Research on Humanities and Social Sciences ISSN 2222-1719 (Paper ISSN 2222-2!"# ($nline %ol.#& No.

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Sexual Abuse of Children in Awka, Anambra State Nigeria

)eonard N. *+eh1& Nnaeme,a -. ./amara1& 0I+uchu,wu ).1. Ndu,aihe2 2 03gochu,wu R. I,wuagwu2 1. 4epartment o5 Ps6cholog6& Nnamdi .+i,iwe 3ni7ersit6& .w,a& Nigeria 2. 4epartment o5 Ps6cholog6& 3ni7ersit6 o5 Nigeria& Nsu,,a. leomi,el,ing86ahoo.com&9 a/amaranc86ahoo.com&9 0i+umario86ahoo.co.u,99 0ugormp86ahoo.com& Abstract :his e;plorator6 stud6 used si;t6 si; ("" children as research participants aimed at esta/lishing the 5ollowing< the incidence o5 se;ual a/use o5 children in .w,a& the .nam/ra State -apital o5 Nigeria& and its en7irons9 the pro5iles o5 the 7ictims and assailants9 the moti7ational 5actors associated with the pro/lem. =indings re7ealed a high incidence o5 se;ual a/use among children in .w,a and its en7ironment. :he result also showed that almost e7er6 child is 7ulnera/le to /eing se;uall6 a/used /6 parents& guardians& relati7es& careta,ers or strangers. >ased on this& a 7ia/le child protection polic6 /6 go7ernment was ad7ocated. Keywords< Se;ual ./use& -hildren in .w,a& .nam/ra State& Nigeria 1. Introduction Ideall6& the childhood period is supposed to /e a time o5 great happiness, 5illed with ?o6 and good cheer& de7oid o5 the crises @ uncertainties and danger that are o5ten the hallmar, o5 adult li5e. :here is a general assumption that the child ought to /e gi7en @ pro7ided with adeAuate needs (ps6chological and ph6sical needs necessar6 5or a secure and health6 growth. *ssentiall6, in spite o5 much con7entional wisdom as Bspare the rod and spoil the childC& puniti7e measures or unnecessar6 punishment o5 a child is mostl6 condemned ($/ot& 19!! . In the light o5 the a/o7e& it is the cardinal responsi/ilit6 o5 e7er6 parent to ensure that the transition 5rom childhood to adulthood o5 their children is smooth and crises 5ree. .t a general le7el& most i5 not all human societies train their children in consonance with the philosoph6 which emphasi+es that a child is the most cherished asset and the hope o5 tomorrow. Howe7er& in spite o5 this assumption, all societies at all times ha7e e;posed their children to traumatic e;perience in the hands o5 strangers& their relati7es& and the parents ali,e. :he helplessness& hopelessness and powerlessness o5 children and conseAuentl6& their low esteem and status in the societ6 ha7e /een e;ploited /6 adults. In all9 children ha7e /een ps6chologicall6 and ph6sicall6 /attered& a/used and neglected /6 parents& guardians and /6 strangers. ./use re5ers to in?ur6 in5licted upon an indi7idual. >asicall6& ps6chological a/use is o5ten in the 5orm o5 re?ection or hostilit6 while neglect re5ers to inadeAuacies in the suppl6 o5 ps6chological and ph6sical needs such as good clothing& parental care& and emotional in7ol7ement (National -entre o5 -hild ./use 2 Neglect& 197! . .ccording to >hatia (2''9 a/use is re5erred to as an inappropriate and harm5ul treatment o5 another person (child& elder& spouse . :he most common 5orm o5 a/use is child a/use. -hild a/use& especiall6 its de5inition& incidence and management& is di55icult to comprehend. Perceptions o5 what constitutes child a/use ha7e di55ered with time and culture (De,a6in5a 2 $la77epo& 2'11 . -r6stal (199( de5ined child a/use as the treatment o5 the child in a wa6 unaccepta/le to a gi7en culture at a gi7en time. =undamentall6& child a/use and neglect ha7e recei7ed much recognition in the western world long /e5ore now and currentl6 in the de7eloping countries& li,e Nigeria. :he B/attered child s6ndromeC 5or instance& has /ecome a legitimate medical pro/lem& and societal awareness and interest in pu/lic pro/lems 5or children has e;panded /e6ond mere interest in immuni+ation and disease control (>ross& 1979 . In .5rica& particularl6 in Nigeria& howe7er& the awareness and attention on child a/use and neglect is a recent phenomenon. :he go7ernment at 7arious le7els has started enacting some implementa/le laws 5or the protection o5 childrenEs rights and interests. In this regard& some Non-go7ernmental agencies (N1$s li,e .5rican Networ, 5or the Pre7ention and Protection against -hild ./use and Neglect (.NPP-.N ha7e emerged with the primar6 goal o5 sensiti+ing /oth the people and go7ernment on the dangers o5 a/use and neglect o5 children in the societ6. .1 Sexual abuse of children =undamentall6& se;ual a/use o5 children is one 5orm o5 a/use that has little attention and co7erage in the literature (Finard& 1979 . Se;ual a/use re5ers to an6 act or action o5 se;ual nature on or with a child (N--.N& 197! usuall6 per5ormed /6 one o5 the parents& or the guardian or a stranger or a relati7e. :he terms used to designate the e;perience o5 se;ual a/use include the 5ollowing< de5ilement& incest& se;ual assault& and 7iolation ($/ot& 19!! . Se;ual a/use is unwanted se;ual acti7it6& with perpetrators using 5orce& ma,ing threats or ta,ing ad7antage o5 7ictims not a/le to gi7e consent. Gost 7ictims and perpetrators ,now each other. Immediate reactions to se;ual a/use include shoc,& 5ear or dis/elie5. )ong-term s6mptoms include an;iet6& 5ear or posttraumatic stress disorder (.P.& 2'11 .

