John Wycliffe

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John Wycliffe

Full name Born Died Era Region Notable ideas

John Wycliffe c. 13 !s "pres#ell, $ngland 31 %ecem&er 13'( (aged a&out )() *utter#orth, $ngland +edieval philosophy Western philosophy Wyclif,s -i&le

"nfluenced &y.sho#/ "nfluenced.sho#/

John Wycliffe (pronounced /wklf/0 also spelled Wyclif, Wycliff, Wiclef, Wicliffe, or Wickliffe) (mid113 !s 2 31 %ecem&er 13'() #as an $nglish theologian, lay preacher,.1/ translator, reformist and university teacher #ho #as kno#n as an early dissident in the Roman 3atholic 3hurch during the 1(th century4 5is follo#ers are kno#n as *ollards, a some#hat re&ellious movement #hich preached a legalistic 6ospel4.1/ 5e is considered the founder of the *ollard movement,.1/ a precursor to the 7rotestant Reformation (for this reason, he is sometimes called 89he +orning :tar of the Reformation8)4 5e #as one of the earliest opponents of papal authority influencing secular po#er4. /

Wycliffe #as also an early advocate for translation of the -i&le into the common tongue4 5e completed his translation directly from the ;ulgate into vernacular $nglish in the year 13' , no# kno#n as Wyclif,s -i&le.3/4 "t is pro&a&le that he personally translated the 6ospels of +atthe#, +ark, *uke, and John0 and it is possi&le he translated the entire <e# 9estament, #hile his associates translated the =ld 9estament4.(/ Wyclif,s -i&le appears to have &een completed &y 13'(,.(/ #ith additional updated versions &eing done &y Wycliffe,s assistant John 7urvey and others in 13'' and 13>?4.?/

Contents
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1 $arly life $arly career o 41 @t =Aford 3 7olitical career ( 7u&lic declaration ? 3onflict #ith the 3hurch ) :tatement regarding royal po#er B ;ie#s on the papacy ' @ttack on monasticism > Relation to the $nglish -i&le 1! @ctivity as a preacher 11 @nti1Wycliffe synod 1 *ast days 13 %octrines 1( -asal positions in philosophy 1? @ttitude to#ard speculation 1) :ee also 1B References 1' :ources 1> Further reading ! $Aternal links

[edit] Early life

Wycliffe #as &orn in the factory village of modern1day 5ips#ell in the <orth Riding of Corkshire, $ngland in the mid113 !s4.)/ 5is family #as long settled in Corkshire4 9he family #as a large one, covering considera&le territory, principally centered around Wycliffe1on19ees, a&out ten miles to the north of 5ips#ell4 Wycliffe received his early education close to his home.B/4 "t is not kno#n #hen he first came to =Aford, #ith #hich he #as so closely connected until the end of his life, &ut he is kno#n to have &een at =Aford around 13(?4 5e #as influenced &y Roger -acon, Ro&ert 6rosseteste, 9homas -rad#ardine, William of =ccam, and Richard FitDralph4.citation needed/

Wycliffe o#ed much to William of =ccam,s #ork and thought4 5e sho#ed interest in natural science and mathematics, &ut applied himself to studying theology, ecclesiastical la#, and philosophy4 5is opponents ackno#ledged the keenness of his dialectic, and his #ritings prove he #as #ell grounded in Roman and $nglish la#, as #ell as in native history4.citation needed/ %uring this time there #as conflict &et#een the northern (Boreales) and southern (Australes) 8nations8 at =Aford4 Wycliffe &elonged to -oreales, in #hich the prevailing tendency #as anticurial, #hile the other #as curial4 <ot less sharp #as the separation over <ominalism and Realism4 5e mastered most of the techniEues4 Wycliffe &ecame deeply disillusioned &oth #ith :cholastic theology of his day and also #ith the state of the church, at least as represented &y the clergy4 "n the final phase of his life in the years &efore his death in 13'( he increasingly argued for :criptures as the authoritative centre of 3hristianity, that the claims of the papacy #ere unhistorical, that monasticism #as irredeema&ly corrupt, and like the %onatists that the moral un#orthiness of priests invalidated their office and sacraments4.'/

