Pi

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Pi - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
Pi
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Pi (number)) The number is a mathematical constant that is the ratio of a circle's circumference to its diameter and is approximately equal to 3.14159. It has been represented by the Greek letter "" since the mid-18th century, though it is also sometimes romanized as "pi" (/pa/). Being an irrational number, cannot be expressed exactly as a ratio of any two integers (fractions such as 22/7 are commonly used to approximate , but no fraction can be its exact value). Consequently, its decimal representation never ends and never settles into a permanent repeating pattern. The digits appear to be randomly distributed, although no proof of this has yet been discovered. Also, is a transcendental number a number that is not the root of any nonzero polynomial having rational coefficients. The transcendence of implies that it is impossible to solve the ancient challenge of squaring the circle with a compass and straight-edge. For thousands of years, mathematicians have attempted to extend their understanding of , sometimes by computing its value to a high degree of accuracy. Before the 15th century, mathematicians such as Archimedes and Liu Hui used geometrical techniques, based on polygons, to estimate the value of . Starting around the 15th century, new algorithms based on infinite series revolutionized the computation of . In the 20th and 21st centuries, mathematicians and computer scientists discovered new approaches that when combined with increasing computational power extended the decimal representation of to, as of late 2011, over 10 trillion (1013) digits.[1] Scientific applications generally require no more than 40 digits of , so the primary motivation for these computations is the human desire to break records, but the extensive calculations involved have been used to test supercomputers and high-precision multiplication algorithms. Because its definition relates to the circle, is found in many formulae in trigonometry and geometry, especially those concerning circles, ellipses, or spheres. It is also found in formulae from other branches of science, such as cosmology, number theory, statistics, fractals, thermodynamics, mechanics, and electromagnetism. The ubiquitous nature of makes it one of the most widely known mathematical constants, both inside and outside the scientific community: Several books devoted to it have been published, the number is celebrated on Pi Day, and recordsetting calculations of the digits of often result in news headlines. Attempts to memorize the value of with increasing precision have led to records of over 67,000 digits.
Contents
1 Fundamentals 1.1 Name 1.2 Definition 1.3 Properties 1.4 Continued fractions 1.5 Approximate value 2 History 2.1 Antiquity 2.2 Polygon approximation era 2.3 Infinite series
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2.4 Irrationality and transcendence 2.5 Adoption of the symbol 3 Modern quest for more digits 3.1 Computer era and iterative algorithms 3.2 Motivations for computing 3.3 Rapidly convergent series 3.4 Spigot algorithms 4 Use 4.1 Geometry and trigonometry 4.2 Complex numbers and analysis 4.3 Number theory and Riemann zeta function 4.4 Probability and statistics 5 Outside mathematics 5.1 Describing physical phenomena 5.2 Memorizing digits 5.3 In popular culture 6 See also 7 Notes 8 Further reading 9 External links
Fundamentals
Name
The symbol used by mathematicians to represent the ratio of a circle's circumference to its diameter is the Greek letter . That letter (and therefore the number itself) can be denoted by the Latin word pi.[2] In English, is pronounced as "pie" ( /pa/, /pa/).[3] The lower-case letter (or in sans-serif font) is not to be confused with the capital letter , which denotes a product of a sequence.
Definition is commonly defined as the ratio of a circle's circumference C to its diameter d:[4]
The ratio C/d is constant, regardless of the circle's size. For example, if a circle has twice the diameter of another circle it will also have twice the circumference, preserving the ratio C/d . This definition of implicitly makes use of flat (Euclidean) geometry; although the notion of a circle can be extended to any curved (non-Euclidean) geometry, these new circles will no longer satisfy the formula = C/d .[4] There are also other definitions of that do not mention circles at all. For example, is twice the smallest positive x for which cos(x) equals 0.[4][5]
Properties
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is an irrational number, meaning that it cannot be written as the ratio of

two integers (fractions such as 22/7 are commonly used to approximate ; no fraction can be its exact value).[6] Since is irrational, it has an infinite number of digits in its decimal representation, and it does not end with an infinitely repeating pattern of digits. There are several proofs that is irrational; they generally require calculus and rely on the reductio ad absurdum technique. The degree to which can be approximated by rational numbers (called the irrationality measure) is not precisely known; estimates have established that the irrationality measure is larger than the measure of e or ln(2) but smaller than the measure of Liouville numbers.[7]
is a transcendental number, which means that it is not the solution of

any non-constant polynomial with rational coefficients, such as [8][9] The transcendence of has two important consequences: First, cannot be expressed using any combination of rational numbers and square roots or n-th roots such as or Second, since no transcendental number can be constructed with compass and straightedge, it is not possible to "square the circle". In other words, it is impossible to construct, using compass and straightedge alone, a square whose area is equal to the area of a given circle.[10] Squaring a circle was one of the important geometry problems of the classical antiquity.[11] Amateur mathematicians in modern times have sometimes attempted to square the circle and sometimes claim success despite the fact that it is impossible.[12]
The circumference of a circle is slightly more than three times as long as its diameter. The exact ratio is called .
The digits of have no apparent pattern and pass tests for statistical randomness, including tests for normality; a number of infinite length is called normal when all possible sequences of digits (of any given length) appear equally often.[13] The hypothesis that is normal has not been Because is a transcendental proven or disproven.[13] Since the advent of computers, a large number number, squaring the circle is not of digits of have been available on which to perform statistical analysis. possible in a finite number of steps Yasumasa Kanada has performed detailed statistical analyses on the using the classical tools of compass decimal digits of and found them consistent with normality; for and straightedge. example, the frequency of the ten digits 0 to 9 were subjected to statistical significance tests, and no evidence of a pattern was found.[14] Despite the fact that 's digits pass statistical tests for randomness, contains some sequences of digits that may appear non-random to non-mathematicians, such as the Feynman point, which is a sequence of six consecutive 9s that begins at the 762nd decimal place of the decimal representation of .[15]
Continued fractions
Like all irrational numbers, cannot be represented as a simple fraction. But every irrational number, including , can be represented by an infinite series of nested fractions, called a continued fraction:
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A001203 Truncating the continued fraction at any point generates a fraction that provides an approximation for ; two such fractions (22/7 and 355/113) have been used historically to approximate the constant. Each approximation generated in this way is a best rational approximation; that is, each is closer to than any other fraction with the same or a smaller denominator.[16] Although the simple continued fraction for (shown above) does not exhibit a pattern,[17] mathematicians have discovered several generalized continued fractions that do, such as:[18]
The constant is represented in this mosaic outside the mathematics building at the Technische Universitt Berlin.
Approximate value
Some approximations of pi include:
333 355 52163 103993 Fractions : Approximate fractions include (in order of increasing accuracy) 22 7 , 106 , 113 , 16604 , 33102 , [16] (List is selected terms from A063674 and A063673.) and 245850922 78256779 . Decimal: The first 100 decimal digits are 3.14159 26535 89793 23846 26433 83279 50288 41971 69399 37510 58209 74944 59230 78164 06286 20899 86280 34825 34211 70679 ....[19] A000796 Binary: 11.0010 0100 0011 1111 0110 1010 1000 1000 1000 0101 1010 0011 .... Hexadecimal: The base 16 approximation to 20 digits is 3.243F 6A88 85A3 08D3 1319 ....[20] Sexagesimal: A base 60 approximation is 3;8,29,44,1
History
See also: Chronology of computation of
Antiquity
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The Great Pyramid at Giza, constructed c. 25892566 BC, was built with a perimeter of about 1760 cubits and a height of about 280 cubits; the ratio 1760/280 6.2857 is approximately equal to 2 6.2832. Based on this ratio, some Egyptologists concluded that the pyramid builders had knowledge of and deliberately designed the pyramid to incorporate the proportions of a circle.[21] Others maintain that the suggested relationship to is merely a coincidence, because there is no evidence that the pyramid builders had any knowledge of , and because the dimensions of the pyramid are based on other factors.[22] The earliest written approximations of are found in Egypt and Babylon, both within 1 percent of the true value. In Babylon, a clay tablet dated 19001600 BC has a geometrical statement that, by implication, treats as 25/8 = 3.1250.[23] In Egypt, the Rhind Papyrus, dated around 1650 BC, but copied from a document dated to 1850 BC has a formula for the area of a circle that treats as (16/9)2 3.1605.[23] In India around 600 BC, the Shulba Sutras (Sanskrit texts that are rich in mathematical contents) treat as (9785/5568)2 3.088.[24] In 150 BC, or perhaps earlier, Indian sources treat as 3.1622.[25] Two verses in the Hebrew Bible (written between the 8th and 3rd centuries BC) describe a ceremonial pool in the Temple of Solomon with a diameter of ten cubits and a circumference of thirty cubits; the verses imply is about three if the pool is circular.[26][27] Rabbi Nehemiah explained the discrepancy as being due to the thickness of the vessel. His early work of geometry, Mishnat ha-Middot , was written around 150 AD and takes the value of to be three and one seventh.[28] See Approximations of #Imputed biblical value.
Polygon approximation era