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Research on Humanities and Social Sciences ISSN 2222-1719 (Paper ISSN 2222-2!"# ($nline %ol.#& No.17& 2'1#

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Howe7er& it has /ecome a common trend across Nigeria and elsewhere in the continent li,e .5rica 5or adults to a/use minors. In some cases& 5athers a/using daughters alongside other adults. -hild se;ual a/use is grim 5act o5 li5e. It is more common than most people reali+e. 1irls and in a 5ew cases /o6s& can /e se;uall6 a/used /6 adults or older children who the6 ,now closel6. :he o55ender is usuall6 ,nown in eight out o5 ten reported cases ($g/onna& 2'1# . .lthough& there is no uni7ersal de5inition o5 child se;ual a/use& howe7er& a central characteristic o5 an6 a/use is the dominant position o5 an adult that allows him or her to 5orce or coerce a child into se;ual acti7it6. -hild se;ual a/use ma6 include 5ondling a childEs genitals& mastur/ation& oral-genital contact& digital penetration& and 7aginal and anal intercourse. -hild se;ual a/use is not solel6 restricted to ph6sical contact9 such a/use could include noncontact a/use& such as e;posure& 7o6eurism& child pornograph6 (.P.& 2'11 . .ccurate statistics on the pre7alence o5 child and adolescent se;ual a/use are di55icult to collect /ecause o5 pro/lems o5 underreporting and the lac, o5 one de5inition o5 what constitutes such a/use. Howe7er& there is general agreement among mental health and child protection pro5essionals that child se;ual a/use is not uncommon and is a serious pro/lem in the 3nited States and e7en in Nigeria (.P.& 2'11 . Howe7er& child se;ual a/use has /een reported up to 1'&''' times a 6ear& /ut the num/er o5 unreported instances is 5ar greater& /ecause the children are a5raid to tell an6one what has happened& and the legal procedure 5or 7alidating an episode is di55icult. :he pro/lem should /e identi5ied& the a/use stopped& and the child should recei7e pro5essional help. :he long-term emotional and ps6chological damage o5 se;ual a/use can /e de7astating to the child. -hild se;ual a/use can ta,e place within the 5amil6& /6 a parent& step-parent& si/ling or other relati7e9 or outside the home& 5or e;ample& /6 a 5riend& neigh/or& child care person& teacher& or stranger. Hhen se;ual a/use has occurred& a child can de7elop a 7ariet6 o5 distressing 5eelings& thoughts and /eha7iours. No child is ps6chologicall6 prepared to cope with repeated se;ual stimulation. *7en a two or three 6ear old& who cannot ,now the se;ual acti7it6 is wrong& will de7elop pro/lems resulting 5rom the ina/ilit6 to cope with the o7erstimulation (.merican .cadem6 o5 -hild and .dolescent Ps6chiatr6& 2''! . $ne o5 the reasons 5or lac, o5 in5ormation and low interest in the topic ma6 ha7e /een the pri7ac6 o5 the actusuall6 occurring within 5amilies