as
as
in
Latin,"
while
his
pupil,Varro,
nostra.
speaks
He
was
of
him
litteris ornatissimus
memoria who
had
was
any very
claim to be
he likely and the
It classical philologist.
who
the
applied them
Roman
on
Latin, thus
Likewise, he
as
wrote
the Carmina
Saliorum
and
even
on
the
Twelve
Tables.
Gudeman
with
believes that he
critical
prepared an
edition is
no
of Plautus direct
comes
signs;yet
of
evidence.
from the fact that
most
greatest fame
of
Marcus
he
was
teacher
most
Terentius
Varro, the
learned,the
any Roman
and indefatigable,
ever
"
the most In
a
of prolific
scholar who
says of him:
later
so
had
read
much
to
ought to
and
one
feel
that surprised
so
found
we can
time
write
anything;
that any In
he wrote could
much
hardly believe
find time
at
read
all that he
composed."
fact,
he wrote
Varro
a
was,
however,
in the
war
no
mere
recluse.
He
commanded
he served he
was as
squadron
against Mithradates;
in
generalof Pompey
to
Spain,and though
to
pelled com-
surrender remained
his
troops
and
until
So Auson.
Prof.Burd, xx.
20.
Cf
.
Etudes Boissier,
sur
M.
T. Varron
1861). (Paris,
THE
GR^ECO-ROMAN
PERIOD
l6l
then be
Varro useless,
Rome,
expecting
perhaps to
who
was
put
a
to
death.
high-minded Caesar,
to
himself
received
task agreeable This
was
Varro of
more
and graciously,
the
Rome.1
the
splendid just
destroyed in
had which
plundered and
has
defiled
by Antony,
"
scene
depicted
with almost
hideous realism
in his second
oration. Philippic
not
Out
of Varro's
works, encyclopaedic
were
many and
remain,
cause partlybeand
they
too
numerous,
the habit
of Roman from
scholars to condense
them
reason
whatever
that of
we
seemed
have
It interesting.
is for this
the
valuable part of
Livy only in
the form
has
an
epitome;
and lost, there
main re-
portionof
six hundred
Petronius
or more
been
works Re
task
Varro's
us
Rustica),
which the had
completed
At
the
been
opened by
founded
and
private
of Asinius
are
Pollio
the most
celebrated,
first that
by Tiberius
ments, publicdocu-
famous and
complete collection
written in the
of State
most
papers
Traiana, the
or
magnificentof all,since
upon
most
of the books
inscribed
thin leaves of
ivory.
See
Lanciani,Ancient
(Boston,1889).
1 02
HISTORY
OP
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
number
of
and quotations
of Latin
references scattered
out throughmuch
the pages
corrupted collection
treatise about
him
on
of six books
taken
from
his great
"
the
Latin
his
who ancients,
truth,it probablydid
a.d.
tury cen-
This
was
his
AniiquitatumLibri,divided
with
the years
vast
into
books, forty-one
which its author
and
had
crowded
knowledge
years
are
acquired by
research. To
and
of his in
of
patientreading and
be noted
also
a collection Sententitzy
of
quoted
mixture
the Middle
prose and
Ages, and
verse
his Satura
(Menippece).
on
It is the treatise
which
was
the Latin
to
of
dedicated
of
Cicero) that
interesting,
we
both
because
a
the
subjectitself
the book.
and
because
treatise
still
to
possess
portion of
The
seems
have
seven
been books
was,
arranged in
dealt with
The
first
phrases,
and from
in
the Latin
languagelargely
next
the
were
point of
The etymologists.2
six
books
the forms
and
Edited
2
by A. Spengel(Berlin, 1885).
examines
"
Varro Words
"
the
natural
and
in
nouns
verbs.
are
naturally" divided
and
THE
GP^ECO-ROMAN
PERIOD
63
inflection of
as
nouns
and
verbs, since
Varro
"
regarded these
in
the
only
two
speech
resembling the
books
se
grammarians. The
the laws of syntax which
we
have
to
do
.
with
The
{ut verba
coniungantur)
as
six books
still possess
lating partlyre-
are,
is
to
seen
inflections.
They give us
curious
a incidentally great
deal of information
at
about shows
pointsof
in not
ancient
usage
Rome,
the
and
Varro
wisdom
his
attemptingto
the Greek.
ear,
so
derive On
the
vocabulary of
hand,
he
language
from
other
etymologisesentirely by
are as
that many
were
of his derivations
absurd
as
those which
Ages.1
even
This which
monumental remain
to us,
work,
has
in the scanty
fragments
with
always been
studied
great
Its
arrangement
Varro
is not
are
but alphabetical,
taken up
words
upon
that
their
treats in it
by
groups
association
with
one
another. short
Thus
author
names
begins
lating re-
a (after
with introduction)
locus
and
its
forth, followingthis
and
by
division
to the
of
places in
heaven
places on
as
Turning
1Thus
the
Varro
says
is derived
from called
cano
because
that
stags
are
ceroi from
gero
(quasi
divus,
cero),because
because
a
they
man
carry
that
dives is from
rich
is like
164
esis to
terra
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
and
its
partialsynonym
humus, which
words
gests sug-
ing relat-
moisture,
as
puteus (a well),lacus,palus,stagnum,
The
sound
of amnis
suggests
and Anio.
to
him
the
place-names,Interamna, Antemnae,
the Anio of
Because the
empties into
Tiberis.
the
so
Tiber, he
one
discusses
etymology
he
And
of them
word defines
takes each
and
citingfrom
both
poets and
of
illustration of the
various
we
uses
the the
word
or
name
a
in
question.
In
this way
receive
impressionof
tc
seems
have
set
we
been
intention
though
in
K.
O. De of
Miiller
has
forth
have
hypothesis that
the
notes
Lingua
a
Latina rather
unfinished
book
than
the book
one
completed form.1
rather
Whatever he
may
of Varro's
childish etymologie
the Romans certain
does
themselves words.
were
to
the
originof
now
But
authors
he
and lost,
the
gives of
matters
and
will
law,
are
source
to
which Varro's
always
most
resort.
matters,
Romans
positionas
utterances
the
the
learned
gives his
It may See
be
that
published
Varros
an
epitome
of
the
work
in nine
books.
Roth,
Leben
(Basle, 1857).
66
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
almost
wholly
the
to
of
lexical and
grammatical
and
character.
During
served
Ciceronian, Augustan,
illustrate the
Silver
Ages
it
explain and
also the
meaning speech.
of archaic The
Latin
and
plebeian form
of
tinguish dis-
glossographersPraeconinus
lius
Stilo and
for the the oldest
Aureof
Opilius created
study
language by going
The
them. studying
of their
to
us
contemporaries have
come
in
Plautus, Terence,
of which nal Cardi-
Mai,
Glossarium
in the
nineteenth Roman
texts.
grammarians
M.
on
and
critics
early
began
to
Antonius
the Annates
Quintus) published
edition
of Lucretius.2 It is unfortunate
Roman Roman
that
no
exact
come
details
down
concerningthe
to
us.
Most
to
have
confined
themselves
the
various
which
adnotatio,
notes
com-
means
adding
of notes, these
being
1See
brief
signa, and
sometimes
brief
Lowe,
Prodromus
Corporus Glossariorum
Latinorum
(Leipzig,
1876).
8
See
Munro,
Lucretius,Intr. ii.pp.
foil.
THE
GR^CO-ROMAN
PERIOD
67
mentaries
wrote
a
in the
modern
on
sense
of the
word.
Suetonius has
come
treatise
us
these
down
to
written
in Greek.
twenty-one
of the
;
critical
combinations
to
have
been
used
criticism literary
were
or distinctio), (/epio-ts
also other
symbols
that
merely
critics hears
without the
deal
To describing.1
so-called
in the
to
subscript",of study
a
good
a
of
manuscripts.
It
is subscriptio
note
added
manuscript.
usually
begins with by
the
name
word
the
the
date,place,
vision. re-
time, circumstances,or
This revision
a
other
regarding the
the
indicated
of
by
is subscriptio
usuallynot
sort
critical recension
only
of
correctness
of the copy It is to
original.2
that the Romans
noted
paid considerable
stones
on
attention
1
Epigraphy.
Inscribed
of these is of
which
as
the
being
an
some
importance
the
distinct
It
is the
marks iusso A
anacoluthon, or
x.
difficult
expression, such
aequore
en.
444,
2
so
marked
by Probus.
found in
Subscriplionesare
manuscripts of
all
the
best
Latin
Haase, De
Lat.
Cod. MSS.
Sub~
68
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
were
stored in
were
temples
upon
Hellenic and
city,and
and
records
the
says, upon
pediments
a
so that, altars,
Hiibner
the
of history
stones."
Greek
city was
ally liter-
written
her
as
These
were inscriptions
documents
by
the
Greek
was
orators not
and
by
the
historians,but
that
it
until the
were
Age
such
regular collections
as
of them
by
scholars
Philochorus nicknamed
a
was
study
from the
of
was inscriptions
passionwith
200
him.
At
Rome
about
orators
50 and
b.c.
until
a.d.
they are by
quoted by
some
historians,and
as
studied
of
the
grammarians, such
2
Flac-
cus,1and
Probus
of
Berytus ;
on
while
collected for
by
the writers
Roman
jurisprudence.
was
Ateius
Praetextatus Asconius
on
and philologies,*
commentator
(3 a.d.), the
the
annalist
name,
well-known
Fenestella
Cicero, and
to
(19 a.d.),we
come
the next
great
which
to
is that of Marcus of
Verrius
Flaccus
a
the children
Augustus, and
for his rank
scholar who
deserves
mention especial
in both education.
philological study
Verrius Flaccus
and may
the
general historyof
described
as
be fairly
1
the
compilerof
Infra,p. 169.
3
2Ibid.
10.
Suetonius,Gram.
THE
GR^CO-ROMAN
PERIOD
69
lexicon
ever
more
trulycalled
encyclopaedia. Its
in
more
title was
De
Verborum It
written Significatu,
was a
than and
twenty-fourbooks.
lexicon because
of
was an
it denned
illustrated by citations
in their it gave
the
words
It
the
Latin
language
alphabetical
information
order.
on
because encyclopaedia
innumerable
grammar, from
as
and
exhaustive
"
and
elaborate
quotations
every
as
class of writers
well
from
ancient This
sacred
now
formuke.
is
lost.
In the second
it was
abridgedby
fashion arbitrary
which
only one
this
a
book
to
alphabet,and
into
or
abridgment by
itself compressed
Paulus Diaconus.
stillbriefer
epitome by
as
Paul
The
Charlemagne (c.800
of
our
A.D.),is
the
the
principalsource
many
knowledge
the notes
of
fragmentsof
and
by
Festus
remain, while
at
passages
first hand
was
Verrius.
how and
were
the
treatise original
mutilated
the
both
by
of
by
Paulus.1
Yet
badly as
perhaps
the
remains
treated,they are
the most
valuable second
of information
1
remaining for
have been edited
study at
hand
of
by Thewrewk
de Ponor
1891). (Prague,
170
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
archaic Latin
of Roman
and
for curious
information
on
the
subject
antiquities.1
is to be
Verrius
remembered
for another
thing
"
his the
among
appealed to
than
to
of spirit of
ambition
the
dread
punishment.
teaching,
laid
the
Verrius
stress
reward
of merit
rather
than
upon
chastisement
It
was
neglectand ignorance.2
time, after
the
at
our
beginningof
and Roman the
of
so
blended
to
be
in thereafter,
sphere of
Henceforth with had
the all
not
only familiar
Greek world
Greek
and
with
but literature,
the
become
of its
Romanised largely
customs.
in many
Greeks
find
flocked to Rome
in such
great numbers
that Roman
were
we
Juvenal,a
become
had capital
Greek
city.
wrote
Both
languages
or
spoken
as
side
by side;
Romans
in Greek
in
Latin
they chose
; the pages
of their most
familiar and
intimate
were
compositions(the letters
with Greek
of Cicero, for
example)
studded
phrases and
took
so
allusions; while
the Roman
kindlyto
speech,busied
1
themselves
Verrius
in
See
the
chapter on
Flaccus
Latin
2
Literature, pp.
201-247
(Oxford, 1885).
Suetonius,Gram.
17.
THE
GR^COROMAN
PERIOD
historyand
Dionysius, of
Rome.
of the
master
Plutarch, that
remarkable
the
literary
Greeks
portraiture,found
and
parallelsin
in his Atria
customs.
lives
Romans,
and
meaning
Roman
of Roman historians
and
scholars,Gaius
and
Suetonius
partlyin
Latin
his
of both
Rome
now
peoples.1The
became
intellectual
unity
Hellas
and
clearly
visible in the
system of education
by
the
Romans,
uniting as
it did
more
the
As
Roman
thought and
more
literature in this
proper
and the
academic, it is
of
here
features principal
as
System,
givinga generalconspectus
the ancient
a
learningin
world.
may
The
a
as training,
on a
whole,
be described The
as
Greek
structure
Latin
more
foundation.
elementary
of it is
Caesars ;
as
part of it is native
1
; the
known
purelyscientific part
of biographies the Twelve
Suetonius
wrote
is best
many
for his
yet he
names
chiefly on treatises,
antiquariansubjects,such
the
of articles of words of
earlyimport of imprecations
courtesans,
in ten
a
and
court
abuse,
a
account
of celebrated miscellanies
manual The
of
collection of
are were
books.
ments frag-
edited
known
written Roth
which
in Greek.
prefaceto
the edition
by
1886). (Leipzig,
172
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
course,
the
were
of Roman history
simpler forms
had
developed before
while
influence
were
been
felt at Rome;
after the time
the
scientific features
Andronicus
introduced
In other
of Livius modern
and
Ennius.
words
at
(to use
was
system
Rome
were
Roman;
The
secondary and
names
higher education
Rome
Greek.
given at
most
a
The significant.
name
elementary teacher
or
is called
by
Latin
ator {litter
both from
In
advanced
teachers
rhetor). (grammaticus,
education
was
early Rome,
not
regarded as
as
important,
at
though it was
and
in
obligatory by law,
States.
own sons
it
were
was
Athens Most
other
Greek
their
Schools
at
few.
This
fathers
taught
home.
in itself
very
simple and
of
tarian utilithe
memorising
that these had B.C.1
of the Twelve
was
taught
the
after
been
established
statement
in the
2
fifth century
was
Plutarch's
to
as
that
Spurius Carvilius
open
school at Rome
the
(231 B.C.)must
alone.
to referring
secondary schools
course,
as
stated
above,
Livy, Hi. 44
v.
44 ; vi. 25.
Romanae, Quaestiones
59.
174
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
History
and
more seen
and
geography
as a
were,
a
as
time
went
on,
more
valued
part of
the
liberal education.
We
have
that
even
about
beginning
of
the
andrian Alex-
Period,DescriptiveGeography
and
took definite
a
shape
form. down
and
It
was
then
that
and
Scylax,
Carian the
Greek,
Indian
for the
sailed
the Indus
the Red
name
around
through
Ocean
voyage.
His
so-called
been
Periplus, by
have possibly
of Canidus of the
written
littlelater, Eudoxus
the
spherical shape
five
earth,
and
first
of
divided Alexander
of
was
the
globe into
zones.
The
and
campaigns
southern
the Great
open
to
parts
Asia
Greek
Physical geography
in
developed by
all
the
Ptolemies
their commercial
far the of
as
geographicalknowledge, so
with
it
used
as
scientific skill
by
andrians, Alex-
such and
Nicaea,
Posidonius
of
have
only fragments,
A very
however,
great and
geographers.
of Strabo
enduring
of Amasia
(c. 20
which a.d.),
To
combines
the
descriptive geography
had
with
ethnology.
a
what
Greeks
learned And
on
he
added
his
knowledge of
work
the Roman is
conquests.
treatise
though
historical
lost, his
books
geography complete
cit.
in seventeen (Ti](0ypacf"iKd)
1See the edition
is the most
by
Fabricius
THE
GR2EC0-R0MAN
PERIOD
75
treatise geographical
from
a
of
antiquity.
screed.
It
is,indeed,very far
It
was
dry
and
monotonous
meant
to be
read, and
a
it is very
or political
so readable,
that it has
been
called
sort
of
geography.
Napoleon
caused the
wars
it to be rendered
in
at
see
French, with
East, maps
the
notes.1
During
were
Gaul
Rome
(tabulae)
prepared
all could
came
displayedin
understand armies.
where porticos,
them
the
the M.
despatcheswhich
from
Roman
Vipsanius Agrippa,
a
by
order
were
of
great map,
on
which
between
This
important
map
was
places throughout
the
our
Roman maps,
Empire.
and
origin of
modern
of
contributed
It
were
was
to greatly
knowledge
or
Topography.
from
often
copied in
whole
in
part, and
maps
it
made
the so-called
or Itineraria,
intended
such
for
now
expeditions. particular
in existence is the
so-
The
most
of interesting
Peutingeriana,preserved
250 a.d., and it consisted
out
in Vienna.
Its
of twelve
of slips
as
parchment
known contain of
a
which
marked originally
to the Romans.
should
Spain
and
lost with
exception
part of Kent.2
in science
See the
RivallingStrabo
1
but
not
equalling him
by
Tozer
to
S vols.
(Paris, 1805-19).
of selections
Introduction
his
English edition
2
(Oxford, 1893).
this
see geographicalcuriosity,
For
representation of
the
Atlas
(Gotha, 1893).
176
in interest
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
or
breadth
of
knowledge, the
Alexandrian
astronomer,
of
"
Claudius
Ptolemaeus, made
with places,
atlas
as a
which this
shows
Ocean novel
closed
After
and
time
there
nothing
in of
geography
Pausanias
topography except
a.d.),
in who
ten
the
wrote
great work
an
(c. 175
itinerary
is
an
of Greece (IIe/3t?77?7o-i"?)
books,1
which
invaluable
study
of
of
Hellenic
topography.
a
Pomponius
concise
Mela,
account
native
of
Spain,composed
as
clear and
the Romans
known
to
of his
time.2
At
end
of
the
Graeco-Roman
a
Period,
Stephanus
Byzantium
which
the
compiled
geographical
from
one
substance
is taken
older
writers;and
India in
a
Cosmus
described the
name
book
of China
{Sinarum
Regnum).
the
After Roman
completing his
was
grammaticus, a
cation. edu-
held such
to
as
have
were
fairly complete
of
more
But
specialand
the schools of
universities
"
at
Athens, Rhodes,
translated
2
with
commentary
Mela nnd
See
Frick, Pomponius
of the minor those of
The vols.
remains
Greek
geographers
edited
2 by Miiller,
1882); (Paris,
a
of the Latin
1878). For
study
(Stockholm, 1897).
THE
GR^COROMAN
PERIOD
77
Alexandria, or
the rhetors
were
as
Pergamum,
more
or
Massilia.1
The
to
schools of rhetorical
an
immediately directed
student for
was
teachingso
and
to fit the
life as public up
orator
statesman.
Here
taken
the
study
of prose,
to
beginning
declamatio which had of
with
or
the
the
controversia,
to
life. practical
to
was
nothing
to
appeal
that
numerous
students desired
who, setting
to
aside any
as
or legalambition, political
cultivate
the specialists
field of
the natural
sciences, of pure
persons
remained
in Rome,
they could
carry
on
the services
private instructor
Thus various of
person
of
some
learned father's
Greek.2
house Archias
Cicero, when
Greek
boy,
had
in his the
tutors, among
them
celebrated
of his masters he
(Quintus
under
iElius) was
1
Roman 88-125.
born.
Later,
studied
in Latium Unterricht
Latciniscfier und
of
Children
at
Rome
satirises the
was
ineffectiveness
on
private instruction
"
dependent
advanced in the
the
choose
studies
prematurely.
young
men
Now
are
as
boys they
their time
schools,as
they
is stillmore
are
learned wrong
ashamed
admit
when
they
grow
up."
178
Philo the
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
Academic, while
of Rhodes
he learned
rhetoric
from
Apol-
lonius Molo
under
and
trained himself
Then he
in close thinking
to
Diodotus attended
the
Stoic.
went
Athens,
quently subse-
where
he
lectures of Antiochus
and philosophers
to
and
heard Asia. It
was
rhetoricians of declaim
so as
his
in both
Greek
and
Latin
men,
seems
to
acquire given
the
fluencyand
serious
style. At
this time
to
have
attention to
only one
of his
own
countrymen,
great lawyer,Scaevola.
The Roman
theoryof
a.d.
education
M.
was
set fully
forth in
by
Fabius
97
a.d.), a
Rome.
very
cultivated
was,
Spaniard
and
taught at
of
This
indeed, the
so-called
Period
only by Quintilian
Lucan
but
by
the two
Senecas,1
In
the
epic poet
same
and
the
epigrammatistMartial.
Rome who
was
this
century, indeed,
of
in the person
Trajan,
near
Seville.
gives
of the
orator,
beginning
to
earlychildhood.
the Romans
orator must master
Seneca
it evident
that
him,
art.
to
generally, oratory
be
of
was
is the supreme
The
must
1
trained
in
grammatical studies,he
skilled in all the arts
we are
be
The
language and
a
Elder
a
have
from
his pen
number
of snasoriae
edited
by
THE
GF^ECOROMAN
PERIOD
79
of He the in
an
persuasion;but
must
he must
also be in the
much
more
than his
this.
be
deeply versed
his
own
learningof
time, in
of history
orator
he may
draw
upon
store
of
and
Finally,he
be
man
of
exalted it is
character, for
imbued
"The of
with
moral
and
absolute The
sincerity.
firstbook
in
orator perfect
is the is
man." perfect
treatise Quintilian's
the
it,speaking of
he
child,
discusses
of
speech,
cisms, sole-
influence of custom,
and
a
at
last etymology. of
things he
number
later generations
Latin
treasure-house
of curious
facts
language. Throughout
and
some
the book
at
modern,
of
of his
precepts lie
in very
foundation
modem
in
speaking of corporalpunishment
: sensibly
"
"That
custom
though this
allow scarcely
fit
it is
punishment
in the
as
second
boy
is
so
base
not
to be affected
he by reproof,
to
will become
worst
of
even slaves,
person
no
who
regularly
of any
has
will be
need
l8o
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
such
with
Moreover, after
to
you
have he
cowed
grows
to
boy early
when
siderations con-
are
no
you
treat
him
can
when be
manhood
even more
such
threat
must
employed, and
Add
to
difficultstudies that
many
are
be
pursued ?
occur
these
things often
to
to
whipped which
to
cause
unpleasant
the sway
mention
and
or
shame and
under
of
pain
terror.
enervates
mind
and
because
they have
also the
me a
' self-respect."
Note
"Give when
"
boy who
by praiseand who
be cultivated under
to
is downcast
fluence the inward Re-
he fails. His
the
never
quick.
such
boy
in
shall
fear any
It is
a
will
love of
play
I cannot eager
expect that
in his
who
is
always dull
will be spiritless
to that excitement
when studies,
to
he is indifferent
of life.2
. . .
which
is natural
must
his time
he
taught that
in mind
do
nothing in
without
harum-scarum
We
way,
must
self-control.
always keep
case
the maxim
of
of the very
young.'" s
Tenth
of
Book
sums
up
Quintilian's generalliterary
the
Roman
authors, carefullycomparing
in Greek. This
parison com-
has
not
much
read;
for the
criticism,
being that
written
1
Roman,
is temperate, of tone.
impartial,
Its
con-
and
with
certain
mellowness
Oral. i. 3, 14.
no
and
play makes
multum
Jack
est.
dull
boy."
in teneris
consuescere
82
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
of
keen
observation, and
some
:
of them
"
belong to
the
languageof
universal criticism
pannus.
Purpureus adsuitur
Difficile est Parturiunt Ne
pueros
proprie communia
montes,
nascetur
dicere. ridiculus
mus.
coram
populo Medea
sapere
est et
trucidet.
Scribendi Ut
recte
principium et fons.
picturapoesis.
vox
Nescit
missa
reverti.
Dr.
O.
W.
Holmes
once
said
of
Emerson:
which break
a
"His
apart,
coral
the
are
fragments of
also
colony." The
"
of
Horace
full of these
sentences
brittle sentences
doctrines.
The
the
Ars
Poetica of it is
man
lacks
an
proportion and
hard
but ill-knit;
on
essence
injunctionto
labour
the
part of the
to
of
to much letters,
deep
knowledge
merely
with
a
of human
Without with
these
words
the
poet is
than
declaimer
deals the
been in
rather
things.1 Very
poem
same
thought is elaborated
in modern times
of Horace
imitated
his De
by
the
scholar, Gerolamo
century
;
Vida,
Arte
written Poetica,
in the
by
Boileau
in his Art
Poetique (1674); by by
Lord Art
Alexander
Pope
but
in his
Essay
on
Criticism
(1711); and
See
Byron
in his clever
from
Horace.
Cook,
The
of Poetry (Boston,
der Ars Wilkins also Poetica in his
1892),
edition p. 180.
Aesthet.-kritische
Analyse English
is
(Gorlitz, 1880).
of the
commentary
Horace
in
by
Epistlesof
(London, 1885).
Cf.
supra,
THE
GRjECO-ROMAN
PERIOD
83
by
Persius
Flaccus, in the
first of
of
his
which satires,
the
literary language
day.
a
Quintilianwas
a
was
also The
student
of
language, and
he
critic of
literature.
many
period in
which
lived and
it
saw
taught
also the
saw
other attractive
writers,and
in the form
pursuitof linguistics
an
of grammar,
and
His
likewise
abundance
of the
sound
criticism. literary
contemporaries were
and likewise
Tacitus, the
Plinys, Petronius,
Suetonius.
Persius,
The
Juvenal,
teacher
of
Palaemon of
a
(c. 35-70
grammar
a.d.),
in the
perhaps
sense.
school
modern
four distinguished
his Ars
Grammatica
were more
(published c. rigidand
70
earlyRoman
grammarians.
noted
slave,originally
weaver
by trade, and
was
disreputable
as a
character, he
teacher
nevertheless of
his
extremely popular
memory, his
because
his
remarkable
glib
speech,and
trulyRoman
in set formulas.1
1
See
Marschall,
also
Be
Q.
Remmii Gram.
Palmonis
23.
Libris
GrammaHcis
(Leipzig,
of Latin 145-
1887) ;
grammar
Suetonius,
the
Cf.
Nettleship's study
and
among
Romans and K.
in Lectures
171
(Oxford,1895);
1859). (Halle,
Schmidt, Beitragezur
Gram-
tnatik
184
Teachers and
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
of
grammar
became
very
numerous
during
of their and
a
treatises have
seven
supplement by Keil.1
a
be said,however, that
have from any
one
only
few
of
these so-called
of their
grammarians
copy
genuine
another,
knowledge
and this
subject. They
of
but ethics,
their lack of do
not
even
knowledge.
understand
Some the
of the later
grammarians they
copy.
teachingswhich
Remmius
made Roman
Palaemon
is
centre
Vergil the
world, just as
Homer
was
After
grammarians
manuals the
show
as
little
independentresearch.
were
Their
(known
artes)
merely school-books
to relating
simplestrules of
are
prosody. Such
devotinghis
out
tion atten-
metres.
grammarians stand
One of them
our
with
served de-
prominence.
lived in the fourth
century of
and
was
one
of St.
on
Apart
Donatus
from
wrote
his
a
commentaries treatise
(Ars
Donati
parts. The
in it he treats Ars
other, called
1
he
discusses
grammar
Keil, Grammatici
(Leipzig, 1855-1880).
THE
GR^CO-ROMAN
PERIOD
85
as
more
elaborately.The
book
it
was was
so
much
thought of
continuouslyused
the
down
through
Chaucer
Ages,
and
word
Donatus
(in
"donat")
to be
synonymous "a
"grammar,"
just as
as
in
English
un
Webster"
means
and dictionary,
a
in French
Bottin
generically
citydirectory.1
The other
was
Roman
grammarian
of
whose
work
has
many
Priscianus
Constantinople, who
a.d.
taught
After
compiling a
complete
down
to
and
us
systematicLatin
from
grammar
that has
antiquity. It
is divided
to
is called Institu-
tiones Its
Grammaticae, and
into
eighteenbooks.
from quotations the mediaeval
work
its full of it
ancient
epitome
by
scholar Rabanus
of Donatus
throughoutthe
grammar,
Ages.8
For
the
general
of principles
Priscian drew
was
on largely
Apollonius
of scientific self him-
the
founder
syntax
(c. 140
was
a.d.) and
of whom
Priscian
said that he
1
1
See He
Keil, op.
quotes
from especially
and
less
freely
infra,p.
229.
Lekre
des
ApolloniusDyscolus (1869).
86
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
grammar,
was
son
undoubtedlya
a on
to rival, dedicating
Aurelius
grammar
prosody in twenty-one
was
so
books.
Priscian
often
copied
that
than
thousand
manuscriptsof
has been
called
"
lologi phi-
like many
scholars his
almost
in entirely
critical signs, as
Horace, Vergil,
a
treatise
these
symbols.1 It
were
will be of Roman
a
that the
later
grammarians
not
of
Italian birth.
a
Spaniard;
Probus
a
Syrian;
of
probably
in
Spaniard;
Priscian
native
plainlyshows
but
us
was
no
longer Roman,
Period
cosmopolitan. After
came
Spanish
of its literature
the African
names as
Period, represented
by
such
well-known
Apuleius, Fronto,
The had
Gellius.
goldenLatin
the Ciceronian
and
Augustan Ages
changed
to
The Latinity.
in
small
had
language at
imitated writers of
by Cooper
foreignbirth.
:
"
Of
this Dr.
F.
T.
1871). (Jena,
THE
GRiECO-ROMAN
PERIOD
87
"There
was
on
architecture,
etc., whose
surveying,medical
attainments however
a were
veterinarytopics, gastronomy,
meagre
to
enable
them
to
write
correctly,
much
contained naturally
important influence
was
less
numerous
birthplacewas
education and
of
Italy, and
at the
speech, in spite of
a
long residence
to capital, retained,
varying
Empire, the
provinces became
of the centres
men
fertile than
of
of veritable
literature, possessingmarked
upon
strongly
the
literature of
It is because
the
though born
to
we
outside living
use
acquirea
so
of
the The
Latin
very
find
many
grammarians.
is had
the been
SpaniardIsidorus,who
Bishop
an
died about
was a
one
636
He
of
and Seville,
man
ing, read-
eloquentspeaker,and
as learning
who
in the ancient
He
never
well until
as
in that of his
visited Rome he
nearly twenty
to
years
went
confer
with
two
Gregory
in
use
His
number,
of words.
numerous
to relating
the proper
He
1
likewise wrote
See
xxxv
collection of
beside glosses,
Sermo
Cooper,
Word
Formation
in the Roman
tion, IntroducPlebeius,
88
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
treatises
him
on
ends
production of
or
that
show
any But
research original
language
inform earlier
which
their masters
on
spoke, so
of
they
themselves
Roman
all sorts
to subjects relating
we
history. Hence
who
have work
series of of the
paedists Encyclo-
supplemented the
grammarians.
Historia
Naturalis
had
got
enormous
of
for prescriptions
women.
the sick,to
In
the
second
century, Aulus
on
his Nodes of
Atticae
"
in twenty books,
sort possible
subject
"
and
now
legal, drawing
to
that
are
unknown
us.2
a
One
may
get
some
of these scraps
by
citation of
of the
at
topics ;
do not
as,
for
instance, "The
Rome "That
Swear
by
Hercules
Men
by Castor";
with
Faint
It is More
to Disgraceful
be
Damned
Praise
than
to
be
cause Be-
Rebuked"; Bitterly
of Sudden Horse
1
2
"Why
the Stomach
is Relaxed
Fear";
Called
which
was
Supra, p. 158.
See
Ruske, De
Best edition
Auli
Gellii N odium
Atticarum
Fontibus
(Breslau,
1883).
of the Nodes
by Hertz
1886). (Leipzig,
I90 the
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
is that of
an
Isi-
dorus, called
survey of
immense
from the
all
knowledge.
Its
title is derived
fact that it
of subjects
the various
a
which
compilation; yet
Natura
this and
his other
work,
De
Rerum,
and
were
widely read
a
throughout the
Middle
Ages
put together
wide
was
It is As
how astonishing
readingof
monks
to
Bishop
of
of Seville he allowed
nothing
the pagan
compositions
tures the litera-
Greece
and
Rome,
was
picking out
with
was
almost
a
sense journalistic
whatever
diverting. He
great
lover of books,
while
two
having in
his
favourite
Isidorus
sixth
was
one
of
the
few
a
ecclesiastics who
the
knowledge
Roman
of
Greek. had
was
With
more
him,
than
fact, the
GraecoThe and
Period of
reached
new
its end.
West
Europe
to yielding
masters,
and
Gauls
Germans;
the Dark
Ages
had, in fact,begun.
[In addition
see
to
the other
du
works
cited in the
present
La
chapter, Religion
infra,
La Boissier,
1
Fin
See
224,
Dressel,De
225.
Isidori
(Turin,1874), aQd
pp.
THE
GR^ECO-ROMAN
PERIOD
191
Romaine
d'Auguste
Latin
aux
Antonins
(Paris,
Lectures
1906)
on
Michaut,
Le
Genie
1904)
Duff,
A
Hardie, Literary
Classical
Subjects
664-670
(London,
History
of
A
Rome,
pp.
(London,
Literature,
Teuffel-Schwabe-Warr, 1892)
Zu
;
History
of
Roman
(London,
;
Kortum,
Geschichtliche
Forschungen (Innsbruck,
Kaiser
(Leipzig, 1873)
1877)
;
1863)
Arbenz,
Zingerle,
Spdtem
in Rom
Latein.
Dichtern
Die
SchriftsteUerei
Transactions
zur
Zeit
der
(Basle,
Society
Nettleship,
;
of Africa,
the
Oxford
trans.,
Philological
pp. 8
for
York,
1
1880-81
Boissier,
;
Roman
Eng.
her
238-289
vols.
(New
(Oxford,
1899)
899)
AM.
Hodgkin,
Curteis,
A
Italy
History
;
and
Invaders,
Roman
880-1
of
the
Empire
Critica
from
Scholiastarum
375-
800
(London,
1875)
Suringar,
Historia
Latinorum
(Leyden,
1898)
and
;
1834-5);
Church,
Bemont The and
Norden, Beginning
Monod's
Die
Antike Middle
(Leipzig,
of the
1895);
33-124,
Medieval
Eng.
trans.
(New
York,
1906).]
THE
MIDDLE
AGES
A.
The
Monastic
Learning
The
gloom
vitiation
of
the of
Middle
Ages
is foreshadowed
in be
the
general
as
literary taste
as
which and
began
third
are
to
able noticea.d.
early
even
the
of
second this
centuries
two:
The
immediate
causes
decline
(i) the
cosmopolitanism spread
secured
course
of
the
later
Roman
Empire;
as soon as
and
it had
(2)
the
of
Christianity.
mastery
of
Rome,
the
fairly
in
the
of
a
a
whole
to
world,
Roman.
men
ceased,
The of
the
single century,
be
for
capital
rank
great
gathering-place
"The
every
language.
turned its
Syrian
into the
Orontes,"
Tiber."
!
says Rome's
Juvenal,
chant-princes, mer-
course
its
governors,
knights,
and
at
its
its
jurists, its
emperors,
vincial prowere
Greeks,
but
Gauls,
or
Spaniards,
even
Africans,
Brunner
"
anything
almost
Roman,
Italian. the
conclusively
is the
that
of
whole
history
of
the
Empire
the of manic Ger-
history
and
continuous
struggle
for
between
the
Iberian
elements
the
control
the
government.
1
iii.62.
192
THE
MIDDLE
AGES
93
In
no
is sphere of activity
this
cosmopolitanism more
century
of its
or
and
even
earlier, one
the
names
names
to be
either of
or Gauls, Spaniards,
Syrians, or
Sicilians,or
Roman
Africans.
The
result of
this
of denationalising very
literature showed
all that
was
itself before
traditions. literary
Varro
were
ceased
read; but
even
Vergil,
It
Ovid
regarded as old-fashioned.
and
is,
Spaniards and
Africans,
to
as
would foreignlanguage,
of
be unable
niceties
delicate
rhythms that
of
mark
the work
of the
highly
trained
writers
was
the
Golden
Age
of
Latin
literature. it
was
Prosody always
an
the
first to
artificial who
more
or
thing and
largelyforeignto the
beat
educated, un-
of
the
Saturnians
jingleof the
a.d.,
we
carmina
triumphalia. Hence,
modianus
earlyas
250
find Com-
writinghis
Carmen
Apologeticum
in hexameters
that
accent
frankly discarded
as
syllabicquantity and
system;
knew
accepted
it is
likely un-
and
of his readers
the difference.
and
on
in the mouths
foreignwriters.
Prepositions govern
what-
194
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
ever
cases
appear
to be
most
convenient.
Nouns
become
heteroclite with
places; and
these extreme
from
were
there is
wild of
dance
of
genders.
Of
course
breaches
are
far
universal ; but
language
writers.
lost to the
it
was
of both perceptions
sense
Hence and
that,the
of and
so
destroyed,the
second
centuries
studied
read not
them.
Rome,
of
as
abridgments of
age of
epitomes,
of of
condensations,of scrap-booksand
This spicilegia.
elegantextracts;
so
explainswhy
many
valuable down
in
to
at
all; and
why others
in
have
been
preserved
of
meagre
abridgments, or
were
abridgments
by
abridgments. Such
of
the
whose
treatises in Greek
King Juba
now
Mauretania,
much
is SearpLKr)'larropia in his
lost,though
used
by Julius Pollux,
ten
a
'Ovofiao-Tiicov, a dictionary in
books
work his
own
arranged by
on
subjects;Hephaestion,
books, forty-eight
them all
writer of
metres
in of
a
lost,though
epitome
who
wrote
survives;
Valerius
orators
Harpocration,
; Herennius
Philon
of books
Byblos
were
(sometimes
called
"Philobyblos"), whose
in
one
; and
Pamphilius, whose
ninetywere
were glosses
only five.
THE
MIDDLE
AGES
95
The
perhaps
taste
even
more
important factor
in
out blotting
general
in
appreciateand
the
admire
was
the
of productions
precedingcenturies
the
only a negative
the
other
injury.
hand,
was
The
teaching of
Christians, on
and aggressively
In the
directed offensively
the
toward
their destruction.
earlydays of
the
who ignorant,
only
felt
value
what
was
and suspicion
what
dislike which
vulgaralways exhibit
Later, when
men
toward
they cannot
and culture
"
understand.
men
of education
St.
Jerome
pagans
"
writings of
influence,
"
the all
as
the
more
they
power.
could
St.
themselves
appreciatetheir
in
attractiveness
Jerome
was,
fact, a
scholar
and
was
thoroughly familiar
even
with
an
this
the basis of
brought against
at
him
by
fellow
Christians.
works
last
openly
charged
pagan
his defiling
of
with
quotations from
to
one
authors;
having employed
and of
of
some
monks
on
copy
the
having
even
occasion
minds them
his
1
children
passages he of
at
Bethlehem
by
tells in
a
various
Vergil.1He
rebuked
xxx.
in
one
of
Epistles how
; adv.
was
lxx Epist.
Rufinam, I. ch.
196
dream
in the
a
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
for his
guiltyadmiration
the throne than
a
nightbefore
of
Christ,accused
of
"being
Ciceronian
rather
Christian," and
awoke in
scourged by morning
his I
the
angels so
were
he with
the
shoulders
bruises.1
Pope Gregory
of
Desiderius, Bishop
thus
Vienna,
the
for
classics and
.
"mingled
mind
praises
Jupiterand
Christ
.
.
the polluting
2
praisesof taught
hell. that the
the
wicked."
of
It
was
believed
and
in
writers
the classics
as
were
burning
of the
scripts manu-
In
such
monasteries
stillkept any
where any
of the secular
were
and literature,
vows
of silence
imposed,
of
it
was
customary
or
when
monk
wished
copy his
Horace, Vergil,
like
were a
Livy, to being
to
indicate
ear
dog,
this
the animal
pagan With
writers
men
supposed
sterner
resemble.3
of
and
fiercer
type,
"
zealots
"
like
Tertullianus
mass
and
the
whole
of pagan Its
literature
philosophywas
and
snare
and its
stumbling-
block;
and
its
historylies
slanders;
poetry licentious
plain
in
a
enticement
1
the
worship
of
demons.
Tertullian
xxii. Epist.
Lecky, vol.
Maitland,
toward
ii.p.
201.
Dark
Ages, p.
403.
(London 1853).
the
Because forbade
the classic
writers,Julian
Apostate
to
teach
rhetoric and
grammar
in (classics)
the schools.
198
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
from pictedsubjects
papyrus and
the classic
myths;
vellum shared
which
a
contained
It
the
was
the
myth-makers
of the
similar fate.
anticipation
seventeenth
Puritan
frenzy of
so
and
many the
desecrated,so
so
paintingsof
saints into
destroyed, and
because bits, ritual of fanatical the
many gave
they
and The
to significance
same
the
Catholic
speciesof
frenzy marked
rolls of
of the covered
earlyChristians. copiesof
used for their
Innumerable
papyrus Roman
ments
,
with
the great
of masterpieces
literature were
were
wrapping goods.
and used
Parch-
scraped of
texts original
again
that
libraries In
pillaged by
mobs.
under
which
of the Alexandrian
was
Serapeum
sacked, and
The
books
partlyburned
and the
were
and
partlyscattered.
one
at library
at
Nisibis
greater
both
of
100,000
volumes
stantinopl ConI
burned
allowed
(477) ;
and
Pope Gregory
Palatine
to have
the noble
Library
Rome
1
to be
destroyed.1
is
This, however,
of
The
favourite
ing say-
Gregory
was
that he is
greater than
the rules
of
grammar"
the
; and
they of
ii.
ascribed the
so
much
the
heathen
See
Draper,
Intellectual
;
Development of
Litteraire
201
Hist. Guingerie1,
Vltalie, i,pp.
29-31.
THE
MIDDLE
AGES
99
Other diminished
more
causes
than
the
two
already mentioned
of
greatly
rendered
the
world's
supply
of that
books
difficultthe renewal
from
supply. Empire
separation
had
a
of the Eastern
the Western
very
unfavourable
of books,
effect upon it
preservation
the East from
as dividing,
the
to
Greek, and
cared
much
Byzantian
Roman
who librarians,
now literature,
about
interest in it whatsoever. in
a.d.
Finally,
the conquest
at
a
641, destroyed
libraries upon
blow
shut
what
of the Alexandrian
papyrus
and
off from
which
All
depended.
considered
in
facts must
many
to
be
accounting for
nown re-
the loss of
works
ought
have
preserved them,
of
the
are
comparatively few
now
manuscripts
early date
that
known
to
growing ignorance
Christians
and
to
the
people,
the
classical
and libraries,
the barbarisation
one
the
Empire.
might,
amid
the
deepening social
World,
have
intellectual darkness
in Rome
felt
predictingthat
would
soon
splendour of literary
and
Greece
be
only a faint
a
dying memory,
That
this
fact. living
20O
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
was
not actually
the
case
is in
very
largedegree due
a man. single
to
the energy,
the
example of
an
Early
event
which with
in the
to
have
no
classical
or philology
was,
in
one fact,
importance
can palaeography
be exaggerated. scarcely
a
About
529, of
one
Benedict,
that took
of
Nursia,
name
founded
monks
the and
of Benedictines.
an
Monachism
in
had
the
alreadyarisen
had
extraordinaryvogue
St.
Eastern
so
begun with
himself
a
of
we
thousand
followers.
that in the
were
Within
one
singlecentury
Nitria,in
find it recorded
the
no
monasteries.1 fifty
in the
East, almost
from
beginning,the system
There sprang up
a
notorious
abuses.
class of monks
and
lived in small
about the open
munities, com-
frequently wandered
cases a
country,
leadingin
Even in
many the
profligacy.
well-defined
monasteries, the
the
door
to
open
of licentious into in
tended
bring the
In
institution
contempt
1
and
scandal.
fact,the
Monchthums
Christian
Church
See
Mohler,
Das
Geschichte
des
(Regensburg, 1866-68)
Harnack,
Monchthum
(Giesen,1895).
THE
MIDDLE
AGES
201
its the
early years
reallyfound
the pagan of many
to
danger
and
not
in
of persecutions
governors, "Men
to
of its own
members.
escape
from
or military service,
municipal offices";
every other of form
a
new
worn-out
rakes
of
enthusiasts in search
and
depraved
men
and around
a
women
impelledby curiosity,
of the
new
the teachers
to
faith in
the
of expectation
fresh stimulus
their
jaded fancies.
and
gances extrava-
Hence, almost
of
immediately,arose
the details
are
scandals
which
The
given by contemporary
were
writers.1
martyrs
at
one
time
suppressed by
manner
of
the
pilgrimagesto
that the
as a
motley crowds
of
Holy
Land
described
by
St.
Gregory
the
Nyssa
hot-bed
of debaucher
Even
Agapae,or
these
drunken
and
were
orgies.
All
concentrated
condensed
often
in many
of the oriental
men
which monasteries,
the
filled
by
who
made
professionof
the most
for the
practiceof
was
at
time
when
on
monachism
as
then
v.
understood
See
Jortin,Remarks
Ecclesiastical
History,5
(1751-53); Cave,
Genio
Primitive Aevi
Theodosiani
149
202
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
and
had practised
fallen into
such
St.
Benedict
(529 a.d.),founded
his famous
Rome
Monte
and
Naples.
It
was
place destined
to
importance in
was
the
a
an
historyof
man
classical texts
learning.Benedict
a
of littleeducation,but
very
mind, spiritual
an
of
unblemished
of
common
character,and
sense as
with gifted
of
unusual had
amount
well
as
piety.
He
been
made had
of
monastery
of the Eastern he in
type, and
found
disgustat
his
prevailing
him
saw
there;
but
was experience
suggestingto
He
monachism
as
then
understood. should be
enough
and
were
required
their rule
fast and
pray
sing at
left to
remaining hours
should
idleness;but
be devised to
to
give them
a
occupation and
this end
he
provide for
composed
which
in the year
515
his famous
Regula
rule
Monachorum,
of monachism here
to
the universal
It is not
in the go into
Church.
It
a
sary neces-
its details.
out
requiredcontinual
scheme
above
as
residence
labour
in the
monastery; laid
spare
hours; and
as
of desirability
mental
as
well
bodilyoccupation,
engage
such permitting
in
monks
were
to qualified,
teaching and
1
in
is
the
520.
library.
The
date
only traditional.
give
it
as
THE
MIDDLE
AGES
203
had,
of
course,
no
learningof
of the monks
the
to be
age,
literary
and the
not
so
his Rule
momentous
received results
to
pretation intermodem
scholarship.
In the year
a
540, Flavius
Magnus
Aurelius
Cassiodorus,
from
a
Roman
of patrician
under
four
Gothic
kings, and
secretary
to
King Theodoric,
which he the
monastery of Vivarium
took
and (529),
the vesture
had
and
of obligations
monk.
man
Cassiodorus
been and
men
during his
statesman,
of the world
scholar and
writer,one
who Greece
remaining
care
in the Western
Empire
with
; and
the
after his
changed, un-
retirement
to
the
the
more
monastery,
more
remained
new
while gave
own
ample
leisure of his
life His
him
far
opportunityto
a
cultivate them.
writingsas
monk
were
taking advantage of
wrote
on was
the
liberal
as a
used Letters
throughout
the
Middle
;
Ages.
See
Hodgkin, The
of Cassiodorus
(London,
1886)
Church, Miscellaneous
204
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
monks
to
an
of appreciation
to
the
every
value
of
the
secular both
literature and
the and collection
encourage
by
means possible
and
the of
of multiplication
a
copies.
man
sessed Pos-
very
largefortune,and being a
he
of great
influence and
of his
energy, this
laboured
to incessantly
the end
success
with importantobject, in
such
that he
succeeded actually
"
making
of his Order
sort of Christian
Academy,"
storehouse of
its
scriptorium or
writing-room
More
copying of parchments.