The first recorded algorithm for rigorously calculating the value of was a geometrical approach using polygons, devised around 250 BC by the Greek mathematician Archimedes.[29] This polygonal algorithm dominated for over 1,000 years, and as a result is sometimes referred to as "Archimedes' constant".[30] Archimedes computed can be estimated by computing the perimeters of upper and lower bounds of by drawing a regular circumscribed and inscribed polygons. hexagon inside and outside a circle, and successively doubling the number of sides until he reached a 96-sided regular polygon. By calculating the perimeters of these polygons, he proved that 223/71 < < 22/7 (3.1408 < < 3.1429).[31] Archimedes' upper bound of 22/7 may have led to a widespread popular belief that is equal to 22/7.[32] Around 150 AD, Greek-Roman scientist Ptolemy, in his Almagest, gave a value for of 3.1416, which he may have obtained from Archimedes or from Apollonius of Perga.[33] Mathematicians using polygonal algorithms reached 39 digits of in 1630, a record only broken in 1699 when infinite series were used to reach 71 digits.[34] In ancient China, values for included 3.1547 (around 1 AD), (100 AD, approximately 3.1623), and 142/45 [35] (3rd century, approximately 3.1556). Around 265 AD, the Wei Kingdom mathematician Liu Hui created a polygon-based iterative algorithm and used it with a 3,072-sided polygon to obtain a value of of 3.1416.[36][37] Liu later invented a faster method of calculating and obtained a value of 3.14 with a 96-sided polygon, by taking advantage of the fact that the differences in area of successive polygons form a geometric series with a factor of 4.[36] The Chinese mathematician Zu Chongzhi, around 480 AD, calculated that 355/113 (a fraction that goes by the name Mil in Chinese), using Liu Hui's algorithm applied to a 12,288-sided polygon. With a correct
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value for its seven first decimal digits, this value of 3.141592920... remained the most accurate approximation of available for the next 800 years.[38] The Indian astronomer Aryabhata used a value of 3.1416 in his ryabhaya (499 AD).[39] Fibonacci in c. 1220 computed 3.1418 using a polygonal method, independent of Archimedes.[40] Italian author Dante apparently employed the value 3.14142.[40] The Persian astronomer Jamshd al-Ksh produced 16 digits in 1424 using a polygon with 3228 sides,[41][42] which stood as the world record for about 180 years.[43] French mathematician Franois Vite in 1579 achieved 9 digits with a polygon of 3217 sides.[43] Flemish mathematician Adriaan van Roomen arrived at 15 decimal places in 1593.[43] In 1596, Dutch mathematician Ludolph van Ceulen reached 20 digits, a record he later increased to 35 digits (as a result, was called the "Ludolphian number" in Germany until the early 20th century).[44] Dutch scientist Willebrord Snellius reached 34 digits in 1621,[45] and Austrian astronomer Christoph Grienberger arrived at 38 digits in 1630,[46] which remains the most accurate approximation manually achieved using polygonal algorithms.[45]
Infinite series
The calculation of was revolutionized by the development of infinite series techniques in the 16th and 17th centuries. An infinite series is the sum of the terms of an infinite sequence.[47] Infinite series allowed mathematicians to compute with much greater precision than Archimedes and others who used geometrical techniques.[47] Although infinite series were exploited for most notably by European mathematicians such as James Gregory and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, the approach was first discovered in India sometime between 1400 and 1500 AD.[48] The first written description of an infinite series that could be used to compute was laid out in Sanskrit verse by Indian astronomer Nilakantha Somayaji in his Tantrasamgraha, around 1500 AD.[49] The series are presented without proof, but proofs are presented in a later Indian work, Yuktibh, from around 1530 AD. Nilakantha attributes the series to an earlier Indian mathematician, Madhava of Sangamagrama, who lived c. 1350 c. 1425.[49] Several infinite series are described, including series for sine, tangent, and cosine, which are now referred to as the Madhava series or GregoryLeibniz series.[49] Madhava used infinite series to estimate to 11 digits around 1400, but that record was beaten around 1430 by the Persian mathematician Jamshd al-Ksh, using a polygonal algorithm.[50] The first infinite sequence discovered in Europe was an infinite product (rather than an infinite sum, which are more typically used in calculations) found by French mathematician Franois Vite in 1593:[52] A060294 The second infinite sequence found in Europe, by John Wallis in 1655, was also an infinite product.[52] The discovery of calculus, by English scientist Isaac Newton and German mathematician Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz in the 1660s, led to the development of many infinite series for approximating . Newton himself used an arcsin series to compute a 15 digit approximation of in 1665 or 1666, later writing "I am ashamed to tell you to how many
Archimedes developed the polygonal approach to approximating .
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figures I carried these computations, having no other business at the time."[51] In Europe, Madhava's formula was rediscovered by Scottish mathematician James Gregory in 1671, and by Leibniz in 1674:[53][54]
This formula, the GregoryLeibniz series, equals when evaluated with z = 1.[54] In 1699, English mathematician Abraham Sharp used the GregoryLeibniz series to compute to 71 digits, breaking the previous record of 39 digits, which was set with a polygonal algorithm.[55] The GregoryLeibniz series is simple, but converges very slowly (that is, approaches the answer gradually), so it is not used in modern calculations.[56] In 1706 John Machin used the GregoryLeibniz series to produce an algorithm that converged much faster:[57]
Machin reached 100 digits of with this formula.[58] Other mathematicians created variants, now known as Machin-like formulae, that were used to set several successive records for digits.[58] Machin-like formulae remained the best-known method for calculating well into the age of computers, and were used to set records for 250 years, culminating in a 620-digit approximation in 1946 by Daniel Ferguson the best approximation achieved without the aid of a calculating device.[59]
A remarkable record was set by the calculating prodigy Zacharias Dase, who in 1844 employed a Machin-like formula to calculate 200 decimals of in his head at the behest of German mathematician Carl Friedrich Gauss.[60] British mathematician William Shanks famously took 15 years to calculate to 707 digits, but made a mistake in the 528th digit, rendering all subsequent digits incorrect.[60] Rate of convergence Some infinite series for converge faster than others. Given the choice of two infinite series for , mathematicians will generally use the one that converges more rapidly because faster convergence reduces the amount of computation needed to calculate to any given accuracy.[61] A simple infinite series for is the GregoryLeibniz series:[62]
Isaac Newton used infinite series to compute to 15 digits, later writing "I am ashamed to tell you to how many figures I carried these computations". [51]
As individual terms of this infinite series are added to the sum, the total gradually gets closer to , and with a sufficient number of terms can get as close to as desired. It converges quite slowly, though after 500,000 terms, it produces only five correct decimal digits of .[63]
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An infinite series for (published by Nilakantha in the 15th century) that converges more rapidly than the Gregory Leibniz series is:[64]
The following table compares the convergence rates of these two series: Infinite series for After 1st term 4.0000 3.0000 After 2nd term 2.6666... 3.1666... After 3rd term 3.4666... 3.1333... After 4th term 2.8952... 3.1452... After 5th Converges term to: 3.3396... 3.1396...
=
3.1415...
After five terms, the sum of the GregoryLeibniz series is within 0.2 of the correct value of , whereas the sum of Nilakantha's series is within 0.002 of the correct value of . Nilakantha's series converges faster and is more useful for computing digits of . Series that converge even faster include Machin's series and Chudnovsky's series, the latter producing 14 correct decimal digits per term.[61]
Irrationality and transcendence

Not all mathematical advances relating to were aimed at increasing the accuracy of approximations. When Euler solved the Basel problem in 1735, finding the exact value of the sum of the reciprocal squares, he established a connection between and the prime numbers that later contributed to the development and study of the Riemann zeta function:[65]
Swiss scientist Johann Heinrich Lambert in 1761 proved that is irrational, meaning it is not equal to the quotient of any two whole numbers.[6] Lambert's proof exploited a continued-fraction representation of the tangent function.[66] French mathematician Adrien-Marie Legendre proved in 1794 that 2 is also irrational. In 1882, German mathematician Ferdinand von Lindemann proved that is transcendental, confirming a conjecture made by both Legendre and Euler.[67]
Adoption of the symbol