and in7ol7ing 5urther and daughter or /etween close relati7es& other acAuaintances and strangers. In other words& the6 are 7ictims /ecause o5 their powerlessness. Howe7er& se;ual a/use /6 outsiders or strangers is more o5ten made pu/lic than 5or instance& 5ather @ daughter or /rother @ sister incest. Since it is a criminal case or act& it is generall6 /rought to the notice o5 the law en5orcement agents and the law courts. In Nigeria& se;ual a/use m 5orm o5 rape is percei7ed as the most serious se;ual crime. It is succinctl6 de5ined in the criminal code as< stated in $,on,wo and Nais (19!' as unlaw5ul carnal ,nowledge o5 a girl or woman& without her consent or with her consent i5 the consent is o/tained /6 5orce or /6 means o5 threat or intimidation o5 an6 ,ind& or /6 5ear o5 an6 harm or /6 means o5 5alse and 5raudulent representation as to the nature o5 actI :he ma;imum punishment 5or rape is li5e imprisonment& with or without whipping. .ccording to the criminal code& de5ilement is de5ined as an unlaw5ul carnal ,nowledge o5 a girl under the age o5 eighteen 6ears. :his o55ence against children is punisha/le /6 li5e imprisonment& with or without whipping. :he law stipulates that prosecution 5or de5ilement should commence within two months a5ter the o55ence is committed. . !rotecting children from sexual abuse :he t6pical ad7ice J4onEt :al, to StrangersJ doesnEt appl6 in this case. Gost se;ual perpetrators are ,nown to their 7ictims. 4o not instruct children to gi7e relati7es hugs and ,isses. )et them e;press a55ection on their own terms. :each 6our children /asic se;ual education. :each them that no one should touch the Jpri7ateJ parts o5 their /od6. . health pro5essional can also help to communicate se; education to children i5 parents are uncom5orta/le doing so. 4e7elop strong communication s,ills with 6our children. *ncourage them to as, Auestions and tal, a/out their e;periences. *;plain the importance o5 reporting a/use to 6ou or another trusted adult. :each 6our children that se;ual ad7ances 5rom adults are wrong and against the law. 1i7e them the con5idence to assert themsel7es against an6 adult who attempts to a/use them. Ga,e an e55ort to ,now childrenEs 5riends and their 5amilies. Instruct 6our child to ne7er get into a car with an6one without 6our permission. :each 6our children that their /odies are their own. :hat it is $F to sa6 the6 do not want a hug or that certain ,inds o5 contact ma,e them uncom5orta/le. It is important to remem/er that ph6sical 5orce is o5ten not necessar6 to engage a child in se;ual acti7it6. -hildren are trusting and dependent and will o5ten do what is as,ed o5 them to gain appro7al and lo7e.

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Research on Humanities and Social Sciences ISSN 2222-1719 (Paper ISSN 2222-2!"# ($nline %ol.#& No.17& 2'1#