[edit] Early career

[edit] t !"ford
Wycliffe #as +aster of -alliol 3ollege, =Aford in 13)!, and 13)14.>/ "n 13)1, he #as presented &y the college #ith the parish of Fylingham in *incolnshire4 For this he had to give up the leadership of -alliol 3ollege, though he could continue to live at =Aford4 5e is said to have had rooms in the &uildings of 9he Fueen,s 3ollege, =Aford4 @s &accalaureate at the university, he &usied himself #ith natural science and mathematics, and as master he had the right to read in philosophy4 =&taining a &achelor,s degree in theology, Wycliffe pursued an avid interest in -i&lical studies4 5is performance led :imon "slip, @rch&ishop of 3anter&ury, to place him at the head of 3anter&ury 5all in 13)?, #here t#elve young men #ere preparing for the priesthood4 "slip had designed the foundation for secular clergy0 &ut #hen he died in 13)), "slip,s successor, :imon *angham, a man of monastic training, turned the leadership of the college over to a monk4 9hough Wycliffe appealed to Rome, the outcome #as unfavoura&le to him4 9his case #ould hardly have &een thought of again had not contemporaries of Wycliffe, such as William Woodford and Rev4 Ro&ert 7arker ", seen in it the &eginnings of Wycliffe,s assaults upon Rome and monasticism4.citation needed/ -et#een 13B and 13'(, he &ecame a %octor of %ivinity, making use of his right to lecture upon systematic divinity, &ut these lectures #ere not the origin of his Summa4 "n 13)', he gave up his living at Fylingham and took over the rectory of *udgershall, -uckinghamshire, not far from =Aford, #hich ena&led him to retain his connection #ith the university4 :iA years later, in 13B(, he received the cro#n living of *utter#orth in *eicestershire, #hich he retained until his death4 5e had already resigned as pre&endary of @ust in West&ury1on19rym4

[edit] #olitical career

9his article may contain original research4 7lease improve it &y verifying the claims made and adding references4 :tatements consisting only of original research may &e removed4 +ore details may &e availa&le on the talk page4 (September 2007) Wycliffe,s entrance upon the stage of ecclesiastical politics is usually related to the Euestion of feudal tri&ute to #hich $ngland had &een rendered lia&le &y Ging John, #hich #as not paid for thirty1three years until 7ope Hr&an ; in 13)? demanded it4 7arliament declared that neither Ging John nor any other had the right to su&Iect $ngland to any foreign po#er4 :hould the pope attempt to enforce his claim &y arms, he #ould &e met #ith national resistance4 7ope Hr&an apparently recogniDed his mistake and dropped his claim4 9he tone of the pope #as, in fact, not threatening, and he did not #ish to dra# $ngland into the maelstrom of politics of $urope4 5arsh #ords #ere &ound to &e heard in $ngland, &ecause of the close relations of the papacy #ith France4 "t is said that on this occasion Wycliffe served as theological counsel to the government, composed a polemical tract dealing #ith the tri&ute, and defended an unnamed monk over against the conduct of the government and parliament4 9his #ould place the entrance of Wycliffe into politics a&out 13)?2))4 Wycliffe,s more important participation &egan #ith the peace congress at -ruges4 9here in 13B( negotiations #ere carried on &et#een France and $ngland, #hile at the same time commissioners from $ngland dealt #ith papal delegates respecting the removal of ecclesiastical annoyances4 Wycliffe #as among these, under a decree dated July ), 13B(4 9he choice of a harsh opponent of the @vignon system #ould have &roken up rather than furthered the peace negotiations4 "t seems he #as designated purely as a theologian, and so considered himself, since a noted scriptural scholar #as reEuired alongside of those learned in civil and canon la#4 9here #as no need for a man of reno#n, or a pure advocate of state interests4 5is predecessor in a like case #as John =#tred, a monk #ho formulated the statement that :aint 7eter had united in his hands spiritual and temporal po#er 2 the opposite of #hat Wycliffe taught4 "n the days of the mission to -ruges =#tred still &elonged to Wycliffe,s circle of friends4 Wycliffe #as still regarded &y papal partisans as trust#orthy0 his opposition to the ruling conduct of the 3hurch may have escaped notice4 "t #as difficult to recognise him as a heretic4 9he controversies in #hich men engaged at =Aford #ere philosophical rather than purely theological or ecclesiastical1political, and the method of discussion #as academic and scholastic4 9he kind of men #ith #hom Wycliffe dealt included the 3armelite monk John Gyningham .1!/ over theological.11/ or ecclesiastical1political.1 / Euestions4 Wycliffe,s contest #ith =#tred and William Wynham (or Wyrinham or -inham) of Wallingford 7riory and :t @l&ans, the -enedictine professor of theology at =Aford, #ere formerly unkno#n, as #ere the earlier ones #ith William Wadeford4 When it is recalled that it #as once the task of =#tred to defend the political interests of