The earliest known use of the Greek letter to represent the ratio of a circle's circumference to its diameter was by mathematician William Jones in his 1706 work Synopsis Palmariorum Matheseos; or, a New Introduction to the Mathematics.[68] The Greek letter first appears there in the phrase "1/2 Periphery ()" in the discussion of a circle with radius one. Jones may have chosen because it was the first letter in the Greek spelling of the word periphery.[69] However, he writes that his equations for are from the "ready pen of the truly ingenious Mr. John Machin", leading to speculation that Machin may have employed the Greek letter before Jones.[70] It had indeed been used earlier for geometric concepts.[70] William Oughtred used and , the Greek letter equivalents of p and d, to express ratios of periphery and diameter in the 1647 and later editions of Clavis Mathematicae.
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After Jones introduced the Greek letter in 1706, it was not adopted by other mathematicians until Euler started using it, beginning with his 1736 work Mechanica. Before then, mathematicians sometimes used letters such as c or p instead.[70] Because Euler corresponded heavily with other mathematicians in Europe, the use of the Greek letter spread rapidly.[70] In 1748, Euler used in his widely read work Introductio in analysin infinitorum (he wrote: "for the sake of brevity we will write this number as ; thus is equal to half the circumference of a circle of radius 1") and the practice was universally adopted thereafter in the Western world.[70]
Modern quest for more digits

Computer era and iterative algorithms
The development of computers in the mid-20th century again revolutionized the hunt for digits of . American mathematicians John Wrench and Levi Smith reached 1,120 digits in 1949 using a desk calculator.[71] Using an inverse tangent (arctan) infinite series, a team led by George Reitwiesner and John von Neumann that same year achieved 2,037 digits with a calculation that took 70 hours of computer time on the ENIAC computer.[72] The record, always relying on an arctan series, was broken repeatedly (7,480 digits in 1957; 10,000 digits in 1958; 100,000 digits in 1961) until 1 million digits was reached in 1973.[73] Two additional developments around 1980 once again accelerated the ability to compute . First, the discovery of new iterative algorithms for computing , which were much faster than the infinite series; and second, the invention of fast multiplication algorithms that could multiply large numbers very rapidly.[74] Such algorithms are particularly important in modern computations, because most of the computer's time is devoted to multiplication.[75] They include the Karatsuba algorithm, ToomCook multiplication, and Fourier transform-based methods.[76] The iterative algorithms were independently published in 19751976 by American physicist Eugene Salamin and Australian scientist Richard Brent.[77] These avoid reliance on infinite series. An iterative algorithm repeats a specific calculation, each iteration using the outputs from prior steps as its inputs, and produces a result in each step that converges to the desired value. The approach was actually invented over 160 years earlier by Carl Friedrich Gauss, in what is now termed the arithmeticgeometric mean method (AGM method) or Gauss Legendre algorithm.[77] As modified by Salamin and Brent, it is also referred to as the BrentSalamin algorithm. The iterative algorithms were widely used after 1980 because they are faster than John von Neumann was part infinite series algorithms: whereas infinite series typically increase the number of of the team that first used a correct digits additively in successive terms, iterative algorithms generally multiply digital computer, ENIAC, to the number of correct digits at each step. For example, the Brent-Salamin compute . algorithm doubles the number of digits in each iteration. In 1984, the Canadian brothers John and Peter Borwein produced an iterative algorithm that quadruples the number of digits in each step; The GaussLegendre iterative algorithm: and in 1987, one that increases the number of digits five
Initialize
Leonhard Euler popularized the use of the Greek letter in works he published in 1736 and 1748.
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times in each step.[78] Iterative methods were used by Japanese mathematician Yasumasa Kanada to set several records for computing between 1995 and 2002.[79] This rapid convergence comes at a price: the iterative algorithms require significantly more memory than infinite series.[79]
Iterate
Motivations for computing
Then an estimate for
is given by
For most numerical calculations involving , a handful of digits provide sufficient precision. According to Jrg Arndt and Christoph Haenel, thirty-nine digits are sufficient to perform most cosmological calculations, because that is the accuracy necessary to calculate the volume of the known universe with a precision of one atom.[80] Despite this, people have worked strenuously to compute to thousands and millions of digits.[81] This effort may be partly ascribed to the human compulsion to break records, and such achievements with often make headlines around the world.[82][83] They also have practical As mathematicians discovered new algorithms, and computers benefits, such as testing supercomputers, became available, the number of known decimal digits of increased testing numerical analysis algorithms dramatically. (including high-precision multiplication algorithms); and within pure mathematics itself, providing data for evaluating the randomness of the digits of .[84]
Rapidly convergent series

Modern calculators do not use iterative algorithms exclusively. New infinite series were discovered in the 1980s and 1990s that are as fast as iterative algorithms, yet are simpler and less memory intensive.[79] The fast iterative algorithms were anticipated in 1914, when the Indian mathematician Srinivasa Ramanujan published dozens of innovative new formulae for , remarkable for their elegance, mathematical depth, and rapid convergence.[85] One of his formulae, based on modular equations:
This series converges much more rapidly than most arctan series, including Machin's formula.[86] Bill Gosper was the first to use it for advances in the calculation of , setting a record of 17 million digits in 1985.[87] Ramanujan's formulae anticipated the modern algorithms developed by the Borwein brothers and the Chudnovsky brothers.[88] The Chudnovsky formula developed in 1987 is
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It produces about 14 digits of per term,[89] and has been used for several record-setting calculations, including the first to surpass (109) digits in 1989 by the Chudnovsky brothers, 2.7 trillion (2.71012) digits by Fabrice Bellard in 2009, and 10 trillion (1013) digits in 2011 by Alexander Yee and Shigeru Kondo.[90][1] In 2006, Canadian mathematician Simon Plouffe used the PSLQ integer relation algorithm[91] to generate several new formulae for , conforming to the following template:
Srinivasa Ramanujan, working in isolation in India, produced many innovative series for computing .
where is e (Gelfond's constant), is an odd number, and rational numbers that Plouffe computed.[92]
are certain
Spigot algorithms
Two algorithms were discovered in 1995 that opened up new avenues of research into . They are called spigot algorithms because, like water dripping from a spigot, they produce single digits of that are not reused after they are calculated.[93][94] This is in contrast to infinite series or iterative algorithms, which retain and use all intermediate digits until the final result is produced.[93] American mathematicians Stan Wagon and Stanley Rabinowitz produced a simple spigot algorithm in 1995.[94][95][96] Its speed is comparable to arctan algorithms, but not as fast as iterative algorithms.[95] Another spigot algorithm, the BBP digit extraction algorithm, was discovered in 1995 by Simon Plouffe:[97][98]
This formula, unlike others before it, can produce any individual hexadecimal digit of without calculating all the preceding digits.[97] Individual binary digits may be extracted from individual hexadecimal digits, and octal digits can be extracted from one or two hexadecimal digits. Variations of the algorithm have been discovered, but no digit extraction algorithm has yet been found that rapidly produces decimal digits.[99] An important application of digit extraction algorithms is to validate new claims of record computations: After a new record is claimed, the decimal result is converted to hexadecimal, and then a digit extraction algorithm is used to calculate several random hexadecimal digits near the end; if they match, this provides a measure of confidence that the entire computation is correct.[1]
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Between 1998 and 2000, the distributed computing project PiHex used Bellard's formula (a modification of the BBP algorithm) to compute the quadrillionth (1015th) bit of , which turned out to be 0.[100] In September 2010, a Yahoo! employee used the company's Hadoop application on one thousand computers over a 23-day period to compute 256 bits of at the two-quadrillionth (21015th) bit, which also happens to be zero.[101]
Use
Main article: List of formulae involving Because is closely related to the circle, it is found in many formulae from the fields of geometry and trigonometry, particularly those concerning circles, spheres, or ellipses. Formulae from other branches of science also include in some of their important formulae, including sciences such as statistics, fractals, thermodynamics, mechanics, cosmology, number theory, and electromagnetism.
Geometry and trigonometry appears in formulae for areas and volumes of geometrical shapes
based on circles, such as ellipses, spheres, cones, and tori. Some of the more common formulae that involve :[102] The circumference of a circle with radius r is The area of a circle with radius r is The volume of a sphere with radius r is The surface area of a sphere with radius r is The formulae above are special cases of the surface area volume of an n-dimensional sphere. and
The area of the circle equals the shaded area.
times
appears in definite integrals that describe circumference, area, or volume of shapes generated by circles. For
example, an integral that specifies half the area of a circle of radius one is given by:[103]
In that integral the function represents the top half of a circle (the square root is a consequence of the Pythagorean theorem), and the integral computes the area between that half a circle and the x axis.
The trigonometric functions rely on angles, and mathematicians generally use radians as units of measurement.
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The trigonometric functions rely on angles, and mathematicians generally use radians as units of measurement. plays an important role in angles measured in radians, which are defined so that a complete circle spans an angle of 2 radians.[104] The angle measure of 180 is equal to radians, and 1 = /180 radians.[104] Common trigonometric functions have periods that are multiples of ; for example, sine and cosine have period 2,[105] so for any angle and any integer k, [105] and Monte Carlo methods Monte Carlo methods, which evaluate the results of multiple random trials, can be used to create approximations of .[106] Buffon's needle is one such technique: If a needle of length is dropped n times on a surface on which parallel lines are drawn t units apart, and if x of those times it comes to rest crossing a line (x > 0), then one may approximate based on the counts:[107]
Buffon's needle. Needles a and b are dropped randomly. Random dots are placed on the quadrant of a square with a circle inscribed in it.
Sine and cosine functions repeat with period 2.
Another Monte Carlo method for computing is to draw a circle inscribed in a square, and randomly place dots in the square. The ratio of dots inside the circle to the total number of [108] dots will approximately equal
Monte Carlo methods, based on random trials, can be used to approximate .
Monte Carlo methods for approximating are very slow compared to other methods, and are never used to approximate when speed or accuracy are desired.[109]
Complex numbers and analysis