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".# $he %esearch !roblem Records 5rom /oth Gagistrate and High courts in .nam/ra state o5 Nigeria as well as in5ormation 5rom prosecutors in the state re7eal a high rate o5 se;ual a/use o5 children in7ol7ed in la/our& li,e haw,ing o5 goods& /a/6 sitting and house- ,eeping in /oth ur/an and rural areas. :his e;plorator6 stud6 was aimed at esta/lishing the 5ollowing< :he incidence o5 de5ilement in .w,a (the state capital and its en7irons9 :he pro5iles o5 the 7ictims and assailants9 and :he situational 5actors associated with the pro/lem ".1 &ethod In5ormation on de5ilement cases (data were collated 5rom the records at 4epartment o5 Pu/lic Prosecution (SPP o5 the state Ginistr6 o5 Dustice& .w,a. . standard 5orm was designed and used 5or the data e;traction 5rom each case 5ile. In5ormation on the 7ictim& the assailant scene o5 crime& punishment and other rele7ant data was collected 5rom 5iles o5 all decided cases o5 de5ilement 5or a period o5 5i7e 6ears (2''"-2'1' . -ases included were those in which the assailants were con7icted. .lso& cases in which the assailants accepted responsi/ilit6 5or the crime /ut were thrown out 5or want o5 e7idence or awaiting ?udgement were also included. :he data collection was done /6 the researchers with the 5ull cooperation o5 State 4irector o5 Pu/lic Prosecution. ". %esult In the ( 6ears period& "" cases 5itted the categor6 o5 cases chosen. :here were ! cases in 2''"& 12 in 2''7& 1( in 2''!& 1( in 2''9& and 1" in 2'1'& a mean o5 1# cases per 6ear. :he num/ers o5 cases presented here do not in an6 wa6 re5lect the true incidence o5 de5ilement in .w,a area& nor the total mem/er o5 cases /rought to the attention o5 the law courts 6earl6. :he criteria 5or case acceptance and inclusion were intentionall6 conser7ati7e. In other words& man6 cases still pending in court at the time o5 the stud6 and those with incomplete records were re?ected. :he "" cases ne7ertheless pro7ided an o/?ecti7e and good picture o5 the 7ictim& the assailant and other /asic 5eatures o5 se;ual a/use o5 children. $he 'ictims :he 6oungest 7ictim was ( and the oldest 11 6ears. :he mean age was 7." 6ears. :a/les I to I% present the age o5 the 7ictim and the corresponding age o5 the assailant. $able I .ge o5 7ictims and assailant in each o5 the second group o5 1" cases o5 de5ilement 2 # K ( " 7 ! 9 1' 11 12 1# 1K 1( 1" L Case No. 1 7 7 11 1' ( ( 7 ! ! 7 ! " ( 1' " Age of ! (ictim 2" 2" #" #' 22 #'.2 Age of K2 #! #' K1 2' 2# 29 #9 21 Assailant $able II .ge o5 7ictims and assailant in each o5 the second group o5 1" cases o5 de5ilement Case No. 17 1! 19 2' 21 22 2# 2K 2( 2" 27 2! 29 #' #1 #2 L " ( ! 1' 11 ! 9 9 7 ! " ( ( " 7 7.2 Age of 7 (ictim Age of 2# #' #" #1 #1 #' K' K1 K1 29 29 21 2( 2# 2K 27 #' Assailant $able III .ge o5 7ictims and assailant in each o5 the third group o5 1" cases de5ilement Case No. ## #K #( #" #7 #! #9 K' K1 K2 K# KK K( K" K7 K! L 7 " ! 9 1' ! 9 7 " ( ( " 7 9 7.2 Age of 7 (ictim 2" 29 #' 27.7 Age of #1 #" #2 2' 2K 21 29 ## #' 22 2( Assailant $able I( .ge o5 7ictims and assailant in each o5 the last group o5 1! cases de5ilement K9 (' (1 (2 (# (K (( (" (7 (! (9 "' "1 "2 "# "K "( "" Case No. 7 " 7 7 " ! 11 1' " " ! 7 1' 11 Age of 9 (ictim 22 21 #1 #2 ## #! K' #K 22 2K 2' 2" Age of #' 29 Assailant

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Research on Humanities and Social Sciences ISSN 2222-1719 (Paper ISSN 2222-2!"# ($nline %ol.#& No.17& 2'1#