Benedictine Order
than
a essentially
learned
been
traditions of
to
which scholarship
have
honourably maintained
a
the
great
how
were
debt
is owed
to
Cassiodorus
times, and
generalhad
written
near
been
the destruction of
of their
that manuscripts
the time
seen
the by recalling
dates of the
a
earlycodices
Thus
^schylus, and
so-called Laurentianus
to
(or Mediceus)
century.
to
at
the
eleventh goes
The
oldest
Herodotus
back
the
eleventh
century, that
Thucydides
ninth
to the
"
tenth
to the
century,
though
is
incomplete.
The
oldest
manuscript of
1
Plautus
See
Olleris, Cassiodore,Conservator
VAntiquitt Latine
71-
206
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
These
an
facts
are
quitesufficientto
show
scarcely
classical
authors
are
than
isolated
fragments
it not who
copiesmade
Had
been
of those
followed
example,the
so
remains
to
of classical literature
no
would
have
been
scanty
as
giveus
a
real
conception
as learning
whole.
the Roman
With
and
was
must
be mentioned
cian patriThis
is said to have
Anicius
,
Torquatus
(or
Boetius) almost
a
to possess esteem
good understandingof
of the 5000.
Greek.
He
gained the
made
of
Theodoric, King
in capital such
Ostrogoths,who
Over
Rome
his
cised exer-
the year
rule.
In the
end, however,
his property
was
was
and confiscated,
after
he being imprisoned,
executed
(c. 524)
wrote
with
terrible
cruelty. While
De five
in
Boethius prison,
his
was
titled dialogueen-
Consolatione
was
Philosophiae. It
a
divided
into
books, and
written in
close imitation
of the best
Latin
which
is interspersed shows
palimpsestfrom the monastery of St. Paul in Carinthia of the sixth century (bks.xi.-xiv.) ; of Pliny the Younger,
the ninth
a (incomplete) ; of Suetonius, a
Codex
Laurentianus of the
(Mediceus) of
tenth
Bernensis
or
century
Codex
Memmianus
Parisinus
of the ninth
century.
THE
MIDDLE
AGES
207 he held
was
metrical
For
even
seven
centuries
was
in
not
great
reverence,
in later times
forgotten. He
of the many Arabic
first writer
numerals. them
who
The
one
knowledge
found
into into
(Hindu)
Consolatio
Alfred
translations, among
by King
by Chaucer
and
Queen Elizabeth
that western
overrun
by foreigners might
sunk It
was
speakingevery
have
of
supposed that
But
the
Latin
language
was
men
would the
have
justthe contrary
to
case.
of that time. it
a
Its of the
dignityand
intercourse
brevity made
fit medium
language
Church,
Church
overrun
was
the
literature were
faintest
technical
knowledge could
a
students
who
tried to get
smatteringof
Even those
for far
only.
real
who
knowledge
of what made A
they
a
studying, gloriedin
of it. Grammar
was
their
and ignorance,
as
boast
regarded
pedantic.
The
most
modern Bo'etius
is by
Hildebrand,
Stellungzum
(Regensburg,
1885);
and
208
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
knowledge
One
of its rules
was
held to be somewhat
able. discredit-
(Wolfhard
barbarisms
in the of
Life of St.
tells of
Walpurgis) speaks of
the
but style,
reader
that
his the
"
pearls. Gregory
at
an
spoken
stillmore
forcibly
the
to
earlier date.
of
nouns
cases
confine
the
words
heavenly prophets
uttered upon of
the
same
rules of Donatus."
thought
11
with
vigour that
the
almost
ferocity.
Donatus,"
Let
and philosophers
"
impure followers
with
he says,
the
barking
of
dogs
throat
and and
skinned
bared
let the
while
as we
foaming
remain
as
and the
bespittled evangelical
tury cen-
of Christ."
Even anecdote
late of the
the
fourteenth
Emperor Sigismund at
of the
Council
of
Costnitz
is characteristic In
a
popular
Hussites
noun,
out
about feeling
speech againstthe
as a
he had
which schisma emperor
used he
was was
"schisma"
feminine called
for that
corrected
a noun
by
monk,
who
of the neuter do
"
asked, "How
Gallus says so."
you And
know who
ander Alex"
is Alexander
"
Gallus?
"
A monk."
"
I is
am
the
Emperor
as
of
Rome,
and
fancy
that
my
word
as
good
any
monk's."
THE
MIDDLE
AGES
200.
That
of
the Church
did not
do
more
to
keep
alive the
spirit
We The that up
to be
counted
her. against
so
ought rather
conditions
she Mr. had
to
feel
she did
much.
of her existence
the
difficult mission
summed fairly
perform
have
"
been
very
by
J.
A.
Symonds:
"The
Ages
races
was
not
so
much
to
to moralise
who
held
their
pleasure.
.
After
. .
the dismemberment
open
to
of the action of
the whole
powers
of
Europe
had
to
was use
thrown unlettered
the
who
barbarians field
and the
have
to
missionaries.
same
To
submit
this vast
classic culture
at
time
that
Christianitywas
been
undertake
exhausted."
The had
worst
feature of
of the mediaeval
even appreciating,
was spirit
that it
in the
slightest
degree,the
was
To
a absolutely
The
paganism,
ity virilthe
remote
as
from
conception of
remote
mediaeval
monks
one
the
is
is sunlight
from
the
conception of
who
congenitally
in the
blind.
Whatever
spirit
and
of Scholasticism.
warped
cramped
1
and
distorted
(London,
187s).
2IO
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
admired
not
famous Vergil's
Fourth
Eclogue,they admired
beautiful
it,
because
it
was
in
itself
piece
the
of
verse,
but because
approaching
of Ovid
birth of Christ.
were
licentious passages
modern of the
commentators
have If
Hebrew
Song of Songs.
of tleties, strange subthe
Trinity in
verb, and
were even
mystic numbers
defined
when as theologically,
as
scholastics
of
voluntas defining
of expressive of
as
the nature
God,
voluptas of
blended
of
man.
the
nature
the
Devil, then
the
coined mixed
form
volumtas It is easy
expressiveof
nature
to
imagine what
remarkable
feats of
Nevertheless, althoughthe
the barbarians, education
It the rejected in which pagan
was
task
was
to moralise
paganism
revived
was
and
schools
during the
Middle
Ages.
It is somewhat lies
period of
The
time
decline of the
began
Constantine
Rome to
seat
Empire
from
Byzantium
itself
in (Constantinople)
330,
both significance
the
THE
MIDDLE
AGES
211
standpoint of scholarship.
and
more
Its
records
time.
become
more
melancholy
and their
with
a
advancing
flocked to another
not
city. foreign
backs upon
The
only
turned
its
language and
Rome's
populationdiminished.
there The
temples
it the the
decay, and
began
new
to
brood
portent of destruction.
and archives, it lost the
never
Caesars the
carried away
imperialcourt. Emperor
saw
Some
all. The
Constantius
the former
been
in
before he
of capital
the
a
Empire, and
barbarian
anxious of
to
journeyedto
he
was
it only at the
request of
who
was
princewhom
behold
the
city which
been
mistress
the
world.
-c.
The
Ammianus historian,
Marcellinus,1
of this
(c. 330
378 a.d.),gives an
himself Rome.
seems
account interesting to
visit. Constantius
have
been
astonished
by
the
"As
of magnificence
the
Emperor gazed
the
and valleys,
upon
the vast
cityspreadingalong the
of the he hills,
in slopes,
between
surpassedeverything
on
his gaze
so
the
to
temple of
resemble
on
baths
magnificent as
structure
the massive
of the
Colosseum,
of which
seemed
accessible scarcely
a
the
fairydome,
columns
with their
was
gentlyslopingstairwaysadorned
a
Ammianus in Latin
"
Marcellinus
the Latin of
himself
Greek
by birth, though he
wrote
212
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
with
statues
of heroes
and
emperors,
besides
the
Temple
of
of the
of
Pompey, the
wonders of of
all the
architectural
to
Rome.
When, however,he
any
the Forum
Trajan,
structure
unequalled by
exquisite indeed
refuse their
awe
other
of its kind
throughout the
would
world, so
ithard
with
a
that
the
gods themselves
as
find
to
he stood admiration,
if in
trance, surveying
words what
can
dazed
the
stupendous
fabric
to
rear.
which
neither
nor picture,
mortal
again aspire
Being asked
one
he
he
not
was
in
Not
long afterward, in
her last great
the
the
reign of Honorius,
Rome
peror em-
witnessed
that
over
entered
city to celebrate
is
triumphs
the
the
Goths
of this any
(403).
There
in something pitiful
was
attitude
stillthe most
magnificentof
in the
which curiosity
to
its emperors
from
time
to time
give it.
of
Its very
beauty,its maze
and
of porticos, its
its wilderness
marble, bronze,
gold,and
and
jewels,
with
a
of its
too
decadence,
small
to
grown
crowd
its
unwarlike
from
to defend
its walls.
we
It is really then
must
date The
Beginning
of the Middle
Ages.
Empire
from East
embraced practically
1
xvi. Gestae,
14 foil.
214 from
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
the emperor
in
Constantinople.Thus,
with with A
one
may
say
the transfer
of the
the establishment
time from
Italyin 476.
End is the year
which
to
the Eastern
the
of
triumphant
Muhammadans
poured
Constantinople.
the Middle
of scholarship in history
western
Ages, so
far
into
concerns
Europe,
Period
is
divided conveniently
the
Early
Christian
(300-751), the
Period of
Carolingian
Period
(751-911),and
the
(911leaven
1476). During
of civilisation was
something
shattered
source
among
the rude
barbarians
who
had
mastered
the
Western
Empire.
One
great
of civilisation
lay in
the retention
the said,
of the Latin
language.
alone
as
It
was
not,
as
is often
influence
that made
as
speech of
in their
soon
they
become
settled of
new
possessions.It
one
was
also the
of
urgent need
having
"
some
intelligible
Goths could lects diaas
medium and
use
communication,
language
which
Vandals
All the
the
understood.
and
were,
patoisof Germany
one
Jutland were
They
were
cast,
it
into the
great crucible.
simmering
and
forms
new continually
and
new
idioms.
There
was
chaos
of
human
THE
MIDDLE
AGES
21
and speech,
amid
language alone
was
the
one
for which
used
it.
Church
Dark
confirmed
this still
selection; and
when,
and
in the
Ages,
men
attempted to
the it elements
write of
a
teach
learningthat they
and
been
well-nighlost,
the guage only laning express-
was
but
which
natural that
should
was
employ
they knew,
which
capableof
accuratelyand
reasons
these
together,
"
universal
the language,
usage gave
courts
requirementsof scholarship,
the
very
monasteries
churches,
common
into
the
mouths
and
was
understanding of
more
the
people,so
that it
almost
genuine vernacular.
In the fourth
Of this fact
proofsare
not
wanting.
a
reignof Theodosius,
in the
Gaul
addressed
lingua Romana
rude rustica,
There
were
rough, but
still
to his intelligible
hearers.
stillcompositions
sixth and centuries,
written
in Latin for
during the
common
fifth and
intended
in Latin he
the
that be
will be
careful not
to
any
popular
song
in very
good
Latin
has
over
come
down Saxons by
Leo
to
us
Clotaire II
1
the
Edition
in 622.
and Krusch
century,
535-600.
(Berlin, 1881-1885).
2l6
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
composed
wrote
for
public
Latin
it in
also
universally employed
And
and
public correspondence.
and
not
spoken
as
matter
of
but necessity,
some
least
capable of succeedingwere
honour
fired with
an
to
us
gain
that
from
its
use.
Gregory
Latin
of Tours1 and
informs there
ChilpericI. attempted
a
verse;
still
exists
letter written
to
a
in
metrical
who
Latin
by Auspicius,
name
Bishop of Tours,
of
Count
Arbogastes.
The
growth of
the
papal power
of Latin.
did
great
was
deal to
constant
use
There
and
the
Papal
the
newly founded
of the
States,and it was
were
all in Latin.
bishops
of the
Church and
nobles
Latin
of the the
kingdoms language of
Empire,
The
they made
the courts.
presidedover papallegate
The
is
in his
History of
Latin
un-
how from
even
with
educated He writers
men
like himself
fading
metrically.
He
uses
probablyborrowed.
not
apparently
In and him
does
e
know
are c
and
be in agreement.
and
are aspirates
he pronounces Tours
like Le
s.
See
Latin
Vulgaire,in
Mondes
an
(July
Douzieme
15,
1891) ;
du
Meril, Poesies
Populaires
sur
anterieures Latins
Siecle
(Paris,
les Poetes
de la Decadence Latin
(Paris,1867) ;
the Word
Formation Latin
of the
Inscription(Rome,
Grandgent, Vulgar
(Boston, 1908).
THE
MIDDLE
AGES
21
and
breach
was
so
the
between very
deliberations
the Greek
to largely
were
in and
Latin.
Indeed,
the
Church
Church
due
not
the
Church
would The
language as
well in not
its officialtongue.
Roman
yielding. Latin
some
is the
of
Hellenic
seem
grace, made
its
sonorous
sentences
and
majesticperiods
worship.
with the so-called barbarous
Of
course
the
mingling of
Latin
was
and
an
illiterate
extensive be
to
be
expected,and
On the other
likewise
of
prepositions.
that
hand, it
common
must
remembered
in the may
all these
the
things had
even ignorant,
been
enough
Golden
language of
be
seen
as
duringthe
Age, as
in such
plainly
Persius
in the and
was
writers
Latin
Petronius
never
Jerome.
The
of literature
of men's
dailyspeech.
Therefore, when
we
upon be
should
an
called
reversion to
popular
had
usage
absolute
corruption of
The
what
been previously
comes
refined and
regular.
and
plebeianspeech
away book
to
the
surface
everywhere,
sweeps
language.
This
vulgar Latin
among
"
"
lasted
the
long,even
that so illiterate;
of
apes
(simiae) because
2l8
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
assiduous
imitation of Latin.
to
In like manner, of
so
soon
as
be any
definite standard
versification,
so
nicely balanced
quantitativesystem
to
carefully
accentual older
even
Ennius
new,
to
"
an
is not
but
really very
of Latin
old
Period Hellenizing
literature.
were
Before
rude dittiesthat
rhymed
alliteration. After
same
the downfall
of western
sort
of poetry
again is common.
not
Indeed,
rhythm
and
rhyme
were
established
by
the
in the Christian
hymns;
priestly
most
are
poets compose
hymns
that
were
familiar to their
congregations. Some
of these the
hymns
literature
the
succeedingages,
such
of them,
for
example, as
Mortis
Dies
and Spiritus,
Portis
good example
of semibarbarous
to
Latin
prose
is
given
by Drager
It is from
"
his Historische
Syntax.
"
the
Ostrogoth(c.454-526):
Rex
vero
audito Boetio
in protulit
in custodia in fronte
sententiam.
rex
Qui
mox
in agro
Cal-
ventino,ubi
accepta
havebatur, misit
diutissime
ad
tortus
et fecit occidi.
Qui
corde
est, ita ut
cum
oculi eius
creparent.
1
ultimum
fuste occiditur."3
See
Latines du
*
A very
ofthe Middle
THE
MIDDLE
AGES
2IO,
As is well said
by
Dr. V. S. Clark:
"
Barbarism
set
in Latinan
ity is
relative term,
and
it is
was
a
to impossible
matter
can
exact
of partly
individual
in
well
as
of
age."
We
find barbarisms
during
of the
the
classical
of
period that
the
match
precisely
We
must
barbarisms
mediaevals.1
remember
that Latin
remained
throughoutthe
Middle
Ages
the practically
mother
was
for it officialclasses,
language of
the
Church,
the
law
On
courts, and
the other
or
of both
and religious
hand, among
the peasants, it
transmuted
languages;
Latina, while
"
called
determine
mana.
It is
to probablyimpossible
as
a
Latin
ceased to exist
people.
it may
But
the
be
from interesting
of standpoint
Romance of
ology, philliterary
through the
is the extent
even
Middle
to which
Ages.
Latin
What
was
we
are
concerned
understood
on
by people
of their
a
who,
account
in position way
"
social and
we now
economic sometimes
life, correspondin
term
'
general
to
what
the
reading classes/
the
townspeople and
small
the
Canterbury
Supra,
220
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
pilgrimsof
centuries.
the latter half of the first decade It is natural to suppose Latin and that
to
people of
it
understood
continued
employ
occasionally
of
munication." com-
long after
it had
*
ceased to be the
ordinarymedium
Something
like
definite
learningappears
This
during
the
reign of Charlemagne
adviser
was
(c.800).
mediaeval
monarch's
chosen
the his
name
great
Latinized
Albinus.
of
a
born
at
York,
in
where
he became
met
largeschool.
to my
Later,
court
he Italy, teach
said,"Come
and
my
liberal arts."
at
Alcuin the in
gladly Emperor
first
taught
him
logic. To
a
aid
his
work,
.
Charlemagne
Alcuin
also
established
new
court
school (ScholaPalatina)
founded
schools
throughout France
At Tours
own
and
improved
a
those which
alreadyexisted.
after his
he set up
seat
of
modelled learning
school at York.
the
greatestscholar
he well, fairly his works the the
for,in addition
Greek
noted
are
to
knowing
Hebrew.
Latin
of smattering be
and
a
Among
and
a
to especially
Rhetoric and
Grammar,
of principles
1
which
drawn
partlygarbled from
Cf. also du
See
Muratori,Ant.
M6ri\,Po6sies
in his had
spoken by the
from them
women
of Rome that he
day
and (1380),
learned
Latin
words
never
heard before.
222
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
Albinus.
The
tongue.
is the tongue ?
Pepin. What
Albinus.
The
Pepin. What
Albinus.
The
guardian of life.
is life?
Pepin. What
Albinus. The
; the
of death. expectation
Pepin. What
Albinus.
An
inevitable event
an
uncertain stealer of
journey; tears
men.
for the
living ;
the
Pepin. What
Albinus. The
slave of death ; a
passingtraveller ; a stranger
in his
hangs between
heaven
and
earth).
It will be
seen
from
these
dialoguesthat
while
Alcuin,
of the
mediaeval
scholars,knew
lost
was
something
classic
tongues, he had
his
the entirely
knowledge
a
rather
fanciful. coelebs
Thus,
of spirit
monk,
(a bachelor) from
ccelum that
a
(heaven),and
bachelor
an
is
one
the way
called is
to heaven.
The the
parts of
metres
hexameter
on
line
are
pedes
because
walk
them. the
Littera
path
for readers.
(a mast)
penult) long a
are
because
The
m"lus
are
homo
does
not
deserve
to
have
vowels
the consonants
the bodies.
itself and
also the
body,
THE
MIDDLE
AGES
while
the
body
is.immovable may
apart from
the consonants
cannot
be written
when
by themselves, but
they
be
pronounced
separatedfrom
forbade
any
to
one
the vowels.
to
It is
reportedthat
Alcuin
read
the
classic poets.
prepare
for the
rather harmful
than
otherwise. but
The
even
dral cathetheir
schools
ablest scholars but foolish
wrote
taught
what
they could,
in
ingenious constructing
their cleverness.
what Thus
Latin for
show
they
amusement
they
the
called
same
echoici
versus,
lines of and
poetry which
read
both
backward
forward, "serpentine
how
verses" many
and of the
the
versus} reciproci
It is interesting to know
were
Puttingaside
Alcuin of
fathers, we
by
the
Pliny,
and
up else
grammarians,
were
Where
not
locked
bookcases, they
1
sometimes
paraphrased, or
Examples
from
of these
:
"
are
found
even
in the classicalwriters, as
the following
Sidonius
modo Praecipiti
quod
flumen
.
Tempore
consumptum
where
2
the
word
by word, givesa by
Alcuin
second
distich.
at
This
account poetical
of the
Library
of
York.
One
might
a
add
also from
other
sources
Juvenal, a part
Livy,
Martial, Ovid,
(in part),
Flaccus.
224
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
centones,
or
made
from
them.
Thus,
the conversation
"
between
Dido
and
Anna
(Aeneid,
iv.) is imitated:
Anna, dux
Mea Iste
lux,
Quis honor,
Quis color,
Voltu
quis intelligo ;
Ut reor, Ut vereor,
Hunc
nostra
connubia
Poscere,
Id
vere mea
Portendunt
somnia.
had
so
spirit,
hard
to understand
the and
ignorance
some
uneducated
layman.
faint
echo
of the
the heroes
Alexander of of
of the
a
through men's
conqueror;
Great,
as
able remark-
Troy, as Troy
gone
on
bold
knightand lover;
a
Helen, who
wizard what he
saw
as fire; Vergil,
ful powertold of
who
had
once
down
as
there (Aen.
"
vi.) ; Venus,
all
of wonderful
beauty,
about in
these
were
imperfectmemories
flitting
fabliaux,and
and chivalry
all confused
tales of
magic,and
forming
part of innumerable
dwarfs
and
stories about
"
demons,
specimensof
faithfully
THE
MIDDLE
AGES
225 and
ander the Alex-
for preserved
us
in the Gesta
Romanorum,1
in the in
Faustus-legend
one
Italy,where
might suppose
Romans had
of the
would
the Colosseum, the and explained it entirely, forgotten the great much
triumphal arches
as
the work
of demons
and
sorcerers,
the German in
peasants of to-dayspeak of
the Roman In
works military
Wiirttemberg as
of figures
to
were
Teufelsmauer.
heroes,
men,
Naples
statesmen
the
were
carved
posed sup-
Roman
and
be talismans.
to
Many
of these ancient
was
structures
ascribed
who Vergil,
to
said to have
come
known
as so spell powerful
compel devils to
from
hell and
as
build
for
him.3
The
went Goliardi,
about
love
and
wine.
traces
and
upon
written
borrowed
from all
to
sources
"morals" Some
attached of them
them, and
they
are
in almost
childish Latin.
in later centuries
were
See
1885);
3
(London
and
the
226
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
mediaeval the
Europe.
Alcuin
may
be said to have
sent
originated
teachers
an
and
his schools
even
out
into the
North,
of
so
that
Ireland schools
became
and
portant imand
with learning,
abbeys
monasteries
of great repute.
The
oldest
manuscript of
Horace
an
(the Codex
monk
are
was Bernensis)
undoubtedly copiedby
ninth
Irish
in the found
eighth or
words
century, since
or
on
the
margin
written
in the Erse
Irish
alphabet.
But
under
few
out
the
period of
new
generations. The
is
immediate be found in
for this
partlyto
which superstition
in the
tenth the
century.
world
was
Men
to
obsessed
belief that
iooo.
be
destroyedin
With
their
the horror
eyes,
nearer
"
of
this
approaching dissolution
that
to
before
horror
nearer
deepened
as
every
and
expectedcataclysm,
It is difficult for
over
us
absolute
neglect.
conceive
of the
profound gloom
as
the
peoples of Europe
ceased
to
the thousandth
approached.
Men
build
See
The
Life of Alcuin
and the Rise
by Lorenz, Eng.
Schools
trans.
(London, 1837) ;
; Mul-
West, Alcuin
The linger, Universities Books and and
of Christian
Schools
of
Charles
the Great
(London, 1877) ; Rashdall, The Ages (Oxford,1895) ; Putnam, Ages, i. (New York, 1896) ;
THE
MIDDLE
AGES
houses, to buy, or
and of the
to sell.
betook
themselves
the churches
and
the shrines
up in the
swallowed When
the dreadful
it
heighten and
hideous seemed
plaguebroke
to
have
been
as
in their down
to
courses.
us
Such
imperfect
accounts
as
have
of that
periodgive us,
that
of the
were
it were,
"
scenes
enacted,
the with
the prayers
priests,
mad
lamentations
diseased, many
becoming
half-naked fright,
fanatics
streets ; while
of cities and
invoking damnation
own
sins had
driven
with
to
despair
of blasphemous
pardon
threw
sort
plunged into
year
iooi
every
was
form
of
lust
and the
a
ushered
in, and
still unvisited
came.
a
great reaction
but the
Many
went
their old
life;
Church, with
to
resolved relief,
It is to toward A
a
activity. impulse
this
fresh
the
second
revival of
study must
be traced. progress
whole been
had the
made;
movement
but
with
the end
as
century
great
known
fully
228
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
under than
way.
an
Scholasticism
was
rather
Its
an
intellectual
features
movement
are
aesthetic
not
development.
The philological.
chief
whole
volves re-
the
philosophical question of
Realism
and
Nominalism;
wits and made
but this
them
acute
reasoning, was,
in
a
the
were
treadmill; for
free to
questionanythingfundamental.
them
a
Church
for prescribed
ready-made
solution of
Middle
at
Ages
were
in only travelling
circle, making
and
progress
souls
bars of
freedom
on,
This
more
narrowness as oppressive
of
and
time
went
and age.
and
more
vexatious
to the
bolder
time
the
The
eighth century
to
is
from
standpointof
the end of
learning. The
when
period begins at
the Great
eighth century
Schools, and
the
Charles
the
established
Monastic the
made
first attempt,
a
historyof
world, to providefor
for
as
universal
Schools.
Higher
inasmuch
the educational
a
ments establishmake
of Charles way
a
died out
within The
few
to generations
for
new
barbarism. of
second
periodbeginswith
the
second
restoration
learning under
guidance
of
230
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
In the twelfth
numerous
of the
establishments
by
Charles in the
the Great,
and
are
preservation
at
of classical
at
learning. These
In
were
at
Laon,
of
Paris, and
teachers
Chartres.
them
number
famous much
to
in the scholastic
at least of pure
keep
alive
these three
schools,
its
the School
of
Chartres
remarkable
because
interest
so
was
less
that
"
dialectical than
of it that
literary,
much
that
are
so
justlysays
its character
was
of
premature
humanism."
Associated
"
with
rates," Soc-
it
the and
names
of Fulbert, whose
him pupilsstyled
who
died in 1029;
of St. Bernard
(1091-1153);
reason
and
as
of Abelard
who (1079-1142),
boldlyappealed to
foreshadowed
againstauthorityand
of
thus
freedom
of
speech and
which research,
became ultimately
of the nascent In
universities.2
of
Chartres
wrote
composed
a
eters hexam-
the
model
of
Lucretius,
commentary
on
of the
with
Aeneid,
the
and
drilled his
and
pupils
H61oise.
Not
the
canon was
associated
story of Ab61ard
The
2
great Fulbert
See the
bishop
of Chartres.
biography
of St. Bernard
McCabe,
and St. the
Peter
Abelard and
(New
York, 1901) ;
Compayr6, (New
is
Abelard
Origin
the
Early History of
controversialist Bernard the The
two
York,
1893).
called is
Bernard,
of
as
great
mystic,
of
were,
usually
Bernard known
Clairvaux. of
beautiful
hymns
Bernard
Cluny.
however,
poraneous. contem-
THE
MIDDLE
AGES
23 he understood the
in the forms
and
an
rules of grammar
as
them,
at introducing,
earlyperiod of Upon
the course,
reading freely,
the
of the
classical texts.
these he commented
besides
treatingthem
difference between
the prose
a
and poeticstyle,
veloping de-
way
enlightened
in prose
of
later age.
Everyday
and
upon
composition were
marked
and required,
his
insistence of his
good models
which
of the
teaching. One
of
"
maxims,
has been
quoted by John
his mind
to be
:
of originality
Among
grammarian
These about
ignorantof some
things."
centres
schools, as
been
already said,formed
the earliest Universities.
of the presence of
an
which
rose ultimately
Any
famous
cathedral
school which
to it
at
a
boasted
of
teacher drew
crowd
students,such
generale.
institution
ceived refinally
being called
a
first studium
These
sort
of
and
royal by
dowing en-
of
themselves perpetuating
the
of origin
degree,and
as
soon
as
had generale
corporationit received
the oldest
of Universitas. of
a
Perhaps
which
was
was university
that
Paris
Bologna,
founded
in 1093,
as
while
had
organised separately
became
a
teachingbody
at
earlyas 1169.
same
Oxford
sity univer-
about
the
time ;
232
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
earlier.
whose
The
is that university
of
Prague,
whole
foundation
1347.
During
the
period of
scholasticism
which
ends practically
in the thirteenth
language was
and
greatlyused
medium
of communication
cannot
studied, it
or
either
read
appreciatedoutside
The
Latin
few
centres
was
as
like that of
narrow as
Chartres.
teachingof
was was
the age
its
thought.
studied
only as
disputation. It
the the
spoken fluently by
scholars,but
classics
were
the
of
new
vocabulary of
words
languagewas
swarm
and
only persons
a
who
kept alive
left
the
were
few
Italians who
Italy
themselves these
were
in various
parts of Western
who and became whose like bishop Arch-
Europe. Among
of
Anselm,
1093,
men
Canterbury
in the year
cessor predeJohn
of
who,
Salisbury and
few
of
the
French
something of
That
from
so
the Latin
of ancient
Italy.
survived
to
to
us
many
manuscripts have
twelfth
dating
spread wide-
centuries,is due
no
love of classical
but learning,
Cf. such
words
see
as
Du
Infinae
THE
MIDDLE
AGES
233
in the monasteries
copying
There
was
imposed
also any
a
upon
the monks
by
way
of penance.
was
certain
to
pride in
read
sessing pos-
of books, irrespective
desire
them.
not at
This
pridewas
prideof
to scholar;nevertheless,
as we
due largely
possess. the
Among
treasures
storehouses
in
which
were
hoarded
to be noted especially
the
and
Cluny,
Mont-
France;
Dordrecht
in
in
Holland;
Denmark;
in in
Saragossa
York
to
and
the
remark Claustrum
ascribed
sine It may
Geoffrey (est)
the
now
of
Sainte-Barbe-encastrum
Auge
armario interest
quasi
reader
extant
sine
armamentario.
are
to
:
see
which
See
in
the Medieval
and
Renaissance 8 vols.
Period
bridge, (Cam-
Dugdale,
Monasticum
Anglicanum,
Mitklalter du
(London, 1849) ;
Wattenbach,
Didionnaire Das Buck
Das de
Schriftwesenim Geographic
a
Usage
(Paris,1870)
Wehle,
1879) (Leipzig,
; and
Putnam,
York, 1896-97).
234
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
List
of
Some
of
the
Oldest
Classical
Manuscripts1
I. Greek.
o.
Antiope and Plato's Phcedo, 250 B.C. Fragments of Euripides' (FlindersPetrie Papyri, ed. Mahaffy, Dublin Academy,
1890.)
b. A
few
The
oldest
specimens of
Iliad
classical text
known.
non-
lines of the
240
XI.
B.C.
and (ante-Aristarchean
Zenodotean),
c.
Louvre
Fragmenta
of
Euripides,second century
B.C.
d. Alcman, second
e.
(Paris).
B.C.
Iliad fragmenta
Philodemus). (Epicurus,
,
Aristotle.
_ .
_
1
....
h.
}
J
First to second
_,
century
a.d.
Herodas,
Bacchyhdes.
i. Menander k.
Hyperides, 150
(London, Paris).
to
/. Berlin
fourth century.
m. n. 0.
Fifth
to
sixth
p.
q.
Euripides'Phaeton, and
Fragmenta
of
Menander,
Fragments.
century.
II. Latin.
a.
laneum). (Hercu-
b.
to fifth century
Florence, (chiefly
c.
Fragmenta
of
Historic,third
to
fourth
century
(Orleans).
d. Codex
e.
Bembinus
Puteaneus
dates
(Vatican).
Codex
Livy, sixth
to seventh
century (Paris).
Many
of the
by
scholars.
THE
MIDDLE
AGES
235
Palimpsest.
Juvenal and
fourth century. Codex Lucan
to
Veronensis
and
Codex
Vaticanus
of
Livy.
Cicero's De
fifth century
(Vatican).
Cicero in Verrem,
fragmenta
in Codice
Vaticano,fifth century.
Gellius and
sixth century
(Vatican,Milan).
preservedin
part, Latin
even
as
other
libraries were,
Greek.
By
the
eighthcentury, Greek,
the memory known of Western
at
Europe.
littlemore
to the
Sanskrit
names
down of Greek
end
of the
eighteenth century.
statesmen
The
were
familiar Their
only
in
Latin
actual
their
blank.
so
Thus
we
Smaragdus,
mediaeval words
grammarian,
as
ignorant of
Eunuchus
meanings of Greek
and
Orestes
to
think the
names
that
Comcedia
1
were Tragoedia
of authors.1
Almost in
the
only exception to
Greek schools
this
was were
is to be in the
found
Ireland,whither
The
was
probably brought
by
the dwellers there
was
from
Gaul and
Irish
admirably conducted,
upon
for
country
and
unmolested
the
While
in Gaul
Germany
and
Italy
continual
236
Even
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
when
of
little Greek
they used
it to vitiate and
barbarous
which
they wrote.
in the seventh
Thus, the
Vergilius Maro,
preceptor
of For
rex
,
century (whose
wrote
work
new
in which
Latin) coined
words
was
on
analogy of
the Greek.
example, scribere
became
with thors Latin
supplantedby charaxare,while
that the
Latin mixture
(from Opovos), so
and
of
semble re-
Greek
the
in
garblingof
an
forms
to
Greek, resulted
understand
that there
argot which
have
is difficult to
and which
were
might well
twelve
as
kinds
Greek.
of
Latin There
there
a
monks
who
an
knew
little
'
remains the
compositionby
'
Irish monk
which
contains
'
sentence: out
P antes
'
solitum
elaborant
being Greek.
were ceived con-
only a
the
few
of the
quaint thingsthat
by
mediaeval
out
grammarians, who
a
made
even
deeper darkness
hear and of
of
glimpse
on
of
daylight. Thus
the vocative another
to
we
long discussions
what
was
of ego, drawn
of furious debaters
rushingat
not
one
with
swords
a
because
theycould
agree
as
inchoative verbs.2
deepening of
Greeds Medii
intellectual
Pavia
and
St. Gallen.
See A
Cramer, Literary
Studiis,i.
History of Ireland
(1887).
238
This
fiction
as
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
work
is
as
important
in
the
historyof
for
prose
it is in the
history of education;
dragged fiction
sugar-coat the
Martianus
and
myth
and
on
story.
the
we
strikes out
that
and
architecture
ground
find
a
they are
utilitarian studies.1
the liberal arts into two
In Boethius groups
:
of separation
first form
astronomy, which
afterwards
trio which
wrote at
seven a
was
soon
the
Trivium.
Cassiodorus
work
even
upon
the number liberal arts, fixing that this number the text: hewn
out
"
and
asserting
he
had
quoted
hath
Wisdom
her
seven
hath
her
house;
she
pillars."
This
classification and
seven
was
this
down
of mystical interpretation
the number
continue
especially
favoured
Maurus.8
by
Alcuin5
famous
and
by
Alcuin's
pupil, Rabanus
is also written he city he
was
This
was
teacher
at
(whosename
of which
Hrabanus)
made
1
2
bom
Mainz,
later
Alcuin,
and
compiled
332
336).
the
mystic number,
of
not
only among
an
Jews, but
among
all
antiquity. See
chapter on interesting
the
subject
Supra,
His
p. 190.
Supra,
pp.
220-223.
collected
works
are
to
be
found
in
Migne's PatrologiaLatina,
vols, cvii-cxii.
Cf. the
monographs by
Kohler
(1870)and
Richter
(1882).
THE
MIDDLE
AGES
239
an
was
abridgment of
much
the Latin
grammar
of Priscianus
which is
a
used
throughout the
in the
Middle
Ages.
classical
He
connecting link
are
development of
and
study,as
wrote
his
own
pupilsRudolphus
their master
Trithemius, who
can
of biographies
which
be found
in
Migne's
Patrologia.
Toward
remarkable
at
the end
of the Middle
Ages, there
an
appears
the born
figureof Roger
at
Bacon,1
Englishman
Paris,and
educated Tlchester,
Oxford Order.
and
finally
can
enrolled
in the Franciscan
In his
one writings
find
which
out
that
were
clearness
inimical
of
to
vision
and
keenness
of criticism
Bacon of
scholastic
teaching.
with
men
reaches
modern
and
times.
the
Opus
Mains,
the
Opus
also
on
Minus, and
wrote
a
Opus
Tertium
on
(fragmentary). He
another
to
compendium
His
was
philosophy and
great force
of any
theology.
which
his
ing, learnHe in
rare a
that
set
contemporary.
he
thought much,
down
what
thought
was
with So
certain
audacitywhich
was
his fellows.
he
of others
he
was garded re-
time
sort
a
of wizard of
or
necromancer.
It is
likely
had
a
that he
had
knowledge
with the
gunpowder
and
that
as
he
experimented
number
steam-engine as Taking
well
up
with
of chemical
compounds.
1
his doctrines
c.
1214-1294.
24O
we briefly,
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
may
note
that he
criticised the
ancient
Fathers
for
spending too
and thus
littletime in
studyingthe
them
languages,
the that
by neglect of
ancients.
to failing
understand
he
wisdom
no
of the
Furthermore,
can Scriptures or
declared
be had
perfect knowledge
Hebrew
and
of the
without
be
knowing
Greek,
that
philosophy can
thoroughlypursued without
translations familiar
are
studyingArabic.1
All current
are
because inaccurate,
the translators
not
with the
foreign words
text; whereas
and
leave
many very
of
them
standing in
that
a
Bacon
says
acutely,
with the
translator
he
ought
is
to
only
own
language that
but
These
and translating
language,
text
likewise with
are
the
subject to
the
relates.
they deserve
publishers.
are
that there
not
five
men
in the Western
world
who
grammar.
He
the
language and
down
to
knowledge
which
is
the of
very
a
foundations,and
knowledge
grammar,
and
of
even
still more
a
grammar;
and
in this
he
is the He
of modern
times.
of translation to be
to Referring
the Arabic
translations
to
of Aristotle of which
the
originals
were
unavailable practically
the Western
world.
THE
MIDDLE
AGES
241
found
in
the
Vulgate,and
ventured
the
"
he
hits
hard
those
He
asters criticsays: he in
who
"
have has
to
change
the text.
Every
one
impertinenceto
a
alter whatever
he would
not
a
does not
the
or case
understand
thingwhich
do
of classical
poets." Here,
of the texts
Bacon of
drops
hint
"
two
the
time
Scriptures,
of
to
be
fruitful in
the
Valla and
was
by
no
means
one
who
work
of others.
He
showed
his interest in
a
grammatical
Greek
grammar,
manuscriptof which,
Oxford, College,
and has
a
in the Greek
at Corpus library
Christi
the
written beautifully
contains
ending with
has
was
paradigm of
been
the verb
to
lexicon
there
also
ascribed known
Bacon.
Nevertheless
littleGreek
so
to the
at
Oxford
much
of Aristotle
It is
was
read
was
read in
that
Latin
translation.
worthy
famous
of
remembrance
another
Franciscan, the
to
Raimundus traveller,
Lullius, tried
Pope and
of
1
then the
of Paris, to University
school
Tartar
oriental
It is worth in
au
Oxford
spent forty
years
Martin, La
Vulgate
Latine Dublin
1
Review
for
Dr.
Sandys
was
observes
"Bacon's
own
of Greek
mainly
he
derived
that pronunciation
invariably adopts."
242
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
thrive
to-day
at
Paris
and
Berlin.1
Bacon's
opuscula,
are
gathered from
as interesting
the
fragmentsof
work,
very
activity.He
from in the
had
sort
of
words
common
derived
errors
Greek.
He
corrects
number
ing, spell-
and quantity,
as, for
etymology.
he
tells
seen
some
anecdotes,
text
instance,that
books fifty
himself
the Greek
of the
of Aristotle's Natural
mentioned History,
us
back
to
the is
Altogetherhe
"
described by fairly
of
Hallam
sentence: single
The
mind
Roger
Bacon
was
strangely compounded
course
of almost and
a
propheticgleams
best than time."
of science
the
more
own
of the principles
usual
3
credulityin
his
Medievalism and
many views
is
are
something
taken
very
difficult to
understand,
of it. Its
a
when spirit,
properly
and
of spirit of
desolation
It sprang
of 96.
the
ruins
antique greatness
Rashdall, op.
cit. ii. p.
edition excellent
of and
a
Bacon's
works
edited
by
Brewer
(London,
is that
1859).
Charles Per sonne, Greek
very
comprehensive study
later
et
of Bacon
by
sa
(Paris,1861) ;
son
and
monograph
ses
by Parrot,Roger Bacon,
Genie, ses
was
CEuvres
Contemporains (Paris,1894).
notes
His the
grammar
published,with
and
an
by introduction,
University of Cambridge
(Cambridge, 1892).
THE
MIDDLE
AGES
243
from
which
it drew any
to
much
of its
own
knowledge, though
The
a
often without
consciousness
some
as
of its value.
Middle
time of
Ages gloom
appear when
wholly
intellectual
discouraged, partly
the
partlyby
savage
ment discourage-
from
an
almost
environment,
there
by
true
rays of
of lightand glints
the reality
Middle
was
Ages
a
were
very
different from of
this
description.There
which
gradual process
tiquity an-
assimilation, by
was
the
highestthought of something
the
was
to
be
we
transformed
have the
into
different
and and
new.
So
blending of
pagan
past
the Christian
beautiful
tian Chris-
in the
antique world
As
we
in the spiritual
teaching.
us, since
so
look at Medievalism
was brutality
it often shocks
in it.
tact con-
much
raw
everywhere
to master
with
seem
that which
was
in the
end
We
at first to be
standingon
the borders
which
we
of
dark hear
when that
and
the
we
almost
within
can
devastation.
grow
Yet
patientstudy
is not
one
it,we
conscious
rather is
the
but of destruction, of
a
of
nation. germi-
Instead
warm
cold, chilling
is
there
something
and
always noticeable.
rude, yet
the
Thus
its Art
been
originality
times,
of it has
to strongly
artists of modern
while the
its Gothic
architecture
attains the
244
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
heightof
out
the
sublime.
Even
its
Philosophy,
and has
as
wrought
flourished
by
the
for two
of every mode
to
thought,
"
XIII.1
As powers
the and
side political
the almost
the
clash of strife of
and principalities
incessant
"
kings and J. W.
popes
and
mercantile
communities,
:
"
Professor
"
Men
Ages, Dark
'
Ages.' On questions
they
are
full of
light.
In
them
the great
of individual relationship
to
government
central government,
to secular
government,
Had
the
were
raised and
consideration.
European
second
have modern
been
what
it is The
"
the viz.,
source
the
world.
unceasing conflicts
Ages
central
between
government,
to to
authorityand Church
from
were authority,
necessary
bring
the
men
under
the
monotony system
of slavish of the of
subjection
external artificial,
Church-state
Carlovingian
free."
empire, and
into the power
develop
of
them
by the antagonism
more
producingsystems
reflected and
In
Letters
and
Learning,
a
we
owe
great debt
of the
to
the
Middle Church
1
Ages.
For
time,
the
fanaticism
the
Early
a
destroyed much;
Pica vet's remarkable
et
but
from
eighth century
See
monograph
Civilisations
entitled Medievales
Generate
Comparee
des
(Paris,1905);
and
Perrier,The Revival of Scholastic Philosophy (New York, 1909). See also Allbutt,Science and Mediceval Thought, pp. 72, 78 foil. (London, 1895).
246
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
The
fragment of
and
was
Petronius
De
Bello
used
for
reading in
the schools.
believed
to
have
Christians
the
before Christ."
classical
x
to
adjunctsof
of
was
the
small
grammar
Donatus
and
compilationsof
exist
Priscian's
to-day more
bits of
text
than
were
thousand
manuscripts.
Sometimes
quoted in
was
though
a
this
unusual.2
also
produced
number
The word-
rather
and glossaries
to
vocabularies.
teachers used
were
abridged,
one
corrected,and
possessor
as
to
compiled glossaries,
a mentary, com-
earlyas
containingalso
like
a
of
twelve
others.
Something
genuine
produced
by
it
one
about scholar,
1063,though
Low
a
was
sort
of
The encyclopaedia.
come
Latin
word
1
Dictionarium
p.
did
not
into
use
for
long time.
Supra,
See the
184.
on
monograph
grammar
contained
in I. Miiller's
Handbuch,
v.
i
3
description of mediaeval
Latinorum
Glossariorum
1876). (Leipzig,
under the
was glossaries
THE
MIDDLE
AGES
Papias
called
his
own
Elementarium dictionary, It
circulated
in it was
manuscript
when printing,
an
issued at Venice
English monk,
an
Osborn
Gloucester, made
which
he
attempt
at
dictionary, etymological
About
a
called Panorama.
of
the
year
1200,
Hugutio, Bishop
tionum.
were
Ferrara, compiled
two
Liber
Deriva-
works based
last
on
tioned men-
by
them of
his famous
grammar, extensive
Catholicon, which
but
not
only a
manual
a
rather the
were
the Middle
far
we
have
regarded the
of history
Middle
Western
of the Western
Empire
to the
us
beginningof
to
the
century.
or
It remains
for
consider
New
here
Rome)
and
which
which
had
its seat
outlived years. in
a.d.
than
sand thou-
lished estabpractically
330, when
Constantine
made
Byzantium
the
of capital
between
1
Roman West
on
world; but
came
the East
the
in
a.d.
See
monograph
De
Lexicography in I. Muller's
to
(Nordlingen, 1902) ;
1879) ; Mahn, (Rudolstadt, 181 7).
Vit, Preface
the Lexicon
(Prato,
Seiten
Darstellung der
Lexicographie nach
248
the Roman
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
Empire
was
divided took
the
between
Eastern Honorius Rome.
the two
sons
of
Theodosius.
Arcadius
half,with
received The is the
his the
and
half,with
his the
capitalat
Eastern
long
record
tangled historyof
constant
Empire
of
and
murder.
Even
years.
Gibbon
and
"
tedious
and
uniform
that
was
the
the
Greek
Empire
from
merely
Taine
succession
of revolts, schisms,
it
as
and
"
treacheries."
vividlycondemned
thousand
being
a giganticmouldiness, lasting
years."
who
computed
1453
ruled
395
to
stormed
by
died
to
the Turks),
in
a
20
were
murdered,
a
18
were
mutilated,12
monastery
or
prison,12
"
abdicated, 3 starved
out
death, 8 died
violence
existence that
or
in warfare
in
all, 73
the
of 107
excuse
met
disgrace. Perhaps
the
best
of
Byzantine Empire
for centuries
a
it formed
barrier
and
Western
Europe, so
a
and
sort
of the
as
unity
of
purpose,
develop a
to
new
civilisation and
wild
militarypower
the Saracens
necessary whom
repel
Martel
who
hordes, such
at Tours
Charles
shattered
were
in the from
eighthcentury, or
the Turks
hurled
back
Vienna
THE
MIDDLE
AGES
249
If
we
look
more
into carefully
we
the
of Byzantium history
schisms, religious
it to its centre, Roman
civil wars,
there
are
and
violence of every
traces
kind shook
the
everywhere making
Rome
not
of
older
spirit,
surviving and
of Old history and
many Rome its
so we
themselves
visible.
Indeed, the
is very
must
same
be
that surprised
of the
in
characteristics.
more
It differed
were
Old
being far
as
oriental.
Its rulers
despots ;
people were,
has been
In other the
between
childish
amusements
it had
the Roman
power
hausting ex-
such
as
Con-
Copronymus
were (741-773),
organised more
seen.
than
world
had
yet
The and
boundaries
Empire
and
extended, both
in Asia
was
Europe.
and
Again
commerce
reformed
Against
the
the
the
Armenians, and
Bulgars,
was a
wars
were
waged.2 Byzantium
of life in
itself
For
diverting account
Byzantium,
see
Marrast, Esquisses
Byzantines (Paris,1874).
1
See
Gibbon, The
Decline
and
Fall A
of the Roman
Empire, edited
by
Bury
Empire
York, 1892).
250
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
magnificentcity.
make Statues all its
"
Rome
on
the
Tiber the
was
ransacked
"
to
the
new
capitaldeserve
title of
Imperial."
flashed in
and
and paintings
jewelsgleamed
architecture
and
has
been
styled
tendom." Chris-
the
monumental
the dome
expressionof
architectural
Greek
Greek
as
chose the
to
the Roman
its fundamental
unit in
wooden
roof,and
the dome
were
suspend
and
even
use
it with
any
kind
of
ground(with
plan.
Domes
this
semi-domes)
wherever of it
is characteristic
can
of the
Byzantine architecture
the great masterpieces
be found,
and
as
St.
Sophia
of the
Apostles in
in
as Constantinople,
well
in many In their
churches
Russia,
Northern
and Italy,
Asia
Minor. in
fact,the Byzantine
types
were
Grasco-Asiatic
once an
origin,and
which
we
this
can
is
Orientalism
the Eastern
trace
which everything
Empire originated.
are
for other
forms
of
art, there
few
remains
of
there
existed,first,
drawing
the
because in the
of the
sense.