Any complex number, say z, can be expressed using a pair of real numbers. In the polar coordinate system, one number (radius or r) is used to represent z's distance from the origin of the complex plane and the other (angle or ) to represent a counter-clockwise rotation from the positive real line as follows:[110]
where i is the imaginary unit satisfying i2 = 1. The frequent appearance of in complex analysis can be related to the behavior of the exponential function of a complex variable, described by Euler's formula:[111]
where the constant e is the base of the natural logarithm. This formula establishes a correspondence between imaginary powers of e and points on the unit circle centered at the origin of the complex plane. Setting = in Euler's formula results in Euler's identity, celebrated by mathematicians because it contains the five most important
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mathematical constants:[111][112]
There are n different complex numbers z satisfying , and these [113] are called the "n -th roots of unity". They are given by this formula:
Cauchy's integral formula governs complex analytic functions and establishes an important relationship between integration and differentiation, including the remarkable fact that the values of a complex function within a closed boundary are entirely determined by the values on the boundary:[114][115]
The association between imaginary powers of the number e and points on the unit circle centered at the origin in the complex plane given by Euler's formula.
An occurrence of in the Mandelbrot set fractal was discovered by American David Boll in 1991.[116] He examined the behavior of the Mandelbrot set near the "neck" at (0.75, 0). If points with coordinates (0.75, ) are considered, as tends to zero, the number of iterations until divergence for the point multiplied by converges to . The point (0.25, ) at the cusp of the large "valley" on the right side of the Mandelbrot set behaves similarly: the number of iterations until divergence multiplied by the square root of tends to .[116][117] The gamma function extends the concept of factorial which is normally defined only for whole numbers to all real numbers. When the gamma function is evaluated at half-integers, the result contains ; for example and .[118] The gamma function can be used to create a simple approximation to for large : which is known as Stirling's approximation.[119]
can be computed from the

Mandelbrot set, by counting the number of iterations required before point (0.75, ) diverges.
Number theory and Riemann zeta function

The Riemann zeta function (s) is used in many areas of mathematics. When evaluated at it can be written as
Finding a simple solution for this infinite series was a famous problem in mathematics called the Basel problem. Leonhard Euler solved it in 1735 when he showed it was equal to .[65] Euler's result leads to the number theory result that the probability of two random numbers being relatively prime (that is, having no shared factors) is equal to .[120][121] This probability is based on the observation that the probability that any number is divisible by a prime is (for example, every 7th integer is divisible by 7.) Hence the probability that two numbers are
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both divisible by this prime is , and the probability that at least one of them is not is . For distinct primes, these divisibility events are mutually independent; so the probability that two numbers are relatively prime is given by a product over all primes:[122]
This probability can be used in conjunction with a random number generator to approximate using a Monte Carlo approach.[123]
Probability and statistics