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$able ( Summar6 mean ta/le o5 all the ages o5 7ictims and assailant in all the "" cases o5 de5ilement :otal Num/er o5 -ases "" cases Gean age o5 all the 7ictims 7.2 6ears Gean age o5 all the assailants 2!.# 6ears Gost 7ictims o5 rape (children li7e with /oth parents9 K# were li7ing with either the parents or a close relati7e at the time o5 se;ual a/use. $n what the rape 7ictim was doing as at the time o5 a/use or attac,9 2( were on errand 5or parents @ guardian& 1' were at home, 2( were haw,ing goods along the streets& ( were pla6ing and I was returning 5rom school. :here was no other in5ormation on the 7ictims or their guardians@parents. $he assailant :he 6oungest assailant is 2' 6ears old and the oldest is K2 6ears as shown in ta/les 1 to I%. :he mean age was 2!.# 6ears. Gost o5 them (K" were either uns,illed la/ourer& pett6 traders or /lue colour wor,ers& ( were unemplo6ed graduates& " were white colour wor,ers& and 9 were students. :he assailant was related to the 7ictim in 9 cases /ut the nature o5 the relationship was not re7ealed. In #! cases& the 7ictims and assailants were not related9 no in5ormation was pro7ided in 19 cases. $n whether the 7ictim had ,nown the assailant /e5ore the attac,& #( 7ictims had ,nown the assailant /e5ore the attac,& 2( 7ictims had no pre7ious ,nowledge o5 their attac,ers& and in5ormation was not a7aila/le 5or " 7ictims. Setting of crime and re)orting :he crime was committed in the assailantsC home (1" cases 9 7ictimsE home (9 & /ush (2 & assailantsC shop (! 9 uncompleted houses @ /uildings (1" 9 and in5ormation on the scene o5 the crime 5or ( cases were not stated. %eactions of assailant after arrest :he length o5 time /etween the commission o5 crime (rape and arrest /6 police ranged 5rom I da6 to ! wee,s. Gost assailants (#9 were arrested within one wee,& 1" o5 them were arrested within 2K hours a5ter the commission o5 the crime. $n arrest /6 police& K2 assailants accepted 5ull responsi/ilit6 5or the crime& while the remaining 2K denied committing the crime. .mong those who owned up to the crime& 2" said the 7ictims ga7e their consent& 12 attri/uted the act to the wor, o5 the Satan& and K /lamed it on alcohol. !unishment for the crime *7en though arrest o5 assailants /6 police was generall6 swi5t& cases remained in the law court 5or an a7erage o5 2"." months. :he time /etween arrest and ?udgement ranged 5rom 1# to (2 months. Punishment 5or con7icted assailants was generall6 se7ere. Gost con7icts were sent to ?ail 5or #1@K to 12 6ears with or without option o5 5ine. :hree were con7icted o5 a lesser o55ence (indecent assent and sentenced /etween # and " months with hard la/our. =i7e cases were struc, out 5or want o5 e7idence and two assailants were discharged on ps6chiatric grounds. It is pertinent to o/ser7e that though the law stipulates li5e imprisonment 5or con7icts& no assailant (con7ict recei7ed this sentence. *. +hat to do if you think a child you know has been the 'ictim of sexual abuse 1i7e the child a sa5e en7ironment in which to tal, to 6ou or another trusted adult. *ncourage the child to tal, a/out what he or she has e;perienced& /ut /e care5ul not to suggest e7ents to him or her that ma6 not ha7e happened. 1uard against displa6ing emotions that would in5luence the childEs telling o5 the in5ormation. Reassure the child that he or she did nothing wrong. See, mental health assistance 5or the child. .rrange 5or a medical e;amination 5or the child. Select a medical pro7ider who has e;perience in e;amining children and identi56ing se;ual and ph6sical trauma. It ma6 /e necessar6 to e;plain to the child the di55erence /etween a medical e;amination and the a/use incident. >e aware that man6 states ha7e laws reAuiring that persons who ,now or ha7e a reason to suspect that a child has /een se;uall6 a/used must report that a/use to either local law en5orcement o55icials or child protection o55icials. In all #" states and the =-:& medical personnel& mental health pro5essionals& teachers& and law en5orcement personnelCs are reAuired /6 law to report suspected a/use. ,. -iscussion and Conclusion :he stud6 was aimed at e;ploring cases o5 se;ual a/use o5 children in the .w,a area o5 .nam/ra State o5 Nigeria. In5ormation (data 5rom the police& state prosecutors& and social wel5are o55icials had earlier re7ealed a high rate o5 crime (se;ual a/use in .w,a and its en7irons. 4ata collected 5rom the 4epartment o5 Pu/lic Prosecutions (4PP does not present clear in5ormation on incidence rate. .nal6ses o5 data 5rom "" 5iles o5 decided cases were conducted to delineate 7ictims and assailant characteristics. Selected characteristics o5 the crime& reactions o5 the assailants and punishment are reported. "1

Research on Humanities and Social Sciences ISSN 2222-1719 (Paper ISSN 2222-2!"# ($nline %ol.#& No.17& 2'1#