Greek
Christians
iconoclastic and
Panel-
Mosaic, Fresco-painting,
the artists
now
painting
Most It is of
practisedby
frescoes and
of
Byzantium. disappeared.
the
panels have
made
only from
that modern
the mosaics
priorto
the twelfth
tury cen-
can archaeologists
get any
good
idea
of
THE
MIDDLE
AGES
251
the
earlyByzantine painting.
the it was
We
greatly influenced
Middle
throughout
the
Ages, and
at
in the later frescoes in the the middle the Norman of the eleventh
catacombs
Rome.
Kingdom
who
at
trained
influence
pupils and
spread
the
Byzantine
.throughout Italy.
have
to do
It is in the Minor
as
with
decoration, such
gorgeous
of illuminating
with manuscripts
most
gold work,
Byzantine artists
was
supreme.1
Byzantine
2
Literature
has
in
itself (with
one
one
tion) excep-
very
save
the
historian.
Scholars
tracts
and
priestsof Byzantium
wrote
innumerable
and
as
controversial
which treatises,
to
have
mostly perished,
rians Histo-
they deserved
a
do.
The who
Byzantine
busied
form
with
group
of writers the
Eastern
themselves down
some
the
historyof
Empire
there
Five
were
to
its
destruction
who
siderable con-
kept on
writingeven
value.
of them
have
These
See
Texier
and
Pullan, Byzantine
(London,
1894);
L'Art
See
infra, pp.
254-257.
252
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
Procopius. historyof
to
The
first four
of
these
from noted
continuous
the
beginning down
a
the year
1470.
collector of scandalous
stories which
jotteddown giveshis
he
was
in his
Anecdota, or
"
secret
history."
In
it he which of
some
privatenotes
very
to relating
intimate;
memoirs
and
the book
of the
which
the
reveal to
court not
the
piquant sayings
the old
doings of
book of
French
under
regime.
after his in
Procopius was
in
a
publisheduntil
death.
It is written
fresh and
more
consequence
has
of
been the
read
other
are
production
fifteen other works
are
Byzantine
of
historians.1
There
writers
Byzantine historywhose
a
united
publishedwith
Latin
translation in the
Corpus
Byzantina.2
among
the
Law
Byzantine writings is
made
by
the
Byzantine
of
lawyer,Tribonianus, an
the
1
Asiatic It
was
Greek,
a
at the
command
Emperor
For
a
Iustinianus.
of
collection of authori-
separate edition
to
reader
rare
is referred
Dindorf,3
is
an
old and
translation
most
of
(London, 1663).
transferred
The
amusing
startling passages
of his Decline
of and
Procopius were
Fall.
1;
by
Gibbon
2
to the footnotes
In
36 vols.,edited
A similar
by Labb6
(Paris, 171
was were
reprintedat Venice
at
in
I733)is
collection
in 48 vols,
begun
done
Bonn
in
1828, but
by such
distinguished
scholars
the brothers
Dindorf.
254
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
Photius
two
wrote
are
many
things,among
them
which
of the
language
to
and and
sent
as
an
ambassador
Assyria
of 280
there
are now
by making
lost.
comments
abstracts
books,
of which
Sometimes
so
he varied
by criticisms
and
is
called
synopsis of
ancient
and
and
valuable
literature.
Remarkable historians
one
for its
of early preservation
the
of
the
emperors, 915
to
Porphyrogenetus
was
from (reigned
959).
of
book
something like
it
the Historian's
was
History
recent
arranged accordingto
the who
growth
of
Suidas
(c. 976).
which drew
This is
remarkable The
monument
sources
the erudition
paedic. encycloare
which
Suidas
still
strous mon-
only partlyknown;
in its scope rudis and
readingmust
as
have
been
range,
his book
is almost
strous, mon-
moles. indigestaque in
one.
It is a grammar,
lexicon,
in
geography all
The
subjectsare
or
arranged
with
littlecare
and skill,
it is full
See
1 1
Krumbacher
in
Muller's
Handbuch,
vols.
ix.
1897), (Nordlingen,
pp.
93
foil.;Hergenrother, Photios,3
THE
MIDDLE
AGES
255
was
of serious mistakes
which
show
that Suidas
not
sessed pos-
is
extremely
that
can
much
information
else.1
came
FollowingSuidas
very voluminous of allegories
Ioannes
who Tzetzes,
was
also
his
Odyssey in
ten
thousand
verses
mythology in
to
he
prepared a commentary
works, and
the Iliad,
has leftscholia to
Hesiod,
Alexandra.
to
Here
he
that
we
have
that obscure
and
also fond
epitomised
of
the
rhetoric of
Hermogenes.
was
writing
the so-called
versus
Eustathius,Archbishop of politici.'
about which 1175
a
wrote Thessalonica,
valuable commentary
upon while
on
poems other
a
is based
sound
we
Homeric
also
excellent sources,
have
fine
prefaceto
commentary
on
of Bekker
(Berlin, 1854),but
25-95, and
see
Prolegomena
pp.
1
Krumbacher, op.
his
562-570. Supra, p.
Tzetzes.
p.
1 01.
Some See
was
written
by
brother,
Isaac
1
Hart,
His
Supra,
101.
works
edited
(Berlin,
1816), the
1840).
4
Chiliades
(Leipzig,
has been
See
See
Krumbacher, by
Schneidewin
536-541.
The
preface to
Pindar
edited
(Gottingen, 1837).
56
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
point of
writer
wrote
pure
literature,the
Planudes
a
most
interesting Byzantine
he the
is Maximus
(i260-1310). Though
on
scholia and
he
treatise
syntax, it is
Greek
a
more
to
point that
authors
translated
as
into
number
of
Latin
such
Caesar, a
the
part of
Cicero, the
of
sayings
cially espeon a
Metamorphoses basing
is
now
Ovid,
and
of Ovid,
his
translation
unknown. he
valuable
manuscript which
the
Most
important of all is
much Greek
Planudea.
taste
Anthology
which
compiled with
two
and
which
great
Anthologies.
It
was
is
on
Anthologia
really based
made
anthologies,
about
by Meleager
gave the
of Gadara
60.
To
it
Meleager
This
title
'AvOoXoyia, or
was
The
Garland."
Anthology original
himself
made
up
of poems
by Meleager
and
Sappho, and
and
were
matic epigrama
in the
Greek
embodying briefly
or
single
all of
thought,either tender
them
humorous
that work made
and pathetic,
so polished, exquisitely
with
and
This
were
immensely popular,
to
it
a.d.
throughout
one
the
tenth
century
made
Cephalas
new
of
poems
and
a practically
compilation. Planudes
taste. literary
though with
far less
Nevertheless
the Planudean
Anthology was
THE
MIDDLE
AGES
257
the
only
one
known
in Western
teenth seven-
century.
translation
by Grotius.1
found in the
In
1606, Salmasius
(Claude de Saumaise)
finer
collection of for
one
not
published
included
hundred
it
was
by Brunck
until there No skill and
in his
Analecta;
the
it F.
edited critically
in
appeared
no
edition of
Jacobs
1803.2
modern
language can
poems.
translate these
of Greek of human
wonderful
They
sweep
the embodiment
genius,and
a
they
gamut
with feeling
are
sureness
of touch
site exqui-
that artistry
Another
came
means
by which Western
the
ified mod-
from
Crusades, which
contact
indirectly brought
and also Byzantines,
The
Western with
the
Europe into
with the
Arabs.
Turks, Saracens,and
years
First Crusade
or
1096- 1099.
and ended
The
Seventh
in 1270
in 1272.
It is
impossible
have
that hundreds
1 2
of thousands
of
Europeans could
be-
Infra,p.
In
13
349.
vols.;revised
in
in
181 7. while
a
recent
edition is that
was
in Didot's
Bibliotheca
fine
begun by
with
Stadtmuller
notes
English
(London, 1877)
has added from
Select
Epigrams
a
(London, 1891).
of the the
most
Stadtmuller
number
brilliant poems
through
poets
are
Byzantine
three
represented.
The
Heidelbergcollection
Anthologia Palatina.
258
come
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
acquainted with
the ways
and
customs
and
art
and
ceiving re-
of learning
their
own
without with
impressionswhich
In
they carried
home
them.
fact,the Crusades
of the
are
held generally
to have
checked
rope Eu-
the advance
Muhammadans,
trade and
to have
enriched
new establishing
industries,
circulation
had
hitherto been
Europe.
Finallyand
with
most
the
higher
culture of the
who
Byzantines and
fond who
were
Arabs.
Those
Europeans
of
had
been
men
of
philosophy found
their masters, and
better
teach
Greek
philosophyfar
than
they could
led to
certain
and toleration,
liberality
Crusaders
thought which
became
verged on
skepticism.
As
are
Some been
in
Muhammadans.
to
has
said,
"
The
roots
be found
So much
for
Byzantine and
der
oriental influence
through;
See
Wilken,
The
Geschichte
Kreuzzilge, 7
vols.
Michaud,
trans.
ler,Geschichte
ersten
Kreuzzilge(Berlin,1891) ;
Archer and
Von
des
Kingsford,
Crusades Jerusalem
(New
1898) ; Rohricht,
; and
Geschichte
des
Konigreichs
der
lin, Kreuzzilge(Ber-
THE
MIDDLE
AGES
259
out
the
Middle
Ages.
erudition
It
was
for
the
most
part
who
represented
turned their
by
backs
men
of
rather
than
of
taste,
in
large
measure
on
the
old
learning political
in
order
to
engage
in
theological
rate
controversy
the
or
strife.
But
they
at
any
preserved
were
manuscripts
a
of
the
true
Greeks,
time
and
they
the
mist
to
exercise
direct
influence
at
when
of
the
Middle
Ages
awoke
was
dispelled
to
in
Western
Europe
heaven
and
when
mankind
what
was
new
and
new
earth.1
On
the
literature
of
the
Byzantines,
i. pp.
see
Krumbacher, Gibbon,
Greeds
op. op.
cit.; cit.,
Wil-
amowitz, Hankius,
Cf. also
Euripides
De
und
Herakles,
Rerum
193-219;
and
Byzantinarum
op.
in the cit. i.
(Leipzig,
Harrison's
Sandys, History
pp.
Mr.
Frederic
Early
Middle
p.
36
(London,
in his
1900).
Outlines
though
History
the
inexplicable, Philology
of the
that
Dr.
Gudeman
of
pages
the
of
Classical
should
have
devoted
nearly
the
five
to
Byzantine Europe
notice for
scholars
Middle
Ages,
years
while
scholarship
with
a mere
of
ern West-
nearly filling
thousand
is
put
off
graphic biblio-
half
page.
VI
THE
RENAISSANCE
The
movement
Renaissance that
as
"
the
most
.
remarkable
ever
seen
"
intellectual
is
too
the
world
has
regarded
more
than
an
reversion
as
the
great models
of classical
antiquity,
ological. archaeview.
a
"
being
almost
this
Yet
only
narrow
and
imperfect
rather
The
Renaissance and
which
began
revolt
in
found pro-
far-reaching
routine in Western of
the
was
narrowness
and
of
to
mental
mediaevalism.
the
waking
humanity
burst
Europe
ages
from
prolonged lethargy,
tradition had
lectual intel-
fetters that
to
of tiresome
into the
forged
it,and
struggle up
was
a
sunlight of
of
to
freedom.
the every effects of
It of
great declaration
were
which
ultimately
In
in
sphere
human
In
activity.
philosophy
the way
religion it paved
In
art
directly
terpieces mas-
so-called
of
Reformation.
it
inspired the
Da Vinci
soon
in
Italy,
and
sprang
the up
great
in
painting
and
that
afterward
In models. tecture archiIn
Netherlands the
Flanders. classic
it
restored
beautiful
260
262
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
ideas, moreover,
destined to
from
play an importantpart
their
in the
coming
It may
age thus
received be
him
germinal expression.
initiated the
ment move-
trulysaid
that Dante
of the modern
not
separate
movement
in this evolution."
Renaissance
was
period
spread wide-
began
in
and Italy(1250-1453),
by
classical
passionfor
world, and
Dante's
own
the this
and largeness
we see
richness
in the
of vigourand magnificence
contrast to the
verse,
in
striking
dull formalism
of those who
time
written
a
It is
to
popular error
of the
ascribes
the
Renaissance
the influence
Byzantine Greeks.
Some
wrongly
the Turks
Constantinople by
writers fled westward
scholars and
and
parted im-
learningand
their
knowledge
of the
Greek
matter
of
fact, the
the fall of
began
at
can
least
century before
be
seen
as Constantinople,
easily
of
not
merely
Dante, but
of protagonist
a
Francesco period, We
Petrarca, whom
shall mention
littlelater.
have
1 2
Symonds,
See
The
in
Federn, Dante
(New
York, 1902) ;
and
A Handbook Scartazzini,
Dante, Eng.
trans.
(Boston, 1897).
THE
RENAISSANCE
263
in the thirteenth
also
seen
that
century, composed
Greek
after the
Greek
grammar
and
pronounced
A
his
manner
of the
had
no
Byzantines.
known
in
few Greek
teachers
seem
of eminence have
been
Europe,1but they
of
a
to
excited Nor
was
very
small
set.
mediaeval
One
as
mind
could of
cramped and
its culture
crude.
names
those
teachers who
Renaissance
were
best known
means
in France
a new
England.
and
almost
The
a new
rather
ration inspi-
desire.
It
was
pagan
in its
freedom.
the
mediaevals
had
been
wholly under
their chief Their
concern
had
mysteriesof
was
faith.
philosophywas
hairs split
most
but ingenious,
it
very
narrow.
It could weary
a
grew into
of the
of hairs splitting
a
themselves
mean
realisation of what
the
largerlife
So
new
Englishman,
a new
William
of Ockham,
in feeling
philosophy of
the
Nominalism.
teaches
importance of
a
the individual
rightto
in
think
and
organise
Huss
best to him.
and many
Wiclif other
in
Bohemia,
1
independentminds
organised
et ai.
Maurus, Bacon,
264
at
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
their
They taught
to
the
importance
and the
individual
Christian
of right
individual
of interpretation Petrarca's
the
A brief survey
an
of Francesco what
was
activities will
at the
understandingof
of the
true
done actually
It
was
ning beginthe
Renaissance.
he
who
took
learning.1Possessing
passion of
and
against the
reverted with
dimness
an
bareness fierce
almost
to intensity
and
of thought. spontaneity
men
He and his
travelled
widelyand
and ders. Flan-
of France
Germany
a
a
world larger
than
knew, predecessors
of human life.
and
His
he
took
more
comprehensive
and
view
poetic instinct
taste exquisite
rejectedthe
and
dull
of writings satires.
their barbarous
went to
clumsy
in
For
he inspiration Latin
and Vergil,
enlargedhis Augustan
an
vocabularyfrom Apart
from his
the Ciceronian
writers.
Italian
Its
he
composed
the
epic in
Punic
can
Latin
entitled it
Africa.
was
subjectwas
with
an
Second that
War, and
now
received realised
or
enthusiasm
But
be scarcely the
understood.
one
us
fact significant
that
was
renewal
in
in
Italyof
national The
stifled small
both
and politics
art.
1
(1304-1374.)
THE
RENAISSANCE
265
the memory had
to
almost
blotted out
of the of
Empire
gave A
been
mistress
law
Spain
and
Gaul
Africa
recollection of
this fact
inspired
to
main re-
that sentiment
a
unity which
destined
vital
thing down
until
graduallythe Kingdom
in
gave
it
actuality through
when
1870
the
King
and
of
United
Italyburst
made
that ancient
citythe splendid
and
Latin
As
to Petrarca's
the Second
Punic
War,
its verse
is
imperfect. The
still obligedfor
the
periodwere
of the
long time
which
are
many
in quantities
words
yet there
of which
perhaps
the most
significant
is
a
of nine
book,1 which
the Renaissance
to
itself.
importantfact
mind,
remains
be mentioned.
To
Petrarca's
texts known
it began to be
to his world
formed
small
part of the
once
existed;
and
he appears
to have
Wherever
he
went
searched
measure
for of
manuscriptsof
ix.
273-282.
266
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
success.
At
a
Liege
he
discovered
two
new
orations
of
Cicero and
a
At
"
Verona
he found
of portion
Quintilian,
its way
then
practically
all the
rest
unknown.
as a
More
important in
than
edged acknowl"
to
Greek,
derful won-
the both
later and
an
of discovery
the
Greek made
there of
Latin.
In
his old
effort to master
no one
the Greek
at
language. Unluckily
was
was
in Florence
capable
to
teachinghim,
a
and
he
learningenough
been
sent
read
copy
of Homer
him
from
Constantinople.1
Petrarca that
was
son
of the Renaissance, in
not
his love
in the
least
degree
overlaid
by medievalism,
been
done
that
of Dante.
Despising all
hundred and spirit had
his
that had he
in the
preceding seven
return to
years,
to struggled passionately
the he in
life of the
a
classical age.
of style
Before
his death
attained to
Latin De
remarkable
and purity,
he dialogues
struck
as
of classicism
and clearly
so
splendidly
more
to waken
the dormant
genius of Italyonce
Boccaccio disciple
was
to
Petrarca
and
to render
this copy
into
a
the task
one
very
imperfectlyperformed with
Pilato.
Greek,
Leonzio
THE
RENAISSANCE
267
da Ravenna
(or
the
an Malpaghini),
noted
missionaryof
over
the
new
movement.
Travelling
him of
from
a
host
pupils to
and
to
whom
the
monks
schoolmen,
them the
new
Caesar,
communicating
with
a new
enthusiasm
that
had
been
felt both
by
self him-
and
by
his
master. inspired
Giovanni
Boccaccio,2who
was an
is best known
son
to moderns
by
his
Decameron,
His
enthusiastic
of
the
soon
sance. Renaistaken
to
mother he
was
French, but
he
was
where Italy,
flunghimself
life and
natural
beauty of
Robert,
a
the
then, under
the
King
same
centre
learning.At
time he became
much time
spent
in
copying manuscripts of
the
Terence
and
Apuis
leius.
It is
that likely
book
Boccaccio
a professedly
collection of Milesian
tales, gave
Decameron, which
in is,
ment arrange-
and of
manner,
know
them
now.
But
from
There
is
Africa by
Corradini
with
an
Italian
translation
1874). (Oneglia,
Petrarca
see himself,
Mezieres,Pitrarque
and
(Paris,1867) ; Geiger,
Petrarch 2d ed.
*
Petrarca
1874) ; (Leipzig,
de
Robinson
et
Rolfe,
Nolhac, Pitrarque
VHutnanisme,
(Paris, 1907).
I3I3-I37S-
268
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
the
standpointof
because
Boccaccio classicist,
is most
to
an
tant imporexcellent
on
of the
wrote
fact that he
a
attained
styleand
number
the
of treatises
manner
in Latin
(let us
those of
say)
Giovanni
of
Suetonius.1 in
at
His
turn
and disciples
Malpaghini
culture
cities. of
their
preached
the
gospel of
and
other
Venice, Mantua,
Bruni2
Rome,
Leonardo
made
excellent translations
Plutarch; while
Barbaro,
One
in the enthusiastic
labours.
Salutati
the
of city
Florence
Latin
of
Cicero,and
popes
and
scribes and
masters
of
style. The
had
to
pertainedto
led antiquity feel
a
thing everyCiriaco
do with
ransacked
part of
Italy and
Greek
islands,
sculpture, gems,
as inscriptions
medals,
seemed
and
to
taking note
of such
When significant.
asked
what
was
his go
to
object in
1
these
endless
See
Korting, Boccaccio's
cit. pp.
Leben
und
*33
"
Werke,
pp.
742
foil.
(Leipzig,
87-97,
1369-1444.
270
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
Medievalism.1 of
He
strove
the
ings teachStrozzi
with Christianity
paganism.
employed
terests in-
in other countries
and discovery
purchaseof manuscripts.
clear from It is perfectly of
not
and Constantinople
about the
of dispersion
Greek
that
brought
Renaissance,since
to
reversion
the
classical
antedated spirit,
:
end of the
"Circumstances
The Italian
new
culture.
cities, grown
rich under
somewhat
of that
of its
extraordinaryseries
without new-made
despoticrulers
a was
who
with
brutal
of character unscrupulousness
art
a a
taste
one
and
power for
parallel.It
de' Medici
that he provided
Even
the
means
sort.
the
after
another,held
power
in
Milan, made
The
ancient
universities of
Bologna, Padua,
breath of the
new
Salerno
schools founded
free hand
a
younger
after the
of Basel
series of
like Nicholas
art
was
Leo
X., in
In
the interest in
and learning
absorbingpassion. impulse,may
thus
to have
be said
to
have much
taken
on
the
form
of
concealed
of its serious
import. Under
all these
Infra, p.
271.
THE
RENAISSANCE
271
erness be associated with the clevThe
certain
of
came
to
fifteenth-centuryscholars.
the human
to
an
lightnessof
caccio Boc-
had natural
seemed
natural
life.
expressionof exuberant
A
joy in the
things of
way
largelygiven Everything
Without
was
over-refinement
the
name
knew
no
limits.
in permissible
aesthetic
experiment.
in any
many
formal
way
more
renouncing
tianity, to Chrisallegiance
in of
became
and doctrine,
lax increasingly
devotion."
'
Here, then, is
as
to be
seen
what
is meant
by
of
Humanism
course
opposed
to
Medievalism.
to
Humanism
the Roman
gests sugfine
humanitas, which
mind
meant
breeding combined
a
with
"
certain
urbanitas
in other the
one
words,
we
the
characteristics describe
as a
which
to-daymark
and
a
whom The
would
gentleman
scholar.
key-note of
and
an
Humanism every
to
a
to objection
dogmatism.
The
men
The
mediaevals Renaissance
were
dogmatic
no
degree.
upon the
of the
imposed
check
aesthetic tastes
a
of others,
all
bound
together by
common
love of what
fine and
graciousand Returning
we Italy,
1
beautiful.2
to
the
relations
between
Byzantium
and
can
see readily
See
infra, p.
Die des
272.
Voigt,
klassischen ed.
Allerthums
oder
das
erste
Jahrhunderl Culture
3d
(Berlin,1893) ; Burckhardt,
trans.
of
Italy,Eng.
(London, 1898) ;
Gasquet,
The
272
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
sance
antedated
1S"
the sack of
Constantinople by the
utmost
Turks
(1453). I*
indeed, of
the
general interest
while Had
Recovery
still
been
to
manuscripts began
was Constantinople
independent Grecian
of the of
city.
the Renaissance
postponed,many
in the
treasures literary
brought
Italy
the
early part
supply
demand
to
be
destroyed in
the
least 120,000
As
books
were
burned
1400
by
to
it was,
brisk increasingly
an even
portatio im-
of Greek demand
into of
greater
for translations
a
Thus,
for
Nicholas
V.,
who,
as
monk,
when his
had
run
manuscripts,
and
became,
It
was
Pope,
purpose
collector the
patron.
classics
have and
all
Greek He
rendered
into hundreds
idiomatic
of
lucid
his
Latin.
tained main-
copyistsin
were
service,and
him
to
agents
for
in
foreign countries
employed by
he
for who gave
wholly
Perotti
procuring codices.
hundred ducats
to
It
was
five
($1200)
Guarino
a
and Italian,
version of
thousand
He
for
like
Polybius into
thousand
Even
Latin.
promised
metrical him
Filelfo
the
sum
of ten
gold florins
the
ing render-
of Homer.
court
when took
plague drove
him all his
and
his
from
Rome,
he
with
and copyists
THE
RENAISSANCE
273
of them.
translators lest he
of books
should
lose any
His
tion collecvolumes
dinal Car-
numbered the
at his
death two
the Vatican
thousand
and
became
nucleus
of
Library.
a
part of
cost
of
thirtythousand
of six hundred.
gold
For
number
keeping of these,the
a
Venetian
Republic,in 1468,
of
erected
massive
and building,
noblest
Italian collection of
to
which
Urbino
that of Frederick
(1444-1482).1
as
as
as
boy he had
begun
he reached
manhood His
he
library
wide
of the most
completeof the
age,
a including
range
of literaturewhich
listof Greek
and
all of Me-
nander.2
In his
libraries of
Italyand
of
1
2
Also The
called Federico
di Montefeltro.
was
complete Borgia.
Menander
probably
for the
by
that
a
Cesare have
Scholars
as
hope
ultimate
of books
may
been
regarded
source.
wholly
very
lost.
The
Egyptian papyri
have
prove
valuable
Thus Menander.
may
now
recentlythey
mediaevals
yielded parts
MSS. of of
of Bacauthors
chylides and
now
The
possessed
lost.
We
missing books
and
Livy, for
of
Petronius,for
all of
Menander,
perhaps
for the
lyricpoets
writingsonly
fragments
now
known
T
to
exist.
274
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
those
so
far away
as
Oxford.
not
It is worth
noting that
his
was
"
modern,"
that
Dante,
Petrarca, and
Boccaccio. modern
one. that
classical scholars
to
emulate.
corner
Too of
a
often
they narrow
their
knowledge only
two
or
small
which specialty
profits
and three,
filled with
be
millions
of
things of which
The
no
one
should
come
altogetherignorant.
in contact
to
with
blind pur-
ignoramuses who
but
were
were
supposed
be
classicists
who
knew really
they
shed
ignorantof
the thousand
thingswhich
an
classical of
learningthrough the
literature the
to
varied, multicoloured
general
are
and
history and
who have
own
and politics
often
art.
These
creatures
too
dragged
One
the level
a new
of their
ignorance.
which
to-day for
the
same
Renaissance
shall be
same
actuated
with
wide
that
sympathy
marked
and
the
comprehensive learning
in the fifteenth century. services in the and recovery
But,
all,the greatest
were
of
classical texts
rendered, not by
popes
but princes,
to
who, having
their time and
the
more
of freely
These search
treasure
THE
RENAISSANCE
275
that
had
a
zest of
Crusade.
with
was
be remembered of the
new
Italywas
rest
ablaze
of
Europe Only
here and
the
as
caught
were
the
of spirit
Renaissance.
ever.
stillas
somnolent
their
The
schoolmen
still
ists copy-
threshingout
of and Duns the
The
North
to
were
Catullus and
Lucretius Scotus.
make
for Rabanus
Maurus
Into these
to search
haunts sleepy
the
came
Italy, eager
among
parchments
in the
sometimes
the outhouses,
of
scrap
that contained
these
the Latin
pagan
Rome.
story of
of explorations, of experienced,
the the
disappointments undergone,and
achieved, would
related here. read
One
name
of the
like
romance;
be
in the with
historyof
this
of
however,
so
linked closely
to
the recovery
a
manuscripts,as
of the
at justify
least
he
passing mention,
in the may
services which
more
rendered what
we
revival of
vation exca-
and learning
of shown
in especially
texts
hitherto
unknown.
him
Many
have
their
gratitudeto
"
the by calling of
first half of
The
Age
Poggio Bracciolini."
276
Gian
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
Francesco
a
Poggio
man,
Bracciolini
was
Florentine,
who,
as
young From
his fees he
able to pay
for instruction
"
under
two
of the
greatest teachers
and Manuel
to
of his time
Giovanni
in Latin became
Chrysolorasin
Roman
Greek.
and in
secretary
the the
Curia,
capacityhe accompanied
on
Church and
even
Switzerland,Germany,
of these their
England,
made
are
so
journeys
which
and
he
very 1453,
quaintness
to
naivete\
In
he
was
made
Chancellor
the
Republic
which
of
in Historiographer, of the
a
capacityhe
upon
the
annals
city in
man
Latin
modelled
that of
of great
wide versatility,
sympathy,
His
intense
enthusiasm
able, remarkan
distinction
as
orator,2
as
an
as historian,3
keen
though
as
as a satirist,5
epistles,9
as a
as
an
as a essayist,7
translator
Greek,8 and
and
compiler
of
witty though
indecent
anecdotes
nor things,
grams.9 epi-
however,
for these he
2
easy
Latin, that
is
now
remembered.
of Florence.
380-1459.
Orator Publicus
Historyof Florence.
He attacked
chieflythe clergy.
8
He
translated
Xenophon's Cyropadia.
278
the
was
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
Pope that
a
in
Cistercian convent
at
Roskilde
there
Poggio
persuaded Cardinal
in search of
Orsini
to
send
special messenger
bestirred himself
treasure.
de' Medici
secure
and
despatched agents
this
The
the
manuscript could
of
be
found.
how
he
discovered that
even
l Quintilian
interesting
libraries
were
because
it shows
in the .most
famous
which sake.
very
for their
of
own
"
The
monastery
St. Gallen
twenty
miles
from
the city.
of
Thither,partlyfor
we we
amusement
and
findingbooks, of which
had
heard
our
that there
large
directed
library, we
discovered
yet
know
are
housed
as
lying in
of
a
most
a
foul and
dismal
dungeon
the
very
bottom would
tower,
condemned
nals crimiindeed
was Quintilian
rightside
and the hand
matted
look upon,
and
ragged like
He seemed
hair,protesting by his
sentence.
countenance
to
on calling a
the Romans,
begging
be saved
so
undeserved
1
fate."2
of
This in
completemanuscript
thirty-twodays
"As and
his
own
hand
sent
Bruni, who
of which
wrote
so
back
may
to him: you
Camillus
was
founder
Rome,
of the works
you
have
restored
2
world."
There
is a life of
Poggio
in
THE
RENAISSANCE
279
set the similar
x
Side
account
by
side with
this narrative, we
visit to Monte
may
of Boccaccio's
Cassino
"
"
Desirous
of
...
he
a
modestly
The
up ;
'
asked
monk
the monk
open
the
libraryfor him
a
as
favour.
:
steep staircase
but he found
a
Go
it is
gladly went
a
up;
was
that
or
the
place which
He
held
so saw
great
grass
treasure
without
door
key.
entered,and
and and
many
sproutingon
with
all the
to
books
open
benches
turn
thick
dust.
Astonished, he
tome
began
the leaves
and
of first one
and
then and
were
another, and
found Some
various
volumes
of ancient
of them
had
Others
and
mutilated
in different ways.
to
the monk
whom
he
met,
why
The little
valuable
was were
had
mutilated. disgracefully
to
given
that
monks, in order
gain
money,
making psalters
into
which and
they sold
boys. The
to women."
charms
disposed of them
Other
famous those
discoveries
of
that
were
made
about
this
time
were
Cicero's
letters works
by by
Leonardo
(1409),of
at
Cicero's
rhetorical
of
a
Gherardo
Lanbriano,
of
Lodi
(1425),and by
Nicholas
fairlycomplete manuscript
Treves
Plautus
of
(1429).
was
Of
the
Greek
famous
at
collector
Venice
Giovanni
Aurispa.
which these
were
arrived
with
238
volumes
purchased
in
Constantinople. Among
1
the celebrated
Codex
Quoted
from
Benvenuto
da
133-134.
280
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
Laurentianus
written
century and
at
now
served preIt
tained con-
Florence. of
plays of ^Eschylus,seven
of
Sophocles,and
There
text
were
Argonautica
Iliad
Apollonius Rhodius.
the
also the
(Venet. A),
complete
of
thenes, Demos-
besides
Plato, Xenophon,
Diodorus,
Strabo,
Cassius,and
field of
Procopius. manuscript-
great
mass
never
of
treasure
in the
was collecting
found
by
any
other
individual.
It
was
about
to
this time
that
some
Byzantines
The
tioned. men-
began
name
be
known
in the
countries
West.
of
Manuel
He
Chrysoloras has
in
already been
taught Greek
his
and
pursued
journeying
(1415).
He
the
a
North,
where
he
died, in Germany
of Plato's much
to
made
literal translation
Plethon, did
Theodorus
wrote
an
philosophy.
elementary
Greek
grammar,
and
made
translations
of
Dionysius,besides
wooden tablets
or
log of wood,
and in after
later meant
covered
paper
for
writing on,
were
times, when
and it.
parchment
In the
other of
a
materials
for wood
put together in
the
shape
book,
the
name
applied to
language
codex scholarship,
of any
are
manuscript
edition
preserved
Dutch
libraries of
Europe.
e.g. the
sometimes
named
possessed them,
Voss
; but
Vossianus, named
scholar Codex
oftener from
placeswhere
Museum.
they
had
been
kept, e.g.
Britannicus
THE
RENAISSANCE
28
turning the
into
De
Senectute be
and
the De
Amicitia
of Cicero
the
Greek.
It must
Italian
to
humanists
teach and them.
stood The
"
high above
latter
were
came
slow
unimaginative
were
plodding
and
hewers
as
of wood Francesco
drawers
teacher, witty
tor transla-
Laurentius
Marsilius
Ficinus
(MarPoli-
Ficino) ; siglio
tianus ; and
the
Petrus especially
(PietroVettori).1
made the
The
men
just mentioned
volumes, and
have
been
subject
of many
and their
in their
controversies,one
finds
and
the
of
vices, the
the
enthusiasms,
the
illuminating
from
ardour
to
Renaissance.
like
one
Filelfo, roving
the
place
place,seems
of
of
time
Socrates.2
in
1444
a
prepared
Latini
on
which
he
called
treatise
Elegantice
on
Sermonis.
It
a essentially
style,
ing Dur-
Ages and
assurance,
later,it
since
was
difficult to write
were no
Latin
with
there
whose
from
1
makers barbarisms
had
of
sifted out
the
the
classical words
the
1499-1584-
Supra,
pp.
49-51.
282
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
were
there
was
any
grammars what
was
which
wrong
not
taught authoritatively
in the syntax of the
to
what Latin
rightand
language.
but
Valla
a
did
attempt
on
indicate
barisms; bar-
he took
safe stand
Latinity. He
or
could such
a
say
and
was
such
sentence
such
and
phrase or
rightbecause phrasesand
be
sure.
it
was
Ciceronian. be say,
Other
sentences
and
words
That
might
is to
was
quitecorrect,
Valla's book
with
so
but
was
one
could not
guide
and
was
to
Ciceronians,and
that it
executed
much
care
taste
imposed
in less
Latin
that
Cicero's,and
years it may
it had be
reached
to-day
consulted
with
profit.Valla, Thucydides;
careful
Herodotus, and
of
made
to
an
Quintilian with
attention
the
text
doctrine.1
name
Politianus,who
had
a
took
from
Monte He
Puliciano,
wonderful
reputationin
Latin when
1400
at
a
his time.
at
began
under
of age,
his the he
studies in both
best
wrote
one
and
Greek
Florence years
and teachers,
a
poem
of
of
the Medici
tournament.
he made him
wrote
Greek exquisite
tutor to
poems.
sons,
Lorenzo and
him
1
his
two
Valla
afterward
See
Vahlen, Lorenzo
de
la
(Leipzig,1896) ; and
THE
RENAISSANCE
283
charming
he
could
study
as
under
an
the most
favourable from
Being
he
sent
ambassador
in
Florence
Rome,
was
received
At
the most
manner flattering
by
the
Pope.
and
gold
reward.
As
he translator,
inimitable,
chair of
but
Latin His
he
literature
in
Florence, and
all
over
also and
teaching Greek.
fame
the the
spread
Europe, study
under
pupils flocked
among
"
from
great cities
first two
"
to
him,
them
being
and
Grocyn
Linacre
and
was
rightly say
that Politianus
perhaps the
most
brilliant scholar of
was
not
only
the
vigorous but
noble pages
original. While
he
able
to
reproduce
with
periodsof Cicero,
which
could
write
equal ease
the
recalled the
His of Latin
of Livy elegance
verse
and
strength
for
of Tacitus. its
is
to especially
be noted
beauty
and expression
for the
glow
of its author's
imagination.1
As and for
he stands Victorius,
His
as
the greatest
one
philologist
ence, experi-
lifewas
times
a
of wide
at
various and
a soldier, diplomat,
and
teacher of Greek
on
Latin.
He
made
text
editions
acute-
and
ness
Cicero, which
surpassed in
of
his
contemporaries. Like
Politianus,
See
(London, 1805).
284
he with
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
translated
notes
were
some
of the works
on
of Aristotle.
Editions
put forth
less
Grecians.
But
his most
remarkable
production (1582).
It
Varies Lectiones,in
books thirty-eight
acuteness
shows and
of
beyond
all
questionthe
of his
of his criticism
the vast
extent
reading.1 He
of
had
the honour
students
all countries
was
in
Europe.
his
Victorius and
criticism
of exposition
He
as
the interpreted
famous
Roborteli
did notion
had
ten
done
years
before, and
Castelvetro
attacks the
he his criticism,
of
poetic prose,
forms gam makes
notes
because
verse
Aristotle
in
defining the
Professor
poetic Spin-
always an
"
essential.
that the
great
names
of Politianus and
to
Victorius
forth to
give splendour
the
the
closingyears
is
period of
Renaissance, which
It had
perhaps
the
called
of the
the Italian
New
Period.
witnessed
the
dawn
Learning.
It had
watched
enthusiastic
revival
of pagan immense
1
and culture,
treasures
it had
Europe
of the
of ancient
pp.
By
the
end
See
Petrus
2
(Halle,1896).
demand
for
The
rather
natu-
286
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
we
name
Gutenberg or
Coster
or
the unknown
from
workman
Coster small
able mov-
who
Mainz
is said to have in
at
Germany
and
made
names
printing presses.
and about
Schoffer. 1430, We Certain that
also the
of Fust
known up about
it is that
printingwas
were
and
may,
regularpresses
set
1448.
the End
therefore, say
1450 marks
of
introduction of
was printing
importanceto
learning,
for
it
copiesof multiplied
the best-known
and classics,
into the hands
parative com-
by puttingthe apparatus
of every it paved scholar,
generaland
The
use
of
printingspread
centres
with
remarkable
rapidity.The
Venice, Rome,
Mainz.
were
great
of book
were production
Cologne,
Before
century, there
twenty-two
at
establishments printing
seventeen
most at
at
Cologne, twenty
Augsburg,
Nuremberg,
and sixteen at
names
The Strassburg.2 in
at at
famous
whose printers,
continually appear
Fust
the
and
Schoffer
Mainz,
John
Auerbach Aldi
at
at
Basel
Cologne, the
1
Venice
,3John (1490-1597)
(New York, 1902).
ed.
Froben
Age of the
de
Renaissance
vols.
Vinne,
The Invention
Historyof the
der Buck-
Printing Press
Faulman, Geschichte
THE
RENAISSANCE
287
at
at Basel
Antwerp
firstpress to be set up
in 1477. The
in
England was
in the Mexico
Caxton
first press
of city
Hemisphere was
established in the
in 1540; and
in North
America
1638 at
of the
Harvard
and College
Press.1 University
the
Hence, the
of
first
freer
spirit
ancient
times
swept
Italy, surgingon
took
so
to other
where countries,
Renaissance but rather
a was
its influence in
not reality
many
forms.
a
The
much
new
epoch,
harking-backto
it modified In
suit the
New
World
of
Europe.
classical
and
we scholarship,
as find,
earlydays of
Greece
Rome,
the first,
lation accumu-
that
2
study
which
the
Criticism
"
calls into
its service
studies ancillary
a
graphy,3 Palaeo-
Epigraphy/ Numismatics,
1
knowledge
Rome and
of
the
the of
The
is interesting. Thus
was a
editio
princepsof
ancient
was
printed at
first work
copy
was
De Cicero,
The
printedin
Greek
the
of 'Epur-fifxara
printedLatin
work
books, Greek
was
inserted with
pen.
This
of Lascaris
set
up
according to
Aldus
places and
into
book
(1495). (New
See
in the Renaissance
York, 1899).
3
As As
Aurispa.
who
Cyriacus of Ancona,
and
a
said that
seemed inscriptions
even
to
truer
knowledge than
books themselves.
288
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
Graphic
invention
and of
a
Plastic
means
the finally
making
one.
the
apparatus criticus of
accessible learning
to every
as
Michelet and
scribes de-
the
discovery of
Pater
the
World
Man,"
the It
Walter
said,
"
thingsof
sake."
to
intellect and
was an
the
imaginationfor
sunburst, which
intellectual
restored centuries
modern
Greek the the
times
all that
Roman of
was
gloriousin
Dr. birth
the
of
and
culture.
a new
that
with
metaphor
first associated
Bishop of Autun,
Aurea
Roma
goldenline:
"
iterum
and
renovata
renascitur orbi.3
1
2
As with As with
Donatello
later with
Brunelleschi It
was
(1377-1446),one
he
of
the Renaissance.
or
3
who,
more
than
other,revived
the Roman
classic forms
a
of architecture.
see
For
critical
Voigt, Die
Wiederbe-
naissance Re-
of the
Renaissance
in
del Propugnatori
Rinascimento
the Revival
of Learning (Cambridge, 1905); id.,op. cit. pp. 1-123); i. pp. 456-466 ; ii. 1-108 (London, Saintsbury, A History of Criticism, 1901-1902);
and for
a
convenient
summary,
of the Renaissance
De
VII
DIVISION
INTO
PERIODS
As
we
have
seen
already,
the
inspiration given by
the
is
ian Ital-
scholars
The first
extended
or more
rapidly
over
whole
of
to
Europe.
be called lasted
selves, our-
century
properly
the down
Renaissance
to
itself; but
present
its effects
have
we,
the
day,
and
be
said
that the
are
still
living
experiencing
results
of
that
great
the
revival. Renaissance
Many
as
regard
twentieth
continuing
the
down the
into
the
century,
calling
the
periods (i)
and
Italian,
the
man, Ger-
(2)
the
French,
(3)
the
English
Dutch,
This
is
a
(4)
and mode
of
(5)
Cosmopolitan.
the
convenient
were
spicuous con-
grouping
in
great personalitieswho
but
their
respective periods;
or so
roughly
we
may
set
down of
the
the In
fiftyyears
which
as
followed
the
the
ning begin-
Italian
it
we
see
Renaissance
Post-Renaissance
Period.
culture of of
distributed
until
throughout
were
countries
there
developed
tinge of
schools
each
1
having
See
distinctive
nationality.1
Nisard,
op. cit.,passim;
1882)
; and
Michaud,
vols.
Biographie
Moderne,
last
edition, 45
v
VIII
THE
AGE
OF
ERASMUS
While
was
the
Italian
the other
scholarship
countries should
to
quickly
someone
country,
commanding
this of
personality
intellectual
who
to
interpret
and
must
great
movement
schools
peoples
not
Northern
Europe.
therefore
The
New
Learning
not
be
imitative, and
after
must
it must
remain be
Italian; but
its fundamental
principles according
each it
was
should the
accepted, they
instinct and
be
dealt
with of
to
national of
temperament
whose and
thus
was
of
to
the
form per-
peoples
the
North.
He
mission
to
this upon
stamp
his
memory
the
transition,
who has
Desiderius
Erasmus,
in facts
a
the
greatest humanist
itself is Professor since have
ever
lived, and
The
form
whom about
sort
Humanism his
vividly personified.
Emerton has
life,as
said,
from
of
Erasmus-legend, writings
the which
they
been
are
taken
passages
in his
author remain
himself also
never
allowed
from
to
be
called.
was
There
a
1500
letters
(for he
at
voluminous
and
ready writer);
"
representing
of every
least in
500
different
correspondents
290
people
grade
ERASMUS
291
the most
added that
lowly to
a
those who
sat
on
thrones.
was
It
letter from
Erasmus
no
regarded
an
by
king as being no
was a
less the
preciousand
same
less
a
honour
than
letter from
writer to
master. schoolvillage
so
So his
great became
widespread
fame,
that the
a
fifty years
i486
to
1536 constitute
called almost
in themselves
"
periodwhich
Desiderius
itself be
The
Age
of
Erasmus."
was
Desiderius
to
Erasmus
born
was an
at
Rotterdam.
cording Acwho
tradition
he
illegitimate son,
for
was,
by
his
parents until
He
was
he
was
fifteen years of
school
at
age.1
the well-known
Deventer, and
"
later at three
Bois-le-Duc, where
years,
he says that he
the
narrowness
wasted
"
some
and
the discomfort
near
of his life.
Gouda,
and
during the
In
years
orders.
1492
significant year!
in called,
he
left the
mon-
The
father
; hence
of the
Erasmus
name
was
his native
Dutch,
was
Gaert
or
Gerard This
of Erasmus himself
name,
Erasmus The
Latinized
by Charles Reade,
of the elder Gaert. it displays
the
Hearth, givesa
to
be commended
the most
reader,since
in minute
later Middle
Ages
and
the
earlyRenaissance
fused
while detail,
a
knowledge
that is
has
been
by
the and
genius
alive.
of
great writer
Eliot's
something
is
every
singularlyconsistent
this
George
Rotnola
pale and
page
masterpieceof Reade, in
erudition.
which
the displays
and virility
292
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
his abode
as a
at
should
now
describe
career. literary
having
regard for
better
the different
conditions
at
that
time, he might
be
termed
thus fame
an
and writing,
making
and
income
which
brought him,
togetherwith
as
many he he
he would
and
where
would.
lated stimu-
by much
to
for travel,
passed to Louvain,
he
a
to
England,
Basel, to Freiburg,and
in
Italy.
was
But
to
a
here
we
note
man
who
was
spread
son
Italian the
through
the the
North North
himself
of
in North, receiving
the foundations
was,
of his
equallyat cosmopolite,
sure
home
always
of
Erasmus
was
may
be
seen
he
offered
was
at readership
Louvain
he declined the
because it,
he
"
not
familiar sufficiently
with
Dutch
language
that,
little he
his
native he
tongue!
at
It
though
lived
times he
Paris, he
understood
German
; and
that, however
was
admired
of Italian the
slight. In fact,
the
sort
only language
over
was
language king,
"
cultivated
of Latin,
was
world which
which
he with
reigned as
the utmost
he
spoke
fluency.
Its syntax
294 of
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
cultivated
men
who
gathered
at
around and in
the
famous
John publisher,
he
was
Froben,
Basel;
like manner,
an
friend of the Venetian well all the members Press.1 several which
Manutius,
associated His
knew
the Aldine
writings fall
some
under
heads.
had
At
he first,
up in the
criticised
Catholic in
of the abuses
he made
sprung
Church, and
The
philosophy.
are
drift of many in
that forms of
of little value
the
spirit
A second
phase of
of
the lifeof
work
is found
the works
Aristotle and
Demosthenes,
and the
in part, of translations, of
Euripides, Lucian,
Latin Terence
Moralia
Plutarch.
Of
authors,not
and
includingthe
and
parts of Cicero
Livy.
More
important
than
was
these
achievements, and
in fact
quiteepoch-making,
We
Testament.
have
been
alreadyseen suggestedby
Testament.2
stupendous undertakinghad
his Annotations this work
Valla,in
a
to the New
Erasmus, in
the obvious be
prefaceto
no
of
Valla's,
pointed out
fact that
correct
a
made
except by
trained
Supra,
pp.
241,
281-2.
This
tractate
by Valla
seems
to have
been
recovered
by
Erasmus
in the year
1505.
It represents the
starting-point
exegesis.
ERASMUS
295
that the
Greek original
manuscriptsought Evidently,he
to
be
at
2
carefully
once seven
revised and
compared.
for such he writes
an
began
to
equip himself
years later
"
undertaking; for
to the
in 151
"
founder
of St. Paul's
School, and
with
already
scripts, manu-
Testament
the ancient
it in
more
sand thou-
places.
The
work, when
in Basel. time it the
completed,was
It is very
was
publishedat
of Froben in its
never own
easy
to criticise it now,
criticised
because chiefly
of Greek that
Erasmus
some
attained
sure
knowledge
of said:
his
"
contemporaries possessed.1 He
Greek
I have master." studies
not
are
himself
much
once
My
almost
of
too
for my
or
courage, the
while
of
a
the He
means
securingbooks
that
"
help
the
also wrote
in Latin is
without
Greek
amplest erudition
was
imperfect." This, of
afterward
course,
in his
earlyyears.
grammar
Long
he rendered
into
Latin Greek
to be
the Greek
texts
of Theodorus of his
mark
the climax
learning.2 It
noted
that in
which
1528
he
Ciceronianus,in
he discussed Latin
Bud6
protesting style,
of
modern againstlimiting
*For
to
pedantic imitation
instance, Guillaume
was a
French
Erasmus.