$ngland against the demands of @vignon, one #ould more likely see him in agreement #ith Wycliffe than in opposition4 -ut =#tred &elieved it sinful to say that temporal po#er might deprive a priest, even an unrighteous one, of his temporalities0 Wycliffe regarded it as a sin to incite the pope to eAcommunicate laymen #ho had deprived clergy of their temporalities, his dictum &eing that a man in a state of sin had no claim upon government4 Wycliffe &lamed Wynham for making pu&lic controversies #hich had hitherto &een confined to the academic arena4 -ut the controversies #ere fundamentally related to the opposition #hich found eApression in 7arliament against the 3uria4 Wycliffe himself tells.13/ ho# he concluded that there #as a great contrast &et#een #hat the 3hurch #as and #hat it ought to &e, and sa# the necessity for reform4 5is ideas stress the perniciousness of the temporal rule of the clergy and its incompati&ility #ith the teaching of 3hrist and the apostles, and make note of the tendencies #hich #ere evident in the measures of the 86ood 7arliament8 of 13B)1BB4 @ long &ill #as introduced, #ith 1(! headings, in #hich #ere stated the grievances caused &y the aggressions of the 3uria0 all reservations and commissions #ere to &e done a#ay, the eAportation of money #as for&idden, and the foreign collectors #ere to &e removed4

[edit] #ublic declaration

Wycliffe speaking to *ollard preachers4 "t #as in this period that Wycliffe came significantly to the fore4 5e #as among those to #hom the thought of the seculariDation of ecclesiastical properties in $ngland #as #elcome4 5is protector #as John of 6aunt, #ho #as acting as ruler at this time4 5e #as no longer satisfied #ith his chair as the means of propagating his ideas, and soon after his return from -ruges he &egan to eApress them in tracts and longer #orks 2 his great #ork, the Summa theologiae, #as #ritten in support of them4 "n the first &ook, concerned #ith the government of 6od and the 9en 3ommandments, he attacked the temporal rule of the clergy 2 in temporal things the king is a&ove the pope, and the collection of annates and indulgences is simony4 -ut he entered the politics of the day #ith his great #ork De civili dominio. 5ere he introduced those ideas &y #hich the good parliament #as governed 2 #hich involved the renunciation &y the 3hurch of temporal dominion4 9he items of the

8long &ill8 appear to have &een derived from his #ork4 "n this &ook are the strongest outcries against the @vignon system #ith its commissions, eAactions, sEuandering of charities &y unfit priests, and the like4 9o change this is the &usiness of the :tate4 "f the clergy misuses ecclesiastical property, it must &e taken a#ay0 if the king does not do this, he is remiss4 9he #ork contains 1' strongly stated theses, opposing the governing methods of the rule of the 3hurch and the straightening out of its temporal possessions4.1(/ Wycliffe had set these ideas &efore his students at =Aford in 13B), after &ecoming involved in controversy #ith William Wadeford and others4 Rather than restricting these matters to the classroom, he #anted them proclaimed more #idely and #anted temporal and spiritual lords to take note4 While the latter attacked him and sought ecclesiastical censure, he recommended himself to the former &y his criticism of the #orldly possessions of the clergy4