The fields of probability and statistics frequently use the normal distribution as a simple model for complex phenomena; for example, scientists generally assume that the observational error in most experiments follows a normal distribution.[124] is found in the Gaussian function (which is the probability density function of the normal distribution) with mean and standard deviation :[125]
The area under the graph of the normal distribution curve is given by the Gaussian integral:[125] , while the related integral for the Cauchy distribution is .
A graph of the Gaussian function (x) = ex . The colored region between the function and the x-axis has area .
2
Outside mathematics
Describing physical phenomena
Although not a physical constant, appears routinely in equations describing fundamental principles of the universe, often because of 's relationship to the circle and to spherical coordinate systems. A simple formula from the field of classical mechanics gives the approximate period T of a simple pendulum of length L, swinging with a small amplitude (g is the earth's gravitational acceleration):[126]
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One of the key formulae of quantum mechanics is Heisenberg's uncertainty principle, which shows that the uncertainty in the measurement of a particle's position (x) and momentum (p ) cannot both be arbitrarily small at the same time (where h is Planck's constant):[127]
In the domain of cosmology, appears in one of the fundamental formulae: Einstein's field equation, which forms the basis of the general theory of relativity and describes the fundamental interaction of gravitation as a result of spacetime being curved by matter and energy:[128]
where constant, tensor.
is the Ricci curvature tensor, is the scalar curvature, is the metric tensor, is the cosmological is Newton's gravitational constant, is the speed of light in vacuum, and is the stressenergy
Coulomb's law, from the discipline of electromagnetism, describes the electric field between two electric charges (q 1 and q 2) separated by distance r (with 0 representing the vacuum permittivity of free space):[129]
The fact that is approximately equal to 3 plays a role in the relatively long lifetime of orthopositronium. The inverse lifetime to lowest order in the fine structure constant is given by:[130]
where m is the mass of the electron.
is present in some structural engineering formulae, such as the buckling formula derived by Euler, which gives the maximum axial load F that a long, slender column of length L, modulus of elasticity E, and area moment of inertia I
can carry without buckling:[131]
The field of fluid dynamics contains in Stokes' law, which approximates the frictional force F exerted on small, spherical objects of radius R, moving with velocity v in a fluid with dynamic viscosity :[132]
The Fourier transform is a mathematical operation that expresses time as a function of frequency, known as its frequency spectrum. It has many applications in physics and engineering, particularly in signal processing:[133]
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Under ideal conditions (uniform gentle slope on an homogeneously erodible substrate), the sinuosity of a meandering river approaches . The sinuosity is the ratio between the actual length and the straight-line distance from source to mouth. Faster currents along the outside edges of a river's bends cause more erosion than along the inside edges, thus pushing the bends even farther out, and increasing the overall loopiness of the river. However, that loopiness eventually causes the river to double back on itself in places and "short-circuit", creating an ox-bow lake in the process. The balance between these two opposing factors leads to an average ratio of between the actual length and the direct distance between source and mouth.[134][135]
Memorizing digits
Main article: Piphilology Many persons have memorized large numbers of digits of , a practice called piphilology.[136] One common technique is to memorize a story or poem, in which the word-lengths represent the digits of : The first word has three letters, the second word has one, the third has four, the fourth has one, the fifth has five, and so on. An early example of a memorization aid, originally devised by English scientist James Jeans, is: "How I want a drink, alcoholic of course, after the heavy lectures involving quantum mechanics."[136] When a poem is used, it is sometimes referred to as a "piem". Poems for memorizing have been composed in several languages in addition to English.[136] The record for memorizing digits of , certified by Guinness World Records, is 67,890 digits, recited in China by Lu Chao in 24 hours and 4 minutes on 20 November 2005.[137][138] In 2006, Akira Haraguchi, a retired Japanese engineer, claimed to have recited 100,000 decimal places, but the claim was not verified by Guinness World Records.[139] Record-setting memorizers typically do not rely on poems, but instead use methods such as remembering number patterns and the method of loci.[140] A few authors have used the digits of to establish a new form of constrained writing, where the word-lengths are required to represent the digits of . The Cadaeic Cadenza contains the first 3835 digits of in this manner,[141] and the full-length book Not a Wake contains 10,000 words, each representing one digit of .[142]
In popular culture
Perhaps because of the simplicity of its definition and its ubiquitous presence in formulae, has been represented in popular culture more than other mathematical constructs.[143] In the Palais de la Dcouverte (a science museum in Paris) there is a circular room known as the "pi room". On its wall are inscribed 707 digits of . The digits are large wooden characters attached to the dome-like ceiling. The digits were based on an 1853 calculation by English mathematician William Shanks, which included an error beginning at the 528th digit. The error was detected in 1946 and corrected in 1949.[144] In Carl Sagan's novel Contact it is suggested that the creator of the universe buried a message deep within the digits of .[145] The digits of have also been incorporated into the lyrics of the song "Pi" from the album Aerial by Kate Bush,[146] and a song by Hard 'n Phirm.[147]
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Many schools in the United States observe Pi Day on 14 March (March is the third month, hence the date is 3/14).[148] and its digital representation are often used by self-described "math geeks" for inside jokes among mathematically and technologically minded groups. Several college cheers at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology include "3.14159".[149] During the 2011 auction for Nortel's portfolio of valuable technology patents, Google made a series of unusually specific bids based on mathematical and scientific constants, including .[150] In 1958 Albert Eagle proposed replacing by = /2 to simplify formulas.[151] However, no other authors are known to use tau in this A pi pie. The circular shape of pie way. Currently, some people use a different transcendental number for makes it a frequent subject of pi tau's value, = 6.283185307179586... = 2.[152] They argue that is puns. more natural than , as it is the ratio of a circle's circumference to its radius rather than its diameter and simplifies many formulas.[153][154] Proposals to celebrate this number, because it approximately equals 6.28, by making 28 June "Tau Day" and eating "twice the pie",[155] have been reported in the media. However the use of has not made its way into current scientific discussion.[156] In 1897, an amateur mathematician attempted to persuade the Indiana legislature to pass the Indiana Pi Bill, which described a method to square the circle, and contained text which would imply various incorrect values for , including 3.2. The bill is notorious as an attempt to establish scientific truth by legislative fiat. The bill was passed by the Indiana House of Representatives, but rejected by the Senate.[157]
See also
List of numbers Irrational and suspected irrational numbers (3) 2 3 5 S e
Notes
Footnotes
1. ^ a b c "Round 2... 10 Trillion Digits of Pi" (http://www.numberworld.org/misc_runs/pi-10t/details.html), NumberWorld.org, 17 Oct 2011. Retrieved 30 May 2012. 2. ^ Holton, David; Mackridge, Peter (2004). Greek: an Essential Grammar of the Modern Language. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-23210-4., p. xi. 3. ^ "pi" (http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/pi?s=t). Dictionary.reference.com. 2 March 1993. Retrieved 18 June 2012. 4. ^ a b c Arndt & Haenel 2006, p. 8 5. ^ Rudin, Walter (1976). Principles of Mathematical Analysis. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-054235-X., p 183. 6. ^ a b Arndt & Haenel 2006, p. 5 7. ^ Salikhov, V. (2008). "On the Irrationality Measure of pi". Russian Mathematical Survey 53 (3): 570. Bibcode:2008RuMaS..63..570S (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008RuMaS..63..570S).