Life by E. de Bude
as
Such
his translations
on some
his
critical works
of the
Greek
Fathers.
296
the
'
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
vocabulary
and
phraseology of
the
Cicero.1
break
This
was
as interesting
marking
of
coming
was
between
the
Italian and
School other
Ciceronian, strictly
the
schools
presentlyto
year he
arise in
his
the
same
of pronunciation established
a
Latin
Greek.2
regardto Greek, he
has been
of
practically adopted
and
"
Europe
States,and
which
after him
as
Pronunciation."
"
Somewhat
later another
was
method, called
was
the Reuchlinian for its "Iotacism" vi, all have have been
Method,"
because sound of i
and proposed,3
known
et, and
of
the
vowels,rj, iy v,
machine.
remains
a
the
in the word
It
might
argued that,
to
since Greek
pronounce but
so
it
as
the
Greeks
day pronounced
it ;
many
period,
known
that the
educated the
Greeks
was
to
differ very
as
a
ancient
pronunciation.
have
Hence,
common
standard, most
method.
countries
held
to the Erasmian
As
to
the
it
was
pronunciation of
that largely
Latin
in
the
time
of
Erasmus,
1
2
of the
Infra,p.
See W.
303.
G. Clark
in the
Journal (English)
98-108.
By Johann
an
also
was
erudite
as
in the
regarded
learningonly
him.
ERASMUS
297
evident
by
Erasmus
himself
in his
use
of
one
in whatever
universities he all
might lecture.
the most all the
Scholars
retained
practical purposes
Europe and
to
tain main-
generaltradition which
time after.1
was
not
disturbed seriously
for
some
fond of social
of
pleasure,
work
accomplished an
one
amount
serious
prodigious when
a
whole.
acteristi char-
toward
all
thingsthat have
career
to do
early
wit,
part of his
satirised the
his (1508),
he wrote
the
books
of failings
clergy.
his
Adagia
Encomium famous
Morice,or
Praise
and ofFolly(1509),
his especially
abound
in
livelysatire,and
of
inimitable
wit.
See
Erasmus,
De
Recta Die
Latini
Pronunciatione
Aussprache
1888) ; (Leipzig,
of Ancient Greek,Eng.
(Cambridge, 1890) ;
writingsmay
and letters,
be
classed
(g) expositoryin
a
lectures and
way.
discourses
he chose to
give in
unconventional delightfully
298
But when
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
Martin
his
Luther
broke
the
with
the
Church, and
could
it admitted
seen,
declared
not
of independence His
Papacy, Erasmus
sense,
follow
that
him.
tranquilgood
were
while
certain abuses
with
temporarilyto be
but
had
no
sympathy
would
Luther,
believed
wrongs
right themselves
through
refused
the
to
wisdom
break
of
itself. Therefore, he
of
with died
a
splendid traditions
papal Rome,
and
he
greatlyheeding external
mention here
forms because
in it manist huat
religion.This
how
"
fact deserves
shows
unfeignedly Erasmus
Horace have in the been and
was
as
Augustan Age
that of the who
Rome.
His
might well
genial
"
poet who
praisedthe Golden
modus
in
Mean,
declared:
"Est
does not
very
admit
that Erasmus
was
genius;yet who
what that Man
plished accom-
accomplished by
could have
Who,
at
moment, particular
of his Time ? He
the absolutely
exercised, by
which
man was
peculiarly winning
over
an personality,
influence
felt all
Europe.
He of in
a
was
a king of letters,
of
extraordinary reading,
a
sane
and
score
of ways
of
and learning
his influence
of classical
philology. All
for
ERASMUS
299
good.
There
was
no
blot
upon He
his
were aspirations as
always noble.
pride personal
a
to his
own
accomplishments;
The
was
he
work
a
he
one,
performed in
and it
that
"
was were
seriously
by expressed by
"
Erasmus
sentences
:
penned
him
in the year my
I used
best endeavours
free the
to
from
a
the
for
Germany
the Netherlands."
Important
Editiones
Principes
of
the
Fifteenth
Century
I. Greek
1481.
Hesiod,Works
of the
1488.
Homer
(ed. Chalcondylas)
.
Valla's Latin
1474.
trans,
Iliad 1495.
was
Erasmus,
Opera, ix,1440
(Basel,1540).
and work
and
by
De
by
P. S. Allen Erasmus
Jebb,
(London,
1890) ;
Froude,
1894) ;
Emerton,
(London,
1901).
Erasmus
York, 1904);
Lectures
on
Nolhac,
of
Erasme
en
Italie (Paris,1888) ;
pp.
Sandys,
the Revival
Learning,
162-167,
and
pp.
300
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
1496.
Euripides,
Apollonius
Med.,
Hypp.,
Ale,
Lucian and
Androm.
(Lascaris),
(Lascaris),
(excl. Lys.
Astronomi
1498.
1499.
Aristophanes
Aratus
{In
vett.
ap.
Aldum).
II.
Latin.
1465.
Cicero,
author.
De
Officiis.
Cf.
art.
First
printed
edition in
of
classical Brit.
"Typography"
Encycl.
Lactantius
(Rome). Livy,
Lucan,
1469.
1470.
Caesar,
Vergil,
Apuleius,
Gellius
(Rome).
(Rome).
Terence
Martial,
Quintilian,
Horace
Suetonius
Juvenal,
Sallust,
(Venice),
(Strassburg).
1471. 1472.
Ovid Plautus
(Rome,
(G.
Bonn), Merula),
Nepos
(Venice).
Catullus,
Tibullus,' Propertius
Statius
1473. 1474. 1475.
(Venice). (Brixiae).
Flaccus
(Bonn). Works),
Sallust
(Prose
(first volume
issued
in
(Tragedies)
the
at
Ferrara.
Pliny
Younger
Omnia.1
(Venice).
Cicero, Opera
See
Brunet,
und and
Manuel seine
de
Libraire,
8 vols.
(Paris, 1880)
;
Schiick,
Aide
Aldus
Manutius lxviii
(Berlin, 1862)
Didot,
Manuce,
pp.
647
302
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
of Humanism
into
over
language all
Oxford
Utrecht in
on
Europe.
in
Thus,
the
Universities
of
of and
and
in
Cambridge
Holland,
of
England,
Leyden
Marburg, Konigsberg,and
out
Jena
Germany,
the
thundered
their
Protestant
side, while
Wiirzburg, Gratz,
treatises of
were
Louvain,
learned abuse
same
mingled
scholars
with who
the had
most
scurrilous
on
Protestant
written odium
the
subject.1
not
Nevertheless, the
eliminate
earlier
theologicum could
what
rage
gether altothe
the Luther
love of
had
in
belonged to
and
epoch.
sword
might
flash in
a
Germany;
while
the and
papal
might
Italy;
Holland
England
and
so.
drew
togetherin
its own
and political
scholarly union,
yet, but liberally
took scholarship
France
went
way,
Catholic
as
The
difference
lay in
in
as
on
different forms
was
different countries.
it had
The
learned
Erasmus. Paris
or
world
not
united
been in the
days of
Young
Englishmen
their
had
to pursue
to
studies; but
German
or
they went
to
Leyden
Utrecht.
to
a
The
went
school
taught.
of
The
young
Frenchman that
were
at
another
the
universities in As
1
Europe
became
than
true to
universal. the
for
See
remained
early
THE
PERIOD
OF
NATIONALISM
303
Renaissance, so
to
remained
nian Cicero-
the
last Valla.
nor
a
of Lorenzo Not
a
wholly that
line
was
of Cicero.
word,
it could and
phrase,nor
tolerated, save
the
when
be shown
the
to have absolutely
purityof
diction
orator.
rhythmic cadence
of
pains were
Cardinal
of
taken
Pietro
to
secure
perfect imitation.
most
Thus
Bembo
probably the
lived.1
His
perfectimitator
in every
that
ever
Latin
shade,
of
in every
master
in every model.
any
his
speak
he
Latin
mar
was
casual
scholar,lest by doing
own
should he
perfectionof his
different from
Latinity. Herein
whose
Erasmus,
colloquial stylehad
own
been
personality
said.
This
appear
in
everything that
of his gave
he
wrote
and
individual touch
He had
to popularity
all his
"
writings.
that
one
of specialcharacteristic,
was
his own,
so
could
the
Erasmian
the
pungent
the
man
wit,
self. him-
mood, sympathetic
But Bembo and
and
the
of geniality
his
fellow
Cardinal, Sadoleto,2
Italian
the most
wasted
School,
and
themselves
on
stylealone.
What
they wrote
spoke was
1
conceived delightfully
See See
in the Ciceronian
manner,
1470-1547. 1477-1547.
Symonds,
The
sur
Renaissance Sadolet
in
Italy,ii. pp.
409-415.
Joly, Elude
(Caen, 1857).
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
no
to attract
too
the listener.
speaker was
a
self-conscious,
or
much
afraid
of
making
there.
remained
school of
of
literature,
contenting itself
whom
the
authors
and
was
the
Golden
from
a
Age, strictly
they read
and
reread It
annotated
a
literary point of
view.
school
of
style
"
style
classical
of
learning penetratedthe
took show
on a
countries
North
and
West
it Italy,
more
independent form.
of the
It,
likewise,began
and also
a
to
touch
critical element,
and
desire to
provideboth
in
instruments
scholarly activity.Thus,
and and
It
were glossaries
produced, they
half represented Crastenus
and fragmentary,
was
each
dozen
in
1483, that
Ioannes
printedthe
in
a
Greek-Latin
vocabulary,which
several of the
increased
In
size much
it
passed through
complete
the Aldine
work
editions.
same
1497
was
more
character
was
issued
Press, and
the
name
this
bearing
Gessner,
the
was
of
(Budaeus),
is It
Constantine, and
Bude
important
dictionaryof
re-edited and
(Paris, 1529;
Basel, 1530).
Robert
much
enlarged by
Etienne,
been
(Paris, 1548).
This
is dictionary
publishedafter
in its
the Renaissance.
exact particularly
of legalterms. explanation
Robert
Etienne, or,
as
THE
PERIOD
OF
NATIONALISM
305
the and he
English,
a man
"
Robert
Stephens"),was
printer
as
of
and learning;
Etienne, or,
two
Stephanus,1were
very
important figuresin
France. The
historyof
classical studies
in
father issued
collated carefully
Dio his
his most
(ThesaurusLingua Latino),which
parts during the years
1
appeared
an
531-1536.
upon
It
was
not
entirely
the
vocabularyof Bud",
known work in
more
long time
no
better lexicon
was
to
Europe.
is most
that
remarkable.
Greek
lexicon
five volumes
than It
100,000
was a
Greek
words
with
references to
authorities.
of compilation
was
remarkable re-edited
this
"
many
times
by
Dindorf
as
(Paris,
To 1856 foil.).
day,
unrivalled
known
being
the most
France
or
complete lexicon
was now
to the world.
the mother
brilliant group
of scholars,
at
which
they
flocked.
The shelter
Collegede France,
and
1
established
by
Francis
I, gave
to recognition
See
many
very remarkable
en
men,
constituting
pp.
sur
Egger, VEelUnisme
France,
vols.
(Paris,1869) ; id.
Essai
198
la Vie
Ouvrages de Henri
Etienne
306
what may
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
be
roughlycalled
school of
was
the French
School
Philology.
and its wide
This range
noted
encyclopaedic knowledge.
the memorable
names
Etiennes Turnebe
must
be reckoned
of Adrien the
was
greatest
Greek
time;
Denis
Lambin
(Dionysius
Lambinus),2 Director
Marc
one
Antoine
(Marcus
Muretus),3
Charles
du
of the
period;
Low
Latin,whose glossaries
many times
re-
stillin vogue,
de
and
have
been
edited;Bernard
(Casau-
bonus),6whose
one
man
surpassedby only
after.
De
of his
time
or
for centuries
and
1512-1565.
See
Clement,
Adriani
Turnenbi
2
Praejationibus, p.
See
171
1899). (Paris,
1520-1572.
ensium i. pp.
(London, 478-491
to
Ciceronis,
Munro's
(Zurich, 1861), 3d
ed. ; and
preface to
15 26-1
585.
His orations
and
are
printed ;
Muret
Teubner i. 124-132,
and
Dejob,
la Vie
Marc
Antoine
(Paris, 1861).
4
1610-1688.
See
sur
et
les
Ouvrages de
du
1655-1741.
2
See
de
La Broglie,
Societe de
VAbbaye
de
main, Saint-Ger-
vols.
(Paris, 1891).
The
"
1559-1614.
remain
standard
life of Isaac
Casaubon
must
apparently
ed.
always 1892).
that of Mark
(Oxford,
THE
PERIOD
OF
NATIONALISM
307
of this
Turnebus
was
the most
celebrated
Grecian
period,
was
and
de
Roman
authors,
he
wrote
commentaries
He
notes
on
on
Horace.
likewise
left
books thirty
and
critical
comments,
Lambinus
text
remembered
having
first made
the
of Lucretius
had
passages
been
read.
what
to
critical
mind and
of Lambinus
threw
light upon
he gave
had
been
an
dark,
tion ediward after-
emendation by judicious
of the great
Epicurean,upon epoch-making
and devoted
his
spent
in Rome
the collation
manuscripts in (1561),he
was
the Vatican
Library.
as
time
called to Paris
his
Professor
and
so results,
very of
one special
in the minds
cal of classisuch
of
an
scholars.
and learning,
Few
his
vast
thor's au-
few had
such
style. He
died of
caused by apoplexy,
the murders
owe
of St. Bartholomew's
to Lambinus
night. Modern
of the material
commentators
much
to this
which
they use
without
givingcredit
splendidscholar of
the French
sance. Renais-
308
His
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
contemporary,
in
years
as
his
companion
in
Rome,
various editing
critic he
was
produced
renowned
volume
of
Varies
but Lectiones,
most
for the
wrote
purityof
Latin
his Latin
style. At
the age
ease,
of
eighteenhe
afterwards seemed indeed
of the
as
with
great fluencyand
Paris his orations
and
in the
of University those
in Latin
were
as
splendid as
of Cicero.
They
as
in schools side
by
late
eighteenth century,
various editions
were
made
of them. One
was
of the
scholars
the title of
Isaac Varro
Casaubon
(Casaubonus)
who
,
deserved
which his
men
bore of
declared contemporaries
who
He
is the most in
learned of all
son
live to-day." He
was
born
Geneva, the
of
whom
years
the
family often
their armed in
a
had
to flee from
their
opponents.
Isaac
was
Pattison
relates that,
in
hiding
cave,
received
to the
At nineteen
he
sent
Academy
Greek
(now the
under
his
University)of Geneva,
Portus,
learned
three
a
where Portus
he
studied
Cretan.
When
died he recommended
pupilas
his successor,
he became
Professor
of Greek.
later he
3IO At Geneva
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
and He
at
was
there Montpellier
were
no
libraries of volumes
tances. great dishis
own
importance.
from
other
obligedto
to whose
borrow
necessary
scholars
homes
he walked
These
volumes
he
with copiedlaboriously
case
hand,
and
in the
of smaller
books, he
in
Such
him
exceedingly
him
out ;
in his in
learning.Many
England
at
sought
was
but it was
was
made.
He
welcomed
was
especially
logical of theothere
agreeableto
the
fond
discussion.
was some
occasion, when
his
about difficulty
paying
"
wrote
"
with
Chanceler
my
his
own
hand:
of my
Mr.
Casaubon
paid
before me,
wife,and
barnes."
It
was
also
by
the
personalintervention
had been
of
King James
that Casaubon's
sent
over
which library,
stored in Paris,was
to
England.
The
understand
He
not
speak no
and English,
appreciated by danger of
some
the mob.
he Consequently, At
always
windows in the
in
were
assault. ruffianly
night his
were
stoned
streets.
France, of
from
a
course,
after he
was
had
cided dedefinitely
to return
England,he
equallydisliked,
sold his
being regardedas
renegade who
had
religious
THE
PERIOD
OF
NATIONALISM
31I
belief for
the
was,
English gold.
of publication
a
He
which
nessed witwhich
Casaubon
was as
of
encyclopaedic knowledge. He
as
familiar with
authors,such out-of-the-way
those
of the Historia
as
Augusta, and
Dionysius of Halicamassus,
as
such classics,
Persius and
Pohe
lybius. During
contributed memorable
England,
his fact,
Philology.
In
most
those which
his
antedate
his stay in
Paris, and
time when
was
reading was
him
to take
on
done
up
a
under
number
as
so
It great difficulty.
given to
of
authors, and
little for he
as
so
thoroughlyto
comment
them
to
leave
succeedingscholars
an
in the way
of
exegesis. Thus
brought out
in
1598.1
His
exhaustive
called
his Suetonius
a
passed through
In his
of
few years.
on
Polybius8
remarkable
introduction
Less
the
subject of Greek
value lasting
were
Historiography.
his annotations
full and
of less
of other
authors,but
he deserves
great and
1
2
Incorporated
Published
in
into
1605,
pillagedby
every
commentator
since
that
time.
"
Published
in
1609.
312
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
satire,1
"
subjectwhich
was,
and
has
been
since,of
remarkable
have
sieur
the du
remarkable
Fresne,
an
Cange,
who
Latin
what
Valla in
tongue.
ing Holdup
himself
of his books
would
incredible if
his
own
had
not
the
To
enumerate
would
here be
but impossible,
by
which
he isbest known
is
a as glossary,
deserve
he
mention. especial
firstof them
to modestlycalled it,
a
and Low
Latin; 3 and
Into
like glossary
he
Greek.4
could
these tomes
gathered all
the words
that he
find in
ments, legaldocumany
printed documents,
which in prevailed
in
the
mixed
for
language
some
Ages
drawn
and
from
time
afterward.
His
sources
the
archives
ceeding suc-
theywere,
in each
almost
decade,
issue is
an
an practically
Antibarbarus.
his pen
came
also
tine Byzancom-
Historians.
1 2
s
His
Greek
hardlyso
(1605).
De The
SatyricaGrceca Poesi
was original
et Romanorum
Satira
edited
by Rambach
et
Glossarium
ad ad
Media Scriptores
Glossarium
THE
PERIOD
OF
NATIONALISM
as plete
and
in fact
was
in published years
;
of his death.
the French
His
son
lived
only four
how
and
finally,
the
of
Government,
Du
knowing
valuable
were
writingsof
his
manuscripts,which
Nationale
in Paris.1
contained
in the
Bibliotheque
Worthy
of recollection
was
another
a
Frenchman nobleman
of this
period,Bernard
but forced There
are
de
Montfaucon,
to
a
by birth,
through illhealth
few
study.
incidents in his
he
career
present much
one
since variety,
abbey
to
annotatingtheir
1701, he
numerous
scripts. manu-
1698
to
spent
a
most
of his time in
work
entitled Analecta
But he is best
membered re-
(1688) never
,
completelyfinished.
his work him
in in which
monuments
new.
Archaeology by
in ten
folio
volumes,2
drawings made
gave
was
by
of
antique objectsand
that
was
to
the world
something
wholly
It
to
one
of the most
made
1
the
study of Archaeology;and
last and
most
10
Palaographia
to
See
complete Glossarium
the mediaeval
2
by Favre,
vols."(Niort, 1884-1887).
book
out
was a
Figures. This
first
wonderful
of
antiquities. It
two
was
brought
by
scription sub-
719, and
in less than
a a new
months of
2500
(18,000
printed
volumes.
volumes)
in the A
same
was
sold, and
year,
edition
with
supplementary
to
edition of five
more
Archaeologywill
be found
in the
Nou-
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
never
yet been
had
superseded. Somewhat
work
on
earlier
(1681),there
written of Saint
appeared a
an
Palaeography,1
by Jean Mabillon,
Germain,2 the
in France.
inmate
of the beautiful
abbey
tine Benedic-
Order had
been
the
charters abbey's
tioned menjust
and attacked,
how
Mabillon
the work
to show
could be
determine others.
distinguished
the date of
a
from
genuine ones,
manuscript by comparison
between
the work of Mabillon
with
The
difference lies
manuscripts
Mabillon
alone,of
which
he gave
listof
11,630,whereas
has
been
Period,
has of
no
though it shows
one
the colossal
who
can
rival him.
complished ac-
century.
man
of
fragment De
it,and translating
The the {i.e.
to the
Montfaucon. Petronius
most
of importantconsecutive portion
was Trimalchionis)
Cena Tra-
recovered
at Trau
(the Roman
Petit
gurium) in 1663 by
Pierre
(Marinus
Paris in
1664.3 There
De See See
Re
Diplomatica.
de Saint-Maur Cena
2
3
(Paris, 1896).
Peck's
1908).
THE
PERIOD
OF
NATIONALISM
were
editions of Horace
by
and
Pere
Sanadon
were
parts of Demosthenes
learned Father de the
Cicero
by
the
Thoulie,'also
whole
of
was
a
known
Olivetus,who
Cicero.
at this time
Archaeology
who
wrote
further
on
by Bunduri,
of many
the who
Constantinople ; by
Fourmont,
others;by Burette,who
attempts
studied
in Ancient A Frenchman
Geography
and
History
were
accurate. fairly
who (d'Anville),
later than
hundred of
as
and French
as
eleven
maps,
all
admirably executed.
Greek and
Roman
were
group coins
scholars
gems.
collected
well
ancient
Among
these collectors
Charles
P.
J.
in the
of gems
Gravees
(1752).
had
French
nobleman,
went
Caylus, who
served
in the army,
to the
in
actuallytraversed
examined
the
plain of Troy,
the
monuments
then, returning,carefullystudied
Constantinople. He
more
was
man
than
two-thirds
of it to his he
His works
magnificenthouse
art
"
filled to Greek
of ancient
not
only
and
was
Roman,
but
also Etruscan
and
Egyptian.
Whatever
interesting
316
and
Two make
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
beautiful
he
endeavoured
works of his
are
to
add
to
his collections.
volumes which
sumptuous
up
the
seven
and d'Antiquilte,
he caused
to be
the
reproduction
of the mural
by
P. S. Bartoli
made
of sepulchre
greatest masters
or
had
ceased
Casauwith
a
with Montfaucon,
bon's final years
even
in
England
In
to
fact, among
number
were
in many
ways
different from
whose
stylewas
almost
whose The
criticism and
Netherlands, small,but
men,
of history
world.
was
Of course,
a
by
birth he
lander Netherschool.
home
belonged
he
was
country and
to
no
In his
own
time
at a cosmopolitan, essentially
alike in
It was,
as
in England, Italy,
we
in
Germany,
and
in
France.
have
said,the so-called
Protestant
tion ReformaErasmus
to
that
made
passed.
Between
1540,
however, and
or
1650, the
universities
some
bred
had
remarkable
1 7
Peintures The
Antiques (1757).
was
Universityof Leyden
and that of Utrecht in
founded
in 1575;
that of Louvain
in 1610;
1636.
318
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
appointment
he remained and
as
Latin
secretary and
visit to
Rome,
where
two
years,
the studyingcarefully
monuments
and especially inscriptions, examining the manuscripts Vatican. A second volume of Varice
a
in the
Lectiones
his return
from
Rome,
no
showed
decided
on jectural con-
in critical
ability.He
longer leaned
emend he
by
had
"
the
parison com-
learned
to
what
call palaeographers
His
good
scripts," manu-
and scholars
was as
"
bad varied
manuscripts."
as
intercourse
with
that of
difficulties were
in the Lutheran find him
at to
year, he
taught
we
Soon
afterwards
Cologne, which
Louvain, whence
Catholic. retired to
he Presently
returned
he
he
Antwerp, where
sity Univer-
received of
(1579) a
as a
call to the
newly
established
Leyden
of history. In professor
at
Leyden (theProtestant
classroom
two
drudgery,and yet
"
found
time
to
Seneca
and
(1574).
It
This
last work
is a
a
genius.
to
was
publishedby
sort
of
growth,
markable re-
from
one
edition
the most
commentary
had studied him
so
that
Lipsius intensity
Tacitus say:
and continually
of
that he
could
that everything
had
written; and
doubted
this,he would
THE
PERIOD
OF
NATIONALISM
319
"
Put
your
a
sword
in
to my
a
throat
and
thrust His
me
through
were
if I
make
mistake
word." single
books
at
largely
and
by published
there his
the famous
press of Plantin
were
Antwerp,
completed opera
In
set
up
in four
volumes
(1637).
but
most
no
of
controversial
his
character,
and
had
relation to
scholarship.1After
to
long stay
was
at
Leyden,
he
returned
the
Catholic
intimacies,and
open
arms.
ceived, re-
by
and
Courts
universities in
upon
him;
vain,where
he
was
made
Professor
being expected to
Spain.
From
Louvain
many
clever
and
them
at the
indeed
the
scholarly champion
were
as Catholics, Scaligerand
Casaubon
the
champions
and
of
the
Protestants.
But
had Lipsius He
even
genialmind,
a
he seldom
sought to wound.
with
maintained
friendlypersonal intercourse
with him He died
to
Protestant
blotted
religious acrimony.
books
a
Louvain,
leavinghis
there.
Greek
and
manuscripts
the of with
college
Roman
Lipsius had
a
but antiquities,
1
very
and
Greek.
Besides
his Tacitus
Paterculus, and
Valerius Maximus.
320 Even
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
in Latin
he had
no
ear
very
man
little true
ever
of poeticalphrasing. appreciation
so
completelyknew
whose pages
the Roman
he had
begun
read
as
boy, and
whom
he
the very
last year
of his
Great, however,
in the
as
Lipsius was,
there
towers
above
him
wonderful of
figureof Joseph
described
ever
and Lipsius,
by Pattison
"
as
the most
stored richly
intellect which
was Scaliger
born
even
of
father
son
so
remarkable
surpass
as
to make
it
was
that surprising
his
could
An
him.
This
Julius Caesar
none
ger.3 Scali-
eminent
him, while
He
show
equal.
of La
on
claimed
to
be
one
of the born
twelve became
Scala,and
to have
been At
castle princely
the
Lago de Garda.
he
one
was
presentedto
the
Emperor Maximilian,
himself
arts
and
a
of his pages,
frequentlyshowing
He
was
miracle and
of
personalbravery.
also
given to
In 151
written
2
letters,
the
studyingunder Albrecht
1
Diirer.
he
fought at
Mire
et
The
by
Le
(Antwerp,
Justi
Lipsi
Vila
ScriptisComin L. Miiller's
1823), (Brussels,
der Klassichen is commended
and
to referring
him
in Philologie
to
Niederlanden
(Leipzig, 1869),
work
8
which
students
of the
Dutch-English period.
*
1540-1609.
1484-1588.
THE
PERIOD
OF
NATIONALISM
321
battle of Ravenna,
where
elder brother
were
there he
performed such
incredible
him
sonally perthe
highest tokens
the
chivalry,
"
the
no
spurs,
more
collar,and
stantial sub-
rewards,
a
left the
student
he
at
the
of Bologna. University
as as vigorously
and
where else-
studied
he had
fought,dividing
This
account autobiographical
be
of comparatively
of it
not
the truth
falsehood
and,
in
heightsof glorious
As
a man
distinction
to
depths of humiliation.
he
was
to
the elder
however, Scaliger,
powers, whether he
undoubtedly
descended
from
as
of unusual
were
the
familyof
La
Scala (Fr. de
years Verona.
one
or whether, l'Escale),
was
in after
at
declared, he
This
the
may
son
of
:
an
teacher
much
be said
his questioned
noble
facts
iant brill-
in such
way
that
his death He
was
(1558)no
equalledhis.
school with
life
was an
one essentially
Italian
and colouring,
at
the
spent in France
a
Agen,
where
fell violently
Her
in love with
beautiful
young
orphan
of thirteen.
322
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
friends called
success a
objectedto
mere
her
marriage with
person
whom
as
they
much
adventurer; but
he had
was
he attacked
her with
as
and fortresses,
The
married finally
to be
a
when
she
marriage proved
until his years
happy
years
one;
it endured
death, twenty-
those
by
the birth
of
publishedan J. C. Scaliger
to
againstErasmus
It
was
answer
that its
great scholar's
mand com-
Ciceronianus. of every
in astonishing
vigour and
to foul abuse.
contempt, which
of the
same
to Scaliger
write
another
oration
were
sort, and
of Latin pen
came
verses,
which
a
also
treatise
comic
metres,
After many with
and
the
grammar.
his death
appeared
boasts
Poetica,
"
filled with
were
paradoxes
much who
that nevertheless
mingled
Modern
acute
criticism.1
his
writers
a
estimate
man
rather
as
and philosopher
His
of science than
a
student
him his many
of the classics.
care more
as earlytraining
for
physics
than
for
are
literature.
worth the
monographs
physical sciences.
"
Although
with who heroic
speaks
was
of his
not
intellect
an
as
teeming
one
thought,"he
1
nor investigator
arrived
See
150-152,
176.
THE
PERIOD
OF
NATIONALISM
323
to
at
new
truths.
He
clung
to
Galen, and
rejected with
arrogance
the
of
Copernicus.
on
Cardan
a
many the
editions,and
middle
men
was
lar popu-
late in
our
as
of
the
seventeenth and
century.
Sir William
Even
own
times,
called
Hamilton
have of
the
Scaligerthe metaphysics
best
modern
exponent
the
physics and
of Aristotle.1
His
come
to
be
recognisedas
He
was
the modern
world. it was
him his
was
Scaliger;and
fortunate
to
outbreak
for
a
of the
plague compelled
and
to
remain
home
few
years, This
become
companion.
to
a man
companionship
in any
him
than
with
of the world
more
acute
mere
Scaligermuch
his mind
a
the breadth
of which
true
scholar should
elder
the
to
pleasureof
Latin
more
the
years
son
verse;
and
a
daily he dictated
hundred
a
his
from also
eighty to
than
lines.
Latin
The
or
boy
was
to write
theme
declamation.
and
he
was
eighteenyears
sur
of age,
after the
(Paris 1880).
See
Magen,
Documents
J. C.
Scaligeret
sa
Famille
1540-1609.
324
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
death
at
of his
he father,
went
to
Paris,and spent
was
the
esting. inter-
only Latin
and
given
schools of
no
study
to
Greek.
were
this time
and
universities
throbbing with
great French
studies.
early glow
were
Hellenism,1 and
bent entirely This
was a on
the
scholars
almost
Hellenic
surpriseto Scaliger. He
Latin; and
now,
had
devoted
was
his
earlyyouth
to
to
of
sudden, he
made
thing. everybrated celehis
out
feel that
ignorance of
he
Greek
was
ignorance of
under
the
Therefore,
enrolled
himself
Grecian, Turnebus
lectures for several months. that he could
not
(Turnebe), and
But
attended
learn but
little Greek of
a
could
given there.
self himshut
preliminary work.
and resolved
Therefore,
on
he
himself He the
in his rooms,
teachinghimself.
in twenty-one then
Odyssey) and
Greek
historians.
proceeded,
he formed and
to
grammar
for
to
seemed
this easy.
Before
himself
to listening
Turnebus
again,
he
essayed to teach
very
both
Arabic of
acquired a
fair
1
knowledge
326
course
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
of travel which
was
chronicled
Rome
is
At extremely interesting.
they
rather
of whom
are
said Scaliger
many Mure-
with
tuses
something of
in the world.
as
sigh:
If he
"
There
not
only
believed
in the existence be
an
of
God,
well
as
he
can
talk about
it,he would
excellent
north
to
Christian."
After
traversingItaly they
of
went
England
at
and
Scotland, one
being
dated
He
Edinburgh.
"
Scaligercared
inhuman
English.
the
It
narrowness
despisedtheir
which made
" disposition
them
to foreigners. inhospitable
him disappointed in
also to find
only a
few
few
Greek
scripts manu-
England,
he
was
was
and
only
scholars of the
type
with which
he many years
so
familiar
on
the Continent.
reason
had
trying. One
pleasantrestingprofound
This
place he juristof
wise of and
found
the
at
Valence, where
age,
Cujacius (Jacques de
a
Cujas).1
remarkable
collection
more
manuscripts on
and
law, numbering
lived and studied
a
than
quillity, tran-
five hundred;
with
the reconstructing
Roman
in jurists
purelyclassic
For three
fashion,without
years,
any
touch
the
of
medievalism.
Scaligerenjoyed
to his fine
free
access
libraryfor
massacre
Then
1
the so-called
of St. Bartholomew
seine
See
Spangenberg, Cujacius
und
THE
PERIOD
OF
NATIONALISM
him
to take
refugein Geneva,
and
on
where
he
was
high honour
He
to appointed
be
Academy.
gave
lectured
both
Greek
and
authors, and
he
great satisfaction
and lecturing
as
to the
students.
himself
hated
found
as
preachersof
ism ProtestantHence he
distasteful
to
subtle zealotes.
returned
years Much
France
(1574)and
twenty
Pozay. tranquil
their
move
that of
scholar.
outbreaks from
one
The
of
Huguenots
violence
to
and
the
Leaguers
with
often
compelled Scaligerto
chateau
another, going on
pike
and
dagger
at
like any
other
freebooter.1
to
He
had,
however, for
up
to
givehimself
of the
study
and
composition;
Festus
and
his
editions
Catalecta
and
(1574),of
(1576) of Catullus,Tibullus,
remarkable
examples
of
true
fixed and
ordered
In
Lipsius retired
been
was
from
Leyden,
Roman
where
he had
of professor
History
Antiquities.Leyden
Our
from
ber num-
Agen by M.
de
in 1881.
328
tant
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
as learning,
Paris
was
And
so, when
Leyden
its most
successor.
famous In the
a
as Scaliger
his
Universityand Orange
gave
to
States-General
the Prince and
a
and
Prince
of
aid, and
IV
wrote
to
personal
letter both
Henry
of France
himself, Scaliger
in the sity. Univerwhen
asking that
the latter
might accept
that
chair IV
Scaligerhad
hoped
of
Henry
would,
speech and
to
thought to
lecture,and
the
Scaligerhated
his
preferredthe quiet of
of
study, and
The the
learned
of the
men. distinguished
drudgery
versity Uni-
made
no
appeal to him;
all in all.
was
renewed
manner flattering
of another
in
do wrong
hidden
and
innuendoes
of
the
was
Huguenot King.
This
second
he
not
was
call from
Leyden
there
welcomed
with
given
of
only
to
princes of
men
believed Maurice.
among
to
be.
He
dined
the
deemed
even
town,
he
and took
as
was
children abroad.
with that
louted
low
before
him, when
was
his walks
his lot
compared
hustled
Casaubon
in
England, who
by
British
THE
PERIOD
OF
NATIONALISM
boors
and
his windows
in have
broken
by
the rabble
was Scaliger
perhaps
That he
he
should
been
quite content
a
with
this.
deemed
not
himself
and fault,
the scion of
to this
his
day
no
is certain from
Yet
which
been
he
inherited
father,
time, lifederful won-
and
had
never
questioned in
his father's
fated to
destroyhis happiness,and
story is worth
end his
some
The
in relating
detail,
broken
out
with
As
were
was
scholars distinguished
and the
we
employed
way of
by
the
Old
Church
New
in
the
seen
that
Casaubon
while
He of
completing
had himself
from
his
upon the
Cardinal
Baronius.
a
been
a
victim
of
stream
vile abuse
who
Catholic
(Eudamon-Ioannes)
attacked
him
pamphlet.
Yet him
man,
a
much
one
more
skilful shaft
was
launched
against
This
by
who
and
forth
between
Madrid had
a
and
been
was Ingolstadt,
remarkable really
of his
figure. He
he became
in disappointed
1
many
hopes,and
pp.
savage,
id.
See
Pattison,Isaac Casaubon,
132-192
330
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
venomous
creature masters
ready
to
attack
to
any
one
whom
many
his
of
Catholic the
pointed out
of the
him.
was
Unlike
an
bravos literary
was
time, he
monstrous
accomplished
Latinist,and
and
almost
use
in his shameless He
two
genuity in-
audacious
of fiction.
had
already
scourged King
"
James
"
of
England
to
in
pamphlets.
of
was
Now,"
said he,
This
am
going
land's Engan
dog."
atrocious and when
he did in his
libel from
piquant,
on
decent, it
witty.
every
sort
But
when
he went crime
to
charge
to
Casaubon
with
of unnatural
and
no
neither
nor plausible
probable.
for such
too
austere
and
virtuous
man
have
any
a
effect whatever.
Thus, only to
Casaubon he
was
one
did
harm. slight
Casaubon, although
of the
Triumvirate,
at
as conspicuousa figure
remained
the
very
pinnacle of
sixteenth
seventeenth found
a
enemies
In
1594, he
publisheda
Vetustate
Epistola de
J.
Splendore
was
Scaligera et
exhibition vein of
C.
ScaligeriVita.
This
runs
reallyan
it
a
of
filiallove,though there
through
proud,
and,
it
one
might
even
But self-appreciation.
a showed, nevertheless,
point in
THE
PERIOD
OF
NATIONALISM
33
one
which
means
his enemies
that could had been
at
Ingolstadtassailed
so
alike with
every and
coarse
wound
proud
again he
and
the
attacked; but
In
he cared
violent
arena a
scribblers.
1607, however,
to
entered
foeman, vastlyinferior
of any
one
in Scaliger
but learning, of
the peer
a
in
debate, with
marvellous
command
and style,
he had
no
ing wieldrival.
of sarcasm,
"
in which
says:
scandal his
which
could
"
be
raked
at the
or togetherrespecting Scaliger
family
was
put
of Scioppius. disposal
With
these
and gifts
with
Scaliger!" and
four
that
after launched
written
can
volume
of
some
hundred
"
pages
with
consummate
so ability
no
stronger proof
this
an
be
given of
the
impression
to
produced by
defamation
source
the the
now
of
been
it
from in
our
was
which
biography
Scaligeras
has
stands The
collections biographical
mainly
flowed."
book
positit Sup-
and Scaliger"),
simply crushed
he had
the
haughty
in
Triumvir,
as
well
it
might.
was a
For
always believed
and
good
faith that he
a
prince of Verona,
he had
he had from
a
written
great many
thingswhich
to
heard
But
as
his
he believed
or
be true.
matter
fact, whether
from
a
not
Julius Caesar
was
Scaligerwas
scended de-
princelyfamily he
a certainly good
332
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
deal of and
so
romancer,
and
it was
not
difficultfor
so
malicious
show the
clever and
an
antagonist as
of fact which Around
were
Scioppius to
had
blunders
errors
Scaliger'sEpistola.
other
statements
these
and
be
around
which
and
claimed
to
erroneous,
Scioppius danced
soon
as
jeered with
outrageous glee. As
the
unexpected attack,
called
to
he wrote FabulcB
reply to Scioppiuswhich
This of humble of the
title
he
Confutatio
Benedetto
Burdonum.
a
refers
Bordone,
to be
person
birth and
elder
said
by Scioppius
would
the
Scaliger. This
than
have
made
littleless Scaligers
impostors,and,
attacked,
though
with
moderation
not
and
good
a
taste.
The
Confutatio,
however,
does
bring forward
from
single convincingproof
the
familyof
La
Scala,
of any himself
France.
event
or
narrated
by Julius as
to
to any
in The
over
The
of
Scioppius was
product of
his almost it
was
devilish
Europe, and
had
believed generally
was Scaliger
by
many
who
passed for
of
friends.
a
too
great, too
learned,too much
for these
real
princein
intellect and
bearing,
than
to
be
otherwise
pleasedat
in
The
name
a
Europe
name
evoked used
as
merely
a
grin,or
for
a
coarse
joke.
His very
synonym
pedant (pidant),
334
ancient but also
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
to
and
Romans,
the
of
comprisesthat
of the
treated
as
too
sacred
to
be
with
the
of each of be
true and
general
conclusions
constitutes
ancient
true
are history
to
be arrived at.
It is this which
so
his
immensely
higher
the
nor
an
eminence
of his
of his time
admitted
his
immediately followed
to
seem
appreciatedhis
real
merit, but
have
as
considered
his
'Scaliger's great
power
works
of
appreciationwhich
on
the
Manilius1
the
tronomy as-
ancients, and
it forms he
introduction
to
the De
Temporum,
in which
examines
by the light of
as
Copernican science
based."
the ancient
system
applied to
upon
what
they principles
His
were
Manilius, while
it
a represented
new
had
puzzled and
most
frightenedaway
the
smaller
being the
classics.
this
to
a
work, with
introduction
to which
written
was
he gave
the
The
author
9 a.d.
of and
Latin
15
a.d.
poem
upon
astronomy
sixth book
in five books
never
between The
A
was
proposed
that of
written.
first
are
satisfactorytext
editions
Kramer,
De
(Marburg, 1890).
THE
PERIOD
OF
NATIONALISM
335
In
name
De
a
Emendatione
Temporum.1
a
of
science of
Chronology.
tabular
series to
help the
On
the
one
hand,
the
know philologists
upon
ciples printhe
which
apply
It
was
who Scaliger
with
new
Copernicus and
to
Tycho
Brahe
gave
him, turned
it
the
ancient
plain on
an
what
acute
principles comparison
instituted
Persian
the
Greek
even
and
methods
of
reckoning
then
in
time; he studied
the Hebrew
saw
calendar, and
how
chronologymay
written
in the
instrument exist.
of
This
De
of the he
Emendatione.
him
until
idea of
book
which
should
the records
see
of the
prehistoric
past.
ancient
was Scaliger
the first to
that the
at
historyof the
world,
an
if it could
be known
only as
could
period
be
in
only in the
statements
remains
of
those
chronologers
to
who,
1
copying
which
The
first edition
other
and
fuller editions.
336
understand
ages
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
in this way
to
future
the universal
species. The
and
distorted
Abydenus
as a
first to be collected.
he adopted Finally,
lation trans-
basis of
Chronicle.
in gave
a
explain
which
was an
few
words
what it so
a
this much
Eusebian
Chronicle
the
study of
Greek,
importance. Eusebius
the
Asiatic born He
friend of in the
Emperor
Constantine, and
a.d.
in Palestine
was one
middle learned
A
of the most
time
and
the
most
widely read.
all his covery dis-
would
nature
be unnecessary
which He intended
was
here, but
toward with
studies
of
the
a
of
truth. religious
familiar
great
Egypt
or
Phoenicia he
or
Asia
a
and
Europe.
of the
More
than
a
anything else
view
to
cultivated
a
study
chronology with
on establishing
solid basis
This
was
historical value
of the
Old
Testament.
a practically
universal
two
divided
into
books.
discussed
the
the
origin and
of the world
uses
the
historyof
to
all nations
creation Eusebius
are now
"
down
the year
from
325
a.d.
Here works
copious extracts
The second
historians
"
whose
lost.
part, entitled
of
The
Chronicle
Canon
(Xpovucos Kavdiv),consisted
THE
PERIOD
OF
NATIONALISM
337
names
periodsof
ten
years the
each, containingthe
which
of the
and sovereigns
from
events principal
had He
taken had
place
drawn
(2017 B.C.).
largely upon
Iulius
Africanus,
completingthe
other
whole
of
historians. down
This
to his
the
chronicle book
was
which
he continued read
own
time.
widely
course
and
was
In
death
of
Eusebius,
St.
Jerome
lated transa.d. as
378
the centuries,
preservedit
of St.
Jerome, althoughthey
When the Renaissance
had
was
value.
the
well under
the
neither
men
of
elegantletters,
what
to
nor
Protestant
at
knew controversialists,
was
make
of it, and
last it
as
omitted
from
Jerome's works
being without
value.
Erasmus, though
did not and until It in think
he
of Jerome, writings
it worth
not
Chronicle,
it was fact,
1734.1
was
left for
contains
all that
we
know
back
Rome.
well
as
to Greece
and
This
was
very
edited. uncritically
z
338
To task
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
edit and
fit for
explainso complicated a
an
work
as
this
was
intellectual
was
stance subtastes
come
of the Chronicle
were
whose it had
annalistic;while
was
the
in which
a
down
A
attractive peculiarly
mind
like
Scaliger's.
this
careful examination
in
of it led him
to doubt
whether
St.
was,
or
fact,an
it
document original
was
composed by
of
a
Jerome, original
whether
had this:
the
Latin
version
Greek
which
was
perished. The
Since
we
next
not
pointwhich
the Greek
he considered
is the original,
have
translation
In
faithful version
of what
Eusebius
are was
set
the
first
place, all
translators
liable to
a
and defects, of
error
in the Chronicle
there
greater
such
chance
because
the work
was
written
with
speed.
asks write for
St.
opus and
did
not
lenityfrom
book,
a
Again Jerome
it to
the
but
merely used
of
supply the
Latin
world and
with inserted
manual
omitted
whenever
he
would
be
improved, and
tried to communicate
countries
the elements
barbarous hordes
versal of uniwere
where
of
civilisation
were
more, FurtherChristianity.
as
manuscripts
book
so
peculiarly corrupt,
was
full of dates.
to believe that
Pondering over
the
Chronicle original
of two
written
by
Eusebius
had
sisted con-
books; and
had
THE
PERIOD
OF
NATIONALISM
339 book
been
Ages.
an
The
second
had
been
preserved for
while Greek
the
as utility
epitome
of ancient
extracts
history,
from
the
first book
as
of consisting
was
the
was
that
valuable.
times
It would
to
daunt
at
the
boldest
text-
arrive
these conclusions
at
from Even
indications slight
reckless did it
which
seem
hand.
reproduce a only
St.
second
book
of which
he had
But
to
Jerome's
Latin,
almost book
language. original
mind
finallyScaliger's
recover
miraculous both
attempted
and
the
No
first
markable re-
in its substance
language.
or
such
attempt had
known upon
was
ever
before
has What
ever
since been
in the annals
of criticism.
of the whole
was
remains
of Greek
ingenious
may
he
shown
in
detectingthe by
one
smallest
of Eusebius few
be the
slightincident.
had been
fragments
and
of
Chronicle original
recovered
their
placesby
the skill of
In 1601
but Scaliger; he
a came
these would
the
been
a
of little use.
upon
of vestiges
manuscript chronicle by
Eusebian be found the
in
an
Greek
possibly
was
contained
to likely out
and fragments,
in the
by
deduction
Royal Library at
was
Paris.
It turned
that
manuscript
agony of
found
there.
Scaligerat
exultation,
Leyden
wrote
year'ssiegesecured
34" the
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
manuscript over
that this
which
he
was
to his purpose
than
other
Greek
combined.
been
It was,
indeed,
chronicle
which
compiled by Georgius
after the year 900. almost To the
own.
this chronicle
whole The of
the Greek
monk
had
transferred additions
"
Eusebius, togetherwith
book
was
of
his
second
one
of Eusebius, therefore,
sure
the
only part
that any
as
of,
"
was
publishedat
Temporum,
part of
Thesaurus folio,
in which
relic in chronological
in
Greek
or
Latin
was
was
restored, placed
immense
clear.
This
an
triumph
for and
at the very
head
time
to
forever,since
be
performed an
not
Many paralleled.
admired
his
genius regardedhis
as
theory about
he have
first book
of Eusebius
fanciful.
he
Could would
lived
beyond
a
the life of
even
ordinary man,
have
witnessed
triumph
the next
was
Jerome
of
passing through
under
direction
an
Dominico translation
a Vallarsi, complete
Eusebius the
Armenian
(a manuscript
its way
to
of
twelfth
was
century) was
last
slowlymaking
(181 8)
shown
and Italy,
at
published
it
was
Convent
at Venice.
divination
to
rightly
guided him;
first book
Chronicle;
342
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
fessor
in
as
1855, revived
illustrious as
was
the
glory of
been
and Scaliger
two
it had
centuries
before;
and
it
Pattison
who
aided very
in greatly
this honourable
It is
theywho
merely
the advance
made Scaliger
cism, critimatics NumisTo him
also
helped on
Re Nummaria
to
study of
(1616).
by
are
his treatise De
due, also,twenty-fourindexes
Gruter's
Thesaurus
InscriptionumLatinarum2
The death of
(1603). only
to
Scaligerserved
of
the be
stimulate and
the
scholarlyactivities
among
as
Netherlanders
sure,
no
Flemings,
names
a
whom
we
find,to
such many
mighty
which
those
of
the
Triumvirate, but
of
some
have
because peculiarsignificance
achievement. Thus
specialincident
or
Jacques
de
Cruques
because
(Latinisedas
in the
Cruquius) will
at
remain
Abbey
uscripts man-
Blankenberghe he
of Horace
number
of different
scholia
Codex
(1578). Among
these
manuscriptswas
the oldest
the famous
.