[edit] Conflict $ith the Church

9heologically, his preaching #as strong &elief in predestination that ena&led him to &elieve in the Jinvisi&leK church of the elect, made up of predestined to &e saved, rather than in the Jvisi&leK church of Rome4.1?/ Wycliffe #anted to see his ideas actualiDed 2 his fundamental &elief #as that the 3hurch should &e poor, as in the days of the apostles4 5e had not yet &roken #ith the mendicant friars, and from these John of 6aunt chose Wycliffe,s defenders4 While the Reformer later claimed that it #as not his purpose to incite temporal lords to confiscation of the property of the 3hurch, the real tendencies of the propositions remained unconcealed4 9he result of the same doctrines in -ohemia 2 that land &ut #hich #as richest in ecclesiastical foundations 2 #as that in a short time the entire church estate #as taken over and a revolution &rought a&out in the relations of temporal holdings4 "t #as in keeping #ith the plans of 6aunt to have a personality like Wycliffe on his side4 $specially in *ondon the Reformer,s vie#s #on support0 partisans of the no&ility attached themselves to him, and the lo#er orders gladly heard his sermons4 5e preached in city churches, and *ondon rang #ith his praises4.citation needed/ 9he first to oppose his theses #ere monks of those orders #hich held possessions, to #hom his theories #ere dangerous4 =Aford and the episcopate #ere later &lamed &y the 3uria, #hich charged them #ith so neglecting their duty that the &reaking of the evil fiend into the $nglish sheepfold could &e noticed in Rome &efore it #as in $ngland4 Wycliffe #as summoned &efore William 3ourtenay, -ishop of *ondon, on 1> Fe&ruary 13BB, in order 8to eAplain the #onderful things #hich had streamed forth from his mouth84 9he eAact charges are not kno#n, as the matter did not get as far as a definite eAamination4 6aunt, the $arl +arshal 5enry 7ercy, and a num&er of other friends accompanied Wycliffe, and four &egging friars #ere his advocates4 @ cro#d gathered at the church, and at the entrance of the party animosities &egan to sho#, especially in an angry eAchange &et#een the &ishop and the Reformer,s protectors4 6aunt declared that he #ould hum&le the pride of the $nglish clergy and their partisans, hinting at the intent to secularise the possessions of the 3hurch4 9he assem&ly &roke up and the lords departed #ith their protege4.1)/

+ost of the $nglish clergy #ere irritated &y this encounter, and attacks upon Wycliffe &egan, finding their response in the second and third &ooks of his #ork dealing #ith civil government4 9hese &ooks carry a sharp polemic, hardly surprising #hen it is recalled that his opponents charged Wycliffe #ith &lasphemy and scandal, pride and heresy4 5e appeared to have openly advised the seculariDation of $nglish church property, and the dominant parties shared his conviction that the monks could &etter &e controlled if they #ere relieved from the care of secular affairs4 9he &itterness occasioned &y this advice #ill &e &etter understood #hen it is remem&ered that at that time the papacy #as at #ar #ith the Florentines and #as in dire straits4 9he demand of the +inorites that the 3hurch should live in poverty as it did in the days of the apostles #as not pleasing in such a crisis4 "t #as under these conditions that 7ope 6regory L", #ho in January, 13BB, had gone from @vignon to Rome, sent on +ay five copies of his &ull against Wycliffe, dispatching one to the @rch&ishop of 3anter&ury, and the others to the -ishop of *ondon, Ging $d#ard """, the 3hancellor, and the university0 among the enclosures #ere 1' theses of his, #hich #ere denounced as erroneous and dangerous to 3hurch and :tate4 9he reformatory activities of Wycliffe effectively &egan here: all the great #orks, especially his Summa theologiae, are closely connected #ith the condemnation of his 1' theses, #hile the entire literary energies of his later years rest upon this foundation4.citation needed/ 9he neAt aim of his opponents 2 to make him out a revolutionary in politics 2 failed4 9he situation in $ngland resulted in damage to them0 on 1 June 13BB, $d#ard """ died4 5is successor #as Richard "", a &oy, #ho #as under the influence of John of 6aunt, his uncle4 :o it resulted that the &ull against Wycliffe did not &ecome pu&lic till 1' %ecem&er4 7arliament, #hich met in =cto&er, came into sharp conflict #ith the 3uria4 @mong the propositions #hich Wycliffe, at the direction of the government, #orked out for parliament #as one #hich speaks out distinctly against the eAhaustion of $ngland &y the 3uria4 Wycliffe tried to gain pu&lic favour &y laying his theses &efore 7arliament, and then made them pu&lic in a tract, accompanied &y eAplanations, limitations, and interpretations4 @fter the session of 7arliament #as over he #as called upon to ans#er, and in +arch, 13B', he appeared at the episcopal palace at *am&eth to defend himself4 9he preliminaries #ere not yet finished #hen a noisy mo& gathered #ith the purpose of saving him0 the king,s mother, Joan of Gent, also took up his cause4 9he &ishops, #ho #ere divided, satisfied themselves #ith for&idding him to speak further on the controversy4 @t =Aford the vice1chancellor, follo#ing papal directions, confined the Reformer for some time in -lack 5all, from #hich Wycliffe #as released on threats from his friends0 the vice1chancellor #as himself confined in the same place &ecause of his treatment of Wycliffe4 9he latter then took up the usage according to #hich one #ho remained for (( days under eAcommunication came under the penalties eAecuted &y the :tate, and #rote his De incarcerandis fedelibus, in #hich he demanded that it should &e legal for the eAcommunicated to appeal to the king and his council against the eAcommunication0 in this #riting he laid open the entire case and in such a #ay that it #as understood &y the laity4 5e #rote his 33 conclusions, in *atin and $nglish4 9he