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Bibcode:2008RuMaS..63..570S (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008RuMaS..63..570S). doi:10.1070/RM2008v063n03ABEH004543 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1070%2FRM2008v063n03ABEH004543). 8. ^ Mayer, Steve. "The Transcendence of " (http://dialspace.dial.pipex.com/town/way/po28/maths/docs/pi.html). Retrieved 4 November 2007. 9. ^ The polynomial shown is the first few terms of the Taylor series expansion of the sine function. 10. ^ Posamentier & Lehmann 2004, p. 25 11. ^ Eymard & Lafon 1999, p. 129 12. ^ Beckmann 1989, p. 37 Schlager, Neil; Lauer, Josh (2001). Science and Its Times: Understanding the Social Significance of Scientific Discovery. Gale Group. ISBN 0-7876-3933-8., p 185. 13. ^ a b Arndt & Haenel 2006, pp. 2223 Preuss, Paul (23 July 2001). "Are The Digits of Pi Random? Lab Researcher May Hold The Key" (http://www.lbl.gov/Science-Articles/Archive/pi-random.html). Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory. Retrieved 10 November 2007. 14. ^ Arndt & Haenel 2006, pp. 22, 2830 15. ^ Arndt & Haenel 2006, p. 3 16. ^ a b Eymard & Lafon 1999, p. 78 17. ^ "Sloane's A001203 : Continued fraction for Pi (http://oeis.org/A001203)", The On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences. OEIS Foundation. Retrieved 12 April 2012. 18. ^ Lange, L. J. (May 1999). "An Elegant Continued Fraction for ". The American Mathematical Monthly 106 (5): 456458. doi:10.2307/2589152 (http://dx.doi.org/10.2307%2F2589152). JSTOR 2589152 (//www.jstor.org/stable/2589152). 19. ^ Arndt & Haenel 2006, p. 240 20. ^ Arndt & Haenel 2006, p. 242 21. ^ "We can conclude that although the ancient Egyptians could not precisely define the value of , in practice they used it". Verner, M. (2003). The Pyramids: Their Archaeology and History., p. 70. Petrie (1940). Wisdom of the Egyptians., p. 30. See also Legon, J. A. R. (1991). "On Pyramid Dimensions and Proportions" (http://www.legon.demon.co.uk/pyrprop/propde.htm). Discussions in Egyptology 20: 2534.. See also Petrie, W. M. F. (1925). "Surveys of the Great Pyramids". Nature Journal 116 (2930): 942942. Bibcode:1925Natur.116..942P (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1925Natur.116..942P). doi:10.1038/116942a0 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2F116942a0). 22. ^ Egyptologist: Rossi, Corinna, Architecture and Mathematics in Ancient Egypt, Cambridge University Press, 2004, pp 6070, 200, ISBN 9780521829540. Skeptics: Shermer, Michael, The Skeptic Encyclopedia of Pseudoscience, ABC-CLIO, 2002, pp 407408, ISBN 9781576076538. See also Fagan, Garrett G., Archaeological Fantasies: How Pseudoarchaeology Misrepresents The Past and Misleads the Public, Routledge, 2006, ISBN 9780415305938. For a list of explanations for the shape that do not involve , see Roger Herz-Fischler (2000). The Shape of the Great Pyramid (http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=066T3YLuhA0C&pg=67,). Wilfrid Laurier University Press. pp. 6777, 165166. ISBN 9780889203242. Retrieved 2013-06-05. 23. ^ a b Arndt & Haenel 2006, p. 167 24. ^ Arndt & Haenel 2006, pp. 168169 25. ^ Arndt & Haenel 2006, p. 169 26. ^ The verses are 1 Kings 7:23 (http://tools.wmflabs.org/bibleversefinder/bibleversefinder.php? book=1%20Kings&verse=7:23&src=NKJV) and 2 Chronicles 4:2 (http://tools.wmflabs.org/bibleversefinder/bibleversefinder.php?book=2%20Chronicles&verse=4:2&src=NKJV); see Arndt & Haenel 2006, p. 169, Schepler 1950, p. 165, and Beckmann 1989, pp. 1416. 27. ^ Suggestions that the pool had a hexagonal shape or an outward curving rim have been offered to explain the disparity. See Borwein, Jonathan M.; Bailey, David H. (2008). Mathematics by Experiment: Plausible Reasoning in the 21st century (revised 2nd ed.). A. K. Peters. ISBN 978-1-56881-442-1., pp. 103, 136, 137. 28. ^ James A. Arieti, Patrick A. Wilson (2003). The Scientific & the Divine (http://books.google.co.uk/books? id=q2MHZTL_s64C&pg=PA9). Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 910. ISBN 9780742513976. Retrieved 2013-06-05. 19/26 en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pi_(number)
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id=q2MHZTL_s64C&pg=PA9). Rowman & Littlefield. pp. 910. ISBN 9780742513976. Retrieved 2013-06-05. 29. ^ Arndt & Haenel 2006, p. 170 30. ^ Arndt & Haenel 2006, pp. 175, 205 31. ^ "The Computation of Pi by Archimedes: The Computation of Pi by Archimedes File Exchange MATLAB Central" (http://www.mathworks.com/matlabcentral/fileexchange/29504-the-computation-of-pi-byarchimedes/content/html/ComputationOfPiByArchimedes.html#37). Mathworks.com. Retrieved 2013-03-12. 32. ^ Arndt & Haenel 2006, p. 171 33. ^ Arndt & Haenel 2006, p. 176 Boyer & Merzbach 1991, p. 168 34. ^ Arndt & Haenel 2006, pp. 1516, 175, 184186, 205. Grienberger achieved 39 digits in 1630; Sharp 71 digits in 1699. 35. ^ Arndt & Haenel 2006, pp. 176177 36. ^ a b Boyer & Merzbach 1991, p. 202 37. ^ Arndt & Haenel 2006, p. 177 38. ^ Arndt & Haenel 2006, p. 178 39. ^ Arndt & Haenel 2006, pp. 179 40. ^ a b Arndt & Haenel 2006, pp. 180 41. ^ Azarian, Mohammad K. (2010), [[1] (http://nirmala.home.xs4all.nl/Azarian2.pdf) "al-Risla al-muhtyya: A Summary"] (PDF), Missouri Journal of Mathematical Sciences 22 (2): 6485. 42. ^ OConnor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F. (1999), "Ghiyath al-Din Jamshid Mas'ud al-Kashi" (http://wwwhistory.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/history/Biographies/Al-Kashi.html), MacTutor History of Mathematics archive, retrieved August 11, 2012. 43. ^ a b c Arndt & Haenel 2006, p. 182 44. ^ Arndt & Haenel 2006, pp. 182183 45. ^ a b Arndt & Haenel 2006, p. 183 46. ^ Grienbergerus, Christophorus (1630). Elementa Trigonometrica (http://librarsi.comune.palermo.it/gesuiti2/06.04.01.pdf) (PDF) (in Latin). His evaluation was 3.14159 26535 89793 23846 26433 83279 50288 4196 < < 3.14159 26535 89793 23846 26433 83279 50288 4199. 47. ^ a b Arndt & Haenel 2006, pp. 185191 48. ^ Roy 1990, pp. 101102 Arndt & Haenel 2006, pp. 185186 49. ^ a b c Roy 1990, pp. 101102 50. ^ Joseph 1991, p. 264 51. ^ a b Arndt & Haenel 2006, p. 188. Newton quoted by Arndt. 52. ^ a b Arndt & Haenel 2006, p. 187 53. ^ Arndt & Haenel 2006, pp. 188189 54. ^ a b Eymard & Lafon 1999, pp. 5354 55. ^ Arndt & Haenel 2006, p. 189 56. ^ Arndt & Haenel 2006, p. 156 57. ^ Arndt & Haenel 2006, pp. 192193 58. ^ a b Arndt & Haenel 2006, pp. 7274 59. ^ Arndt & Haenel 2006, pp. 192196, 205 60. ^ a b Arndt & Haenel 2006, pp. 194196 61. ^ a b Borwein, J. M.; Borwein, P. B. (1988). "Ramanujan and Pi". Scientific American 256 (2): 112117. Bibcode:1988SciAm.258b.112B (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1988SciAm.258b.112B). doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0288-112 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1038%2Fscientificamerican0288-112). Arndt & Haenel 2006, pp. 1517, 7072, 104, 156, 192197, 201202 62. ^ Arndt & Haenel 2006, pp. 6972 63. ^ Borwein, J. M.; Borwein, P. B.; Dilcher, K. (1989). "Pi, Euler Numbers, and Asymptotic Expansions". American Mathematical Monthly 96 (8): 681687. doi:10.2307/2324715 (http://dx.doi.org/10.2307%2F2324715). 64. ^ Arndt & Haenel 2006, p. 223, (formula 16.10). Note that (n 1)n(n + 1) = n3 n.
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Wells, David (1997). The Penguin Dictionary of Curious and Interesting Numbers (revised ed.). Penguin. p. 35. ISBN 978-0-140-26149-3. 65. ^ a b Posamentier & Lehmann 2004, pp. 284 66. ^ Lambert, Johann, "Mmoire sur quelques proprits remarquables des quantits transcendantes circulaires et logarithmiques", reprinted in Berggren, Borwein & Borwein 1997, pp. 129140 67. ^ Arndt & Haenel 2006, p. 196 68. ^ Arndt & Haenel 2006, p. 165. A facsimile of Jones' text is in Berggren, Borwein & Borwein 1997, pp. 108109 69. ^ See Schepler 1950, p. 220: William Oughtred used the letter to represent the periphery (i.e., circumference) of a circle. 70. ^ a b c d e Arndt & Haenel 2006, p. 166 71. ^ Arndt & Haenel 2006, pp. 205 72. ^ Arndt & Haenel 2006, p. 197. See also Reitwiesner 1950. 73. ^ Arndt & Haenel 2006, p. 197 74. ^ Arndt & Haenel 2006, pp. 1517 75. ^ Arndt & Haenel 2006, pp. 131 76. ^ Arndt & Haenel 2006, pp. 132, 140 77. ^ a b Arndt & Haenel 2006, p. 87 78. ^ Arndt & Haenel 2006, pp. 111 (5 times); pp. 113114 (4 times). See Borwein & Borwein 1987 for details of algorithms. 79. ^ a b c Bailey, David H. (16 May 2003). "Some Background on Kanadas Recent Pi Calculation" (http://crdlegacy.lbl.gov/~dhbailey/dhbpapers/dhb-kanada.pdf). Retrieved 12 April 2012. 80. ^ Arndt & Haenel 2006, p. 17. "39 digits of are sufficient to calculate the volume of the universe to the nearest atom." Accounting for additional digits needed to compensate for computational round-off errors, Arndt concludes that a few hundred digits would suffice for any scientific application. 81. ^ Arndt & Haenel 2006, pp. 1719 82. ^ Schudel, Matt (25 March 2009). "John W. Wrench, Jr.: Mathematician Had a Taste for Pi". The Washington Post. p. B5. 83. ^ "The Big Question: How close have we come to knowing the precise value of pi?" (http://www.independent.co.uk/news/science/the-big-question-how-close-have-we-come-to-knowing-the-precisevalue-of-pi-1861197.html). The Independent. 8 January 2010. Retrieved 14 April 2012. 84. ^ Arndt & Haenel 2006, p. 18 85. ^ Arndt & Haenel 2006, pp. 103104 86. ^ Arndt & Haenel 2006, p. 104 87. ^ Arndt & Haenel 2006, pp. 104, 206 88. ^ Arndt & Haenel 2006, pp. 110111 89. ^ Eymard & Lafon 1999, p. 254 90. ^ Arndt & Haenel 2006, pp. 110111, 206 Bellard, Fabrice, "Computation of 2700 billion decimal digits of Pi using a Desktop Computer" (http://bellard.org/pi/pi2700e9/pipcrecord.pdf), 11 Feb 2010. 91. ^ PSLQ means Partial Sum of Least Squares. 92. ^ Plouffe, Simon (April 2006). "Identities inspired by Ramanujan's Notebooks (part 2)" (http://plouffe.fr/simon/inspired2.pdf). Retrieved 10 April 2009. 93. ^ a b Arndt & Haenel 2006, pp. 7784 94. ^ a b Gibbons, Jeremy, "Unbounded Spigot Algorithms for the Digits of Pi" (http://www.cs.ox.ac.uk/jeremy.gibbons/publications/spigot.pdf), 2005. Gibbons produced an improved version of Wagon's algorithm. 95. ^ a b Arndt & Haenel 2006, p. 77 96. ^ Rabinowitz, Stanley; Wagon, Stan (March 1995). "A spigot algorithm for the digits of Pi". American Mathematical Monthly 102 (3): 195203. doi:10.2307/2975006 (http://dx.doi.org/10.2307%2F2975006). A computer program has been created that implements Wagon's spigot algorithm in only 120 characters of software. 97. ^ a b Arndt & Haenel 2006, pp. 117, 126128 en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pi_(number) 21/26