Blandinianus,possibly
attack
an (yetustissimus)Unfortunately,
by
i. pp.
2
2-1
71
Janus Gruter
and
classical scholar
who in
studied in
Cambridge
He
was
Heidelberg.
was
in
Library, which
of classical
was,
presently carried
but
most
Rome.
He
edited
authors, however,
is best
known from
valuable
mentioned
THE
PERIOD
OF
NATIONALISM
343
mob
upon
the
Abbey
that
we
so manuscript,
have
now
notes
and excerpts
terest greatest into
of
Cruquius.
to
It is certain that
of the
have
or
endeavoured
as
repudiatethem
written
out
either
inventions
inaccurately
are some
lines which
almost other
lines
been
was
in existing almost
hitherto
scholar
meaningless.1 Another
Canter,
a
contemporary
Greek critic of
William had
well-known and
Utrecht,
a
who
studied made
in Paris
edited
Euripides(1571)in
and strophe He
fashion which
anti-
by strophe
Arabic
margins.
also edited
in the
tury cen-
Later
He
to its
gave
syntax of Latin
on
well
as
etymology,writingfive
another Scaliger,
Ars
two
these
subjects;and,
like
He
is best to be taken
remembered, however, by
an
which,
to
the
De
historyof
literature.
The
De
first
His-
is entitled
Historicis
Greeds
(1623-4) and
were
toricis Latinis
1
(1627).
scholars the
widely read
BlandiKeller's of
As to eminent and
even zu
who
nianus
to
Epilegomena
Keller and
Horaz
1879),accompanying (Leipzig,
first edition
not
recension
Holder's
1870) (Leipzig,
"
remarkable
piece
of critical
work, though
convincing.
344
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
and
at
was
studied,and
new
edition His
of the former in
was
printed
Leipzig in 1833.
very
interest
a
everythingclassical
on
wide.
He
wrote
monograph
art
(De
very His
in modern
times
he is the author
of
Junius,who
England
as
special study
De Pictura
of ancient Veterum
paintingsand (1637).
Daniel
published a
Heinsius
ume vol-
(1581arms
1639)
that
was
the beloved
in his
great scholar
multifarious
to rank
editor of classical
most
with
of his
contemporaries.
in
When
was
Scaligerdied
vacated,was
1609
the chair
an
of
which history,
thus
left without
a
two
years,
although
was
very
worthy
would
have
been
Vossius,who
on
widely known
chair
was
by
ancient
1
history. The
then
a
filled, however,
de Saumaise
until
63 1,
and
"
by
Claude foreigner,
(Salmasius)
,
brilliant
who
figureamong
the
and
one
for his
he
learning.
In
1606
had
the older
Anthology by Cephalas in
The influence there
was,
Library
at
Heidelberg.
to
him of religion
a
become
Protestant, which
In
indeed, the
1609
he
attempted successfully
notes,
genuine
THE
PERIOD
OF
NATIONALISM
345
In the next
which
he
to
compiled
within
ten
days.
year
he
returned
office because
the
notes
of his
religion.He
was,
however, devoted
to
and classics,
on
the Historia
Augusta,
own
was
he made
so
many
acute
name
of his
as
to render
his
Protestantism
evinced
when
he married he
reached
height of
his fame
by
his commentary
on
the
a
work
proof of extraordinaryand
anxious
was
conscientious
industry.
So
Salmasius
to
to
attain
complete accuracy
that he
;
learned Arabic
and he
was
so
helphim in
go to press until he
should
have
consulted
rare
treatise by
Didymus
et
that the
(De
Herbis
Plantis)
was
appear scholar
"
Salmasius
of
at
gentleman
was
polished
that
manners
genuine cavalier.
received
It
natural
he
should and
have
Oxford, Padua,
But
a
Bologna.
in
163 1 the
with
research
a
fessorshi proa
stipendof
soon
two
thousand
livres
year,
which
was
The
only
thingrequiredof
him
that
he should
He
n.
live in Leyden,
of Baronius.1
1
fulfilledthe former
Supra, p.
309
346
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
condition, but
very them attacks
He
most
was
however, prolific,
classical.
upon In
monographs,
of
his
in
the
papal
Salmasius
was
popular
France, and
would
evidently hoped
to
a
that he
was,
change
made
a
them.
He St.
deed, in-
royalcounsellor
of money
were
and
Knight of
Michael,
he
and
great
sums
offered him;
the money
but while
and
remained
religion.
best remembered
he
wrote
is now
by
his
DefensioRegia
Charles I of
pro Carolo
I, which
of
in defence
of
England and
because
absolute
forth
monarchy.
Milton
a
It is remembered virulent
answer.
it drew have
from Milton
an
Many
said that
overwhelmed
Salmasius due
to the
in
opinion is
ality parti-
given by English-speakingpeople
as
to
Milton, in this
in other
things.
one
The
truth
is that the
Defensio, being
very II
written
by
Protestant
againstanother, was
influence. the author
invited with
widely
the
Charles
a
paid
of
and printing
gave
hundred
to
pounds.
visit her
tions. distinc-
court, and
The
loaded
him
other
first edition
of his
Defensio was
at
once
anonymous.
A Le
French
Gros
translation
and
was
appeared
under
the
name
of
It must
his full
THE
PERIOD
OF
NATIONALISM
347
allowed self him-
powers
too
in this famous
controversy.
vile
Milton
much
was
and vituperation
not
language, while
away
Sal-
masius
to
carried sufficiently
the
by
his
subject
give his
words
ringingforce
was
of truth.
Nevertheless,Salmasius
gladlywelcomed
after,in 1653.
a
back
He had
to
Leyden, where
his
must sense,
he
died
soon
by
we
great powers
made
himself
perceptionof
text
author's
meaning, all of
which
make
most
his
corrections He
was,
often
felicitous.
a
moreover,
Puritan
nor
dissolute
and
wise, and
him
to combat
the
number
of
eighty, every
one
had
Contemporary
a
Salmasius
Vossius,
and
wise like-
was scholarship,
Hugo
Grotius
(in
his
tongue
scholars Caesar
called
and
Huig
van
Groot), one
of and
those
ancient
writers
Thucydides, and
and
and
was Sallust,
man
of action He
thought
as
as
well
as
as
distinction. literary
served
his State
well
for
scholarship.Young
verses
able to write
entered
good
Latin of
at
the age
at
He
the University
Leyden
twelve.
Three
years
later he
began
an
edition of the he
was
a
of Martianus encyclopaedia
Capella.In fact,
urged him
348
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
on travelling
the
Continent, he
and entered
on
took
the
doctor of laws at
an
Leyden,
He
not
was
actual
as practice
advocate.
successful aside
was
in his
and profession,
His Latin schools
yet he
so
could
pure
put
he
the classics.
even
stylewas
side
that
read Muretus
in the
by
Terence,
just as
with
in France
had
been
side
by
side
he
Cicero.
out
Apart
two
from
his text
however, editions,1
show how he
wrought
great works
which
was
and
simple,
science. juristic
the
The
first is his
treatise extraordinary
to relating
of jurisprudence as principles
He
tants. comba-
went,
however, much
farther
were
than
this, and
opened
to
many
largerquestionswhich
those who looked he
was
subsequently
Grotius
as a
be
developed by
upon
master. to
the first to
a
attempt
formulate
basis for
the
an
society
His
and
government,
De lure
the Church
marks
or
Bible.
treatise science
one
Belli et Pads2
It is worth
epoch
in the
of law.
noting that
even
in this work
is struck of
by
the
beauty
of his Latin
and style,
which he
the
sciously con-
glimpses
adorned
The
other remarkable
which
he
accomplishedwas
Of Martianus Published
at
Silius Italicus.
was
1625.
A French
translation
long afterward
made
by H61y (Paris,1875).
350 The
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
study
of ancient
coins
was
taken
up
by
Ezechiel
Spanheim,1 whose
of the Protestant in
2
since he countries,
born
in
Geneva, educated
his Dissertatio
Leyden,
he
wrote
and
a
died famous
in
London.
Besides
on
commentary
the
Hymns
of Cal-
limachus, which
is still valuable
was
an
in the edition
of Ernesti
not
"
(1761). Spanheim
so inspired, scholar,
industrious,though
said of him:
an
that
Wyttenbach
Span-
heimius The
multa,
two
non
multum, legerat."
Burmanns
Peter
supremacy
of Holland
in letters.
elder3
was
dent stu-
of his
was a
Professor
of
Eloquence
at
voluminous
Latin writers
to
the has
and
he
been
are
much
blamed
of
by
the Grecians.
Poeta Latini
were
notable of
his editions
the
His
Minores, and
Petronius
in prose. many
editions
are
largelyVariorum
of them
were prejudices
aroused, he became
be
could not
was
laborious
"
he, and
that patient,
"
he
called
by
many
(Burdomanus)
of
classical
learning. Students
historyof
scholar-
1 1 "
1629-1710.
Dissertatio de Usu
et
Prastantia Numismatum
Antiquorutn(1664).
1668-1741.
THE
PERIOD
OF
NATIONALISM
351
to
ship in
the
the Netherlands
volumes
will,however, continue
of his
read
Viris
huge quarto
Epistolarum a Sylloge
contains
Illustribus value
Scriptarum, which
classicists.1 devoted
Ludolf
material
of
great
to relating
Just as
so
Burmann
his whole
life to Latin
studies,
the German,
Kiister
of investigation
but
Greek.
of
a
Kiister
German
by birth,
something
he visited Utrecht,
Paris,and
and of Homer,
Cambridge,
died in Paris.
and in 1705
lived for
wrote
long time
dam, at Rotter-
(1696)a
critical history
in three He
edition of Suidas
large
then
Press.
life of
Pythagoras (1707)and
followed
massive
edition of
a
the Greek
text.
with scholia,
metrical
the
He
included comments,
of the volume
sent
all the
modern
notes
by
the great
Bentley.3
Dutch
scholars
who
in the seventeenth
eighteenthcenturies
have
is notable
those
Lambert grammar
whom
already
mentioned.
Thus,
Greek also This
of Kiister, studied
; and
at Franeker
there
was
Livy by
seven
Arnold
Drakenborch. volumes
in originally
1
quarto
54~59-
(i738-1746).
See L.
"i670-i7i6.
352
His
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
contemporary,
edited
He
was
Siegbert Havercamp,
in in
two
Professor
at
Leyden,
errors.
Lucretius careless
large volumes,
value
full of
the neglecting
lay nearest
a
at
hand,
i.e. the
on
Leyden manuscripts.
the
number
of tracts
of Greek, pronunciation
and
it
was
probably led
to at
the appointmen
Havercamp
should
as
Leyden. plainly
This
seen,
to
honour
have
given,as
is
at
a
now
Tiberius
Hemsterhuys,1 educated
Groningen
mere
and he
Leyden.
was
was
youth,
teen at nine-
placed in charge of
called to
at
the
and publiclibrary,
at
the Athenaeum
Amsterdam who
him
were
(1704).
then
a
His
acute
criticism of classical
authors
being
edited
by
was
the different
to
led professors
very
to
distinction
which
had
become
to
great. J. H.
Lederlin,who
threw
up his
been
engaged
edit
Julius Pollux,
engagement, and
a
parted de-
offered him.
The
remaining three
with
natural
modesty,
ten
wrote
Bentley,and begged
the last two books.
for his
opinion on
sages pas-
in
to
Bentley'sprompt
off at
a once
answer
in
fills three
print,is
remarkable
proof
and versatility
1
ready scholarship.2
another incident
1685-1766.
Still
more was striking
connected
wrote
with
this book. of
When
Bentley received
back
in words
high
THE
PERIOD
OF
NATIONALISM
353
Greek
scholar
began
can
to
edit the be
of which
judged
by
he
At
had
that
elucidated
publisher,
own
the work
his
over
time, lifeto
one
remaining five-sixths
of
given
J. F. Reitz1
Utrecht,who
Hemsterhuys, likewise,did
editions of
criticism
other men,
mistakes correcting
and
emending
to
to
doubtful
a
passages.
Meanwhile, he had
been
advanced Much
the
did not
Leyden, though he
in
became
two
at Franeker. professor
however, Finally,
of
1740,
years
before
the death
so
learned
scholar
as
Hemsterhuys
Pollux.
should
the metrical
quotationsin
astonish
to
Bentley,
so
with
and
fluency and
would
They
He had
wormwood
young
of the
importance of
maddening give
up
to
these
endeavoured
rectifythem.
Hence
mastery
of the
subject seemed
to
Hemsterhuys
forever ; and
a
Greek
to open
for several
did
Greek
book.
at
Reitz
(1695-1778)was
he
Utrecht.
a
It
was
in this
later for
periodof thirtyyears
University.
2A
Professor
of
History and
Eloquence in
the
354
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
Professorshipof
Hellenic studies
so
Greek
in
Leyden,
where scholars
he from
revived
that successfully
was
other
joinedby
his most
pupil, David
at
even
Ruhnken.1
Ruhnken
so
had
was
been
Hem-
studying Greek
that sterhuys,
were
Wittenberg; but
in the German
famous
universities
students
advised
in
the
had
Hellenic
sprung from
language.
Such
renown
of
Hemsterhuys, Oudendorp,
one
Valckenaer,
Wesseling, and
of the
foreigncontingent, Jacques
were
studies
made
in entirely
a
the
Netherlands.
There
had and
been, indeed,
the Latinists
sort
of
between rivalry
the Grecians
at
Leyden,
and
the other
a
great Dutch
was
For
time Latin
was,
regardedas
it were, Hebrew.
an
classics,
to
while
Greek
as
oriental
But
out
tongue
be
grouped with
his
Arabic and
taken
Hemsterhuys
of this
and
colleaguehad
had
Greek it and
unnatural
and position,
with
taught
its great
importance,
the other
complete success.
had
become Franz with
van
a
On
sort of
hand,
time
stamping
2
ground
a
dullards, until
Oudendorp
came be-
at Leyden, professor
were
Greek
lating stimu-
and
Latin power.
1
each
representedby
of
Oudendorp's Lucan,
1723-1798.
his editions of
2
Caesar,
1696-1761.
THE
PERIOD
OF
NATIONALISM
355
Suetonius,and
work. getical The
Apuleius were
excellent
specimensof
exe-
Anglo-Dutch
Period.
"
It has
been
a
Protestant
had, by
the outbreak
Protestantism.
we
But have
although
mentioned
were
the
as
very
early English
land Ire-
in flourishing
in the
abbeys
and the
in close contact
seats
with of
the
of France
Italian splendid
learning,
teenth seven-
much
can
Englishmen
a
of the
century.
certain
full-bodied
were
enjoyment of
averse
the pagan
side of classicism.
They
as a
not
to
the songs
of the
Goliardi;and,
Oxford
matter
of
and
Cambridge
and We
came
some
of
the
public schools.
that
to
have
to
already seen
many
young for
a
Englishmen
the
the Netherlands
were a source
study
while, and
Netherlands
A
of
Englishclassical learning.
Englishmen
was was
good type
of
these Oxford
cultivated
man,
was
Sir
to
an Henry Savile,1
who
a
tutor
in Greek
Queen
man,
Savile
wealthy, high-spirited
his
learning, although
He
learningwas
four
of
serious
painstakingsort.
Histories
an
translated
the
books
of
Tacitus, the
he wrote
and
also
on
Agricola.
thermore, Fur-
excursus
the
was
military usages
translated
of into
the
Romans
"
pamphlet
1
which
1549-1622.
356
Latin
at at
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
Heidelberg in
1601.
Later
a
he
became and
austere
Provost
stern
were
of those
who
associated
was
the authorised
version of the
Bible,and
knighted
by James
Sir be
tom.
I.
as a
Henry endeavoured,
to prepare
work
by
which
he
should
remembered,
He
not
a
secured
manuscript collections
Paris,but
Savile
could
get
font of the
royaltype; whereupon,
the the
cost
bought
oversaw
specialfont,employed
the
actual
done
at
printingof
Eton
at
a
eight folio
of
volumes
which alone
while
were
"8000,
was
the paper
costing "2000.
this work
was
Casaubon,
who
in
England
going
on,
describes
it
as accurately
animo
regio.
No
piece master-
English scholarshiphad
and evinced
of
heretofore breadth
been
so
splendidlyexecuted joinedwith
a
such
of erudition
lavishness the
outlay.
Savile was,
indeed,
of the
fitting type
school.
of
magnificentEnglish scholar
in
early
Free-handed
gratifyinghis
over
scholarly
He
generositywas
felt all
England.
at Oxford, professorships
and
aided
Bodley
in
founding
the famous
Bodleian
Library.
Savile scholarship, somewhat "an
was,
Apart
from
likewise,
chivalrous in manner,
He
affected in his
speech.
regarded
himself
handsome extraordinarily
358
a
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
system which
of
There
new
shall be
and fruitful,
given to
the
ment develop-
learning.1
in this
remain
a
earlier
period Ludwig
who
Caspar
rather
Valckenaer,
noticeable
made
editions of the
and
Phoenissce Bucolic
of
(1) The
Poets,
de Aris-
lectures of
were
attended
another
by English
at professor
those
Ruhnken,
Leyden,
who
is to be
remembered
in the Timceus Daniel
chiefly by
and
his
to the Platonic
words
of the Greek
orators.2
at
Wyttenbach,3 a
studied
also
by birth, and
German
to
educated
Marburg,
Universityof Gottingen.
live at
He
Leyden
for
under
Ruhnken,
taught at
to
a
Amsterdam
twenty-eight years,
years.
then returning
Leyden
for seventeen
Wyttenbach produced
texts,
two
complete edition
Latin
of Plutarch's
two
and of
an
with translation,
of notes, and
pages.
same
index, containingseven
writer interesting and
hundred
scholar of the
It is intertime Robert
Another who
was
Burton,
produced,
This
quiet study,
the
famous
Anatomy
what
of
the
Melancholy (1621).
and
essence
delightful blending of
is grave,
what of
is gay, human
filled with
apt and
so
contain has
wisdom,
that
gem
been
drawn
2
without
acknowledgment.
Vita
See
Wyttenbach,
cit. pp.
Ruhnkenii,
101-103.
pp.
67-300,
pp.
175-181;
L.
Muller, op.
1 1
84-88,
746-1820.
THE
PERIOD
OF
NATIONALISM
359
Germany
two
and
Great
Britain,that
decided
Press.
to
even
when
the
countries
were
at war, at
it was
printthis great
instalments
monumental
of
work
the Oxford
The
manuscript were
sent at
to the successively
Press
through
the
a
Hague,
and
were
pitch,that
mislaid
says
years
"
time,"
was
Sandys,
the editor
to
(Thomas Gaisford)
*
anxiouslyuncertain
In the
course
as
Cambridge began
new
to
to cultivate the
ing learn-
of the
was
become
almost
There had
first a
Roman
two
feud between
thought the
"
tongue
bands
"
their fellow-students
the
"
scribin deand
as themselves, respectively,
"
Greeks
so
Trojans."
Their
animosityat
took
to
times became
rampant,
But
that
of them parties
of
in the fighting
streets.
the progress
learningwent
were
possessedclassicistswho
with
upon
the Continent.
Burney
declared,about
a
the year
possessed
Dawes
Pleiad:
Richard
1 *
Sandys, op.
1757-1818.
tit. ii. p. He
wrote
critical discourse
on
the
metres
of
^Eschy-
lus
(1809).
360
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
(1693-1776); John
Porson
(1703-1766);
Richard
(1713-1785).1
1
Andrew
Downes
of St. where
Chrysostom.
he held
a
largelyrestored
Greek for
by
him
years
in
Cambridge,
of professorship
forty
(1586-1625).
orations
Lysias,^Eschylus, and
various
several
an
Elmsley (1773-1825)made,
annotations
on
edition
Thomas of Marcus
so
Thucydides, some
excellent Puritan
a
Gataker
(1574-1654), a
scholar, publisheda
Latin and version, of any
a
text
Aurelius,accompanied by
this book
was
commentary,
that
"the
earliest edition
published in
introduction tive illustranote.
England
there
are
with
many
original annotations"
observations from the Greek
on
(Hallam).
many
passages
given
in the
Morhof,
the
in his
among
six Protestants of
enormous
deeply read;
A
very sat
and
Gassendi
calls him
"a the in
scholar
reading."
versatile in the
investigatorwas
jurist, John
161 7
was
Selden
(1584-1654),who
works
brought
written
forth two
in had
English, while
a
in
Latin, and
it. the
His
name,
ever, how-
its connection
with
famous
an
Arundel
purchased
were
in
Assyria by
to
agent of the
and
of Arundel. Arundel
They
House
shipped
England,
placed
in
gardens of
of
a
(1627). They
as a
consisted whole
was
of two
large fragments
Marmot 354
B.C.
chronologicaltable, which
table
called
as
Pariutn. The
262
The
continues the
far
as
lost
fragment,
third,ended
with
263-
of its
composition.
the
and inscription,
published
with
careful marbles
notes, description,and
first came and
to
learned
England, they
won
gazed
by
multitudes
del at Arun-
House,
Selden
universal
praise.
About
THE
PERIOD
OF
NATIONALISM
361
was
Of
these
seven
men,
Richard and
Bentley
He
the
most
memorable
in
some
master
of Greek
to
Latin.
comes,
indeed, scholars,
respects close
and
He
some
of the
a
was
Scaliger's.
a
was
burly,contentious
the famous
"
Englishman,with
as
violent
and
diary describes
down about the Some
marbles
broken,
and
"scattered
the
up
garden,
of these
corrosive air of
in
the upper it
was
Parium
chimney,
250
rescued
once
more
by Selden.
Evelyn's request
walls of the
inscribed
of pieces there.
marble First
were
given to
were
the
Only
Shel-
136 arrived
donian Milton
they
inserted
Theatre,
has been
and
finallywere
placed
a
in
University Galleries.
but classicist,
spoken of already as
reader,wrote
number
controversialist and
than that of
belongs to
He of
was an a
linguists. professional
"
wide
of Latin His
a
verses,
on
in the
springtime
(1642) is,
ardent
and
brilliant of
a
fancy."
Tractate
Education and
a
however,
since he
poet than of
schoolmaster
to
encyclopaedist,
which He he agined immends com-
arranged
an
the
according
plan
"easie
Book delightful
of Education." and
famous
Italians Mazzoni
criticisms.
those
whom
he
that he advises
the Italian
pronunciation of
the stillmore
apparently of
Greek.
John
Hales the
(d.1656),and
famous
are
dreamy
"Cambridge
Platonists"
group
of scholars.
though 1706),
English diary,translated
with
a
of Lucretius
commentary
who
(1656).
the
very
lady
of
was
Mrs.
Lucy Hutchinson,
to
translated of
entire six
Her
as
books
of
Lucretius,dedicating them
with the
the Earl
Anglesey.
him
lack
sympathy
and
poet is shown
by
her
speaking of
as
"this
trine." doc-
Dog,"
of "the
foppish,casuall Creech,
a
dance
of
attoms,"
"an
a
impious
Thomas
third transla-
362
temper, and
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
prideso great,that
of
when
he
was
to chaplain
was
Stillingfleet, Bishop
the
Bishop's guest,
yours
and
was a
said
a
him
after dinner:
"
"
That
chaplainof
is
very
man." extraordinary
of it with
notes
a more
Yes,"
Oxford
than
an man
edition of
(1695) at
the
Creech of his
good taste,and
serious scholar
of
in the into
same
year
as
that of Creech
not
were
(1700).
translated
metrical His
English
only Vergil,
far of
more
Juvenal.
;
renderings
neatness
ing, phras-
Pope, however,
of what
a
that
passes
as
of others. the
Furthermore,
to
rhymed version
so
compelled him
depart from
else or original,
supplement it ; interpolation :
"
by
Welcome
The seventeenth
xv.
century
in
one fact,
of classical taste.
John
affected
Dryden, John
Evelyn, and
of
Joseph Spence
even
were more
especially by the
to
so-
by the influence
in
France, of which
for
something
say
Worthy
of mention Scotch
serious
(1674-1757),a
was editions,
printer and
practical grammar,
many
entitled Rudiments
of the
Tongue, which
through
American
colonies.
"
His
elaborate
work
"
Grammaticm He also
was
of syntax.
printed
had
works
of
Scotchman
a
who
Queen Mary
and
had
made
metrical
brought him
more as
credit than
one
he deserved.
of
scholar
of note,
THE
PERIOD
OF
NATIONALISM
363
of humility, gift
in
"
If he
only had
the
Europe."
Bentleywas
took
his
Cambridge
among
degree high
the
wranglers.
had
a
Later
when
remarkably
fine
the vast
the most
noting the
nicest
points,
meaning, the
cadences
in verse,
and
writings,
aid to
in largely
appendix
own now
edition of
Letter
John
Malalas
of Antioch, his
In
celebrated
most
to Mill
(1691).
with acutely
the
Themis, identifying
Minos, and
the actually and
Auleas
of
as legendaryhistory,
being
of Chios,
tinuity con-
He .#"schylus.
the metrical
anapaestic system.
pages
monograph
was
less than
hundred
than he
in bulk,
authors, sixty
won
Greek
and
among
Latin. scholars
By
on
Continent, who
him appreciate
were,
than
Britain.
of the of Cicero Epistles
to
in his ability
treatment
Brutus, and
ing, learn-
plays of Euripides.
said of his
own
He
"
was
the Continental
a
work in
Probably
of
will learning
revive
England."
364
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
Bentley had
a projected
boundless
ambition
in these years.
He
collection of the
another
fragmentsof
poets, and
his
But lexicographers.
ad Epistola
Millium
alone sufficient to
To
placehim
at the
head
"
quote Mark
Pattison:
The which
ease
with
been
which,by
left in
he restores
passages
had
of the
over ful care-
the certainty of the emendation, and the command Chronicle, the relevant and
are material,
in
the
a
laborious
small
at
once
apparent
were
not
by the ordinaryacademical
sufficed to
standard,but whom
had
former
age.
only Bentley's
which
pugnacityand dogmaticism,
him
as
in after years
made
many
enemies him
as
his In
made
to
a
friends.
he
was
charitable
an
degree, and
young For
found
in him
source unfailing
of aid.1
was
years
dinary, extraor-
though
won
shape
in
form. literary
He
from recognition
Continental
scholars,and
which
he worked him
Royal Library,in
asked
obtain
in beautiful form
1
Evelyn
Supra, p.
351-52.
366 J
ever,
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
in
"
1700,
men
become
the and
of dwelling-place
cultivated
idlers
who To
dined
them
wined
and
scholar's
life.
Bentley came
over
unwelcome their
reformer, ridingroughshod
tastes.
He he
diverted
the
funds college
purely academic
in
uses,
introduced wrote,
"
strict He
and, discipline,
fact,as
once
De his
test, con-
Quincey
reward
made
Trinity College at
This
which would
he have
been
a
styled"The
less
Thirty
than
Years'
War,"
But
was
killed
sturdy man
Bentley.
that spirit
the combative
it seemed
as
though he
must
under
one
in the face of he
was
almost
unanimous
opposition. degree,and
died,he
was
time
deprived of
from
his academic he
headship was
taken
both possession
of his
degreesand
It is work his
an
of his
headship of Trinity.
that all of hours
s published Bentley'
fact interesting
that he could
enemies
one
within
more
his academic
fact
gives us
proof
of
the
immense
scholarshipand
was
his
line of which
In
at the
of disposal the
mere
his books
we
see, not
finished carefully
leisured is
but scholar,
on
the
play of
This
mind
bent really
on
other
things.
it is
of his
sertation Dis-
Phalaris; and
just as
of his critical
THE
PERIOD
OF
NATIONALISM
367 (1726),in
his
(1712), in
his
Terence
the famous
Latin
text
the Greek
Testament.
account
admirable
of
work Bentley's
as
critic will
found
in Sir Richard
in published will
the
English Men
many
be
shown, with
almost
in Greek
Latin, which
scholars.
To
throw
"
darkness
was
forte.2 He Bentley's
of vast
his results
by happy
and
a
combination
minute reading,
scholarship,
few have
in
a
ever
possessed.
he
was
largemeasure
what say,
of critic who
largely upon
that is to
call le sentiment
critique
of what
stinctive in-
knowledge
of how
the author
had
in
mind, and,
he would
this
naturally express
himself.
sentence:
et ratio et
res
sunt? es potior
instruments
sureness
It
was
Bentley'scommand
here
of and
criticism mentioned
that gave
his
1 1
London Cf.
and
New
and
p.
211.
In his note
Horace, Carm.
368
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
dexterity.He
he highdegree, familiar with
success
possessed the
was a
"
critical sentiment
and subject(res)
,
"
in he
was
master
of his
the
his great
a new
in
conjecturalemendation.
became
he
applied
he gave
rivalled un-
so
long as
he
each of them
equal share
in his
wOrk,
remained
in his chosen
field. He
leaned,however, too
much
toward
the
therefore,
strike
one
by
their And
brilliancy
ample, ex-
convincing.
more
so, for
of the hundred
changes which
or
he
troduce in-
been
acceptedto
take
their
place in
the
texts
times.
Hence He
was
Bentley must
the first to Others
be
as regardedchiefly
pioneer.
point the
way
toward
in his
trulyscientific
steps, and
are
methods.
have
followed
have
to
a
passedbeyond him,
and Bentley'sinspiration
example.
He
serves
warning ;
for when
he tried to make
criticism
to
he, with
of
error.
began
flounder
bog
Thus
at
taken Lost,underthe
the
request of Queen
that the text
as
Caroline, he evolved
we
absurd
as
notion
wrote
have
it is not
the text
Milton
a
but it,
been
it had
altered in
places
There-
by
copyistthrough whose
passed.
THE
PERIOD
OF
NATIONALISM
369
an
fore
Bentley goes
entirely original
may
method, subjective
form.
serve
as
it to its
The
a
and pathetic,
that
warning to
in
those who
an
think
merelyby putting
think his the
themselves
and thoughts, Swedish
placeof
author,they can
wrote.
rewrite what
have shown
he
In
scholars
something of
an
audacity.
The
French
school
have
held to
intense
we
conservatism,
to which school,
shall
refer, presently
from
best ^Bentley's
work
the value of
correcting
source
with
caution.
are
emendations Bentley's
a
dazzlingexamples of what
effect. To him
combination
we owe
of
the
also the
of discovery
digamma
a
in its relation to
new
Testament, and
the flood of
upon
the
earlyLatin
strange that
metres not
in his introduction
Terence.
was
It is his
century
thoughtof
of
Master
;
Trinity,
"
as
whereas, even
the Continent
as
in his
as
known
all over
As
late
he
1833,Bishop Monk,
his
life,1 regretsthat
See The
ed.
37" "wasted
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
his time
upon
criticism" conjectural
instead
of
turninghis
^ never
"
attention to
to
Theology.
him
"
But
have due.
ceased
says
give
the
praise
not
Thus,"
Mahly,
Bentley is
merely one
among
new era
the in
inauguratesa
a
new
of
criticism.
obtained
He
opened
path.
scholars
With had
him,
criticism
its
majority.
When
offered
suggestions and
over
conjectures,Bentley,
material "The
rare
unlimited decisions."
control
the whole
of
learning,
of
Bunsen
styledhim:
founder
historical
wrote:
"
enthusiasm,
every
a
defied
tempt, at-
even
were mightiest,
removed
by
touch
of
the
of fingers in the
so
this British
Samson."
But
were
England
him
of his
as
day,even
to
the most
learned
men
not
his powers.
at
his Dissertation
aware
Oxford
them;
yet their
how
too
slightto
understand
crushed; and
a
educated in
long time
Boyle was
his
reality
Thus
when
Bentley died, in
him
countrymen
remembered
by
his
Bentley England
has work
more as a
produced
the richest
to
THE
PERIOD
OF
NATIONALISM
37
be
the most
remarkable
can
found
in the annals
of Classical with
men
Philologyin
Great
Britain.1
are
Contemporary
number
Bentley and
who
are
followinghim
of learned
chronicled
by Englishmen,
the
but who
of
made
no
great impressionupon
one
history
of
them, Richard
the
Greek
dramatists,was
and One
was
instances
by Brunck,
MS.
wards after-
confirmed
than
an
by the
may
Ravenna
who
is other
Englishman
find it worth
an
who ChristopherPitt,3
made
jEneid, and
another
known
was
of Vida's
of Poetry. Thomas
his
Gray,4 best
to
a
Elegy in
Country
delicate
Churchyard,
Latin
of
very
careful
and
as
poetry; while he
mentioned
who
by
some
among
the few
Plato.
1
should
mentioned
of
bealready
BerDe Mark
The
are
Monk,
cited; Mahly,
nays,
Biographic (Leipzig,1868);
Kleine ii. 1030-1094; Schriften,
Philol. Mus.
35-180;
Nicoll, Great
Scholars;
Jebb, Bentley,
vols.
(New
works
London,
were
1899).
collected have and edited
as
Bentley
by Dyce,
follows:
works
been
edited W.
tion Disserta-
the
by
Wagner
and
Horace,
edited Ellis
Critica
by
1
*
A. A.
1
709-1
766.
* "
1717-1771.
1699-1748.
1720-1808.
372
cause
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
on
the Ars
which
Poetica
of
the
Horace, and
unusual
Epistolaad Augustum
had
honour One
at that time of
man. Gerwere
cannot
pause
to
dwell upon
able and
sometimes
their
Continental be made
as
contemporaries. Perhaps
of
at
exceptionmay
a
in favour well
as
Samuel
Musgrave,1
who
student among
as
at
Leyden,
Oxford,
numbered distinction
He
his
of correspondentsforeigners
such
Ruhn-
Ernesti.
of
a
Euripedes,and
twice
visited Paris
text.
make
Thomas
Tyrwhitt, one
of
Pleiad, was
said to have
much
a
admired
knowledge of almost
was
European
It
tongue.
was
excellent.
he who
in
forgeries
cised critihe covered dis-
of Chatterton.
likewise
edited
acuteness.
Chaucer, and
In
some
ways for he
of Babrius
many
in the
fables of
^Esop.
His
critical notes
authors, and
a
his especially
Latin version,
But
gained him
other
France
and
from
Germany.
this short Parr
was
Englishmen
reach the
780.
See
be
omitted
list
until we
1
of Samuel
Parr.2
essen-
732-1
1747-1825.
and
374
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
we
have
noted
some
of the various
tions, transla-
Pitt's version
So Thomas
of Vida's
of Poetry.
Gray
wrote
more
trulyin
while of creation,
Hurd's
aesthetic
commentary
exposure
was
is remarkable
Tyrwhitt's
of
the essentially
mind, analytic
the
which
dealt
with
comparison
and
the
of application
fundamental
of principles
judges art.
after
By
Richard
town
far the
Bentley was
in
a
Porson,1 the
of
parish clerk
was personality as
small
in Norfolkshire. In his
Porson's
extremely
been
odd.
prime
a
he is described
having
Roman
nearly
and
six feet
an
high,with
bulging forehead,a
while his countenance
is the
was so
nose,
mouth, expressive
suggestedprofound
thought.
friends. partial
Such
If he
impressivelookingon
in his be
monious cere-
occasions,he
life. His
upon him
was
daily
dress
was
slovenlyand
were
thrown
; his hands
while ink-stained,
contortions has
his
must
snortings
have
sembled re-
and
and puffings
absent-minded
those which
Macaulay
was,
ascribed
to Dr.
Samuel
Johnson.
Porson
over-fond likewise,
even
of
drink, and
he drank
it is related of him
to
excess
that
at official dinners
while
the
after the
guests had
the
departed he
would
walk
about
table, sippingup
1 i
dregswhich
remained
759-1808.
THE
PERIOD
OF
NATIONALISM
375
lants, stimusoap,
in the
glassesof
he had
a
the others.
When
deprived of
thingsas
up
cologne,and
wherever His
mere
ink,
would
lap
with
avidity
he could
find them.
were,
a
mental
powers
however, remarkable.
memory,
so
As
that
enter
a a
child he evinced of
and
high degree of
him
number Eton
gentlemen provided
with
funds
to
afterward various
TrinityCollegein Cambridge.
a
There
he
The
took
fellowship.
him
an
annual
to the
of
^100,
and
unanimously
the income
elected
this
was
from
chair
only "40.
of
were
Two
years
before
his death
In
he
made
librarian
the
London
Institution.
he
to
all the
held
by him,
studiously neglected
account.
duties,but
a
no
one
called him
much
so
He
was
was
considered
soap,
as as
prodigy, as
he
was
when
he
eating
when
overthrowing Gottfried
Hellenic
metres.
Hermann
to
nice
points in
was
Porson
naturallyan
enormous
indolent
amount
person,
and
and
yet he
did
an
accomplished an
enormous
of work,
is
a
amount
of
the
reading.
There
tradition
that
to
when
he made
journey by
the
mail-coach
his
from
Oxford
London, he crammed
editions of the various
pocketsof
classics
printedin pored
type, and
them with
by
the
swaying lamp
of
painfulassiduity.Among
of
376
Porson's
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
are learning
on
(i) his
restoration
of the Greek
scriptio in-
the Rosetta
four
second
completely disposedof
and
very
ingenioustheories
of his
of
Hermann;
(4) his
Letters to
Travis, one
in it he
proved
v.
in the New of
(1
St.
John
7) which
"
speaks
the
"
three
bear witness
had down been
to
in heaven
is
wholly spurious.
and
This
opinion
scholars who first
held
by Erasmus,
of
by
many
other Porson
the time
a
Bentley,but
it was
made
it
certainty.
was a Grecian, and essentially as
Porson1
not
so
his
was Latinity as a
remarkable
that of Samuel
Parr ; but
ist Hellen-
of Continental
with scholars,
continual
correspondence,e.g.
In 1808 he
Ruhnken, died,and
statue
Hermann.
buried
in
at TrinityCollege,
of portrait and
see
him
hangs
in the
diningroom
TrinityLodge,
If
we
another
a
Library.
1
wish
to
perpetualand
See
Watson,
Life of Richard
Porson
Table
Talk
of Samuel
by Luard
Sandys, In Social
p.
300
foil.
"
Note
The
the of
"three
heavenly witnesses"
was
defended
Bishop
Salisbury, but
finallyand
absolutely refuted
Turton, afterwards
Bishop of Ely.
THE
PERIOD
OF
NATIONALISM
present monument
and
memorial
to
him,
almost
after
we
type in which
was
printed. This
cast
from Greek
as
elegantletters
which is
in which
now
copied his
manuscripts,and
"
everywhere known
the From
type."
of the
the
middle
of the
upon
to
nineteenth, such
English
in
learning shed
measure
English scholarshipwas
of the
small
due The
the influence
at
Oxford
Cambridge,
Fellows
joyed en-
were
sunken
their
sort
of
lethargy.
homes,
the
not
by
any
the neglecting
routine
reading of
of classical the
learning,and
and cellars,
every
men
caring more
the
for
the
fine
vintages of
deep potationswith
which
they ended
If
real distinction
in of
came
from
among
their
number,
and
not
this
spite of
it.
the
universityinfluence
Chesterfield
even
because
"rust" the
Thus,
Lord
spoke of the
friend of
of
Cambridge;
and
West, the
:
"
"Consider
me
very
strange
and
country,
Masters
habited in-
Doctors
of
country
flowing with
and syllogisms
ale,where
Horace
Vergilare
equallyunknown."
378
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
of the Hebrew
no
insists that
in view
an
Isaiah he of
Cambridge
wild
less
and for
Babylon
asses,
when
spoke of
beasts
a
of
inhabitation
dragons and
court
serious indictment
was
that of in
England'sgreatest
stern
Edward historian,
Gibbon,
uttered
and
After
stately giving
the
of particulars words
his which
the famous
"To she will the
as
widely known
no am
"
me
for
son,
as
her for
mother.
I spent
fourteen
months
Magdalen
my
idle and
of unprofitable
whole
the
reader
will
between
the
school
and
Gibbon
who,
thrust
forth from
to become
Oxford
a
in
year, because
he chose
Catholic,
of
an
with
and application
research
accomplished scholar
Rome. From memory,
childhood
which
remarkable
unusual
was
abundant
reading
in Rome
came
in 1751
to him.
work
plan then
formed
was
originally
of the Lang,
limited
to the
decay of
reflection
reading and
1
expanded
(New
to
See
Morison, Gibbon,
pp.
7-10
York, 1879)
THE
PERIOD
OF
NATIONALISM
379 Fall
Empire, Empire)
as
and
of the
Roman in 1772,
shows.
began
of
in
to
write
this book
volumes in
as
were
publishedin 1781,
From the moment
and
last three
volumes
1788.
classic
of its appearance,
even
it ranked
has
to this
an
day
the most
in
searching
its massive
discovered The
important
has
error
book, indeed,
been
called, rightly
one
of human
thought and
erudition.
paganism was
facts have
being
a
thrown
lightupon
some
of Gibbon's
conclusions; but
what
sort
he
writes.
of "measured
melancholy" befitting
the
monotonous,
it not led
He
infused
to
with
of in
certain
as
piquant qualitywhich
"
Byron
speak
Gibbon 1794.
' irony."
died in London
to do
with
that
and
the broader
field of
1
seen
by
in
the
fact
Decline volumes
archaeological
Fall have all been
The
editions that of
of Gibbon's
seven
supplanted by
See
also Letters
Bury
(London, 1806-1009).
and The
Gibbon's
Memoirs,
edited Prothero
by
Hill
(London, 1000) ;
of Gibbon, edited by
(London, 1896).
380
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
studywas
The is
was manner
carried
on
almost
outside entirely
their
precincts.
Marbles
*
in which
they treated
The
the Arundel
characteristic. sufficiently
not
reproach, however,
in
to Englishmen applicable
general. Thus
been founded
the
in
which Society,
had
produced
some
remarkable
Two
works
for which
itfound and of
necessary
funds.
explorers(James
the material The This
for
Stuart
a
Nicholas
Revett) furnished
known
as
work
enduring value,
Measured
and
Antiquities of
book
was
Athens
Delineated?
rendered
into
German,
and
by
the student
of archaeology
because
of the monuments No
an
lessvaluable
(d
.
7 7 1) ,
inveterate
drawings
William
of
the ruins of
sent account
Palmyra
to
and
Heliopolis.Sir
Hamilton minute
the
British
a Society of Antiquaries
of the
was
earlyexcavations
enriched
at
Pompeii.
The of
by
collection splendid
marbles, bronzes,coins,gems,
Richard
vases,
other
a
while antiquities;
of
Payne Knight
and
lected col-
set splendid
antique bronzes
The and
coins,which
the
in
Museum.
Upper Egypt
enriched
Turkey
and
Greece
the literatureof
archaeology
Supra, p. 360.
First
edition, 1762 ;
second
edition, 1825-1830.
382
The Hellas
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
monuments
of
were
the
East
beyond
the
domain
of
and and
Rome
exhibited splendidly
who explorers
had
destined
a new
to excite
study of languagein
and
hitherto unknown
had
form.
English scholarshipheretofore
aid and
done
littleor
nothing to
of
Philology, apart
from
the the
comparative study
scholars
of Hebrew
Greek
to
of the Continent
which
was
speculateas
as
a
the
relations
regarded
at
tongue;
but
now,
an
the
close
of the
who
there
one
came
oriental
scholar
to
open
of the most
brilliant pages
in the
study of
classical
learning.
This He
was was
William in
Jones1
(afterwardsSir William).
was
born he he
was was
London, and
entered
at
educated
at
Harrow,
whence There
UniversityCollege,Oxford.
desire to
His
able to
gain
thorough knowledge
orientalism
Edward he became
as seems
of
to
2
languages.
like that
tive instinc-
been
of the
late
Henry
Palmer
that, without
and 1770
versed in both
in the
Persian In
Arabic, colloquially
he
at published,
well
as
dialects.
in the
the
from
librarywere
to
a
placed
of
on
end
in bookcases three
would
extend
distance
more
than
746-1 794.
Edward
Henry Palmer, by
Walter
Besant
(London, 1883).
THE
PERIOD
OF
NATIONALISM
383
Nadir
A the
Life of
Shah,
Persian;
and
in
to
in the next
lated transas
Persian
seven
(1772);
1780 he
exquisite poems,
Sir
as
known
the Arabs
Grotius,was
wrote
a
as
in law
so
number
made
legal essays,
judge
in the
that in
1783
Court
he
was
knighted and
Supreme
of
His
amidst
ways.
oriental showed
established
he
the
Royal
Asiatic
whose
was
volumes the
a
contributed He called
and largely,
of the
which
he
first President.
verse,
published
The Hindu
translation and
of
story in
Wife,
work,
or
an finally
English rendering of
to
the
ancient
now
well
(known
Sanskrit This
scholars,
aroused
a
Sakuntala,
wide
the
Fatal
Ring
(1789).
and
interest of
throughout Europe,
Hindu literature.
led
was
to
general
in
a
discussion
Jones
engaged
of digest
the Hindu
and
Mohammedan
laws at
the time
of his death He
was one
in 1794. of
the most
has
noted
ever
and linguists
oriental
passage
scholars
that him
England
produced;1
of Asiatic may
one
penned by
after he
Researches,2
a
had
given
Sir
what
one
call
only
slight
(London,
See
The
Life of
William
Jones
by
Lord
Teignmouth
1807).
*
Asiatic
i. 442 Researches,
(1786).
384
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
in the
of linguistics history
"The wonderful
than the
to
Sanskrit
language,whatever
more
may
be its antiquity, is of
structure;
copious
of verbs
Latin,and
of them
more a
both
and
in the forms
so
of grammar,
no
than
could
have
produced by
the
accident ;
strong that
could philologer
examine been
Sanskrit,
from
to have
sprung
source,
though
and
may
The
Persian
to the
Though
Sir William
the
peculiarsimilarity
must
between that
Sanskrit,Greek, Latin,
had been
Persian, we
to
remember of this
something
In
help
the progress
some
discovery.
of the Hindu
the Middle
Ages,
the Arabs
introduced
knowledge
In the obtained
and science,
(Hindu)
numerals. French
foothold
in
India.
They
merchandise
was
and
preciousstones, though
one
knowledge
even
of
Sanskrit
a
gathered
poet into
issued Rome tween beH. F. in
of
them
translated
Sanskrit
to
early as
1651.
The Father
first Sanskrit
grammar had it
be
Europe
in
1
compiled by
few years
printedin
790,
only a
and
before
were men
; but
India
Europe
H. H.
men
Colebrooke,
admired
after them
to them
and
Wilson. like
Germany,
their the
translations
were
intenselyby
those
even
Goethe, Herder,
literature
two
Schlegers,and
more
who than
found its
in Hindu
something
and epics, India
its very
drama.
See Frazer, A A
LiteraryHistory of
Macdonell, (New
and
Kielhorn,
Grundriss
der
indoarischen
THE
GERMAN
INFLUENCE
Where
there
were
shall
we
look
for those
earlyschools
who
in which
yielded already
the the
have
mentioned
Great with
the revival of
promoted by learning
His
Charles Louis
successor,
who Pious,
knew
lapse;and
school at Tours
Irish monk
son
of
a
slight
Latin
althoughin importance,
grammar. France from
composed
king of
At the
840
to
head
by
him
he
placedthe
most
noted
of philosopher Duns
even
earlyMiddle
he
Scot
(or
and
Scotus), and
from
famous Greece.
Ireland
At Fulda
school founded
by
Boniface
was
Alcuin
taught.
at
was
Among
Mainz,
Rabanus and many
them
the
German,
Rabanus
Maurus, born
Strabo. the It
Servatus
Lupus, and
who
Walafrid
(orHrabanus)
a
founded
at Fulda library
a
then retired to
great
works encyclopaedic
1
educa-
Supra, pp.
385
2C
386
tion.
HISTORY
OP
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
He
introduced besides
Priscian's
a
grammar
tract
on
of
Germany,
short
alphabets and
abbreviations.