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:he a7erage rape 7ictim was 7 6ears old and li7ing with her parents at the time o5 crime. :he di7ersit6 in the setting o5 the crimes& the acti7ities engaged in /e5ore the attac, (crime & and the 5act that most 7ictims li7ed with one or /oth parents also do not support the stereot6pe o5 the 7ictim as an a/andoned child without home or 5amil6. Hhat these data and other reports 5rom in5ormed periodicals impl6 is that almost e7er6 child is 7ulnera/le to /eing sAuall6 a/used /6 parents& relati7es& careta,ers& emplo6ers and strangers. Hhile& children are di55erent 5rom one another in di7erse wa6s& the6 share a similar 5eature o5 helplessness and powerlessness. *ssentiall6& it is /ecause o5 this lac, o5 power and its impact that ma,e legal protection 5or children a compelling necessit6 in Nigeria and elsewhere. Hhere law does not e;ist& the6 must /e enacted. Hhere the6 do e;ist& the6 should /e en5orced. Sanctions and punishment 5or se;ual or an6 5orm o5 child a/use should /e swi5t& se7ere and certain. =urthermore& the ps6chological impacts o5 se;ual 7ictimi+ation demand the urgent attention o5 social wel5are o55icers and mental health personnel. Finard (1979 has posited that the conseAuential outcomes o5 a/use are ne/ulous-su/tle in their mani5estation& di55icult to determine without ps6chological e7aluation& insidious in their potential damage to the child. He 5urther argues that se;uall6 a/used child ma6 de7elop a negati7e 7iew o5 sel5. He or She ma6 5eel used and worthless9 ma6 de7elop a destructi7e 7iew o5 his or her own se;ualit6& and ma6 /e una/le to trust others. In other words& it is pertinent to note that these s6mptoms and assertions are /ased on clinical e7idence and there5ore portend serious dangers& and crises in the adult li5e o5 the a/used child. It is /ecause o5 death o5 epidemiological data& that one can onl6 speculate on the state o5 the child in .5rica particularl6 Nigeria regarding ps6chological and ph6sical a/use. Increased 5amil6 stress caused /6 changes in the socio-economic 5ortunes o5 parents ma6 predispose children to a/use and neglect. Ritual practices in 5orm o5 ritual ,illings 5or economic gains and political power ma6 also /e a 5actor in child se;ual a/use. In this regard& 5urther research in this area is called 5or. :he e;plorator6 nature o5 this stud6 has le5t some Auestions unanswered. :he reaction o5 7ictims& the reasons 5or 5ailure to report man6 cases& /elie5s associated with some 5orms o5 child a/use& the incidence o5 5ather-daughter incest and so on demand empirical in7estigations. . single source o5 data as is the case with this stud6 ma6 not pro7ide all the answers. :hus& a com/ination o5 methods o5 data collection is suggested to /e a /etter option. %eferences American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry (2008). -hild se;ual a/use& 9& (Updated May 2008). American Psychological Association (2011 . 3nderstanding child se;ual a/use< *ducation& pre7ention and reco7er6. Washington C! APA P"#lication. $hatia% M. &. (200'). 4ictionar6 o5 ps6cholog6 and allied sciences. (e) elhi! (e) Age *nternational P"#lishers. Crystal% . (+d.) (1'',). :he -am/ridge concise *nc6clopedia (-hird edition)% Cam#ridge! Cam#ridge "ni.ersity press. /e0ayinfa% A. A. 1 2la..epo (2011). *ncidence of child a#"se among secondary school st"dents in *lorin% (igeria http<@@www.unilorin.edu.ng@pu/lications@?e,a6inoluwa@19incidence.pd5 3inard% 4. M. (l'5'). -he Psychological conse6"ences of A#"se for the child. Dournal o5 Social Issues& #(& (2 % 827100 (ational Centre on Child A#"se and (eglect (1'58). Interdisciplinar6 1lossar6 on -hild ./use and Neglect. Washington .C! U.&. ept. of 4ealth% +d"cation 1 Welfare. $/ot& I. S. (19!! . Se;ual ./use o5 -hildren in -ala/ar& -ross Ri7er State o5 Nigeria. Proceedings of the 8irst *nternational )or0shop on child A#"se in Africa held at *nugu& Nigeria. 2g#onna% C. (2019). (igeria! A loo0 at child se:"al a#"se across Africa. Shout-.5rica (Pro"d African (e)s and +ntertainment 4"#) 20on0)o% ;.2.% 1 (aish% &. (1'80). -riminal laws in Nigeria. ;ondon! &)eet Ma:)ell. Redi& =.& 2 Hineman& 4. (19"7 . Children )ho 4ate. :oronto< =ree Press.

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