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97. ^ a b Arndt & Haenel 2006, pp. 117, 126128
98. ^ Bailey, David H.; Borwein, Peter B.; and Plouffe, Simon (April 1997). "On the Rapid Computation of Various Polylogarithmic Constants" (http://crd-legacy.lbl.gov/~dhbailey/dhbpapers/digits.pdf) (PDF). Mathematics of Computation 66 (218): 903913. doi:10.1090/S0025-5718-97-00856-9 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1090%2FS0025-571897-00856-9). 99. ^ Arndt & Haenel 2006, p. 128. Plouffe did create a decimal digit extraction algorithm, but it is slower than full, direct computation of all preceding digits. 100. ^ Arndt & Haenel 2006, p. 20 Bellards formula in: Bellard, Fabrice. "A new formula to compute the nth binary digit of pi" (http://web.archive.org/web/20070912084453/http://fabrice.bellard.free.fr/pi/pi_bin/pi_bin.html). Archived from the original (http://fabrice.bellard.free.fr/pi/pi_bin/pi_bin.html) on 12 September 2007. Retrieved 27 October 2007. 101. ^ Palmer, Jason (16 September 2010). "Pi record smashed as team finds two-quadrillionth digit" (http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/technology-11313194). BBC News. Retrieved 26 March 2011. 102. ^ Bronshten & Semendiaev 1971, pp. 200, 209 103. ^ Weisstein, Eric W., "Semicircle (http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Semicircle.html)", MathWorld. 104. ^ a b Ayers 1964, p. 60 105. ^ a b Bronshten & Semendiaev 1971, pp. 210211 106. ^ Arndt & Haenel 2006, p. 39 107. ^ Ramaley, J. F. (October 1969). "Buffon's Noodle Problem". The American Mathematical Monthly 76 (8): 916 918. doi:10.2307/2317945 (http://dx.doi.org/10.2307%2F2317945). JSTOR 2317945 (//www.jstor.org/stable/2317945). 108. ^ Arndt & Haenel 2006, pp. 3940 Posamentier & Lehmann 2004, p. 105 109. ^ Arndt & Haenel 2006, pp. 43 Posamentier & Lehmann 2004, pp. 105108 110. ^ Ayers 1964, p. 100 111. ^ a b Bronshten & Semendiaev 1971, p. 592 112. ^ Maor, Eli, E: The Story of a Number, Princeton University Press, 2009, p 160, ISBN 978-0-691-14134-3 ("five most important" constants). 113. ^ Weisstein, Eric W., "Roots of Unity (http://mathworld.wolfram.com/RootofUnity.html)", MathWorld. 114. ^ Weisstein, Eric W., "Cauchy Integral Formula (http://mathworld.wolfram.com/CauchyIntegralFormula.html)", MathWorld. 115. ^ Joglekar, S. D., Mathematical Physics, Universities Press, 2005, p 166, ISBN 978-81-7371-422-1. 116. ^ a b Klebanoff, Aaron (2001). "Pi in the Mandelbrot set" (http://home.comcast.net/~davejanelle/mandel.pdf). Fractals 9 (4): 393402. doi:10.1142/S0218348X01000828 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1142%2FS0218348X01000828). Retrieved 14 April 2012. 117. ^ Peitgen, Heinz-Otto, Chaos and fractals: new frontiers of science, Springer, 2004, pp. 801803, ISBN 978-0387-20229-7. 118. ^ Bronshten & Semendiaev 1971, pp. 191192 119. ^ Bronshten & Semendiaev 1971, p. 190 120. ^ Arndt & Haenel 2006, pp. 4143 121. ^ This theorem was proved by Ernesto Cesro in 1881. For a more rigorous proof than the intuitive and informal one given here, see Hardy, G. H., An Introduction to the Theory of Numbers, Oxford University Press, 2008, ISBN 978-0-19-921986-5, theorem 332. 122. ^ Ogilvy, C. S.; Anderson, J. T., Excursions in Number Theory, Dover Publications Inc., 1988, pp. 2935, ISBN 0-486-25778-9. 123. ^ Arndt & Haenel 2006, p. 43 124. ^ Feller, W. An Introduction to Probability Theory and Its Applications, Vol. 1, Wiley, 1968, pp 174190. 125. ^ a b Bronshten & Semendiaev 1971, pp. 106107, 744, 748 126. ^ Halliday, David; Resnick, Robert; Walker, Jearl, Fundamentals of Physics, 5th Ed. , John Wiley & Sons, 1997, p 381, ISBN 0-471-14854-7. 127. ^ Imamura, James M (17 August 2005). "Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle"
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Pi - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia 127. ^ Imamura, James M (17 August 2005). "Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle" (http://web.archive.org/web/20071012060715/http://zebu.uoregon.edu/~imamura/208/jan27/hup.html). University of Oregon. Archived from the original (http://zebu.uoregon.edu/~imamura/208/jan27/hup.html) on 12 October 2007. Retrieved 9 September 2007. 128. ^ Yeo, Adrian, The pleasures of pi, e and other interesting numbers, World Scientific Pub., 2006, p 21, ISBN 978981-270-078-0. Ehlers, Jrgen, Einstein's Field Equations and Their Physical Implications, Springer, 2000, p 7, ISBN 978-3-54067073-5. 129. ^ Nave, C. Rod (28 June 2005). "Coulomb's Constant" (http://hyperphysics.phyastr.gsu.edu/hbase/electric/elefor.html#c3). HyperPhysics. Georgia State University. Retrieved 9 November 2007. 130. ^ C. Itzykson, J-B. Zuber, Quantum Field Theory, McGraw-Hill, 1980. 131. ^ Low, Peter, Classical Theory of Structures Based on the Differential Equation, CUP Archive, 1971, pp 116 118, ISBN 978-0-521-08089-7. 132. ^ Batchelor, G. K., An Introduction to Fluid Dynamics, Cambridge University Press, 1967, p 233, ISBN 0-52166396-2. 133. ^ Bracewell, R. N., The Fourier Transform and Its Applications, McGraw-Hill, 2000, ISBN 0-07-116043-4. 134. ^ Hans-Henrik Stlum (22 March 1996). "River Meandering as a Self-Organization Process". Science 271 (5256): 17101713. Bibcode:1996Sci...271.1710S (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1996Sci...271.1710S). doi:10.1126/science.271.5256.1710 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.271.5256.1710). 135. ^ Posamentier & Lehmann 2004, pp. 140141 136. ^ a b c Arndt & Haenel 2006, pp. 4445 137. ^ "Chinese student breaks Guiness record by reciting 67,890 digits of pi" (http://www.newsgd.com/culture/peopleandlife/200611280032.htm). News Guangdong. 28 November 2006. Retrieved 27 October 2007. 138. ^ "Most Pi Places Memorized" (http://www.guinnessworldrecords.com/world-records/1/most-pi-placesmemorised), Guinness World Records. Retrieved 3 April 2012. 139. ^ Otake, Tomoko (17 December 2006). "How can anyone remember 100,000 numbers?" (http://www.japantimes.co.jp/life/2006/12/17/life/how-can-anyone-remember-100000-numbers/). The Japan Times. Retrieved 27 October 2007. 140. ^ Raz, A.; Packard, M. G. (2009). "A slice of pi: An exploratory neuroimaging study of digit encoding and retrieval in a superior memorist". Neurocase 6: 112. 141. ^ Keith, Mike. "Cadaeic Cadenza Notes & Commentary" (http://www.cadaeic.net/comments.htm). Retrieved 29 July 2009. 142. ^ Keith, Michael; Diana Keith (February 17, 2010). Not A Wake: A dream embodying (pi)'s digits fully for 10000 decimals. Vinculum Press. ISBN 978-0963009715. 143. ^ For instance, Pickover calls "the most famous mathematical constant of all time", and Peterson writes, "Of all known mathematical constants, however, pi continues to attract the most attention", citing the Givenchy perfume, Pi (film), and Pi Day as examples. See Pickover, Clifford A. (1995), Keys to Infinity, Wiley & Sons, p. 59, ISBN 9780471118572; Peterson, Ivars (2002), Mathematical Treks: From Surreal Numbers to Magic Circles (http://books.google.com/books?id=4gWSAraVhtAC&pg=PA17), MAA spectrum, Mathematical Association of America, p. 17, ISBN 9780883855379. 144. ^ Posamentier & Lehmann 2004, p. 118 Arndt & Haenel 2006, p. 50 145. ^ Arndt & Haenel 2006, p. 14. This part of the story was omitted from the film adaptation of the novel. 146. ^ Gill, Andy (4 November 2005). "Review of Aerial" (http://gaffa.org/reaching/rev_aer_UK5.html). The Independent. "the almost autistic satisfaction of the obsessive-compulsive mathematician fascinated by 'Pi' (which affords the opportunity to hear Bush slowly sing vast chunks of the number in question, several dozen digits long)" 147. ^ Board, Josh (1 December 2010). "PARTY CRASHER: Laughing With Hard 'N Phirm" (http://local.sandiego.com/crasher/party-crasher-laughing-with-hard-n-phirm). SanDiego.com. "There was one song about Pi. Nothing like hearing people harmonizing over 200 digits." 148. ^ Pi Day activities (http://www.piday.org/2008/2008-pi-day-activities-for-teachers/). 149. ^ MIT cheers (http://web.mit.edu/cheer/2004-2005SpecificWebPages/GeneralInformation/cheers.html). Retrieved 12 April 2012. 150. ^ "Google's strange bids for Nortel patents" (http://business.financialpost.com/2011/07/05/googles-strage-bids-for-
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150. ^ "Google's strange bids for Nortel patents" (http://business.financialpost.com/2011/07/05/googles-strage-bids-fornortel-patents/). FinancialPost.com. Reuters. 2011-07-05. Retrieved 16 August 2011. 151. ^ Eagle, Albert (1958). The Elliptic Functions as They Should be: An Account, with Applications, of the Functions in a New Canonical Form. Galloway and Porter, Ltd. p. ix. 152. ^ Sequence A019692. 153. ^ Abbott, Stephen (April 2012). "My Conversion to Tauism" (http://www.maa.org/sites/default/files/pdf/Mathhorizons/apr12_aftermath.pdf). Math Horizons 19 (4): 34. doi:10.4169/mathhorizons.19.4.34 (http://dx.doi.org/10.4169%2Fmathhorizons.19.4.34). 154. ^ Palais, Robert (2001). " Is Wrong!" (http://www.math.utah.edu/~palais/pi.pdf). The Mathematical Intelligencer 23 (3): 78. doi:10.1007/BF03026846 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1007%2FBF03026846). 155. ^ Tau Day: Why you should eat twice the pie Light Years - CNN.com Blogs (http://lightyears.blogs.cnn.com/2012/06/28/tau-day-why-you-should-eat-twice-the-pie/) 156. ^ "Life of pi in no danger Experts cold-shoulder campaign to replace with tau" (http://www.telegraphindia.com/1110630/jsp/nation/story_14178997.jsp). Telegraph India. 2011-06-20. 157. ^ Arndt & Haenel 2006, pp. 211212 Posamentier & Lehmann 2004, pp. 3637 Hallerberg, Arthur (May 1977). "Indiana's squared circle". Mathematics Magazine 50 (3): 136140. doi:10.2307/2689499 (http://dx.doi.org/10.2307%2F2689499). JSTOR 2689499 (//www.jstor.org/stable/2689499).