In the Middle
were
Ages
many
fragmentsof
some
read and
we
of them The
fully
than
should
supposed.
historians (Caesar,
very
Florus) were
familiar,
in
popularbecause
was
he abounded
so
Germany
France and
not
well
supplied
books
as
were
be very
precise upon
Naturalis and
cataloguednine
in
times
in
Germany,
only twice
Pliny is mentioned
while his letters
are more
only twice
are
Germany,
quoted once
of Tacitus
by
in
scholar
in Verona. than
There
traces
Germany
elsewhere.1
the
knew
as
something of by
no means
North, regardedthe
inculti.
strangers and
Charles
when
Emperor,
and
IV, became
himself
a
head
Holy
Empire2
showed
generous
as a new
Augustus,a
1
Petrarch
corre-
An
elaborate
account
preservationof
in
a
the Latin
way,
monasteries in
a
of the
East, arranged
and
very
careful
as
number
of works
1902,
monographs
such
West,
Phil.
Assoc,
xxii foil.;
Wattenbach,
Schriftwesen im
2
Mitklalter
1346.
THE
GERMAN
INFLUENCE
387
to
sponded with
was
the
Emperor,
from
1350
1356, when
he
sent
to the
by
the Italians to be
the extreme
confines
barbarians.'
giventhe Emperor
decorated effigy
gold and
his
Rome,
count ac-
in easy Latin
taken to Vienna
Latin
(1442-1455).
on
tineas
Silvius wrote
(1450)a
treatise
education When
master. imperial
iEneas
made
Pope
pupil,
of
the
fond of him,
promisedon
behalf
that this
to cultivate
so
of which
Pope
had
been
admirable
him
example.
Classics were,
soon therefore,
taughtby
(1460-1469) ;
mathematics
of
and
but
only on
astronomy.
known
as
His
pupil,Johann Miiller,
on
Konigsberg,best
and
Regiomontanus, lectured
De
Terence, Vergil,
classicists and
Cicero's
astronomers
Senectute.
now
A number
of
also
spread throughout
where and lectures
were
Germany,
schools editions
regularlygiven
Greek and
Latin
translations
of
works
It is
as
that interesting
to
at Ratisbon
studied
lead to
proposal for
its correction.
to
Because where
of this
the
Archbishop was
us
summoned
Rome,
he died.2
Let
trace
the briefly
^sG.
rise and
progress
of the greater
.'1476-
388
German
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
universities.
the
It
came
from partly
Paris and
partly
from
influence
The
next
earliestof them
at
the that
the
of University
were on
Vienna
(1365).
Paulsen
says
both
of these
the eastern
was
borderland
near
enough
for Western
because
a
between
such schools, In
Cologne,
close connection
kept
up. the
the
same
founded
Universityof
Erfurt.
Five
the
Universityof
the
closed in 1794
that it was
and
Erfurt
It must
be
bered remem-
Austria
and
the parts of
more
Germany
which
bordered French
with the
more
on
Italythat
Italian
receive
the directly
fruits of touched
was
and
culture. of
Though
rude
and
Byzantium,
Austria
at
least
the barbaric
North.
All this is
were
priorto
homes
opens
Renaissance, and
A
these universities
the
of scholasticism.
second
movement.
doctors
Duns
as
Albertus had
came
Magnus
and
Aquinas
Scotus Then
of these
schools.
to
schism
lost
Prague
Germany. (1409).
of the
In
Rostock
opened
its halls
(1419) to
meet
Baltic countries.
1
devoted Originally
solelyto
the
study
of law.
39"
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
be
great
seat
a
of
or learning,
it
might
be
to
school with
in
a
small
destined foundation,
be convenient
few years.
It may
for
the universities in
exist and to-day,1
Germany
and Austroor
Hungary
1
which
to say a word
two
con-
In
Germany
Berlin
to-day
about
there
are
twenty-one
being
(with
Leipzig, Bonn,
Breslau, Freiburg, Halle, Tubingen, Heidelberg, Gottingen, Marburg, Strassburg,Wurzburg, Kiel, Konigsberg, Erlangen, Giessen, Greifswald, MUnster, Jena,
the faculties of Rostok. At
Wurzburg Tubingen
at
theology are
Catholic
are
Bonn, Breslau,and
while
as
"
they
other
are
mixed
and
Protestant;
It number
the well
faculties be added
universities of
Protestant.
might
seven
that
universities
Austria-Hungary
Vienna, Gratz,
bruck, Inns-
Pesth, Breslau,Cracow,
Of the
men distinguished
and
Limberg.
German
"
who shall
first made
learningillustrious
Peter Luder
"
omitting those
who
of whom
at
we
speak
above he and
are
(c.1450),
Later he
matriculated
Heidelberg
academic
an
before home
visited lectured
Rome.
on
returned
to his German
the Latin
poets
thing every-
(1456).
This
was
such hinder
to possible
him
work,
much
that when
plague
afflicted
Heidelberg, Leipzig.
Luder
lectured
One
ardent known
pupils at Leipzigwas
as a
who (1440-1514), It
was
he who
p.
journal of
and and
1492
Ciriaco
(seesupra,
collection
monuments
inscriptions. His
his work is
on
is
now
libraryat Munich,
to
the
history
as are
from
everywhere
known
"Nuremberg
to
His of the
of ancient of
monuments
have
inspiredsome
Schedel
of
was,
drawings
Albrecht
Diirer,now
the istic humanwho
in Vienna.
an therefore,
important figurein
Another who
period
deserves
German
scholarship.
was
leading
is best
especial mention
name
the
Frisian
by
his
Latinised
Rudolphus
and
THE
GERMAN
INFLUENCE
39I
scholastic. essentially
by
his interest
in travel
and
observation
at
; for
educated
at
to
four
German
universities
at
and, perhaps,
and
at
Paris. he
then
a
journeyed
Italy,studying
under
to
Ferrara, where
so
student
to
Theodorus
a
After station
much
activity city
he appears of
dropped
he
a was
rather
in his native
Groningen,
he
town
this time he
met
acted
town-envoy,
he
often
visited
Erasmus. and
Later
taught
from Like
Heidelberg, lecturing on
Humanists he his
was
translating selections
him
as
Lucian. Erasmus
in
Germany
in
looked his
to
their leader.
very
influential
what some-
private and
overrated.
scholarship was
which
wrote
treatise
on
appeared
an
in
the
same
by
Erasmus
Melanchthon,
honour
which and
deserve.
had, however,
truly humanistic
the the
a
spirit,
cheerful
urged
carefulness
a
reading, practice
earnest
memory,
and alacrity,
quiet
oppositionto
was
Erasmus,
He
great humanistic
centre
of Northern
Germany.
back
to
text-books,and
of
a
pointed style.
at at
the Latin
perfect Latin
studied
There
follows
him,
Langen
who (1438-1519),
a
finallyfounded
school in
was
great humanistic
of
school
famous stadt
at
that
was
Jacob Wimpheling
(1450-1528) at
of
Alsace, which
which
Germany.
Later,
Strassburg to
which
he the
migrated, he teachings of
in
founded Erasmus.
group
followed
of
Sebastian
Brant,
Fools
well known
Conrad
English
Celtes
literature
the
of the
Ship of
Dr.
years
at
(1494).
by
Sandys
were
"the
knight-errant of
after
humanism
Germany."
time under
His
early
unfavourable, but
and
spending Greek,
at
Agricola Italy,
in
Heidelberg
learning a
cultivated
little
he
made
into
livingwith
Rome.
most the]
Italians
Padua
Ferrara, and
from
When
he
returned, he received
the
poet'scrown
Fried-
392 From
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
the middle
came
fluence inwe
in
those
men
a
whom
have
alreadymentioned.
Subsequentlyarrived
to the influence
was
periodof
Luther
partialreaction, owing
rich III at
of Martin
to
Nuremberg.
afterward and
Celtes he
win
this honour.
Immediately
in Poland
was a
founded and
rapid
sion succes-
Hungary,
group.
along
the Rhine.
last
(at Mainz)
of the Greek
very
famous
von
time, Johann
and Hebrew
was
Dalberg,
Trithemius scholars,
a
and
Pirkheimer.
Johannes
is stillremembered
was
learning. Celtes,also
of the
member
later called
a
the head
Imperial Library
and
travelled in
a
great
tion collec-
deal
throughout Germany,
of Latin
poems, many
described do
his adventures
not
of which the
tend
to
suggest
the
early
Renaissance.
remembered of
a
discovery which
of
a
he made
map
in the Vienna
.
Library
The
thirteenth-century copy
was as
Roman
(itinerarium)
nal origia
early as
is of great
to a
interest, although
Celtes
bequeathed
from
was
rich patron
of learning,
Conrad Tabula of
whom
painted
of twelve that
Kolmar broad
after
the model
an
original map,
all those
consisted
stripsof
known
to
are
parchment showing
the Romans. the The
parts of the
should southeast from
east
world
were
pieces which
the
contain
corner
Spain
and
Britain
lost,with
is
to
on
exception of
of Britain
(Kent).
It
disproportionately lengthened
its breadth lines
to
being
1:21.
The
to
distances The
from
marked
are
running by
can
from
east
west.
indicated
distinctive find
"
marks.
Those
interested of
early
map
little Atlas
Antiquus
Lernen und
Justus
(Gotha, 1893).
On
proceeds, see
Forschen A
(Berlin,
Bursian,
1892); Pearson,
the German
Ethic
History of
(London, 1891) ;
Geschichte
THE
GERMAN
INFLUENCE
393
introduced
it was checked
of
ceded pre-
F. A. Wolf
(1739).
If
we
prepare
to
scheme
of German
from scholarship
Luder
down
somewhat
as
follows:
and
Epigraphy.
(1400 to
(c.141 5 (c.1660
to
c.
c. c.
c.
141
5).
Period Period
to to
1660).
1739).
Period
(c.1739
1810).
to
c.
Post- Wolfian
as
Period
(c. 1810
German
1870).
no
After 1870,
will be
seen,
was scholarship
the
cosmopolitancreative
are
study of
ways of
world.
There
many
different
German the
most learning.AlEcclesiastical
speaking of
will
Almost After
all of them
are
speak
of the Humanistic
there that,
of
other divisions in
terminology.
School,
shall hear
the
Grammatico-critical and
School, Historico-antiquarian
of the finally
is man purely Ger-
to
exist
as
an
isolated
phenomenon.
then learns from
many Gerall
first teaches
all the
world, and
cease learning
to be
That
is to say,
from
about
1451
through 1867.
394
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
National, and
Period
become has
precedingpages,
and
has the
One
to
should
speak
more
arise in studied
a
Germany,
at Paris
Johann Reuchlin,1
at
who under
Basle,
native Greek.
It
was
Latin
entitled : dictionary,
work which
was
Vocabularius
its
to preferable
in the predecessors
was
which
the
more
remarkable the
was
only twenty
some
further and
Latin
at
Orleans for
a
Poitiers.
as
necessary
to
the
philosophy of Aristotle
really
Later,
Reuch-
comprehended
he met
in Rome,
at surprised
stillhe
learned it as
Hebrew,
portant im-
thenceforward
pursued
For
study of
the most
thing in life.
was
of professor
Greek
and
Tubingen.
Hebrew
was
The
urged
the
study of
distasteful to the
Latin
and
stillmore
Greek
to
language which
Reuchlin
was,
they regarded as
impious to
1455-1522.
learn.
THE
GERMAN
INFLUENCE
395
abused therefore,
and
enlightenedhumanists They
believed
day
and
to
his defence. be
that
anything
everything should
enemies
studied,and
of
came
Reuchlin's
like
band
lighthorse.
witty and
once
nimble-minded
scholars
to the defence
in the
famous
satire called
Epis-
tol(B Obscurorum
Virorum
was
(15 16-1517).
The
first book
a
of
the
tola pis
largelycomposed
second
was
by
humanist
named of the
writer,Ulrich
leader
of had
von
deeply learned
Conrad
Muth
at school
with Erasmus,
of earlyhumanism. inspiration
Returning
residence
at
Germany, he made
over
his canonical
set
Gotha, and
:
the door
he
in
golden
as
Beata
There Tranquillitas. It
was
he lived
a
strange
his home
dered plun-
by
For
Protestant
Protestantism
broken
ial gen-
humanistic
the
followers of Luther
was
savage
ever what-
refined and
to fear
beautiful.
The
humanists
saw
that
they
had
more
ignoranceof the
Protestants
The
the
setting up of printing-
396
presses all
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
over
Europe
did much
to
to
beat
back
more
ism Protestant-
bringagain the
desecration
the
graceful
of cathedrals of pillaging
art
"
paintedwindows, beautifully
of the most
continue
for very
the
returned,and
modern
before
the end
of this
languageshad begun
which
to exercise
was
in
a reality
Among
Eobanus
of
Germany
to enormous
audiences
the famous
poetry and
rhetoric. formed
Of
one
his
pupils was
Camerarius,2who
clustered around noted
for
of the
interesting group
at
who
Basle.
He
is chiefly
chronology.3 Among
Renanus,4
well known the
his friends at
associate
and
biographerof Erasmus,
Velleius
and
princepsof
of Tacitus
Paterculus, and
held the
his work
the text
; Clareanus, who
of poetry ; professorship
a discovering script manu-
Gryaenus
of
famous Heidelberg,
for
of
Livy;
of
Prague, who
produced editions
as
Callimachus
as Aristophanes,
well
of the Planudean
1 1 *
1488-1540.
See his life by Horawitz
1500-1574.
Really Kammermann.
(1872-1874).
398
was
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
head-master made
years, and
the
writing
and
the
this seemed
the whole
of education.
all countries
sort
to visit him,
and
his school It
of model
German
never
gymnasia.
him,
"
happened
that
Roger Ascham,
his and
once
met
:
"
was
of correspondent
time
wrote
to him
For
our
the odde
to
man
to
he
so ever
doth, and
is in list,
know
poore
the way
do
them
whan skilfullie,
he
my
A
a
were
work
written
by
Conrad
Gesner, justmentioned,
at
was
somewhat
remarkable
attempt
what achieving
many
at that time
This
was
Mithridates
the
which (1555),
has
been
styledthe
comparative
to
studyof language.
Latin itwith
as a
When
added
Greek
and
at
to look
single tongue.
and Latin moral
prepared
so-called
up
of Greek
or
Thesaurus
Lexicon
long survived, J. M.
of Gesner
by Cellarius
An
(1686) ; Graevius
at
(1710) ; and
wrote
a
late of
as a
1726.
earlier Gesner
Zurich
sort
with
cyclopaedia, en-
dictionary of Greek
Rivius
was
and
Latin, and
of
proper
names.
A in
pupil of
Georg
Fabricius
(1516-1571),
the
monuments
who and he
studied
Italy,and
exploredwith livelyinterest
Like modern
classics,
editions of them.
THE
GERMAN
INFLUENCE
399 Testament
Furthermore,
written
as
the Old
was
in Hebrew, in the
must
have been
has
world,
theorywhich
times. from
adherents
down
to Gesenius to
in recent
Great
different
the
industry
devoted
had
words collecting
languageswhich
the
same
meaning,
in order
common
that
of their
origin.
there
was
Reformation
less
literary
a
study of
sterner
everywhere one
might
notice
in the
universities.
very
with
critical acumen
Lorenz
were
the characteristics
Sylburg and
Rhodomann,
in
writingGreek
hexameters,
so
that his
he put forth
anonymously (1588)were
of
widelybelieved
be
genuine works
In
antiquity.
Renaissance
there
as
were
some
few
Vite"z
well-trained
who (d.1472),
Johannes
correspondedwith the
who Latin
Janus Pannonius,
of Greek
Matthias He
at
tion largecollec-
and
king of
gary, Hun-
Corvinus,1 was
founded
an
academy
at
Pressburg, and
university
artists
Buda, where
he maintained
1
1443-1490.
400
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
to
continue
the
supply of
Latin
illuminated the
manuscripts.
It is
that interesting
remained
spoken language of
the
century.
nobles
Theresa's delivered
famous
in
harangue
as was
the
Hungarian
Latin,
their
spirited response:
!" Latin
was
Moriamur
pro
Theresa
Hungarian Diet,until
where
a never
1828.1
Almost
the who
same
thing
may
at
be said of Poland,
well-known
to
humanist
had
studied for
Cracow,
twenty
and
years
seems a
have
some
brisk
was
ence correspondwritten
first Latin
history of
was
by
of
Johannes Sanok,
who
Dlugosc.
Latin
poetry
a
mainly
at
by Gregor
most
was
finallybecame
who
lecturer Latin
Cracow. in
famous
humanist, however,
Buonacorsi. and
made
popular
in
Poland
Filippo
in Poland See
He,
as
with the
Hungary,
done
Germany.
Sokolowski studies of
and
Szujski,Mon. began
Medii in the
(Cracow,
1876).
Classical the
in Russia
was
seventeenth Latin
was was
century, when
studied carried
on
Academy
Greek After
Kiev
in 1620.
rather
than
in that
century,
Moscow of
a
all instruction
a
in Latin. establishment
Kiev,
seat
of
learning,after
In this the
the
there, in 1679,
carried into of the Greek
on
printing school. by
the
study
This
of
Greek
was
and
was
subsidised
government.
developed
who
were
Slavo-Graeco-Latin
Academy
had taken Peter
(1685), with
their doctor's the
teachers
descent, but
was
who
degrees at
here
were
Padua.
This
academy
translations into
favoured of classical
by
Great,
and
published
rendered
authors,
twenty-six
volumes
being
Russian
by
of the
the
long-lived
was
scholar, Martynov
founded St. in 1755, in the
(1771-1883).
University
of
The Vilna
University
in
Moscow
1803,
in
University of
done for
Petersburg
in
Kazan in
of Kharkov the
1804, and
of
1865.
promotion
studies literary
kind
by Catharine
II in the
THE
GERMAN
INFLUENCE
401
followed in the
teenth seven-
century
teacher of Latin
His
most
were
Johann
Ciceronianism.
in five
famous
are
an
volumes
(1739)with
after his death
Onomasticon
lished pub-
at Halle must
(1832).
ascribe
this school of
stern
we scholarship a
also
Johann
author
Jacob
of full
Reiske,
editions
student
of
of oriental
Greek, and
not
own
Reiske's
his
in autobiography,published
Voltaire
and other
eighteenth century,
writers and of of distinction
to
she
to
who
summoned German
Almost birth
French
remained
offset the
continued Russia
were
strong. German
R. D. T.
scholars distinguished
at
or training,
least of
German under
training. Heyne
Timkovski
studied
at
Gottingen,
a
; Professor
one
L. Kriukos
most
(1809-1845)had
at
"
been
pupil
of Boeckh Professor
; while
of the
brilliant scholars
St.
"
N. M.
heard and
Becker, Haupt,
This
an
and
Schlosser
on
at
Leipzig
and
scholar annotated
wrote
very
able work of
Horace also
his
times, besides
certain
were
translation
discussed
stock
terestin inK.
questions of
Lernstedt ski
Roman made
a
native
V.
who (1854-1002),
wrote
edition of
Antiphon
on
; L. F. Voevod-
who (1846-1901),
peculiartreatise
he
cannibalism
upon
regarded
who
as
bearing
Of
the
many
Germans
taught
of
the
he at
best
known
Christian
Friedrich of
Matthaei
Moscow,
C. in the F.
discovered
St. burg, Peters"
manuscript
who
the
Homeric
Hymns;
German
to
edited
Nonnus, using
this work
because
the the
revival
1 1
of
classical
learning belongs
Germans."
During
707-1
781.
3D
402
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
true
founder
of
the science
of Archaeology
Johann Joachim
the
son
Winckelmann.
Winckelwas
mann
was
of
poor
cobbler,and
years and
low fol-
which
ultimatelymade
him
the
first
critical scholar
Archaeology.
and
He
spent much
became
time
in
Rome,
Naples,
Albani,
he
Pompeii, and
famous
librarian to Cardinal
the most
owed led
innumerable
to
opportunities. In
of taste in the
his work
the
elevation
decorative
monumental
production
is his Geschichte
Alterthums,which
Lessing with
middle Germans of the
biography,1882).
century it
and
may
the
the
nineteenth
general that
greatly
Nauck
influenced the
stimulated
Russian
scholarship.
at
August
St. his work
spent
while
better
Petersburg,
in
Lucian
equally conspicuous
much
to
for its
Latin. in the
Archaeology reign
of Peter
was
Russia,
year
and
study began
death been of the
the
Great,
in
the
of
whose had
Academy
in
of Sciences
founded.
was
the the
Crimea
conquered
by
H.
exploration
done in
this former
home E.
civilisation.
has
gems, years
been and in
this field
Kohler,
authority on
ancient
especially
charge
of
by
the
L.
who
in antiquities
Hermitage
on
St.
valuable
monographs
Maleyn
of
the
researches of
interestingsynopsisof
Professor
the
history
by
E.
St.
Petersburg,
of his work
incorporatedby
Dr.
J.
Sandys
THE
GERMAN
INFLUENCE
403
the
expounder of
which
Classic Art.
It
his
theoryof
and which
the
Beautiful
impressed greatly
Goethe
forth
never
led Gotthold
his
famous
to be
discourse discussed.1
ceased
an
left
Rome
came
revisit Germany;
him
the way
strong feeling
upon
departfrom Italy.This
a
horror, yet
man
so
sane
Winckelmann Vienna.
At
visited both
was
Munich received
and
with
Austrian the
he capital
great honour
with
by
a
Empress, Maria
of very
Theresa, who
and Trieste
rare
number
ancient
to
Leaving Vienna,
On
his named
he
hurried
to
journey,however,
he fell in
greed
entered
excited
by
the
room
Winckelmann's
and
stabbed
death,on
June
8, 1768.
the science of
and Latin
by making
on
of specialty he wrote
Greek
coins and
which
morum
Veterum, the
work
appearing in 1798
a
the whole
in being reprinted
fourth edition
(1841).
Christian
Gottlob
Heyne,
in
1
ends reading,
See K.
He
seine Zeit-
genossen,
3 vols.
(Leipzig, 1872).
31737-1798.
404
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
was
professor at preeminent,it
gave him It and
Gottingen, and
was
though
his
a
learning
teacher
was
his his
as gifts exceptional
which
and
the university
leadershipat
at
is said
least
one
thirtybecame
various
versities uni-
throughout Germany
August
died in Wolf
was
Holland. lived
a
born He
was,
in 1739, and
as we
long
1824.
have
alreadysaid,the
was
founder
of
of modern
philology.1He
Halle
at first Professor
Philosophy at
until that
His
was university
closed
Jena (1806).
since
teachingwas
classical
marked
by great breadth,
with every
he held that
study dealt
phase of
thought of antiquity. In
of
classical
he antiquity the
found
model
publicand private
1807 he
went to
highestideals.
an
In
he
took
active
in
that he
he
left
Germany
His
Southern
upon it he
France, where
died.
fame lasting
Prolegomena
ad Homerum the
(1795).
poems,
In
Homeric
been
and
sought to
from
that
both
that
greatly changed
are
their
form, original
they
made
up
of
separate poems
1
by
2-3.
different authors.
He attracted much there but
It is not
attention
was no
true, how-
See
supra, pp.
on by insisting
being
was
matriculated
in
Philology,though
under
such
;
faculty.
thus he
He
waa
told to matriculate
Theology,
refused
and
in Gottingen. philolcgiae
406
in printed
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
the text.
He
spent
long time
in
making
searches re-
and
with
entire indifference
was
to the
printed
Lach-
editions.
mann on
epoch-making work
Iliad
Homer's
and (1807),
he took
above
immortal and
in masterpiece, understood
sense
"
which
of
the hitherto
with
little
poem
Lucretius,and
far
possessed
restored
Latin
it to its
masterpiecesof
genius.
and
most
first
at Konigsberg professor
afterward
Berlin, where
his
It
an
he
remained
more
one
of the
of distinguished
a
for colleagues
was
than
he
quarter of
century.
duced pro-
account
given in
says
:
preface to
any
that poet
by
H. has
J. Munro, appeared
any in
who
Hardly
work
of merit
Germany
of Latin
since
Lachmann's
Lucretius,
in
branch the
bearing on
was,
every
page
impress of
of In
a
example."
He
in
fact,the
creator
strict he in
and
scientific system
of
textual he
criticism.
say
too
this much
follows
Bentley, of
he
goes
whom
cannot
praise; but
"
critical sentiment"
the work
through the
of their for
evidence
He
of
was
manuscripts,and
renowned much
master
no
correction
errors.
less for
so
so profound learning,
that
be
said with
truth
that he
was
of
three
THE
GERMAN
INFLUENCE
407
great departments
Teutonic.
work.
of
In each of these he
produced by
an
epoch-making
he
For, besides
the best
his Lucretius,
he
which
is perhaps
Wolf's
to
known,
to
Prolegomena
show that
or
the
German be
as
epic of
resolved he the
the
Nibelungen
twenty
the
this could
into
original
into
in
ballads
lays; just
he his
resolved
poem
as
Iliad
for eighteen,
regarded
treatment
inconsistent he
was
details.
In
of Lucretius
followed
by especially
Hermann
by
the
Englishman,H.
the
J. Munro; lightupon
Lambinus
of
but
this
we
must
not
forgetthat
came
first clear
difficult text
centuries third
before,from
(Denys Lambin).
Lachmann
was
The
great achievement
of the New
his
treatment
Testament, in which
he
brought out
To the
the
same
methodologyof
illustrious
period belong in
names
Grammatico-critical
who
School
wrote
a
the
of
August Meineke,2
comic
critical
of history
poets, and
as
edited the
andrian AlexW.
fragments,assisted by
poets Dindorf,3 Karl
1
Bergk,
also the
K.
in
his
Analecta
Lehrs,4 Friedrich
August
1793-1851. 1802-1883.
other With his brother
a
1790-1870. plays
in
Ludwig
to
"
he
edited Both
and the
texts, besides
of three
lexicon
/Eschylus.
the
shared
making
famous
series
Teubner,
Tauchnitz, and
the Didot.
4
1802-1878. 1806-1876.
great authority on
grammatical
L. Muller
studies
in Greece.
See Friedrich
Ritschl, by
(Berlin,1878).
408
Nauck,1
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
who
did
He
one
so
much
a
for the
lives of
the
the
Greek
of St.
was
in professor who
as
Academy
of the many
carried did
the influence
his
of German
Lucian In
to Russia, scholarship
rary, contempo-
Muller.
find of
a
the
Historico-antiquarian School, we
2
Barthold
Georg Niebuhr,
founder
was a
of Dane
new
historical
by
lawyer by
was
soon
after the
that institution,
where
wholly on
who
were
of
his
by
of
had
become
threadbare
subject. Hitherto,
written of with
no
history had
been
The
told and
great discrimination.
a
earlylegends
But
a
had
been
lump.
Niebuhr
approached them
knows
a
lawyer or
judge who
tains con-
Therefore, he proposed
records them
was as
without
to prejudice
the written
of
Livy
though
in presiding
on
court.
method
singularly
was
acute, and
the
negativeor destructive
he
came
side
widely
and
accepted. But
1
when
to
constructive
work
1822-1892. 1776-1831.
See
Winkworth,
The
Lifeand
Letters
of Niebuhr
(London,
1853),and
Eyssenhardt,Niebuhr
(Gotha, 1876).
THE
GERMAN
INFLUENCE
409
himself
treated and The had
put forth
two
volumes
of
History,1 they
own
were
by
historians
according to
Niebuhr's with
been
method,
acumen.
done; over-
their defects
"
pointed out
had
much somewhat
theory of
and
when
tribal lays"
Niebuhr
resolved
of
a
this
of earlyhistory
Rome he
into the
remains
series of
not
even
ballads, poetical
failed to convince.
Yet
He who
was
original.2 subjectin
went.
a
it
was
Niebuhr
far
his
Rome
early lectures
under the
of population
the
"
Republic,
etc. publicus,
all
new
and
two
acceptableto
volumes
of miscellanies
and
discovered Italy
a
new
fragmentsand palimpsests.
of style which vivacity this effect diminished
as
had
freshness
nor
and
was
helped by
to say
a
convince
remarkable
"
his hearers;
self-consciousness such
no
once
The
discovery of
the world
so
ancient
as
historian my work."
have
in
taught
*In
2
much
Though
1812. Dutch
Perizonius, the
the of
while
Frenchman,
the
Louis
Beaufort, early
Roman
had
proofs
also
uncertainty
Arnold
Niebuhr
was on
preceded by
commerce,
Heeren
(1760-1842),
colonization
monographs
in
many
ancient written
3
politics,and began
cases
before
Niebuhr
1828-1843.
4IO
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
detail he
have in
as
was
often wrong,
not
the foundations
of his
history. He
the
was,
a fact,
earlyRepublic
Gibbon
the later
Empire.2
His
friend,Georg
and
Ludwig
put
Spalding (1762-1811),went
forth three
seen
to
Berlin of
with
Niebuhr
there
volumes
of
Quintilian,the
Buttmann fifth volume.
2
fourth
an
volume
being
lexicon
through
the author
the
by
P. K. in
a
with
excellent
to
by
F. E.
Bonnel
Other
scholars
who did
so
of
the
time for
were
the
famous
D.
Schleierlytical ana-
macher,
much
;
German Friedrich
on
prose
style and
also
,
for the
a
study
but best
of Plato for
Ludwig
notes
Heindorf
Platonist,
Buttmann
known
his
Horace;
of
a
Philipp Karl
(originallyBoudemont),
clearly expressed
an
but
purely
of the
dogmatical
Homeric Bekker For
grammar,
Lexilogns,
works
a
acute
study
vocabulary.
may
be
ignored.
critic of
Immanuel
texts.
notable
Greek
sixty-one years
seldom
ing, lectur-
brilliant
reputation
and
among
scholars for
his
improvements
and
"
existingtexts
Aristotle,Plato,
late and writers, and
not
the
Attic
historians,many
It be
was
in
Latin,
of
Livy
Tacitus. he could
first said in
seven
of
him,
of See the
von
Moltke, Suppe
of
that
silent
languages." (1785-1867)
to
was
H.
(Gottingen, 1872).
Gottfried Hermann. He of the classics.
August
He made
Boeckh
rival
devoted
his attention
the
antiquarianaspect
the
to
studies especial
of Pindar is
a
of Plato
monument
and
dramatists, while
his
his elaborate He
edition
was
industry (1811-1821).
of Berlin views
on a
professor of Eloquence
In his work unlike he
was
in the
more
University
for
fifty-six
years.
interested he
in broad
of classical the
learning, and
economy
Hermann
published a
but
treatise
public
of Athens
great part of
the
Corpus
after
Inscriptionum Gracarum,
his death.
ended
until
(1877) ten
years
THE
GERMAN
INFLUENCE
411
Among
Hermann
grammarians after
(1781-1860),
He
Christian
August
Lobeck
who
r;
*
Konigsberg.
discussed
in
with much
Greek,
and
the
generallaws
notes
on a
language
in his
fragment
Sermonis
of Herodian Grceci
great Palhologia
of Greek of
literature enabled
to
pour
forth
titude mul-
examples and
of the
detect and
illustrate the
to
living
was
phenomena
Gregor
devoted
language.
In addition whose
,
Lobeck
Wilhelm
to
Nitzsch
(i790-1861)
He
as
lifewas
largely
Wolf in
Homeric
studies. Homer
differed from
near living
the end
of the makes
and
therefore the
shaping artist;while he
Odyssey somewhat
in
Better Friedrich
known,
foreigncountries
and
most
least, was
Karl
on
Nagelsbach,
Latin and
appeared in 1846,
of Iwan
reached
,
Miiller
(1905)who
ita
thus
to its usefulness.
The
between
and
German
and
Karl
Lehrs from
carried
the
grammatical studies
the decadence
beginningof
As
a
(300B.C.)to
ByzantineAge.
Lehrs critic,
treated
412
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
very
severely, many
An
of whose
odes
Hermann
he
rejectedas
Friedrich
spurious!
early pupil of
was
Wilhelm
Thiersch
(i784-1860), a lecturer
of organisation
at
Munich,
and
doing
much
for the
He
the
educational of the
gave
system of Bavaria.
and
had
studied and
was
Louvre
the
to
British
Museum,
much
that
attention
antiquesculpture. It
was
him
the
Glyptothek
founded
at
the
capital by belongs to
grammars,
the Crown
the listof he
wrote
Prince.
grammarians, and
innumerable and
Greek nicer
was
treatises the
the
points
of
He particles.
fairly intimate
in
modern
Greek, and
of
wrote
French
the
Greece
to-day.
Georg
the
Other
Anton
at professors
Bavarian
were university
Friedrich
Ast
(1 778-1841),
Leonhard
editor
of
Characters
of
Theophrastus;
Spengel, Carl
Prunst
(1820and
1888) ; and
Ludwig
and noted
Erlangen,
forcible and
stimulating
unmethodical
synonyms und
and
in etymologies
Latin
(Lateinische
Synony-
Synonymen
6 Etymologien,
was
vols. ; Lateinische
in 1826-1838, published
and
the
second
was
in
1839.
still the
Grammar Wilhelm
two
subject that
attracted
grammar its
Karl in
Greek and
parts has
clearlystated
examples
414
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
upon
very
high
Following Bernhardy,
literature2
was
an
excellent
two
work
on
prepared
of
in
volumes
by
Sigismund
is not
Teuffel
This is
a
intended
for continuous
of
glorified bibliographywith
translated into
notes.
at
first vilely
Englishby
W.
Wagner,
and
enlarged and
into added
supplemented by
English by
the
more
well rendered
G.
C.
(1845 an^
and
I9OI)"wno
important
had
to the to
English
French
references This is
a
which book
the
Germans
omitted. insolently
student
many
of Latin
access
it giveshim and
details
to relating
authors
Closely linked
is the
the
name
with
another
valuable
work
of Teuffel, who
assisted the
of
completion of
Pauly
great Real-Encydopadie
a
August
(1796-
1845),
Greek
monument
of
minute
information
at
regarding
in Stuttgart
and
Roman
1839, was
1
finished after
der romischen der
Pauly'sdeath.3
Litteratur
Grundriss
1872); Grundriss
Griechischen is
a
Litteratur
4th ed.,
vols.,1876-1880).
describes with M.
for his his H. other
There
Life of Bernhardy
as
by Volkmann.
It
works, such
and
as
his Suidas
E. Meier
Theodor
Bergk, and
Keil and
pupils,such
ed.
Heinrich
August Nauck.
2Geschichte
*
der romischen
Litteratur
New
by Georg Wissowa
(1902).
THE
GERMAN
INFLUENCE
415
Grammatical
Gottlob prose and
was
studies
were
further
pursued by
grammar of
Karl Latin
Zumpt
(1 792-1849), whose
was
(1818)
several
times
translated
into
as
English
as
well
in
(1786-1821),
large grammar
the
first
systematic treatise
of the kind
R.
produced in Germany;
Nicolai,Meisterhans,
the
JEtna, and
one
a Forbiger(1798-1878),
pedestrian editions
known in
of
Vergil and
those of
were
England than
also the
Heyne
a
and
Lachmann.
Forbiger was
compiler of
German-Latin
tionary. dic-
Lexicography, being
here
an
elementary part of
developments,
with
a
grammar, reference
194,
may to 247,
be
considered
in its later
pp.
early
254,
lexicography on
255" and sius
3"5-
96,
97,
246,
Soon kinds
after
the
Renaissance
began
to
make
word-books
various
of lexica
popular,
a
one
Ambrogio
which and
Calepino (Ambrowas
Calepinus) had
it defined Greek. It
prepared
the Latin The
widely used,
also the
was
because
words
success
later gave
equivalent in
extraordinary.
in every
so
so-called
Calepinus
was
extended
many
possible
that
way,
definitions
being given
a
in with
guages, lan-
there finally
produced
Calepinus Danish,
the
Latin
defined Greek.
in The
Italian, German,
vogue of when the
English, and
into the
at
altered, continued
revision became
was
eighteenth century,
Padua whole work be
still another
soon
undertaken that
convinced that
an
the
antiquated.
out
He
proposed body
his
entirely new
and this
lexicon
was
made
of the himself
great
and
of Latin
authors;
done finally
by
41 6
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
The
broadly
known
as
scientific
study
of
languagewhich
,
is
riously va-
their Totius
of
Latinitatis
(Padua,
was
1771), a
splendid
rial memo-
classical
and Fr.
scholarship. This
revised by Vicenzo
used the work of
De-Vit
(1879)
and It has
Corradini
was
Klotz,
Perin. and
whose been
lexicon said
(1890) by
articles by
of
by Facciolati
so Forcellini,
fully have
that classics, their Other
they illustrated
the
tions quota-
from be
we
the
literature could
texts
restored
now
from
lexicon, were
lexicons than
destroyed in the
of the in Italians
where been
find it.
those
have
independently
translated of Lewis and
made
by Wilhelm
States
Freund
Germany
and
was
(enlarged and
made
"
by E. A. Andrews)
the basis
conveyed
"
England Georges
as
Smith's
Karl
Latin of
a
Ernst
(1806-1895),
it A
was
Gotha, produced
at
German-
accepted
Jena
as
the
equivalent
in
seventh
edition
appeared
which
1882,
bears
as
did (in
name
1879)
edition
of another
upon
the
of
as
is based
of other
scholars,
had from posal dis-
such
Forcellini,Gesner, and
so eyesight,
Scheller.
not
Georges
go at
that
he
did
often
far the
library;
generously put
his stores
of
learning
of scholars
in every
wrote
a a
Besides
the books
already
Hand-
mentioned worterbuch
many
he and
German-Latin
have
a
Schulworterbuch, both
The
most
of which
at
gone
through
was
editions.
ambitious
attempt
Latin
lexicon As
that
as
planned by
1857, the
Eduard of
Wolfflin,professor at
offered
a
Munich.
ten
early
king
the
to
Bavaria of
to
contribute
gulden toward
It of
was
cost
proposed
Munich,
as
Ritschel, and
editor-in-chief.
Fleckeisen, with
disturbances
Biicheler
prise enter-
of Bonn
Political
delayed the
his
until
the
publication of
Archiv
filr
THE
GERMAN
INFLUENCE
417
Sanskrit The
the
discoveryof
by
Sir
Jones,alreadymentioned
Lexikographie
and Archiv und
(p.383).
(in 1848),
all
over a
greatest
for In vols,
lateinisch collections
Grammatik
scholars for
a
quarterly
world. in of
12
suggestions from
announced
a
the
1893
of and
1000
the
plan
great
years
Thesaurus
at
a
pages
each, to charge
Vienna. It
be finished
in twenty of
cost
$150,000,
under
the and
Munich,
Bucheler,
in its
was
to
appear
fasciculi.
excellence with there the
was
lexicography
Stephanus
of lexicons students
reached
highest
as
tionary dicfelt
with
Latin,
words
should
define
Greek of in
in the
language
in 1571,
using them,
instead
Latin.
as a
Faber,
published a Thesaurus;
1726
of
uneven
but, using
two
that
basis,J. M.
now
Gesner,
forth
and
a
between Thesaurus
and his
1735, own,
issued
revisions,and
barbarisms
he
set
eliminating
and
and
solecisms,
a as
though
advance
in its treatment
explanation,it
Gesner
was
marked noted
distinct
a
in the
history of lexicography.
The the Old
in the New
Humanism.
Humanism Latin
a
of the and
sought
this
was
to
prolong
to be
life of the
language
found of Halle
as impracticable
spoken tongue,
School
of Gesner
abandoned
spoken
at
Latin
in the schools.
the New
by
Gottingen,
which and and bore made
value
to
a
study
of them
broader
richer
understanding
every
literatures and
This view
was
poetry and
fruit in
phase
learning.
of
teachings
Winckelmann,
of
upon
of
Lessing, and
taste
of Goethe.
a
Heyne
in letting
play
edited
commenting
whom
he
Panegyricus, Horace,
were
Claudian).
Others teacher
to
of the
New who
Humanists
Tobias
Damm
to
(1609-1778),a
Homer and
in Berlin
compiled being
great lexicon
another
Pindar,
V. C.
the
words in
F.
Rost
1833).
418
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
in
this
department
or
of Classical
Philology
by
Germans
to
in
Germany.
of
Sir William
Jones
drew
attention
the
we
likeness
now
the
structural
what
languages; but
gave
a
it was
to
Franz
scientific turn
the
discovery. Bopp
born
in
Mayence,
Persian Sanskrit
where (1812-1815), de
he
studied learned
and
from
Sacy, and
of
himself
grammars Wilkins
William
In 1821
Carey (1806)
he became
down
and
Sir
Charles
(1808).
chair
he for
and professor,
to
held
1
his 18 16
fifty-six years
his
his death.
Gotllob model and
In
published
first work
lexicon
Passow's of the
Johann
Schneider
for those
supplied a
did
(1810-1824),as
this in turn edition for
for Rost
Palm
and also
(1841-1857),and
Scott
the
name
that
Englishmen
on
Liddell
(1843),the last
of
(1880) bearing
an
Henry
Drisler,
had
American made
Hellenist
an
Columbia
lexicon
were
College, New
of scholars
runs
York, who
himself
independent
and
names.
Messrs.
A
Liddell
Scott in
"
very
unequal capacity.
:
popular rhyme
England
is the
follows and
book
of Liddell
some
Scott,
good and
is
of it's not,
good is Scott,
is not !" lexicon
were
is Liddell and
The
first appearance
of Liddell
Scott's
in
1843
was,
however,
and noble
1
noteworthy, because
in Latin
"
given in English
editors
gave
a
not
an
innovation
the
very
defence See
in their
Lefmann,
Franz
Wissenschaft
1896). (Berlin,
THE
GERMAN
INFLUENCE
419
on
the
conjugationalsystem
of
of
Sanskrit
as
compared
German,
with
those
Greek,
grammatical fullyin
his
discussed
more
freelyand
(Vergleichende Grammatik),which
in
1833.
Bopp
made
much
of
"
roots
"
and
the languages of
he wrote
he
was
in advance
his time.
Sanskrit
therefore and
even
Hermann
like
as
Ludwig Ross,
a
Comparative
Grammar
subject for
witticisms.
Theodor
an
Benfey, a
to
converted the
Jew (1809-1881),gave
which guage lan-
of study of Sanskrit,
complete grammar
lexicon
of
"
(1852),having previously
Greek
roots
on
"
(1839scientific
monographs
etymology.
the
Bopp
and
Benfey, the
two
great
came
in pioneers many,
was
of whom
Georg
"
Curtius
at Leipzig, (1820-1885),
the most
influential
the head
of
school of
won
language
fame
for
study.1 Curtius,whose
a
elder brother
his
Ernst
of history
1
Greece
Edmonds's
was a
in (1857-1867),2
declared inaugural,
See
J.
M. who the
Leo
Meyer,
is at
pupil of Benfey
*
and
did
an
much
to
further
his
work,
at
Gottingen.
Eng.
trans,
by
A.
W.
Ward
420
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
that he
should
bring
Classical
Philologyand
This
language
he
plished accom-
study into by
influence and
"
that of
of his many
tinguish dis-
pupils
with
ten
volumes
Studien
868-1 878) (i
five volumes
of
(1878-1882)being
chief grammar works for
edited
that
by
himself
and
his
colleagues.The
were
were
wholly
his
Greek Greek
the
schools
Etymology
Greek
Verb
(1858-1862),and (1873-1876).
Curtius In
bulky
treatise
on
his
etymologicaldiscussions, Georg
classifies the
as
regular phonetic
from
changes
they
pass
Sanskrit
to
Greek, Latin,
and irregular known
to
German
; but many
of these any
not
in accordance
at
with So
settled
Curtius
that time.
he dubs not,
them
radic spo-
changes," to
of ingenuity the
be
explainedor
according to
the
that in
In investigator.
other
words, he held
set
the
exceptionsto
Law
was
were
the consonantal
"
changes
and
a
forth
sporadic
Law in
Low
was
"
reallyaccidental.
as
Grimm's
It is
law
to the relations
the consonants
and
(1) Sanskrit,Greek,
German
and
Latin,
(including English).1 by
Rasmus Kris-
of
this
law
discovered
had
(1787-1832),who
travelled
in extensively
comparing
1
the
different
languages spoken
99 et. al.
in these
See
422 Karl
most
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
Verner
"
are
remarkable
of
and
have been
the
fruitful in
study
were
languages since
Classical skill by
chief
Philologybegan. They
Karl
of
Brugmann
of
who Leipzig,
among
be
styledthe
are
the
Jung-Grammatiker,
Osthoff of
whom
numbered
of
Hermann
Heidelberg,August
of
Leskien
zig, Leip-
Hermann
Paul
Munich,1
The
New
and
Ludwig
Lange of
hold
in
are
Grammarians far
as
language-changes,so according
the
so
they
to
definite and
immutable is
laws,and (2)that
at
always
since
speech began.2
found
a
Young
Karl
Grammarians
Friedrich
with
as
Brugmann
wrote
a
(1849paper
the
others,and
almost
as
Vemer's, in Curtius's
Sonans, and
as
Studien.3
so
The
Nasalis of Curtius
two
proved
a
to
so
bring about
that for many
personal rupture
years Curtius
on
men;
and
Grammarians his
waged
is
an
unceasing war
Burgmann
disciples.It
was
now
correct
in
view
of
the
Indo- Germanic
Paul's
Principien
and
der
;
Logeman,
chenden
2
Wheeler)
der
Brugmann's
Grundriss
der
verglei-
Grammatik B. I.
See
Wheeler, Analogy
in
Study (1887).
1
Vol. ix
(Leipzig,1877).
THE
GERMAN
INFLUENCE
423 labors of
at
vocalic nasals.1
In
fact,owing
to the
Verner, of
Brugmann
and
the
Curtius
Leipzig),
Young
in
has been
are
put upon
sound
to
wherein scientificbasis,
to
be has
was
traced,not
laws
sporadiccauses,
but
to
which It
of its own.
that
so
natural
be
great
a new
change in linguistics
movement
should
of
accompanied by
which
sets
in the
field
grammar of
truths
language-study.
exhibited
find
the
German
influence
a
by Johann
Dane
of He
as
great distinction
became
such for
of professor
more
Latin
(1829) and
Like
seen,
most
than
fifty years.
has
of
the
was
the world
as
Madvig politics,
a ber mem-
much
in
was
in classical study. He
the
Diet, President
Minister
of
was
of the Education.
done in
Council, Inspector of
As
a
Schools, and
and
grammarian
his collective
Cicero,but
masterpiecesof
grammar
and interpretation
was
criticism. every
(1841)
in To and the his
translated
States. in his
in His
European country
and
United
was personality
remarkable.
was
death,
1
eightieth year,
great
he
vigorous
der
full
See
Brugmann's
work, Grundriss
vergleichenden Gram2d
tnatik der
indo-germanischen Sprachen
(Eng. trans.,
ed., 1897).
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
scholar's
zest, combined
has
with
the
gracefulpoise of
nobles.
diplomat
who
mingled
was
with
kings and
Speak
the truth
out
in love"
to the
his favourite
maxim, and
it was
carried
letter. He
most
of modern
Denmark his
and
of the Scandinavian
Among
and
a
pupilswere
Christensen,Sophus Bugge,
Christiania. As
Johan
Louis
critic, Madvig
minute
less
given than
his
to contemporaries
the
in
determining
verbal
He
dwelt
on largely
adept
in
emendation. conjectural
judgments he
Such
a
recalled
the
judicialmethods
"
of
Niebuhr.
a
was
Madvig,
Grecian,
man
iant brill-
of
the
world.
with the
To Dutch
be
compared
Danish
Cobet
Madvig
was
the
scholar, Caryl
was
Gabriel
a
(1813-1889),whose
and
mother, however,
born
in Paris. He
Frenchwoman,
the
Cobet
was
showed
and brilliancy
was
wit of the
out at
French, though
his
education
carried
on
the
Hague and
he
was
at
Leyden.
entering Leyden
had
a
alreadysteeped in
with familiarity
and classics,
verbal excited
them. the
so
doctor's
dissertation him
high hopes,and
for five years
Royal
Institute gave
leave
scripts manu-
of absence in
that he
Italy.
On
made
an
dinary extraor-
at Leyden, professor
inauguraladdress
has
THE
GERMAN
INFLUENCE
425
The
become
story is
during one
a
of the
arguing on
Cobet
was
certain
on
in the
so
Greek
fire with
enthusiasm, and
pelted
iEschylus, Sophocles,
gave
Euripides and
and
from
the
admitted
them
roguishsmile, spurious,
of his
on
were quotations as a
invented
the spot
bit of academic
Hoffman is
play.
Not
long after
had
the retirement
of Petrus
Peerlkamp, who
best known
him. He Dr.
been
by
was
vig
A
at
the
was
Leyden
to
was
1875.
his
a
hush
Cobet's
turn
address
great contemporary
Hellenist Cobet's
so as
firstof all
Latinist.
Madvig
were
first of
all
words
full of grace,
compliment, and
Post
that
Madvig
Cobetum
is to be
Latine
loquivereor.2
in the
numerous
are
Cobet's
enduring work
and
found
lectures, papers,
examples of
and his and
criticism that
Nova
1
contained
Lectiones,which
Oratio it Arte Emendandi
with
Madvig's Adversaria
1840).
of
(Amsterdam,
Cobet
Madvig.
His
own
was
superb,
remarkable
personality.
426
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
Opuscula,and
the addresses
of Edouard
a
Tournier
(1831-
well constitute
Corpus
of modern
critical work.
The German
more
influence
on
France
been
subtle and
peoples,
mainly because
and politics, and
of the difference
of
race
and
the clash of
ates cre-
also because
geniuswhich profound
more
transforms it is more
in its own
If less may
than
say,
logical.
Germans
since
the
great discoveries
made
even
by
them,
and
more
since
in the and
department
of Romance
Philology the
done
minute
careful work
of France Germans
has been
have
by Germans,1 merely
the
genuine scholars
what the
acceptedand
elucidated
found.
passes
over
with
the mention
men
of
few
spicuous con-
names,
"
those of
who
wrote
with charm
H.
J. G.
Patin
whose (1792-1876),
are
and
poets
learned
and
set
widely read;
themselves of
to
Desire"
Nisard
Charles
Nisard, who
at
making
the cost
of the
inaccuracy ; fimile
on
first treatise
parative ComM.
(1852); the
able of
a
L. lexicographers,
Quicherat (1799-1884),author
Emile Littr6
Latin
thesaurus, and
(1801-1881) ;
the
distinguished palaeographer,
brief
Charles
Graux
1
whose (1852-1882),
life was
Grober.
one
of
THE
GERMAN
INFLUENCE
427
(1853-1891),
School in
to
Livy. The
French
and has Fustel
founded
such
as
early as 1846,
helped
de
"
stimulate
as Burnouf, archaeologists
Cou-
and
Reimann,
to every
with
of others
whose
names
are
known
scholar.
Victor
Henry
(1850-1907) wrote
comparative
his wide
grammars
that
of
were
translated into
and English,
a
knowledge
all
languagesmade
brilliant
was
him
universal
Roman
authority. One
life and
of expositors Boissier
Latin lectures
Gaston
whose (1823-1908),
were
absorbingand
ses
whose
books
(CicSron fascinating
sous
et
Amis
(Eng.
trans.,
Fin
1892),U Opposition
du
les
C tsars
(1874-1875),La
Roniaine
Paganisme (1891),and
L'Afrique
(1895)).
sense
Archaeology
to
in its broad
and
Fine
Art
owe
less of
Germany
in their
Philology. To be
and archaeologists,
with
these
We in
have
how
earlythe Arundel
how
rare
Marbles Museum
England, and
the British
for the
of repository
was
objectsof
in 1204 and cois Fran-
antiquity.
converted I. Pierre
Louvre
in Paris
an
begun
art
museum
into the
beginningsof
lavished
by
men
Upon
Lescot
it and
were
all the
genius of
like
con-
its beautification
428
tinued
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
through
the
Napoleonic
wars,
during which
the richest his
the
great Emperor
filled the
with galleries
spoils
of the countries he
III.
conquered, as did
undoubtedly surpass
of any other structure the Vatican the
must
richness,
in the world be
those
of
reckoned
Throughout France,
museums provincial
becoming
the
these
to gradually
Paris. here
by
stands archaeology
and history,
are
the
German
influence is very of
the Latin
great. There
in Germany
editions
Friedrich
von
fragments by
Wilhelm
von
H.
Peter,
Suvern
Schlegel, Johann
Karl
Bottiger (1760)wrote
a lady,
Sabina, the
well-
model
Charicles
were
(1796-1846).
Ernst whom
were
serious
Theodor
more
historians Mommsen2
to
Curtius1
we
(1817-1903),of
But in
shall have
say.
England
there
giantsof history,
"
Connop 1871)
"
Thirlwall
(1797-1875) and
a
George
Grote
(1794-
each
having written
s
monumental
"
historyof
being called
the evident
partiality
in
authors. respective in
was
1
was Trinity,
sympathy with
a
the
English patriciate,
and in fully
while Grote
banker, not
Deutsche
university man,
See See
the
Rundschau
(Berlin, 1896).
Infra,pp.
443-444.
430 Since
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
the
splendidcareer
no
of
Cobet,
the
Dutch
sities univer-
have
had
classical scholar
theyhonourably maintain
are
past. They
Groningen (founded
1614), Utrecht
Athenaeum The
was
(1636), Leyden
raised to the
of
"
1575),and Amsterdam,
rank
whose
of
in 1877. university
at
greatest number
of
students
is to be found
learning,
universities these
were
Leyden
in
and
"
Utrecht.
Franeker
There and I.
two
"
more
Holland,
Hardervyk,
but
as
recent
existence,
of
formed
It
contains
than
one
ancient
he
had
to
charge.
as exist, a
Some
of his discoveries
of works
carnassensis,fragments
of
of the lost
Vidularia
Cicero's
lost has
treatise,De
been in
vogue,
Republica (1822).
Domenico the We Pezzi
names
Since
Comparative
and
Philology
Graziadio
(1844-1906),
among
Ascoli
(1829-1907) are
greatest
have of
the
parative com-
of Italy. philologists
cenzo
already
mentioned
Vin-
De-Vit
Fr. in
(1810-1892) as
Studies in
Forcellini's task
was
great lexicon,
and Perin
Corradini
(1820-1898)
Gandino
Greek
at
like
completed
undertaken
by
by
1890.
early
Latin
were
ably
while known
trans.
Giovanni
Battista
(1877-1905);
Pisa, is widely (1873;
and
Domenico
Com-
paretti,professorof
of
by
his account
Vergil
all
in
the
Middle
Ages
EnS-
1895). Luigi
Maria Avellino
Canina,
were
Bartholomeo
Borghesi,
Francesco
but distinguishedarchaeologists; de
Giovanni
collections
Battista
of
Rossi
(there were
two
of the in the
name),
of especially inscriptions,
those
Catacombs,
of Christian
Archaeology.
THE
GERMAN
INFLUENCE
43
and university
is remarkable
societies. founded
The
Catholic
Universityof
in 1426,
England.
the
time
languages,Hebrew,
here Athens." and Louvain
Greek, and
Lipsius also
"
styled
has
the
University
its
the
Belgian
had
closed French
by
the
Austrian but in
by
the
in 1797;
refounded
strictly
Catholic
Besides
University and
Louvain,
"
has
are
"
resumed
its old
prestige.
there
Ghent
and
the
free
university
toward
of Brussels
(1834).
As
Dutch
tends scholarship
textual criticism, so
to
that of the
Belgians has
constitutional
by preference turned
and archaeology
Jean
Baron
de Witte the
scholar
Roulez
enced influlargely
by
Professor
Germans;
at
J.
E. and
G.
an
(1806-1878),
ancient of Latin of
of Greek
Ghent,
on authority
music; Joseph
at
Gantrelle
Ghent,
defender
editor the
the
mania
(1877), and
Histories
the
styleof
his chief in the
(1882), to
The
whom,
indeed, he
is
devoted
labours.1
influence of Germany
scholars of
note
seen plainly
Other
Belgian
were
Auguste teaching;
Wagener
Louis
(1829Chretien
by
German
432
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
work
of the
at
so
many
of their
Germans universities,
{e.g. professorships
Gallic strain but
J.
has
D.
Fuss;
made
G.
J. Bekker), yet
scholars
the native
Belgian
not
only profound
Scandinavians,as
of original
to trace
we
have
alreadynoted, are
among
It is unnecessary, than
however,
their work
the
beginning
of the nineteenth
that Danes,
their
Swedes,
prowess
and in
Norwegians
learning. Their
universities
first
of all, Copenhagen
famous
of the most
in Northern
Europe; Upsala, in
the
Sweden
(1480);
Christiania
besides Lund
(1812),
in
Norwegian
(1666).
have and
State
The
University;
famous
"
Sweden
most
Scandinavian
scholars
been
already named,
"
Verner,
requireattention.
Johan
Louis and 820-1 905) was Ussing (1
was
of
Madvig
the
most
celebrated
on
Scandinavian the
writing archaeologist,
Roersch
his dissertation
subject of
reviews and
(1831-1891), of Liege,and
F61ix classicist Neve
noted
1891), a
in
jurist who
and
a
long
the
work
on
primitive criminology
Willems
Greece
of
Rome;
and work
on
Pierre finally,
(1840-1898),
Senate.
author Rome
standard
politicalinstitutions of ancient
on
another
the
Roman
THE
GERMAN
INFLUENCE
Greek
vases.
He
years
Italyand
at
founded
Classical
Reader.
Archaeology
The
Copenhagen, where
of
he
to
was
ence influ-
Madvig
led him
more
so
Plautus
was
on
his
own
account
(1875-1887). As
most
text-editor he
are
unlike conservative, of
a
furnishes
where
out
awful
example in
(Reinach).
Iceland,there
arose
one
splendidscholar,
thunderous
lations trans-
fire and
splendourthat
rival
the
Sagas
of the
Esaias
TegnSr
Swedish
of Lund
popular poet
to
in
so literature,
"
he was,
was
quote Dr.
Sandys,
the
Tyrtaeus
more
of
on
Sweden," Latin,
of professor
Karl Vilhelm
Greek, but
Linder
insisted
while
was (1825-1882)
strenuous
advocate
of Greek.
changes,studied
Sanskrit under
1
Latin
under
Madvig,
Germanic
in
Berlin,
under Weber
and
Bopp, and
philology
of principles
whose
the
Moritz
(1808-1874)
His
was
was a
pupil of
Hermann,
daughter he married.
He is said have
vigorous,impetuous
his lectures Hermann's author." He
personality.
the value what of is
taught
Nettleshipin
from
an
Bentley.
meant
He
"
himself
learned
Baccha
was
by
really understanding
appointed
27
434 Verner's
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
Law.
a
He
is mentioned
here,however, because of
which caused
a lution revo-
his criticism of in
very
important work
Latin
studies
at
everywhere.
Wilhelm
Corssen
an
teacher a (1820-1875),
and
accurate
acute
of the investigation
for this work
the
Latin
language. Materials
Albert made
gathered by
had been
Benary (1807-1860),while by
Friedrich But
no
further notes
Ritschl
(1806-1876)
had
in his Plautine
studies.
made
phoneticsa
his Ueber
definite
Corssen und
appeared
Betonung
to
Aussprache, Sprache.1
In
Vokalismus
lateinischen sounds
not
it,Corssen
sought
study the
language, using
the most
as
ancient
but inscriptions,
Faliscan,
Oscan, and
from
the
Umbrian,
Roman
vast
collection of
work
quotations
had
grammarians, whose
means
been used
little studied.
with
All these
Corssen
to
phoneticshave
It
stood
was
the
test
of
time, so
book
is definitive.
needed, for
become
none
the confusion
was
in the
no
of pronunciation
Latin
had
great. There
since
standard, and
there had
been
after
the time
death
to
of
the Protestant
latter's chair list of his
at
Reformation.
Berlin.
Lachmann's
was
fillthe
Though
works
on
Germanic Latin in is
a
philology, the
very
published
and
long
at
one.
Published
1858-1859
in
Leipzig, where
2
it received
prize for
scholarship;
reedited
1868-1870,
vols.
THE
GERMAN
INFLUENCE
435
Each
own
nation
had
pronounced
while
on
Latin
as
though
of
it
were
its this
were
language,and
of
no
the continent
Europe
sounds
was
great consequence,
same,
it shut
Englishmen, and
as an
cans, later,Ameri-
from
using
Latin
of
all
Wolsey,
was no
Milton
to
had
guide men
until Corssen
appeared, spurred by
science of
the
by
the
new
Comparative
for the every
He
showed
Roman
"
tem, sys-
after
it. In
some
grumbling,
it met
even
universityhas
much
adopted
from
England
with
opposition
the
publicschools,and though
in the
employed;
work
universities and
it is not
States, where
many
soon
countries, Corssen's
because received,
authoritative
to
it gave
students
accurate single,
pronunciationinstead to-day
the
of many
inaccurate
ones;
so
that
phonetic system
is universal
both
the
in school,
and college,
university.2Curiouslyenough
been
phonetic
system had
anticipated by
of
an
American
of German
he
Philadelphia, though
of
had
See the
more
recent
English
grammars
Latin, such
The
as
Kennedy's, Language,
Roby's, and
the
luminous
2-4.
on
work
of
Lindsay,
Latin
The
standard
work
Latin
Ueber
die
(Stuttgart, 1885).
436
access
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
onlyto
rather
the Latin
to
grammarians
and
than
dialects and
is entitled Elements
of Latin
Pronunciation
work
finished before
Corssen's the
appeared.
end
was
dent indepenProfessor he
attempt
Richardson
to reach
same
made
by
and
of
the
Universityof Rochester,
results
did
arrive at many
of Corssen's
from
the
him
in grotesquely of
other
conclusions.
spent
last years
his life in
Rome,
where His
died, it was
said,of disappointmentand
this
chagrin. by
Aussprache to
however,
that still
the
at
day
is an
authority. Flushed
the
"
his success,
he
undertook
task the
of
solvingthe problem
awaits
solution,
Italyand
time
conquered
as
the
in
like neither
the
the
origin.
Corssen
resolved
die
his colossal
work,
Ueber
lavished materials
his
of his For
his command.
moment,
great
had
was
the prestige,
learned
soon
world
showed
believed
that he had
ceeded, suc-
yet criticism
he
went
that he the
and failed, of
down
to
his the
death
way.
with
sneers
his late
friends to smooth
1
Leipzig, 1874-1875,
vols.
See Deecke
Deecke, Corssen
edited the
und
die
Sprache
der Etrusker
1875). (Stuttgart,
Etrusker, in 1877.
438
and
of
"
HISTORY
OP
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
presumptuous."
De
He
at
once
edited the
fragments
He
Varro,
Lingua Latina,
and
was
and
later of Festus.
died at Athens
much His who
buried there
(1840).
He
had
done
of Niebuhr.
(1784-1868),
manner
turned
to the artistic
of
early studied
at
Rome;
as a
he
was
professorat
Giessen
(1808),he fought
was
volunteer
afterwards
at
again
where
then
Bonn,
Art
ever
he
presidedover
His and
the firstMuseum
were
of Ancient
reason
known.
lectures
stimulating by
personality,
and Latin
his reach
was
poetry and
the
mythology of
He many
numerous
wrote translations,
monographs by
"
and subjects,
or
is
Welcker's
Cydus,"
Greek been
to the
Epic Cycle.1
It has
of K. O. Muller
A
contemporary
great fame
was
Otto
was
at
Greifswald
Bonn
(1855-1869). He
the
Gottingen.
many his
graphs, mono-
author
of
he
by
critical
an
revisions of Persius
Juvenal (1851),with
vols., 1839-1844.
THE
GERMAN
INFLUENCE
439 For
edition of both
he Athenian
in the year
before
and
his death.
of
books text-
edited the
Cupid
Psyche
the Apuleius,
Electra of
on
Acropolis from
of
Pausanias,
the
Sophocles,the Symposium
tiie Sublime
Plato, and
the
Treatise be
on
ascribed
to enumerate
to
Longinus.
his minor
It would
sible imposartistic
here
treatises
whose subjects,
very
titlesfascinate and
attract.1
deep learning or
at
all times,
though the
Germans
are
happy, as
as
aesthetic
as
well
We
alreadymentioned
Bernhardy
K. O.
historian
of both
a
the two
of Greek
great literatures.
Literature
at
Miiller
began
history Society
he died
the
of Useful
Knowledge,
full text
Dr.
in
was
1836, but
not
before in
its
completion.
The
published
finished been
done
Englishuntil 1858,when
a
J. W.
Yet
Donaldson has
it in
three-volume
edition.
much
by
German
scholars, many
of whom
on
wrote
special monographs
ticular par-
authors,such
as
the
illuminating papers
on
Plautus
(Parerga) by
wrote
1
Friedrich
Ritschl
(1806-1876),who
Varro
Bursian Otto
also
of the
of literary activity
Conrad
and
Latin
archaeologistsare
in
(1830-1883),
Benndorf the
Germany;
(1838-1907);
and
(1801-1894),
well-known of many maker
topographer;
Heinrich
of
cartographer, Professor
maps
Geography
Berlin, and
and
charts.
44" Saturnian
were
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
verse.1
A. the
More
historians strictly
of
J.
Fabricius
(1668-1736),who
condensed
compiled
aid been
Ribbeck
no
whole
subsequent historyof
Latin and
five universities To
but
we
owe
passing his
of the
last years
at
Leipzig.
of
him
much
historyand
criticism edited
the
early
Latin
whose dramatists,
fragmentshe
(3d ed.,1897the
1898),a
with
study of
Roman
tragedy under
texts
Republic,2
and
editions and
His
conservative
of
Horace, Vergil,
is his
Juvenal.
Roman Since
most
work interesting
history of
poetry.3
the Middle
have been
Ages,
some
lost
fragments of important
is the
authors
discovered.
Such
longepisode
Trimalchionis
by Friedlander;
already mentioned;
of
Babrius
(122 fables,
in
junction con-
He
is best with
by his monumental
Lowe,
and
edition
of Plautus Friedrich
Georg
Gotz,
and
Scholl. his
Ritschl himself
three Wilhelm
reedited
coadjutors
Studemund
assisted
by
(1820-1 899),
noted Greek the
palaeographer,Wilhelm prosody by
1
(1843- 1880),
and
in especially
the
researches
of Wilhelm
Corssen, already
mentioned.
1875.
3
vols.,1859-1868
abridged, 1895.
Ein Bild
See
volume
compiled by
his
friends,Otto Ribbeck,
(1901).
THE
GERMAN
INFLUENCE
44
ed.
prin. Boissonade);
the Athenians
of
lost treatise
by
Aristotle
1
on
the
polityof
and
fairly
1907,
complete plays
Headlam
in
Menander
Lefebvre of
in
1908);
with
seven
Herondas
(ed.
It is
prin.Kenyon,
believed
as
last ed.
by Creuzer, Leipzig,1894).
will
that the
papyri of Egypt
yieldnew
treasures,
they have
scholars look
eagerly
of
for other
playsof Menander,
it may
even
and Aristotle,
be the famous
to
a
lost books
of
Livy.
revert
greatly enriched
of
a
compilation of
With the
corpora
aid
has
each
the
classic
languages.
of Greek
of
been
Epigraphy,
made of
the
collection who
inscriptions
the first two
by Boeckh,
edited
volumes
Corpus InscriptionumGrcecarum
other volumes
and A.
(1825-
1843), followed by
the fourth and the
by
Franz
(1845-1853),
(1826-1908),
of H.
by
whole
E.
Curtius
Kirchhoff
completed by
was
the
to
Index
Rochl
(1877).
Assistance
given
the work
by
Wilhelm He
Halle.
did
Corpus InscriptionumAtticarum
himsef
a
(1878tions inscrip-
1882), and
that
are
prepared
Syllogeof
Greek ed.
1898-1901).
a
Apart
from
cialist spe-
Commentary.
1
Georg
Kaibel
editor (1849-1901),
of
the
See
Greek Gilbert,
Constitutional
Antiquities, 1895.
442
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
Electra of
Sophocles(1896)and
a
of Athenaeus
(1886-1890),
collected from
volume
of
some
1200
epigrams (1878)copied
a covering
stones
thousand
years.1
for appear It
was a
Latin
Epigraphy
pursued
The
in
desultory way
do
not
Italy.
Romans
to have
collected
the
a
as inscriptions
the Greeks
did.
only
at
beginning of
the
Middle
Ages, when
Rome of the
became
most
copiedsome pilgrims
carry
famous
home. in
With
the
as
Renaissance
gems and
a
genuine
Cola
interest
di
them
in
carved
work.
Rienzi
(about 1344)
in which he
prepared
drew
account topographical
of Rome,
largelyon
them. have
while inscriptions;
Poggio
were
Bracciolini2
collected
some
Unfortunately, many
and forged,3
as
spurious, Ligorioof
mainly
the
Naples.
to have
seems inscriptions
been
(1489).
For
Gruter's
great
work
was
the reader
is referred to another
place.4 The
Raffaele
study
taken
up
by others,among
it was
to
them
Fabretti
but (1618-1700),
gave
a
L. A. Muratori
great impulse
Veterum
Epigraphy by
1742), and
1
to
his researches
in
Other
noted
epigraphistswere
Dobree,
3
Kohlen,
"
and
outside
of
Germany,
1
CEconomides,
pp.
Riemann.
pp.
Supra,
276-9.
Supra,
284-5.
Supra,
p. 342.
THE
GERMAN
INFLUENCE
443
and
other
seats
of
learning. Bartolommeo
to him
Borghesi
is due
(d.1859) made
epigraphy a science,and
that has been
the
splendidwork
Both
vast
accomplished
in this field.
the French
Academy
and
that of Berlin
planned
was
Latin inscriptions, but this Corpus of all existing undertaken until 1863, when the first volume
not
of the
appeared under
Henzen
and Wilhelm
(1816-1887). The
to
new
discoveries.1 the
greatestmind
of
since
if not Scaliger's,
greatest
name
mind
Theodor
illustrious
so
of
(i 819-1893). Like
letters,he
we
many
"
tinguishedmen
famous young
poet, the
constitutional
law, and
"
Empire,
was
lyrist. It
he
who
plan
for
the
as
Insert
W.
Zumpt,
as
Mommsen
it.
the
Academy
the scheme
article
"
he outlined
"
See
the
Inscriptions
It famous
edition of
Emil
the
Encyclopedia
of
Britannica.
a
written
by
Professor the
Hiibner
archaeologist.On
Corpus York,
especiallysee
1896).
Latin
Inscriptions,pp.
6-15 (New
444
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
He
came
to
write
his
History of
a
with
certain
naivete.
While
old
spending
vacation
"
his father-in-
law, the
Theodor, your
Young
studies have
Mommsen
for
just such
work."
once
and pleasure,
of
on,
at
began
made
the
no
history.
Out
of
fulness
his
mind, he
after
just wrote
volume
chapter
chapter,
book, and
"
after
composing a
popular" work,
a
poured the
is
a
wealth
of his wide
matter
knowledge into
brilliant in
more
so
book
informingin
storm
and
style. It
as
of
troversy, con-
the worth
Mommsen
had
not
thought it
These
were
while
to
a
equip
sixth
it with
footnotes.
another
given later by
Romische
The
volume, and
book
entitled
Forschungen. History of
Rome is in
a protest reality
of
New
Germany
the against It
old feudalism
which
Napoleon
had
pleaded for
greatest
He
man
who the
State.
lashed
weakling,Cicero,and
flashes.
Ferrero No has
one
wrote
has refuted
a
him
neither Gisner
The
nor
made
satisfactory response.
comes
climax
of Roman beholds
a
grandeur
with
the
Caesar; and
when
Mommsen the
grandeur
in
North,
are
petty,
ignorant squires of
Dictator. enlightened
Junkerthum
scattered
by
an
446
their
even
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
with acquisitions
any
other
country
done.
as
to the extent
that
been
Spain
of her in
and
Portugal have
This
has not
true
but
general the
even
to
their
learning. Hence
is
a
the German
or
ence influthree
still from
thing of
decades, and
whose living,
this survey.
has
names
been
are
shown
in the persons
men
excluded (exceptcasually)
in
passage
George
make
Eliot's Middle-march,
Dorothea in
see
where
young
Ladislaw is her
"
tries to Mr.
how
backward
husband,
Casaubon,
modern
scholarship, says:
"
If Mr.
Casaubon
...
read
German, he would
save
himself
great
deal be
of trouble.
away,
as
It is a
so
thrown
much
of
knowing
"
what
is being done
understand
by the
I do not
off-hand
way,
"that
the
at results which
pocket-
compasses,
while
good roads."
her own,
truth. In No
a
But
Great
Britain
of scholarship of sound
arship scholGreek
verse
of and
or
and elegance,
again
language was
came
so
near
from
Oxford
from
Cambridge.
was
The
near
Italian school of
to
with Latinity
its Ciceronianism
a
that of
time
at
the least,
THE
GERMAN
INFLUENCE
447 stimulated
as
critical work
of the Netherlands
Names
was
by the Bentley,
Gaisford Dobree Charles
example
Porson,
of
Englishmen.
such
those of
Peter
C. J. (1779-1855),
(1782-1825), James
Badham
Scholefeld
(1780-1853),
(1813-1884),J. W.
Donaldson
who (1811-1861),
E.
W. literature,
Jelf(1811Conington
at
Long
first
Oxford,
duced pro-
Nettleship (1830-1893),who
a
with
Conington
translation of Persius,and
"
William
(1777-1860)
More
men
all these
were
familiar
is due
to
to Continental
one
scholars. brilliant
mention especial
of the most
Claverhouse
the
time He
of
was
his
a
death
was
of Greek professor
man
at
Cambridge.
"
witty,versatile
of
the
"
world,
humanist had
no
in
the
highestsense
of
the word
(Sandys),who
and
equal
classical form
spirit.Though
stranger
to
drawing-rooms
and
he polite society,
edited
Bacchylides (1905),
an
translated
introduction
one
to
Homer,
and
of
was
Bentley,
a
helped found
of
master
English prose
of Greek
of of
an
verse.
It is
to impossible
overrate
with
accomplished gentleman.
448
Further
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
mention
must
be
made
of
Benjamin
Jowett
(1817-1893),Master
into
of
who Balliol,
admirably
translated the
mentaries. com-
English, Plato
perhaps
that Jowett'spersonality
be taken
into account.
His influence
over
awkward
as
and with
bashful
undergraduates was
own
remarkable,
it
was
those of his
age.
His
sayings will
translations Mention
be
are
and
long as
his
has
made
must
elsewhere refer
of
H.
many A.
as
noted
British scholars.
again to
J. Munro
an
"
(1819-1885) to
his
splendidwork
because
both
he gave
impulseto
one
reform
in the
And
must
also mention
the
Britain
of the
to Classical at Athens
at
(1901-) ;
fruitful of
a
at explorations
in resulting
the
course
century, in the
of
part of
others
the
treme ex-
alreadymentioned
of minute
recovered.
was
And
perhaps by
commentary
reached
Professor
J. E.
B.
Mayor
on
1
(1825-1911) in
the Satires of
his two
volumes
of
closely
notes printed
THE
GERMAN
INFLUENCE
449
These
and such
names
as
these
are
are
Their exists.
known
One
is reminded
went
of the
a
story of how
Dindorf who
when The
in
Germany
was
to pay
a
call on
man was
Leipzig.
a
door
opened by
shabby
name
resembled
Gaisford's
kissed him.1
mentioned, rushed
and
England
the
felt
only in the
person
of her most
learned States of
at
influence of
may
America
be said not
the memory
have
discovered
Germany
of those
firstby
a
it had
for
more
than of
century
firstinstitution Harvard
now College,
named University,
gave
was
from
John
Harvard
of
Cambridge, who
all his
his
name
(1638). In
American
and
next
homes
of
Mary,
to
chartered
vard;2 HarYale
and
named so (1701),
in
1718 after
one
Elihu
Yale; Princeton
1 1
Tuckwell,
Dr.
p.
iii. 452) oddly omits Sandys {op.cit., has existed been Chief down four
to
of
the
among
graduates
have
our
Presidents
United
most
States,
brilliant
to
learned of
and Justices,
Scott).
in the
He
Yale
have
been
collegeestablished
United
States.
45"
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
(1746) ;
the
an originally
assisted
by Benjamin
Franklin
(1751); in George
and
was
New
by
II
but (1754),
Collegein 1787,
Brown
Columbia established
University in 1890.
in
University
Providence,
of the
Rhode
Island, in 1764.
were
These
higher
education
all in in the
existence United
the Revolution.
than four
There hundred
are
now
States
more
institutions that
call themselves
score
collegesor
definition.
but universities, In
barely
be
the satisfy
general it
become
may
said
that
the
collegesthat
and
are
have
universities
with the
deserve
most
splendidly equipped
for in
modern
in
apparatus
research,
other
with
specialists
to
trained
Germany
most
or
exacting seeker
ones
after
while
newly
founded
are
still to prove
right to
esteem. scholarly
It must
be
this statement
is
only
general. Some
(1892), Johns
Stanford
New
some
Hopkins
(1876)
in
Baltimore, Leland
at Ithaca
at
Palo Alto,California
were (1865),
Cornell (1891),
in
York very
nobly endowed
The
no
by
the
wealthymen.
Clark
in University
Massachusetts, admits
all its energy
are
gives
to intense
All specialisation.
versities uni-
modelled
mainly
on
the
German,
while
the
THE
GERMAN
INFLUENCE
45
older
ones
still retain
in
largemeasure
the traditions of
English scholarship.
There
was
standard
but
the
English
the this
standard
wide
known
century, and
of the separation
United it led to
to
Europe
made
natural
The
enough; but
sort
of intellectual dry-rot.
first American
study
in
Germany
of
was
George
Ticknor and
Professor
the French He
Spanish Languages
years
spent four
divided
Gottingen, Leipzig,
Rome,
of his
meeting
some
of
the
most
eminent
scholars
afterwards (1794-1865),
of
President
years
of Harvard,
Professor
Greek, spent
:
four
"
(1815-1819) abroad.
to
On
In
to
regard
methods, university
nothing
learn from
Germany."
George
of his whose
own
Bancroft
country,
another
bore
no
of those
sporadicpilgrims
the American
to
isolated enthusiasm
people were
C.C.
not
ready
for it.
at
add
the list
Felton,Professorof Greek
Harvard, who
a
annotated
account
was
naif singularly of
Europe.
T. D.
Woolsey
more
Yale
a'
of regard. deserving
a
He
edited
number
of Greek
texts
with
fair comprehen-
452 sion
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
of their
meaning.1
Harvard
possessed two
was
as felt, was
foreignthat of
E. A. of
born
the
whose professors
influence
were
Greek
grammar Beck M.
and
German
(1798Lane
1866),
His
pupil, G.
for
was (1823-1897),
of Latin grammar
seen
thirty-three years.
which he the had press
After
his
death,
was
Latin
upon
long laboured
(1898)by Many
the
more
finished and
through
M. H.
his former
pupil,Professor
were
Morgan.
American
grammars
Albert
Harkness,
Allen
in
Brown,
often
revised ; 2
Greenough;
Buck,6
but
who
to
Bennett
on
and
a especially
grammar
little known,
made
theory of
his own,
at
by
Gustavus
Fischer,
order
resignedthe chair
pursue this work.
of Latin
Rutgers Collegein
By
an
unfortunate
was,
the fatality,
its plates, destroyed
whole
with
that
copy
of it is a very
rare
possession.
in learning Columbia
The
true
spread of
the
influence Anthon
of German
America
is due
was
to Charles
(1797-1867) of
descent. He
who College,
a
himself of German
of annotated
produced
and
number large
editions
of Greek
Latin
For
criticism
in
an
3
of
American
colleges at
this
time,
see
Bristed,
Five
2
Years
York, 1855).
"
1898.
1875.
1905.
1903.
1908.
454 Columbia
Short
was
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
professors.The
Charles Latin
at
Latin Lancaster
lexicon
Short
by
Lewis
and
(1821-1886)
the
of
Columbia;
while
Greek
lexicon
Liddell the
and
services
Henry
the
Drisler
(1818-
1897), who
and
had
collaborated
English editors,
who
firstuniversity to be founded
Johns Hopkins,endowed
by
gentleman of
Gilman
Coit
(1831-1909),
that in
a
full
swing
he had
to
his
Germanising tendency,so
him
a
few years
in the
to
gathered around
sense
group
of scholars
European
and
compelled the
reform
mater
Johns Hopkins
most
alma
able men,
American L.
of whom
stilllive to
do her honor.
Journal
edited of Philology,
there.
by
Professor
Gildersleeve,is published
from
Other
studies and
Chicago
as
(ClassicalPhilology and
Harvard
Journal),
from
do
Studies, Cornell
Studies, etc.,
other
versities uni-
Profound
scholarship was
represented by
of
William
Dwight Whitney
(1827-1894),Professor
who known
was a
Comparative
student
Sanskritist
and and
of
in He
Germany
was one
wherever
pursued.
the St.
of Sanskrit; Petersburgdictionary
THE
GERMAN
INFLUENCE
455
own
Sanskrit
grammar of the
is
standard eda-Samhitd
work
with
the
volume second
Atharva-V
(1855-1856), Whitney's
Other former
volume
being
Lanman
completed
of
by
pupil,
of who
Professor
Harvard.
professors (1821-1872),
distinction
is known
at
Yale
his
were
James
Hadley
L.
by
and
Greek
grammar;1 Day
upon
R.
Packard
(1836-1884),
whose studies
Thomas
Seymour
Homer,
(1848-1907), though
Pindar his he
duced pro-
were
largely
of selected
in the of
one
edition
odes
Homeric
from
(1882).
swan-song,
His
the
last
work
was
Life
years
Age,
results
of
long
patient
study.
American flavour of
scholarship
it and
its
it
is difficult
to
write,
new,
for
the
its
opportunities
still
are
all
and
representatives
it
has
are
living
mention
men.
Let
it
be
long
becomes
do aside
possible
so
to
them
in
volume who
to
fully
their
and
almost
wholly
with
those
have
laid
pleasant
ed.
rev.
labours.
1860;
last
by
F.
D.
Allen
(1884).
XI
THE
COSMOPOLITAN
PERIOD
With
the death
appears
of Theodor
to
Mommsen,
upon has
the twentieth
a new
century
remarkable the
have
entered
and
periodof scholarship. It
and
passed through
all
now
rough
rugged paths by
which
learning is recognised
the attained,
on
is training
every
side,and
possiblemeans
are
provided
sums
for
are
illuminating study.
many
given
for
maintain Athens.
into
schools special
study
of
in Rome
Furthermore, the
groups
scholars their
own
to-day
divided
their the
accordingto
still more
are
inclination distinction
and
especial
past is
as
ability.A
marked
not
now
from
that universities
separated and
Nationalism.
to the
isolated
The
theywere
and
even
in the
one
periodof
students the
as
of professors
country pass
of another
of fellowship
and professors
students
they
more
of the
still greater
of welcome. chairs
are
This
in the United
where States,
American
established
for the
interchangeof
456
Professors
THE
COSMOPOLITAN
PERIOD
457 welcomed
with those of
every year
foreignlands,which Germany,
countries.
lecturers
are
from
the Scandinavian
learning
narrow
has
become
singleworld
without
becoming
world.
Every division
united intimately
on light
of Classical with
on
is now Philology
regardedas
Archaeologythrows
givesbeauty
an nor
usage
and
custom,
to
the
aesthetic pleasure.
a
Language study is no
matter
of
mere
discoveryof
Brugmann,
the love
Verner
it is a science of the
Moreover,
grown
of the
Classics
for themselves
and
flourished.
But
has
come
to
us
in
modern is the
we
men
times, from
the
look back
of
foul
wrangling of
see
that
To-day,
hopes that
in whatever
form
as a
the
higherstudy may
all
So
Romance
Gaston scholar,
:
"
Paris,uttered in
splendidcredo
458
HISTORY
OF
CLASSICAL
PHILOLOGY
profess
has
no
absolutely
other for the aim
and than
without
reserve
this truth
for
doctrine its
that
truth, good
and
own
sake,
care
consequences,
or
ill,regrettable
He who
from
a
or
happy,
that
truth
might
from in
have moral
in
practice. motive,
patriotic,
the facts
religious,
that he is
or
even
allows that is he
himself
in
studying,
the
the
conclusions
draws, worthy
the
of
smallest
dissimulation,
the claim carried
slightest
to
alteration,
truthfulness Thus in all
not
place
in
great
to
laboratory
admission in the than
which skill.
is
more
indispensable
in
common
understood,
civilised
studies
on
same
spirit
often
countries,
a
form,
great
but them
restricted,
which souls find the
diverse,
no war
and
hostile
nationalities,
soils, which
and the
no
conqueror
threatens,
was
the
refuge
of God."
unity
which
given
by
citadel
INDICES
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL
SELECTED
I.
INDEX
GENERAL
II.
INDEX
462
Besant, Binde,
Walter.
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL
INDEX
Henry Palmer
Buchwesen
(London, 1883).
1882). (Berlin,
Robert.
(Glogau, 1883).
Birt,Theodor.
Historia
Antike Latini
Hexametri W. Die
(Bonn, 1876).
2d ed.,3 vols. (Leipzig, 1898). Beredsamkeit, The Pronunciation of Ancient Greek,Eng. trans. (Cambridge 1890). Die Inter polationenin der Odyssee (Halle,1904). Blau, August. De Aristarchi Discipulis(Jena, 1883).
Blass,F.
Altische
Boeckler,
Doctor.
Die
Polychromie
in der
Antiken
leben, 1882).
Gaston. Boissier, Etudes
sur
(Paris,
1861).
La La Fin du
ReligionRomaine
Altius
Antonins
(Paris, 1906).
Le Poete Roman
(Paris, 1857).
(New
and
Africa,Eng.
A. M. Le
Bonnet,
Latin
de
Grtgoirede
Epigrams
A
Ancient
History of the
De
Orient
(London
Vi Usu
and
New
York, 1904).
E. F.
et
(Berlin,
Pour
Mieux de. La
Connattre SocUti de
Homere
(Paris,1906).
de Saint-Germain
VAbbaye
des
vols.
(Paris, 1891).
Handbook
Browne, Henry.
of
Homeric
Study (London
der
and
New
York,
1905)Brugmann,
Karl. Zum
heutigen Stand
du
(Leipzig, Sprachwissenschaft
vols.
1885).
Brunet, Bud6,
Gustave. Manuel
Libraire, etc.,8
Grundriss
1880). (Paris,
E. de.
(Paris,1884).
der
Kielhorn.
Indo-arischen
Philologie
Bunbury,
E. H.
History of Ancient
Geschichte der
Geography,2d
Renaissance in
ed.
Burckhardt, Jakob.
1890-1891).
Kultur The
Italien
der Renaissance
in
8th Italien,
in
ed.
1904). (Leipzig,
trans.
Civilization Konrad.
of the
Renaissance
Italy, Eng.
(London, 1898).
Bursian,
etc.
in Deutschland, Philologie
(Munich, 1883).
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL
INDEX
463
Bury, J. B.
Ed.
Later
Roman and
Gibbon's
the Decline
(London, 1896).
Life of St.
Butcher,
Patrick
S. H.
Aristotle's ed.
Art
(London, 1902).
Demosthenes, last
(London, 1903).
A History of Elementary Mathematics (London and Florian. Cajori, York, 1907). A History of Mathematics (New York, 1906). University Lifein Ancient Athens (London, 1877). Capes, W. W. Gli Hethei Pelasgi (Rome, 1894- 1902). Cara, P. C. A.
New
Carroll,Mitchell.
Carlo. Castellani,
Aristotle's Poetics
Delle Biblioteche Primitive
(Baltimore, 1895).
nell' Antichitd
(Bologna,1884).
Christianity(London, 1834).
el
Pythagore
Essai
la
1873).
Chalandon, Georges. Charles,Emile.
des Texles Inidits
sur sa
Ronsard
Roger Bacon;
Vie,sesOuvrages, ses
"c.
d'apris
(Paris, 1861). Roman, 1862). (Paris, Essays (London, 1888). Ages (London, 1895).
et Dissertations
Chassang, Church,
The R.
Beginning of the
C. de. Libraries
Cirbied,J. Clark, J. W.
Mtmoires in
(Paris,1824).
Renaissance
the Mediaeval
and
Period
bridge, (Cam-
of Children
to
at
Rome of
Classen, Johannes.
the
edition
Thucydides (Berlin,
Poe-
1897).
Clement,
matis Louis. De
Hadriani
Turnebi
. . .
et Praefationibus
(Paris,1899).
F. Fasti
Clinton, H. Cochin,
Clodd, Edward.
Henri.
(Oxford,1824-1834). The Story of the Alphabet (New York, 1903). Boccace,Etudes Italiennes (Paris,1890).
Hellenici, 3
vols. Etude
sur
Collignon,Albert.
and New
Pitrone
(Paris,1892).
the Middle
Comparetti, Domenico.
Vergil in
Ages, Eng.
trans.
don (Lon-
York, 1895).
464
Compayrd,
Gabriel.
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL
INDEX
Abilard
and
the
(New York, 1893). History of Paedagogy, Eng. Condamin, 1877). Conway, Cook, Cooper,
R. S. S. Verner's The Word Albert F. T.
trans.
(Boston, 1886).
Christiana
J.
P.
De
Tertulliano
Lingua
Artifice(Lyons,
Law
in
Formation
(New York,
Typographical Gazeleer, 3d
La PoSsie Alexandrine Law
ed.
(Oxford,1852-1866).
(London, 1901). (Lund, 1849-1853). (Paris, 1873).
trans.
(Paris,1882).
in Taste
J.
The
Life in Poetry:
Greeks De and Greeds
Cramer,
Friedrich. F.
Xtnophon,
M. An
Caractere
et
son
Talent
Abridged History of
V
Greek
Literature, Eng.
Encauslique(Paris,1884).
Empire from
vols. 375
to 800
Curteis, A.
the Roman
A.D.
(New York,
1868-
Decharme,
the
Spiritof
His
Dramas, Eng.
trans.
Dedouvres, Dejob,
1903). (Paris,
Muret
(Paris,1881).
das
Einleitung in
trans.
Sprachstudium, 3d
ed.
zig, (Leip-
Parodie Comidie
Pierre.
Dictionnaire
Geographic
I'Usage du
Libraire
(Paris,1870). Vinne,
Notable De T. L. Printers
of Printing (New York, 1878). Century (New York, 1910). of Italyduring the Fifteenth
The Invention
Vit, Vincenzo.
A.
Preface to
Manuce
et
Didot,
F.
Aide
1875). (Paris,
Bibliotheca
(Paris,1872).
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL
INDEX
465
History of the IntellectualDevelopment of Europe (New Draper, J. W. York, 1899). Dressel,Heinrich,De Isidori Originum Fontibus (Turin, 1874). Drisler, Henry. Classical Studies in Honour of (New York, 1894).
Stress Accent in Latin Poetry (New York, 1906). DuBois, E. H. ad Scriptores Media Glossarium et Infimai Du Cange [Charlesdu Fresne], ed. by Favre (Niort,1 884-1 887). Latinitatis, (London and Leipzig,1909). A Literary Historyof Rome Duff, J. W. S. A. W. Duffield, Latin
Hymn-Writers
and
their
Hymns
(New York,
Monasticum
7-
au
Dou-
Dunlop,
J. C.
Complete Works
Table-Talk
of Samuel
Rogers,to which
E
is added
don, (Lon-
1856).
Lateinischer
und
Griechischer Unterricht
1887). (Leipzig,
Callimaque et VOriginede la
VHistoire de la
en
chez les Grecs (Paris, Critique 1886). France, 2 vols. (Paris, 1869). Italian Renaissance Erasmus in
The
The Music
1885).
De Erasmus, Desiderius. tione (Basel, 1528).
Sermonis Grcecique
ByzantinischeBaukunst
Niebuhr
Faulman,
Karl.
Federn, Karl.
2H
Time, Eng.
trans.
466
Feugere, L. J.
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL
INDEX
Essai
sur
la Vie
el les
Ouvrages de Henri
vols.
Etienne
(Paris,
i8S3).
Field,W. Fink, Karl.
The A
Life of Samuel
Parr,
(London, 1828).
(Chicago, 1900). History of Mathematics Outlines of a System of Classical Paedagogy (Baltimore, Fitz-Hugh, Thomas. 1900). Flach, H. L. M.
Peisistratos und Seine Litterarische
1885).
L. O. Fleischer, Die Reste der Tonkunsl Altgriechischen
Forbes, W. H. Lifeand Mind of Thucydides (London, 1895). A Handbook Fowler, H. A.,and Wheeler, J. R. of Greek Archaology (New York, 1909). Frazer, R. W. Frick,Carolus. Froude, J.
A. A
LiteraryHistory of India
Mela und Seine
Pomponius
Erasmus
(London, 1894).
G
New
Chapters in
Griechische Eve
Greek
History (London
and
New
Gardthausen, V. E.
Gasquet, F. A.
1900). Geiger,Ludwig.
The
Petrarca
Geraud, P. H. J. F.
Geschichtschreiber Gerlach,F. D. Gevaert,F. A. Hisloire et Theorie 1875-1881). The Decline and Gibbon, Edward. Bury (Cambridge, 1899).
1840). (Paris, VAntiquilb der Romer 1855). (Stuttgart, de la Musique dans VAntiquitl(Ghent,
Fall
of
the Roman
Empire, ed. by
Giles,P.
Etudes
Short Manual
Gleditsch,J. G.
Grafenhan, E.
7
Pythagoreer (Posen, 1841). in Alterthum, Geschichte der Klassischen Philologie Vulgar Latin (Boston,1908).
the before Middle
vols.
(Bonn, 1843-1850).
H. A
Grandgent, Charles
Graves, F. P.
Historyof Education
Pneumatics
1909). Greenwood, J. G.
Gregorovius, F.
trans.
(London, 1851).
in the Middle
Ages, Eng.
(London, 1894).
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL
INDEX
467
P.
Memoirs
sur
Etude de.
Gubernatis, Angelo
Alfred.
Storia
Outlines
of the
1902).
F. De Latinorum
Haase,
Codicum
anuscriptorumSubscriptionibus
Essays (New
The
Tragic Drama
Geschichte der
(Oxford,1896).
in Alterthum und Mittel-
Oldest Civilization
De
Byzantinarum
Rerum
Scrip-
Classical
Monchthum
(Giesen, 1895).
1900).
Hart,
G. De Tzetzarum
1880). Vita,Scriptis(Leipzig,
als
Philipp Melanchthon
De De Canone Saturnio How G. Music Decern
lin, (Ber-
Oratorum Versu
Ha vet, P. A. L.
Latinorum
Henderson, W. Heyse, C. W.
L.
J.
Seine
Stellung
zum
Christenthum
(Regensburg, 1885).
Gibbon's Memoirs
(London, 1900).
Hodgkin, Thomas.
Italy and Her Invaders,8 vols. (Oxford,1892-1899). The Letters of Cassiodorus (London, 1886). (New York, 1902). A Short History of the Printing Press Hoe, Robert.
to the Close of the Holm, Adolph, History of Greece from Its Commencement Independence of the Greek Nation (London, 1894-1899).
Howells, W. Hubner, F.
D.
LiteraryHistory of Ireland
York,
468
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL
INDEX
Ihne, W.
Early Rome
Jannet, Claudio.
1880).
Les
Institutions
Sociales
. . .
People, Eng
trans.
C.
Attic
English Men
(New
York, 1899).
Growth
Etude Select
sur
(Caen, 1857).
Writers
of
the
History of Greek
Remarks
Sein
Leben, Seine
vols.
(Leipzig, 1872).
K
Keil, H.
Ker, W.
P.
Grammatici
Latini
zu
(Leipzig,1855-1880).
Horaz
(Leipzig, 1879).
York, 1904).
and
Ages (New
Chiliades and
Lehrs.
(Leipzig,1826
Her Schools
1840). (Leipzig,1890).
Alexandria
(Cambridge, 1854).
(Leipzig,1880).
Astronomicis
Metrik
(Marburg,
Geschichte
von.
1908). Philologie(Leipzig,
Kugler, Bernard
Geschichte
Kreuzziige (Berlin,1891).
Etude Rome
sur
Jules
Cesar
de Lescale
in the
47"
What Have
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL
INDEX
the Greeks
Done
Civilization?
(London
and
New
Darstellungder 7).
Dark The
Lexicographie nach
Maittaire, Mariette,
P.
Michael.
171
Historia
Aliquot
Parisiensium
(London,
7).
Pierres Gravies
J.
Vulgate
Latine
xii
s.
d'apresRoger
Bacon
(Paris,
C. F. Urban.
von.
Glossaria Documents
sur
Groeca J. C.
sur
(Paris, 1880).
vols.