References
Arndt, Jrg; Haenel, Christoph (2006). Pi Unleashed (http://books.google.com/? id=QwwcmweJCDQC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false). Springer-Verlag. ISBN 978-3-540-66572-4. Retrieved 2013-06-05. English translation by Catriona and David Lischka. Ayers, Frank (1964). Calculus. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-070-02653-7. Berggren, Lennart; Borwein, Jonathan; Borwein, Peter (1997). Pi: a Source Book . Springer-Verlag. ISBN 978-0387-20571-7. Beckmann, Peter (1989) [1974]. History of Pi. St. Martin's Press. ISBN 978-0-88029-418-8. Borwein, Jonathan; Borwein, Peter (1987). Pi and the AGM: a Study in Analytic Number Theory and Computational Complexity. Wiley. ISBN 978-0-471-31515-5. Boyer, Carl B.; Merzbach, Uta C. (1991). A History of Mathematics (2 ed.). Wiley. ISBN 978-0-471-54397-8. Bronshten, Ilia; Semendiaev, K. A. (1971). A Guide Book to Mathematics. H. Deutsch. ISBN 978-3-871-44095-3. Eymard, Pierre; Lafon, Jean Pierre (1999). The Number Pi. American Mathematical Society. ISBN 978-0-82183246-2., English translation by Stephen Wilson. Joseph, George Gheverghese (1991). The Crest of the Peacock: Non-European Roots of Mathematics (http://books.google.com/?id=c-xT0KNJp0cC&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false%7C). Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-13526-7. Retrieved 2013-06-05. Posamentier, Alfred S.; Lehmann, Ingmar (2004). Pi: A Biography of the World's Most Mysterious Number. Prometheus Books. ISBN 978-1-59102-200-8. Reitwiesner, George (1950). "An ENIAC Determination of pi and e to 2000 Decimal Places". Mathematical Tables and Other Aids to Computation 4 (29): 1115. doi:10.2307/2002695 (http://dx.doi.org/10.2307%2F2002695). Roy, Ranjan (1990). "The Discovery of the Series Formula for pi by Leibniz, Gregory, and Nilakantha". Mathematics Magazine 63 (5): 291306. doi:10.2307/2690896 (http://dx.doi.org/10.2307%2F2690896). Schepler, H. C. (1950). "The Chronology of Pi". Mathematics Magazine (Mathematical Association of America) 23 (3): 165170 (Jan/Feb), 216228 (Mar/Apr), and 279283 (May/Jun). doi:10.2307/3029284 (http://dx.doi.org/10.2307%2F3029284).. issue 3 Jan/Feb (http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/3029284), issue 4 Mar/Apr (http://www.jstor.org/stable/3029832), issue 5 May/Jun (http://www.jstor.org/stable/3029000)
Further reading
Blatner, David (1999). The Joy of Pi. Walker & Company. ISBN 978-0-8027-7562-7. Borwein, Jonathan and Borwein, Peter, "The Arithmetic-Geometric Mean and Fast Computation of Elementary en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pi_(number)
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Borwein, Jonathan and Borwein, Peter, "The Arithmetic-Geometric Mean and Fast Computation of Elementary Functions", SIAM Review, 26(1984) 351365 Borwein, Jonathan, Borwein, Peter, and Bailey, David H., Ramanujan, Modular Equations, and Approximations to Pi or How to Compute One Billion Digits of Pi", The American Mathematical Monthly, 96(1989) 201219 Chudnovsky, David V. and Chudnovsky, Gregory V., "Approximations and Complex Multiplication According to Ramanujan", in Ramanujan Revisited (G.E. Andrews et al. Eds), Academic Press, 1988, pp 375396, 468472 Cox, David A., "The Arithmetic-Geometric Mean of Gauss", L' Ensignement Mathematique, 30(1984) 275330 Engels, Hermann, "Quadrature of the Circle in Ancient Egypt", Historia Mathematica 4(1977) 137140 Euler, Leonhard, "On the Use of the Discovered Fractions to Sum Infinite Series", in Introduction to Analysis of the Infinite. Book I, translated from the Latin by J. D. Blanton, Springer-Verlag, 1964, pp 137153 Heath, T. L., The Works of Archimedes, Cambridge, 1897; reprinted in The Works of Archimedes with The Method of Archimedes, Dover, 1953, pp 9198 Huygens, Christiaan, "De Circuli Magnitudine Inventa", Christiani Hugenii Opera Varia I, Leiden 1724, pp 384 388 Lay-Yong, Lam and Tian-Se, Ang, "Circle Measurements in Ancient China", Historia Mathematica 13(1986) 325 340 Lindemann, Ferdinand, "Ueber die Zahl pi" (http://gdz.sub.uni-goettingen.de/index.php? id=11&PPN=PPN235181684_0020&DMDID=DMDLOG_0031&L=1), Mathematische Annalen 20(1882) 213 225 Matar, K. Mukunda, and Rajagonal, C., "On the Hindu Quadrature of the Circle" (Appendix by K. Balagangadharan). Journal of the Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society 20(1944) 7782 Niven, Ivan, "A Simple Proof that pi Is Irrational", Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society, 53:7 (July 1947), 507 Ramanujan, Srinivasa, "Modular Equations and Approximations to ", Quarterly Journal of Pure and Applied Mathematics, XLV, 1914, 350372. Reprinted in G.H. Hardy, P.V. Seshu Aiyar, and B. M. Wilson (eds), Srinivasa Ramanujan: Collected Papers, 1927 (reprinted 2000), pp 2329 Shanks, William, Contributions to Mathematics Comprising Chiefly of the Rectification of the Circle to 607 Places of Decimals, 1853, pp. ixvi, 10 Shanks, Daniel and Wrench, John William, "Calculation of pi to 100,000 Decimals", Mathematics of Computation 16(1962) 7699 Tropfke, Johannes, Geschichte Der Elementar-Mathematik in Systematischer Darstellung (The history of elementary mathematics), BiblioBazaar, 2009 (reprint), ISBN 978-1-113-08573-3 Viete, Francois, Variorum de Rebus Mathematicis Reponsorum Liber VII. F. Viete, Opera Mathematica (reprint), Georg Olms Verlag, 1970, pp 398401, 436446 Wagon, Stan, "Is Pi Normal?", The Mathematical Intelligencer, 7:3(1985) 6567 Wallis, John, Arithmetica Infinitorum, sive Nova Methodus Inquirendi in Curvilineorum Quadratum, aliaque difficiliora Matheseos Problemata, Oxford 16556. Reprinted in vol. 1 (pp 357478) of Opera Mathematica, Oxford 1693 Zebrowski, Ernest, A History of the Circle : Mathematical Reasoning and the Physical Universe, Rutgers Univ Press, 1999, ISBN 978-0-8135-2898-4
External links
Digits of Pi (http://www.dmoz.org/Science/Math/Recreations/Specific_Numbers/Pi/Digits//) at the Open Directory Project "Pi" (http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Pi.html) at Wolfram Mathworld Representations of Pi (http://www.wolframalpha.com/input/?i=Representations+of+Pi) at Wolfram Alpha Pi Search Engine (http://www.subidiom.com/pi) 2 billion searchable digits of , 2 , and e Eaves, Laurence (2009). " Pi" (http://www.sixtysymbols.com/videos/pi.htm). Sixty Symbols. Brady Haran for the University of Nottingham.
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Retrieved from "http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pi&oldid=583563586" Categories: Pi Complex analysis Mathematical series This page was last modified on 27 November 2013 at 18:59. Text is available under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the Terms of Use and Privacy Policy. Wikipedia is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc., a non-profit organization.
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Pi - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Pi - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Pi - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

is an irrational number, meaning that it cannot be written as the ratio of

is a transcendental number, which means that it is not the solution of

Pi - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Pi - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Polygon approximation era

Pi - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Archimedes developed the polygonal approach to approximating .

Pi - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Pi - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Irrationality and transcendence

Adoption of the symbol

Pi - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Modern quest for more digits

Pi - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Motivations for computing

Then an estimate for

Rapidly convergent series

Pi - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Pi - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Pi - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Sine and cosine functions repeat with period 2.

Monte Carlo methods, based on random trials, can be used to approximate .

Complex numbers and analysis

Pi - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

can be computed from the

Number theory and Riemann zeta function

Pi - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Probability and statistics

Pi - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

where constant, tensor.

where m is the mass of the electron.

Pi - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Pi - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Pi - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Pi - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Pi - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

97. ^ a b Arndt & Haenel 2006, pp. 117, 126128

Pi - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Pi - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Pi - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Pi - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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