Eduard.
Forschungen
F.
Alien
Geschichte, 4
(Halle,
A.
J.
F.
Pilrarque (Paris,1868).
The
J.
History of
the
Crusades.
Eng.
et
trans.
(London,
last
1881).
Freres. vols.
Ancienne
Moderne,
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Engraved
Times Gr.
(London, 1892).
and Lat.
Patrologia
Geschichte A
Cursus
(Paris,
(Regensburg, 1866-1868).
trans.
Theodor.
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1903-
1905).
Monk, Monro, Monroe, J. H.
D. B. Paul. Period The
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Greek and man Ro-
Modes Source
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Montalambert, Montfaucon,
10
of
the
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el
trans.
1861).
Bernard vols.
L'AntiquitiExpliquie (Paris,1719).
de.
Representee en
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL
INDEX
47
Series
Morison, J. C.
Gibbon
"
English Men
Can
of
Letters
(New York,
(London,
i*79).
Miiller, F.
Max.
India, What
It Teach
Us?
last ed.
1892).
Lectures The
on
Sacred
of Language, last ed. (London, 1891). of the East, 2d ed. (London, 1892).
der Klassischen
Miiller, Ivvan.
Lucian. Miiller, Geschichte der
Handbuch
3d Alterthumswissensckaft,
(Berlin,1877).
Niederlanden
Philologie in den
trans.
(Leipzig,
1869).
Greek and Latin De
Versification, Eng.
Genio The A Les Aevi Schools Handbook Precurseurs
Miiller, P. E.
Theodosiani
Mullinger, J. B. Murray,
Gilbert.
of Charles the Great (London, 1877). of Greek Archaeology (London, 1892). (Florence,1902).
de la Renaissance
Muntz, Eugene.
Nettleship, Henry.
Lectures and
Essays in Latin
Literature
(Oxford,1889).
Newell, E.
J. J.
Nichols, F. M. Nicoll, H.
Life and Teachings (London, 1890). Epistles of Erasmus (New York, 1901-1904).
Scholars
sur
Great
(Edinburgh, 1880).
de la Decadence
Nisard, Charles.
Les Gladiateurs Le Triumvirat
Essai de la
(Paris,1867).
Republiquedes
en
Lettres
(Paris,1889).
Littiraire Erasme
(Paris,s. a.).
Italie
(Paris,1888).
Pelrarque et VHumanisme
Die
Nordenskjold, A. E.
Olcott, G. N.
Alex. Olleris,
Formation
of
the Latin
Inscriptions
Latine
(Rome, 1898).
Conservateur Cassiodore,
des Livres de
(Paris,1884).
Oman,
C. W. C. The
New
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL
INDEX
Sprichwbrterder
Geschichte
Rbtner
(Leipzig, 1890).
Plastik
der Griechischen
(Leipzig, 1894).
Pais,
Ettore.
Ancient
Legends of
Roman
History, Eng.
Museum
trans.
(New
(Berlin, 1838).
Studies
History of the
ed.
Renaissance
(London, 1888).
Essays,
ed.
vols.
(Oxford, 1889).
Casaubon,
De Sillis
2d by Nettleship,
(Oxford,1892).
Paul, F. Paul, H.
1821). (Berlin,
ed.
Paulsen, Friedrich.
Universities, Eng.
Renaissance
(New York,
189S).
Pearson, Alfred. Pearson, Peck,
H. Karl. T. Cena A Short
History of the
(Boston, 1893).
Ethic
Literature
(New
A. R. The
Pennington, Perrier, J. L.
(London, 1901).
of Scholastic Philosophy (New York, 1909). (Paris,1873). Perrot, Georges. Les Pricurseurs de Demosthene Perthes, Justus. Atlas Anliquus (Gotha, 1893). Historicorum Romanorum 1883). Peter,Hermannus. Fragmenta (Leipzig,
Picavet, F. J.
Marius. Pieri, F. Plessis,
Histoire
GenSrale
el
Comparie
des Civilisations
Medievales
(Paris, 1905).
Ronsard
Pokel,
W. F.
(Marseille, 1895). 1889). Metrique Grecque et Latine (Paris, 1882). (Leipzig, Schriftstellerlexikon
De W. Artis ed. Vocabulis The
Polle,K. Prutz,
The
Quibusdam of
Gibbon
Lucretianis
(Dresden, 1866).
Prothero,
G.
Letters
(London, 1896).
Hans.
Kullur
Age of the
G. H.
Putnam,
1896-1897).
Rabe, Hugo.
De
of Europe during
the Middle
Ages
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL
INDEX
473
Commentarius Scriptis
F. Reiffenberg,
A.
F. T.
De
Justi
Lipsi Vita
et
(Brussels, 1823).
and
Cicero
Philologie Classique,2d
et de
ed., 2 vols.
(Paris, 1885).
Renan, Ernest. 1898). Ribbeck, Otto.
Geschichte der
Rbmischen M
flange d'Hisloire
Voyage
dans
VAntiquiti(Paris,
2
Dichtung,
vols.,2d
ed.
(Leipzig, 1897-1900).
Ridgeway, William. Ritschl,F. W.
Neue Die Plautinische The
foil.).
Alexandrinischen Excurse
(Breslau, 1838).
History of Letter Writing (London, 1843). (New York, 1898). Kbnigreichs Jerusalem (Halle, 1896).
Atlicarum Fontibus
(Berlin, 1898).
(Basle, 1857).
Victorinus Gellii Noctium
Rudinger,
Wilhelm. De
Lothar.
(Breslau,
1883).
G. A. E. A. Saalfeld,
Der
Hellenismus De I'Ecole
in Latium
St. Hilaire,Barthelemy
de.
London, 1901-1902).
de.
(Paris,1894).
ed.
History of
Classical
2d Scholarship, 3 vols.,
bridge, (Cam-
1908).
on
the Revival A
G. A. Scartazzini,
Handbook Die
Dante, Eng.
trans.
(Boston, 1897).
von.
Poitik
(Berlin,1888).
Geschichte
to
Beitragezur
The Geschichte
von.
der Grammalik
Schneidewin, Schomann,
F. W.
Preface
Pindar
G. F.
Schroeder, Leopold
Indiens
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL
INDEX
Aldus
Manutius
und
Seine in
The
Renaissance
of Art
Sergi,Giuseppe. Seymour,
T. D.
(London, 1901).
Life in
Life of Poggio (Liverpool,1837). Shepherd, William. Simon, Jules. Histoire de VEcole d'Alexandrie, 2 vols. (Paris,18441845). Skrzeczta, Smyth,
H. R. F. L. Die Lehre des
1858-1869).
W. and Melic Poets
Sokolowski
Szujski. J.
Monumenla
(Cracow, 1876).
Numismatum Anti-
Spangenberg, Spanheim,
quorum
E. P.
Jacob
Cujas
Ezechiel.
Dissertalio
de Usu
et Prastantia
(Amsterdam,
von.
F. Spiegel,
Die
Alexander
Spingarn, J.
1
E.
Critical
Essays of
Century, 3
vols.
ford, (Ox-
908- 1 909).
in the Renaissance Canone
qui
Dicitur
zig, (Leip-
Geschichte
2
der
bei Sprachwissenschaft
den
Griechen
Romern,
De
vols.,2d
Rowe,
ed.
ed.
Steup, Jul.
and
Probis
Grammalicis Nicholas.
Antiquities of Athens
2d ed.
Measured
Delineated,1st
W.
(London, 1762);
(London, 1825-1830).
Sturz, F.
Historia
Opuscula
H. D. De
Nonnulla Romanorum
Suringar, W. Susemihl,
driner
(Leyden,
834-1 835).
in der
Griechischen
Litteratur
Alexan-
(Leipizig,1891-1892).
Latin
von.
Proverbs Geschichte
(Baltimore, 1902).
der Ersten
1900). Kreuzziige(Leipzig,
vols.
J. A.
History
of the Italian
Renaissance, 7
(London, 1875).
La The
Grecque (Paris,1887).
Mind
(New
Sir
York,
191
Teignmouth,
J.
S.
Life of
William
Jones
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL
INDEX
475
Teuffel-Schwabe-Warr.
History of Roman
R. P.
1892). Texier,
C. F.
M.,
St.
and
Pullan,
Byzantine
Architecture
(London, (London,
et
J.
Anthologia Grceca,with
Les Traitis
English notes
Ciceron
Thiaucourt,
Camille.
Leurs
Ueberweg, F. 1907).
Usener,
Grundriss
der Geschichte
der
Philosophic, 9th
de
ed.
(Leipzig, Reliquia
Hermann.
Dionysii
Halic.
Librorum
Imitatione
(Leipzig, 1899).
Epicurea (Leipzig,1887).
Hermann. Ulrici, Geschichte der Griechischen
Dichtkunst
(Berlin, 1835).
Vacherot,
Etienne.
Histoire
Critiquede
Valla
VEcole
d'Alexandrie, 3 vols.
de Saint-Maur
the Rationalist
(Cambridge, 1895).
Klassischen Alterthums oder das
Verner
(Copenhagen, 1893).
3d
der ed.
Voight, Georg.
Erste
Wiederbelebung des
des
Jahrhundert R. E.
Humanismus,
im Kritik
(Berlin,1893).
Volkmann,
1874).
Geschichte
Ponlici Grotius
Vita
et
Scriptis(Rostock,1897).
(Amsterdam, 1827).
W
Wachsmuth,
Walden, J. W. Warren, F. M.
Curt. H. A
De The
Cratete Mallota
Universities
i860). (Leipzig,
Greece
of Ancient
(New
History of the
Das De Aula
Novel
York, 1895).
Mitlelalter
Schriftwesen im
Attalica
(Copenhagen, 1836).
476
Weise,
F.
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL
INDEX
O.
Charaderistik
trans.
der
Lateinischen
Sprache, 3d
der Ars Poetica
ed.
zig, (Leip-
1905),Eng.
Weissenfels,Oskar. 1880).
Horaz
Aesthet-Kritische
(Gorlitz,
(Berlin, 1899).
F. G. R. M.
Epische Cyclus, 2d ed. (Bonn, 1865-1882). Lyrik und Lyriker (Leipzig, 1890).
Der and the Rise
A. F.
Alcuin
of Christian
Schools
Autobiography (New
Rudolf. des Griechischen D.
York, 1901).
Westphal,
Die Musik
Whitney,
The
W.
Language
(New
York, 1884).
Lifeand
L. A.
Growth
of Language,
The
last ed.
Neo-Plalonists
(Cambridge, 1901).
Euripidis Hcrakles
Vilis
Scriptorum
Ulrich
von.
Romanorum
Wilamowitz-Mollendorf, Wilken,
Friedrich.
Kreuzziige, 7
in Greece
1807-1832). (Leipzig,
Wilkins, A. S.
Christ
National
in the Fourth
(Dresden,1 754).
trans.
History of Ancient
The
Philosophy,Eng.
(New
York, 1899).
Susanna. De
Lifeand
Letters
of Niebuhr
Fonlibus
Macrobii
Saturnalium
Prolegomena
von.
ad Homerum
1795) ; (Berlin,
Leben und Seine
Lorenzo
Valla,Sein
and
(Leipzig,
von,
Woermann,
Education
Karl.
History of Painting,
New
(New
H.
York, 1901).
on
W.
Erasmus
(Cambridge and
York,
1904).
Die
von.
Aussprache
Die
des Griechischen
1888). (Leipzig,
MitteU
Polnische
des Geschichtschreibung
(London, 1897).
History of Eclecticism, Eng. trans. (London, 1893). A. R. 1873). Zu Spatern latein. Dichtern (Innsbruck, Zingerle,
478
Aquinas, Thomas, 388. Arabic, knowledge of, in
Ages, 240. Aratus, 96, 102. Arcesilaus, 118.
INDEX
Athens,
the Middle
as as as a a
the
Sparta, 28; champion of Hellas, 29, 30; of learning, centre 32, 35, 42 ; 1 university town, 21-124.
contrasted
with
Archaeology and
268,
Russia
Antiquities, 250-254,
313, 401 315
n.
269,
and
287, 288,
the
in
Crimea,
Archimedes, 103. Aristarchus, 104 ; his critical methods, ogy, 100116; his grammatical terminolno;
n.
his
enormous
lection col-
his
114.
his five critical processes, 109; his Homeric criticism, 109-1 n ; five nolte, 113; his successors,
Bacchylides, 34,
;
234.
Bacon,
invents his the
as
Roger,
230-242
character
of
Aristophanes Byzantium, critical accents, punctuation, and 98, 107, 108 ; his hypotheses to signs, the dramatists, 98; helps establish
the
107
as
his criticism of writings,239; Scholastics, 239 ; his suggestions to Scripturaltext-criticism, 240, his Greek
241 ;
Canons,
the
99;
his
ten
prosodice,
107, 108 ;
his
242.
Caesar,309 n. Beadus, Renanus, 396. Aristotle, meaning of "pi\o\oyla in, Beck, Carl, 452. his analyticaltreatise on oric, rhet2 ; Bekker, August Immanuel, 405, 410 n. his of oric, rhetBenfey, Theodor, 419. conception 45-47 ; his metaphysical disBenedictus tinctions, (St.Benedict),197; founds 47, 48; the order of the Benedictines,200, 48; his Organon, 48; his ten categories,48; the importance 202, 203. of his categories in the development Bentley, Richard, assists Kiister,351 ; of formal grammar, his relations with Hemsterhuys, 352 48 ; his Poetics, in the "Pleiad," criticism, 74, 73-76; his dramatic n" 353 "" included
108.
75;
first scientific
lexicographer, Baronius,
of Homer,
"casket
360;
as
scholar, 361-365;
;
his
Phalaris, 365
366-370;
his
critical power,
371
n.
bibliography to,
the
173.
Period,
Ars
fine art
and of
aesthetic mediaeval
251.
n.
study
art,
art, 127-129;
243;
Byzantine
Arundel
art, 250,
Bergk, Theodor, 409. Bernhardy, Gottfried, 413, 414. Bernard de Chartres, his method of teaching, 230, 231. Bernays, J., quoted, 74. Bessarion, his founding of the Library of St. Mark (Venice), 273.
in Classical Biographical Method Philology, 3. Biography, 120, 153, 154. N. M., 401 n. Blagoviestschenski, Boccaccio,Giovanni, 267, 268.
Style,42.
INDEX
479
Callimachus, 96
; his
Boeckh, August,
Boethius, Anicius
De
207
410
n.
93 n,
Manlius,
to
Consolatione
;
his
work, 98,
101
106 ;
his
ical bibliographlyricpoetry,
; his
epigrams, 101.
1 29. Sculptors,
first writer
Arabic
Camerarius, 396.
Canon of Ten
translated (Hindu) numerals, 207; by King Alfred, Chaucer, and Queen Elizabeth, 207. Boissier,Gaston, 427. Bopp, Franz, first scientific student of Comparative Philology,418, 419. tific Borghesi, Bartolomeo, the first scien-
Canter,
William,
in verse,
150.
his
343.
use
of
Arabic
numerals
Carneades,
Ages,
epigraphist, 443.
Bos, Lambert,
351.
214-218, 225, 226. Casaubon, Isaac, 306, 308-312. Aurelius, Cassiodorus, Magnus
204.
203,
Botsford, G. W., quoted, 7, 8. Bouhier, Jean, 314. Brant, Sebastian, 391 n. British Museum, 381 n. Brown University, 450.
Brugmann,
Karl
45;
of
F., 422,
423.
the
originatorof
Roman
prose,
153. 399.
Bugge, Sophus 424, 433, 434. Burgess, Prof. J. W., quoted, 244. 65, 66, 76; Burlesque, of the Sophists, of the tragic writers,76 ; of Homer See the and Cyclic writers, 77.
Parody.
Catullus, Quintus Valerius, 152. Caylus, le Comte de, 315, 316. Celtes,Conrad, 391 n.
Cephalas, 256,
Charlemagne,
Charles
344.
his court
school, 220.
280.
Burmann,
Cicero, M.
as a
T.,
an
as
editions,350, Burney,
360. Burton,
philosopher, 150;
as
Charles,
his
"Pleiad,"
359,
153;
orator,
at
Ciceronianism
the time
of the
303
naissance, Re-
Robert, 358
n.
vated ; culti-
chaeologist, ar-
teristics 268. Byzantine Empire (New Rome), characof its history, 210, 247-250; City editions of Homer, 16, its literature, its art, 250, 251; 112. 251, 256, 257 ; its jurisprudence, Clark, Victor S., quoted, 219. 254,
252, 253;
111,
its
scholarship, 253-255;
the
Classical its
studied Archaeology,
in Great
its
pillageby
Turks,
272
Italy, 269.
and Britain, 380, 381 ; in France Germany, 426"429. Classical Philology, 1-4 ; definition of, tory of treating,3-4 ; his1-3 ; methods
of,
1"2.
Cobet, Caryl Gabriel, Cajori,Florian, quoted, 22. his lexicon, Codex, meaning of, 280 Calepinus, Ambrosius, alterations herein,see Lexicography.Colet, John, 295. 415 n; College de France,
305.
424,
n.
425.
480
Columbia
INDEX
Comedy
Commodianus,
Comparative Philology,3
of 418, 419.
391
n.
Tobias, 417. Damm, Dante, 261, 262. Dawes, Richard, 371. Conington, John, 447. Byzantine Empire. Demetrius, Magnus, 120. Constantinople, see Demetrius Phalerius, 88-91. of Abdera, 11 ; his theories Democritus Cooper, F. T., quoted, 187. his treatise on of Syracuse, writes the first of language, 58; Corax manual of rhetoric, his 126 his work n. ; on Glosses, painting, rules, 41 ; 41,
44.
128.
Corpus Inscriptionum Alticarum, 441. Corpus Inscriptionum Grmcarum 441. Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, 443. Corpus Iuris Civilis, 253. Corssen, W., 434-437. Corvinus, Matthias, 399.
Demosthenes,
44.
see
Descriptive Geography,
raphy. Geog-
vast
ductiveness pro-
116.
Dilettanti Society,380. Cosmopolitanism at Rome, 186. his view of Dindorf, K. W., 407. Crates of Mallos, 119, 120; the "Bentley of Antiquity," Homer, Dindorf, Ludwig, 407 n. ; 449. 120; his conception of Dinocrates, the designerof Alexandria, 120; his works, text-criticism, 119, 120; his embassy to Rome, 1 20 ; 157. 120;
89.
Cratylus,synopsis of
the
dialogue,61-
67. Critical Signs, 98, 107, 108, 113, 114, 160, 166, 167, 186. Poems, in Criticism,of the Homeric
Diogenes Laertius, 60. Diogenes of Apollonia,quoted, 40. Dionysius Thrax, the first teacher
formal
of
Early Greece,
13,
ment abridgvarieties, 39, 40, see aesthetic,73-75 ; Auratus Doratus, (Jean d'Aurat), Greece, 74-77; subjective, 107, 368, and teacher of Scaliger Ronsard, 326. 369 ; verbal, 305, 306 ; diplomatic, See Text Criticism. Downes, Andrew, 357, 360. 336-340. Cruques, Jacques de (Cruquius), his Drakenborch, Arnold, his great edition of Livy, 351. studies of Horace in Mss. lost, now its beginnings in Greece, 15; Codex Blandinianus,342, Drama, 342, 343;
343-
158"160. grammar, Dittenberger, W., 441. Dcederlein, L., 412. its Donaldson, J. W., 439. 20, 25, 27 ; Criticism Text ^Elius, 184, 185; ; Donatus, of the drama in of, 246.
influence
in Greece, 72,
75-77;
tive na-
Crusades,
257,
their influence
on
Europe,
75;
Roman Dramatic
258. tions Cujacius (Jacques de Cujas), his relawith Scaliger,326; his reconstruction of Roman law, 326. Curtius, Ernst, 419. Curtius, Georg, the
head of
a
school
420.
Theophrastus of Ephesus, 76 ; in Aristophanes, 76. Drisler,Henry, 418 n, 454. saries Du Cange, Charles du Fresne, his glosof Low Latin and Late Greek,
312.
75 ; in
INDEX
481
of Epigrams, of Callimachus, 101; Martial,155. Epigraphy, originand development of, in Antiquity,167, 168 ; Greek, 441 ; of late development, 442, Roman,
443-
Epistulae Obscurorum
395-
Virorum,
394,
Eckhel,Joseph, 403. Eclectics, 97, 102. 51 ; at Alexandria, Editiones Principes of the Fifteenth Century, 209, 300.
Education, in early Greece,
27 ; 49-51; 125; 17-19,
Epitome
Erasmus
Treatises, 1 14, 1 15. of Desiderius, 200; account his life, his writings, 291-294; 294297; 297-299.
of the Four
his
character
and
influence,
26,
Period, 1 21universities,
131;
early Rome,
the
;
Graeco-Roman
monastic
education, schools,228-231.
171-191
"the Icelandic Egelsson, Sveinbjoin, Homer, "433. 50, $1. in Classical Egyptians, their influence upon early Ethnographic Method Greek Philology, thought, 22; their scientific 4. Etruscology,436, 437. knowledge, 105 n. rhetorical E/*c6s, Etymology, 52; Plato's discussion in meaning of,41, 44. the Cratylus,61-67; in Classical Eiodographic Method popular etymologies, involved 66, Philology, 67 principles 9. ; in developing words, 63, 64, 69; Eleatic School, 24; linguistic theories of the, 56-59the etymological schools among Romans, ElegiacPoetry, in Greek literature, 162-164. 157, 33 ; in Latin literature, Euclid, 103. 152. Eudemus, his historyof geometry, 22. Eliot,George, quoted, 446. Eudoxus in Latin, 188-100. of Canidus, 174. Encyclopaedists founder of the Pergamene as relations Englishuniversities, Eumenes, scholarly
Alexandria, styled in the Alexandrian "pi\6\oyos, 2 ; School, 98, 103, 106, 107. Ernesti, Johann August, 400, 401. Ethics, in Homer, 18, 19 ; in the philosophy of Pythagoras,23 ; of Socrates,
Eratosthenes
of
School, 118. Press, Euphemism, 69. 67, 72, 76, 78, 86. at, 359 ; Eng359 ; revival of Greek lish Euripides, scholars of the seventeenth his Eusebius, tury, cention Chronicle, 189; restoraof, by J. J. Scaliger, 360-363 ; the Cambridge Press, 336-341. 364; deterioration of from 1750 until Everett,Edward, 451. influence Exegesis, 1820, 377, 378; German 72, 73. on, 446. Ennius, Quintus, 138; changes made
sities, Univer359, 447;
between
English and
Dutch
the
Oxford
by
him
in
Latin
verse
structure,
o-
130-141 ; his Annales, 139, 140. the Epic Poetry among Greeks, 12, 97; 135; among 151-
the
Romans,
134,
139,
Epicurus, his theory of the origin of of a language, 60; his endowment school at Athens, 122.
21
Faber, Basilius, 397 n" 399. Raffaele,442. Fabretti, Fabricius, George, 397 n. Fabricius, J. A., 440. Facciolati, Iacopo, 415-416.
"Families" "Father of of Manuscripts,
in.
482
Felton, C. C, 451. 168. Fenestella,
Ferrero, G., 429. Fiction, see Prose fiction. Filelfo, Francesco, 281. Fisher, G., 452.
Folk Literature
among
INDEX
393
intellectual influence
45 S ;
periods of
classical of
in, 393
394-
study
Hebrew
in,
Romanorum, 190, 224, 225. Gibbon, Edward, 37, 378, 379. : Foreign schools at Athens and Rome Gilman, D. C, 454. school French at various meanings of (1) Athens, 427 ; Glosses, 125-127; school Rome the word, 126; at their relations to (2) German ; (3) British school at Athens, 447 ; (4) lexicography,126; Pamphilius, 194. British school at Rome, 448 ; (5) Glossographers, 127, 194. American school Athens at cography. ; (6) Glossography, 126, 166, 167; see Lexi131.
the
156-
American
school
at Rome. n.,
Forgeries, of
Frederick of
manuscripts, 284
285
of inscriptions, 442.
rhetoric Urbino, his remarkable list of Greek library,containing a authors now lost,273. French School of Classical Philology, Graevius (Johann Georg Grave), 397 n. studies in music, geogGrafenhan, A., quoted, 26. 304-320; raphy, by Grammar, its early relation to logic, history, and gem-work 47 ; French of scholars,315, 316. meaning "grammaticus," 70; Froben, Johann, 294. gradual development of grammatical terms Fronto, Marcus by Protagoras, 70; by ProdiCornelius,186. totle, by Plato, 70; by Aris49, 70; cus,
70, 71 ; 71,
Gnipho, M. Antonius, 166. Goethe, J. W. von, 417. Gorgias of Leontini, teaches in Athens, 41-43. Graeco-Roman Period, 130-190.
by
andrians, Alex-
109,
by Dionyon
Gaisford,Thomas,
447,
449.
sius
Thrax,
M. T.
158;
first treatise
159;
and Gaza, Theodorus, grammarian translator, 280, 281, 295, 391 n. Geldner, K. F., quoted, 30. Gellius, A., 186 ; his Nodes Allicae,188, 189.
formal
grammar,
L. Stilo,159,
160;
school
Varro,
162;
the
the
first
grammar,
183;
among
later
matical gram-
writers
Romans,
monastic
Gem-cutting,
learned
from
the
tians, Egyp-
grammatical
Ages, 236;
401 n., 405,
83, 84.
in
the
Middle
theories
of,
in Classical Philology,
412-415.
Latini, 184-187. Grammaticus, 172, 173. 70; first tionary, dicThomas, geographical Gray, 371. 35 ; 174,175; Ages, 235, 236; Period, Greek, in the Middle 176; in the French and in the Renaissance after, 269; n. 315 ; road-maps, 392 taught in Italy by the Byzantines, Geometry, 22, 23 ; developed by Euclid and Archimedes, 103. 269 ; restoration of, in the English asticism universities, Germany, early culture in,388 ; schol359. in, 388- Greek culture,antiquity of, 5-9. in,388 ; humanism Greek genius,character of, 83-87. 394, 396"398 ; universities in, 388-
Geography,
on, 25 ;
Grammatici
geography, descriptive
INDEX
483
Greek
of the, 5-8. Hellenes, origins ; teaching Hellenic Influence in Italy, 266"284. writings, 13-15; cism, critiHemsterhuys, Tiberius, his acute early criticism of, 20; of, 18-20; his edition of Lucian, 353 ; 26, 34-39 ; at Athens, historiography, 352 ; 28 ff ; varieties of, 33-45 ; study of, appointed professor in Leyden, 354;
Homeric
the his fame in other countries, criticism of, 71; 73-75; 354. drama, 72; parody, 76-78; genius Henri, Victor, 427. in Alexandria, 91-116; Henzen, VVilhelm,443. of, 83-87;
71;
in Pergamum, Greek
118-120;
see
sance. Renais-
Hepha;stion, on
Heraclides
metres,
194.
Ponticus, his
treatise
on
n.
language,76.
Heraclitean
124.
Gregorovius,F., Gregory
Grimm's
of, 50-59Heraclitus,
56-60.
Herennius
21
language,
Grocyn, William, firstteacher of Greek at Oxford, 293. Gronovii (J. F. and Jacob Gronov),
their Thesaurus
349-
Gottfried,401
n., 405.
of Greek
Hero antiquities,
to
graphical geo-
Grotius
Hugo
(Huig
van
Groot), great
constructive Martianus
34, 35 ;
classical
scholar
and
35 ;
quoted,
Hesiod, 13. of twelve, Hessus, Helius Eobanus, 396. lure Belli el Heyne, Christian Gottlob, 403. 347 ; his treatise De his translation into Latin Pads, 348 ; Hieronymus (St. Jerome), 148,
verse
195.
of the
Planudean
349-
his
experiments
in
lection literature, Gruter, Janus (Jan Gruytere), his col50, 51. of Latin inscriptions, History, 26, 34; in Greek 342.
literature,
55;
34-38;
II in Latin
among
foreigners, 54,
Hadley, James,
Haldeman,
the ten
455.
S., 435.
lexicon
to
Harpocration, Valerius,his
orators,
194.
Harvard,
John,
founder
of
Harvard
College,449.
Havercamp, Siegbert,352. Haupt, Moritz, 401 n., 433 n. Hebrew, study of, 240, 394, 398. Hecataius, 25, 26. the originator of true Hegemon,
77.
the literature,153, 154; Byzantine historians, 254, 258 ; later Gibbon, historians, 378, 379, Curtius, Niebuhr, 408"410, Ernst, 419, Grote, 428, Thirlwall,428, DuMommruy, 429, Boissonade, 429, sen, 443, 444, Ferrero, 429. Holmes, O. W., quoted, 182. Homeric Epic, character of the, 9, 10; in, 9, 14-16; interpolations early
"
influence
n, 12,
upon 17,
11,
Greek
thought,
ethical
19,
26,
27;
value
of,
18, 19;
early
Scaliger,
criticism of, 13-15, cal allegori20, 44; and rationalistic explanation of,
Heliodorus,
Hellanicus
155.
of
Mitylene,35.
editions made
484
Homeric
INDEX
Hymns, 13. Homonymy, 58. I. Horatius, Flaccus, quoted, 19; as a a satirist, as lyricpoet, 152; 149; as a critic of literature, 181, 182. contrasted with Humanism, 269-271 ; Medievalism, 270-273 ; in Germany, 388-394, 306-308; the New, 417. of Humboldt, Antiquity, the, see
Herodotus.
Jebb,
R.
C,
447.
Jerome, 148, 195. Jevons, F. B., quoted, 36. John of Salisbury,231, 232. Jones, Sir William, his knowledge of Oriental his aplanguages, 382; pointment in as Bengal, 383 ; a judge his translations from the Sanskrit, 383 ; his anticipationof Comparative
Hungary, classical studies Hurd, Richard, 371. Hutten, Ulrich von, 395.
in, 399.
Philology, 383, 384Jowett, Benjamin, 448. Juba of Mauretania, 194. Junggrammatiker, 393, 422. Junius, Franciscus, his study
painting,344.
of
cient an-
1200
grams, epi-
Poetry, 33. 441"442. Kiepert, Heinrich,439 n. Iamblichus, 103. Kirchhoff, A., 441. Iberians,the, 6. Klassische Alterthumswissenschaft, Iliad,the, see Homeric Epic. 3. foreign languages, Klotz, R., 415. Interpreters of the Greeks, 54. Kohler, H. E., 401 n. among Invasions of Italy,213, 214. Kriiger, K. W., 412. tion Ionian Greeks, 17, 18, 28; educational (Neocorus), his devoKiister, Ludolf influence of, 17, 18. to Greek, 351 ; his edition of Ionian School of Philosophy, 21, 22, Aristophanes with the scholia, 351.
24.
in,
226
n.
; La-
Laberius,D.,
Lachmann, 188;
his
405
149. ; his
Homer,
his De
Natura number
Rerum,
of text
the
mystic
Seven,
ley,406
criticism
by Wolf,
of the New
406 ; his
text
Testament, 248. Isocrates, the first artistic orator, 43; 407. his success Lambinus, Dionysius, 306, 307, 407. as a rhetorical teacher,43 ; Cicero G. M., 452. of Lane, obligations to, 44. Italian Period of Scholarship, Langen, Rudolf von, 391 n. 284, 303, Language, study of, in connection with 304philosophy and psychology, 51, 52; Itineraria, 175, 392 n. theories regarding the origin of, 5169,
see
Varro;
to
indifference
of
the
Greeks
foreignlanguages,
52-55;
theory
of, 56-60.
486
Luther, Martin, 298,
397302, 392,
INDEX
395,
Metaphor, its use in language, 68. Metres, early treatises on, 76.
Middle in the secAges, foreshadowed ond Lycophron of Chalds, 99, 101, 102, 255. decadence of his recension of of the Athens, Lycurgus century a.d., 192 ; Classical Latin, 193, 194, 214-220; tragicpoets, 78, 79. of Christianityon ical classinfluence Lycurgus of Sparta, 17. and Cohans the learning, Poetry, Lyric 215-217; aration sep195-200, among from of the Eastern the Dorians, 33 ; at Alexandria,101, 105 ; in Latin Western Monachism, Empire, 199; literature,131, 134, 151,
IS2. 200-204;
invasion
214;
of the end
Roman of Middle
Lysias,43.
provinces, 213,
Ages, 214; periods of mediaeval of M scholarship, 214; popular use Latin after the fall of Rome, 214grammatical theories in, 236; Mabillon, Jean, 314. 223; Macedonian 263 ; art in, 243 ; philosophy in, 244, ascendency overGreece,84. letters and learning in, 244-247, Macrobius, his Saturnalia, 189. 386. Missing Analogy, 59. Madvig, Johann Nicolai, 423-425. Mock-heroic, 77. Mahaffy, J. P., quoted, 19. Theodor, his remarkable Mommsen, Mai, Cardinal, 166.
Manuscripts,
collection
and
tion preserva-
versatility, 443;
his
plan
for
the
Latin Corpus, 443 ; his history of of, 204-206, 273-280; during his listof the Middle the supplementary Rome, Ages, 233, 235 ; 444; oldest classical manuscripts, 202, 234, papers, 444. abilityMonachism, 200-204. probat Constantinople,272; 23s; their of recovering Mss. now Scholars, 222-225; lost, Monastic of lost Mss. in books, 223 n. n. ; recovery 273 Monastic Schools,228-231. recent times, 440, 441. Montanus, 196. Geography. see Maps, Monte Cassino, 202. Maria Theresa, 399, 403. Bernard Montfaucon, de, 306, 313, Mariette, P. J.,315Martianus
Massilia, the
314-
Mathematics, 22, 103, 105. of Pitana, 77. Matron Matthaei, C. F., 401 n. Maximus Planudes, 256. Mayor, J. E. B., 448. Mediaevalism, characterized, 242,
270; 270-273.
243,
Miiller,Lucian, 402 n., 407 n. Muller, Otfried,quoted, 3 ; his monograph the Etruscans, 437 ; his on history of Greek literature, 439. A. J., quoted, 406; his H. Munro, edition of Lucretius, 407, 448. Thesaurus, Muratori, L. A., his new
442, 443-
contrasted
with
Humanism,
Muretus,
race,
Marcus
Mediterranean
the, 6.
326.
Museum,
the
Pergamene,
(Philipp Schwarzerd),
Louvre, Music,
79;
among
33;
Alexandrian, 92-95 ; the the Vatican, 428; 119; n. 427 ; British, 381 ; at
433
;
396, 397Meleager, 256. Melic Poetry, 33. Menander, 86, 91, 234. Merriam, A. C, 453.
Copenhagen,
American. treatises
on,
early Greek
of the
foundation
Classical
81 ;
modes
Greeks, 80,
vocal,
;
80, 81
; notation
INDEX
487
Fleischer's
theory
of
Greek
modes, Rufus),
Myron, Mythic
42.
caustic en-
treatise on,
13 ;
great anonymous
manual
of,116.
Papias, 246.
Paris, Gaston, quoted, Parmenides, 24.
457,
458.
77, 78, see Burlesque. Paronomasia, in Greek, 66, 67. Parrhasius, 83. 136. Nasalis Sonans, 422, 423. Parr, Samuel, 372, 373. Nauck, August, 402 n., 408. Pater, Walter, quoted, 288. Neo-Platonism, 102, 103. Paulsen, Friedrich,quoted, 388, 389. Netherlands, rise of scholarship in, Paulus Diaconus, 169. 316, 317. Pausanius, 176. Nettleship,Henry, 447. Pausias,83. New Learning, the, 284, 285. Pelasgians,the, 6. Nicholas V., 272. Peloponnesian War, 3s. Niebuhr, Barthold G., 37, 408-410. Pennsylvania, University of,450. Nisard, D6sir" and Charles, 426. Pergamene Library, its foundation, Nitzsch, K. F., 411. 118; catalogued by Callimachus, Nonius Marcellus,189. 120. Numerals, Arabic (Hindu), 207. Pergamene School, 1 18-120; trasted con-
Parody,
Naevius, G. N.,
134;
his Punka,
135,
Nuremberg
Chronicle,300.
120;
120.
with
117,
the
School
of
at
dria, Alexan-
118; how
Crates
founded, 118-
under
Mallos,
119-
Epic.
of
of, 118, Pergamum, description the Age of, 42, 43. Pericles,
School Peripatetic
of 128. Persian
119.
Philosophy, 122,
language,
Wars, their influence on Greek civilization, Period, 29-32. art, 30-47 Style Persius Flaccus, 149, 183. 39 ; as an ; Asiatic of,42 ; Attic Styleof,42 ; its relation Petrarca, Francesco, his studies,264; to epic, 264, 265; his recovery Rhetoric, 43-48; in legal proceedings, his Latin 266 classic of authors, 265, 46; taught at ; his 41, 43, relations with the German Rhodes, 124; at Rome, 132; orations Emperor, written for friends,159; Quint Man's 386, 387. teaching of, 178, 179. Petronius, C, 154, 157, 161; quoted, Oriental influence on Europe, 258. covery read in schools, 246; disn. ; 177
Heraclitean School. Oriental Middle Middle
languages:
Ages, Ages,
240; 240.
Arabic Hebrew
in
the
of
Cena
Trimalchionis
in
in the
Latin
an
1-3.
488
INDEX
375
; his work
and
reading, 375-377
Stone, 376
the
restores
the Rosetta
; ; his
letters to
Travis, 376;
Three
Pythagoras,
24;
22-24;
the Eleatic
122;
; Porsonian
School,
Aristotle,48,
the the
rates Soc-
and
Sophists,50,
Stoics,
51,
the
Sceptics,50; Epicureans,
the Cynics, 51; Plato, 63-65,
Prae-Alexandrian
Princeton
122;
the
97;
Eclectics, 51,
122;
103;
Alexandrian
philosophy, 102,
studies
at
philosophical Printing,
147, 150, 151;
Rome,
263;
in
the
opment of, 285; develof, 285, 286; centres of early book production, 286 ; effect upon Classical scholarship,286, 395. Scianus his
Priscianus
Phrynicus, 411.
Pindar,
32-34.
185, 186;
239
; introduced
386.
of Homeric Pisistratus, alleged recension by, 14-16. poems "pi\6\oyos, terms Plato, first uses "f"i\o\oyta, 1 ; his opinion of writing,
19;
Private Probus
editions,in.
186. Berytius,M. Valerius,
252.
as a
Procopius,
Prodicus
49-50 70.
of Ceos,
lecturer
on
on
style,
50,
his
; his treatise
synonyms,
bis
physiology
popular etymologies, Pronunciation, of Greek, 241 phabet, of Latin, 434. 65, 66; classifies letters of the altinctions, dishis Prose, beginnings of Greek, 26 grammatical 65;
his ridicule of
70.
n., 290
opment devel-
methods Prose
literature, 138;
of the Latin
his enrichment
of, 34, 35; Latin, 153, 154; of studying, 177, 178. fiction (Greek and Latin), 154,
155 ; at
Byzantium,
of Abdera,
51;
253.
as a
Protagoras
teacher
of
criticism
of, 160;
Varro's
rhetoric, 49,
Plautine Plebeian
"
Canon,
165.
Sermo Plebeius.
grammatical
70
n.
moods
genders,
effects
70,
Latin, see
Protestant
301-303.
Reformation,
of,
of,
10-
Poggio
279.
Bracciolini, Francesco,
276-
Ptolemius, Claudius, 176. Ptolemy Soter, 90. Publilius Syrus, 149. Punctuation, in Greek, 98, 108.
Punic
Wars,
31,
153,
154.
Golden
verses
of,
dictionary, 194.
Polus,
68
n.
his "Canon," 128 n. Polyclitus, Polygnotus of Thasos, 82. Polyonomy, 58. Pompeius Festus, 169. Porson, Richard, characteristics of,374,
treatise
INDEX
489
in,400
universities in,400 influence in,400 n.
n.
Rabanus
239,
(Hrabanus) Maurus,
275.
185, 238,
Old
sian, Per-
Rask,
R.
ies
German
edited edited his his Floras the
n.
420,
Anthology,
ten
days,
24 ;
Historia
on
Augusta,
commentary
calls from
345
;
Solinus, 345
and
Oxford, Padua,
receives research
345
;
Q., 183.
characteristics of
Bologna, of,
270-
in Leyden, with
his
the, 262,
263;
philosophy in,
early
scholars of, 281 ; Italian Period, 284, 285 ; results of the, 285, 287, 288 ; Ciceronianism in, 302, 303. Reuchlin, Johann, 393, 394. first treatise on, 41; Rhetoric, 40-51; by Gorgias, 43; taught in Athens critically expounded by Aristotle, 45, 48 ; popularizedby the Sophists, 49the Alexandrian rhetoric, g8, 51 ;
101; 150.
characteristics, 347. Salutati,Colutius, first Ciceronian, 268. Sanskrit, first grammar of, 384.
Sappho,
149,
33.
Satire, a Roman
150,
162.
Savile, Sir Henry, tutor in Greek to tions Queen Elizabeth, 355 ; his translafrom becomes Tacitus, 355; Provost at Eton, 356 ; helps prepare
the authorized version of the
exhibition
of, by Carneades,
78.
399.
Bible,
Rhinthon
of Tarentum,
Rhodomann,
Lorenz,
Library, 356.
Justus, 323-341 ; his his early teaching, knowledge 440. 323 ; of Greek and Arabic, 324 ; his travels Richardson, J. F., 436. in England and Scotland, 326; his Rienzi, Cola di, 442. his Ritschl, Friedrich,407, 434, 439 ; his Cujacius, 326, 327; stay with edition of Plautus, 439, 440. call to Leyden, 328; his feud with Romance his E pistula Caspar Scioppius, Languages, 219; study of, 329; his de Genie by Germans, 426. Scaligera, 330, 331; ing Romans, early history of, 130-134; Confutatio Burdonum, 332 ; his learnhis as a earlyliterature of, 131-136, 138, 142chronicler, 333-336; their first relations Manilius, 337, 148, 149; 338; his Eusebian 144, with Greece, 132-134; Hellenic fluence Chronicle, 339, inhis personal 340; national cline deteristics characcharacteristics, on, 134; 341 ; temporary of his of, 136-138. reputation, 341. Roman of philologus, philologia,Scaliger, Julius Caesar, 320, use 321 ; his Latin his 2. Grammar, physical 322 ; Rome, in the first century A.D., 170, theory,322. Sceptics,the, 50. 171 ; schools at, 172-181 ; the city in
the fourth century a.d., 211,
212.
vations, exca-
Ruhnken,
David,
354,
358.
of classical stud-
Russia, development
Charlemagne,
220.
49"
Scholasticism, period of, 214;
features,227, 228. Scholia,origin of, 125.
its
INDEX
209.
in
Classical
Tabula Peulingeriana, Sears, L., quoted, 39, 40. 175, 392 n. Seneca, quoted, 3. Tarsus, the university at, 124. Sermo Cotidianus, 156. Teachers, in the Grseco-Roman Period, Sermo Plebeius,156. 172-173. Sermo Rusticus, 215. Tegn6r, Esaias, 433. Sermo Urbanus, 156. Terentius,P., 149. Servius, 184. Terpander of Lesbos, 33, 80. Seven, as a mystic number, 248. Aureus, 186, 196, Tertullianus, M. Seymour, T. D., 455. 197. Text Criticism, beginnings of, 13-16; Short, C. L., 454. first rhetorical undertaken by Aristotle,78; by teaching in,41. Sicily, dria, SiUi, 78. Lycurgus of Athens, 78; at Alexanat Simonides, 72, 73. Pergamum, 98, 104-116; fluence 1 1 9, in^Elius Socrates, essentially by a Sophist,50; Stilo, 160; 120; of his teachings, 50, 51 ; as Varro, 165; by other Romans, 166,
167 ; see Criticism. Thales, 21. Solon, 16, 28. Theocritus, 101. character of their Theon, 116. Sophists, the, 49; their influence on teaching, 40-50; Theophrastus of Lesbos, his treatises Greek lesqued burand on metres, comedy, on style, on philosophy, 50-51; Aristotle and endows by Socrates, 65, 66 ; literary 76; succeeds criticism by, 76. Peripatetic School, 122. Thiersch, F. W., 412. Sophocles,42. Thrace, mythical poets of, 10. Sophocles, E. A., 452.
a
the
burlesques
Stephani, L., 401 n. Stephanus, Henricus, 305. Stephanus of Byzantium, Stephanus, Robertus, 305.
Thucydides, 35-37. numismatist, Ticknor, George, 451. Timon of Phlius,77, 78. of, 178, 183. Tisias,41. Topography, 175, 176. Tournier, Edouard, 426.
Tragedy,
176.
73_75; 72;
discussed
by
Aristotle,
148, 149. among Trebonianus, 252. Stoics, 51 ; their language teaching, Tribal Age in Greece, 7. Trigonometry, 104. 119, 120. Strabo of Amasia, 174, 175. Trithemius, Johannes, 239, 391 n. Studium Triumvirate, the, 317. Generate, 231. Trivium, 238. Sturm, Johann, 397, 398. Style, 40, 47, 49 ; Asiatic,42 ; Attic, Trojan Cycle, 12. Stylists, 98 ; Latin, Tryphon, 116. 42 ; Alexandrian in antiquity, 135, 138. Turnebus, Hadrianus, 306, 307. Suetonius Tyrwhitt, Thomas, 372. Tranquillus,Gaius, 171. Tzetzes, Ioannes, 255. Suidas, his lexicon and its sources, 254.
the Romans,
INDEX
491
Vossius,
his Ars universities
Gerhard Poetica,
Johannes,
343; 343;
343,
344;
great
graphs mono-
United
451 455 ;
;
States,
classical
German
in,
449452-
historical
on
treatises,
Art and
scholarship in,
influence
75.
Mythology,
Roger
241.
344.
in, 452-455.
92-97;
Vulgate, the,
241 ; edited
criticised by
at
Bacon,
dramatic,
at
n
Oxford,
Alexandria,
7-1 20; 124;
at
at at
Athens,
Lesbos, Walafrid
24 ; at at
Rhodes,
124;
124;
Tarsus,
at
Paris, 226,
in England, in
Strabo, 385.
as a
426-428;
see
Bologna,
231;
Warfare, Watts,
stimulus
32.
to
intellectual
English
232, ; in
Universities;
;
productiveness, 31,
2.
Germany,
399
388-393
399
in
gary, Hunn.
Poland,
n., 400
Welcker'3
Cyclus, 438.
W.
in Russia,
n. ; 400 ; in Holland, 430 in Belgium, 431 ; in Scandinavia, United in the States, 432-434;
Whitney, Willems,
William
D.,
454, 432
n.
455.
Pierre,
449-4SI-
Ussing, Johan
Louis,
432,
433.
and Mary, College of, 449. Wimpheling, Jacob, 391 n. Winckelmann, Johann Joachim, 402,
403. 417-
Wolf,
gen
F.
A., matriculation
2
at
GQttin-
of,
; 403,
404.
Ludwig
Caspar, 358.
;
Wolfflin,
Eduard,
416, 417.
della, 281
his
treatise
his contemporaries,
Ciceronianism,
281,
Woolsey, T. D., 451. Writing, Plato's opinion of, 19. Wyttenbach, Daniel, 358, 359.
suggestion
160;
;
as
of
Biblical
criticism, Varro,
M.
294.
as
a
Terentius,
160-161
an man
cyclopaedist, en-
of De Anworks
Xenophanes,
24.
rejectsHomeric
theology,
161 ;
his
treatise his
Latina,
162-164;
162
Xenophon,
tiquilatum Libri,
162 ; his Plautine Vatican Verner's Verrius Victorius Viermenner
; his other
Canon,
165.
273.
Library,
Law,
421.
the
founding of,
168-170.
of Yale
College,
Zeno, 24. Vipsanius Agrippa, M., 175. Zenodotus of cism enrichment Vocabulary, Latin, 141 ; of, Ephesus, 98; his criticographer, lexiof a 106; by Ennius, as by Plautus, 145-147 texts, 105, ; called AiopOurfy, by Lucretius, Cicero, 106; by 147 ; 141 ; 148 ; by Tertullian, 148 ; by Apuleius, 105.' 146, 148 ; Plebeian Latin, 156. Zeuxis, 83. 145, Voevodski, L. F., 401 n. Zumpt, K. G., 415.
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