masses, some of the no&ility, and his former protector, John of 6aunt, rallied to him4 -efore any further steps could &e taken at Rome, 6regory L" died (13B')4 -ut Wycliffe #as already engaged in one of his most important #orks, that dealing #ith #hat he perceived as the truth of 5oly :cripture4 9he sharper the strife &ecame, the more Wycliffe had recourse to his translation of :cripture as the &asis of all 3hristian doctrinal opinion, and eApressly tried to prove this to &e the only norm for 3hristian faith4 "n order to refute his opponents, he #rote the &ook in #hich he endeavored to sho# that 5oly :cripture contains all truth and, &eing from 6od, is the only authority4 5e referred to the conditions under #hich the condemnation of his 1' theses #as &rought a&out0 and the same may &e said of his &ooks dealing #ith the 3hurch, the office of king, and the po#er of the pope 2 all completed #ithin the space of t#o years (13B'2B>)4 9o Wycliffe, the 3hurch is the totality of those #ho are predestined to &lessedness4 "t includes the 3hurch triumphant in heaven, those in purgatory, and the 3hurch militant or men on earth4 <o one #ho is eternally lost has part in it4 9here is one universal 3hurch, and outside of it there is no salvation4 "ts head is 3hrist4 <o pope may say that he is the head, for he cannot say that he is elect or even a mem&er of the 3hurch4

[edit] %tatement regarding royal &o$er

"t #ould &e a mistake to assume that Wycliffe,s doctrine of the 3hurch 2 #hich made so great an impression upon famous priest Jan 5us 1 #as occasioned &y the #estern schism (13B'21( >)4 9he principles of the doctrine #ere already em&odied in his De civili dominio4 9he contents of the &ook dealing #ith the 3hurch are closely connected #ith the decision respecting the 1' theses4 9he attacks on 7ope 6regory L" gro# ever more eAtreme4 Wycliffe,s stand #ith respect to the ideal of poverty &ecame continually firmer, as #ell as his position #ith regard to the temporal rule of the clergy4 3losely related to this attitude #as his &ook De officio regis, the content of #hich #as foreshado#ed in his 33 conclusions: =ne should &e instructed #ith reference to the o&ligations #hich lie in regard to the kingdom in order to see ho# the t#o po#ers, royal and ecclesiastical, may support each other in harmony in the &ody corporate of the 3hurch4 9he royal po#er, Wycliffe taught, is consecrated through the testimony of 5oly :cripture and the Fathers4 3hrist and the apostles rendered tri&ute to the emperor4 "t is a sin to oppose the po#er of the king, #hich is derived immediately from 6od4 :u&Iects, a&ove all the clergy, should pay him dutiful tri&ute4 9he honors #hich attach to temporal po#er hark &ack to the king0 those #hich &elong to precedence in the priestly office, to the priest4 9he king must apply his po#er #ith #isdom, his la#s are to &e in unison #ith those of 6od4 From 6od la#s derive their authority, including those #hich royalty has over the clergy4 "f one of the clergy neglects his office, he is a traitor to the king #ho calls him to ans#er for it4 "t follo#s from this that the king has an 8evangelical8 control4 9hose in the service of the 3hurch must have regard for the la#s of the :tate4 "n confirmation of this fundamental principle the arch&ishops in $ngland make s#orn su&mission to the king and receive their temporalities4 9he king is to protect his vassals against damage to their possessions0 in case the clergy through their misuse of the temporalities cause inIury, the king must offer protection4 When the king turns over temporalities to the clergy, he places them under his

Iurisdiction, from #hich later pronouncements of the popes cannot release them4 "f the clergy relies on papal pronouncements, it must &e su&Iected to o&edience to the king4 9his &ook, like those that preceded and follo#ed, #as concerned #ith the reform of the 3hurch, in #hich the temporal arm #as to have an influential part4 $specially interesting is the teaching #hich Wycliffe addressed to the king on the protection of his theologians4 9his did not mean theology in its modern sense, &ut kno#ledge of the -i&le4 :ince the la# must &e in agreement #ith :cripture, kno#ledge of theology is necessary to the strengthening of the kingdom0 therefore the king has theologians in his entourage to stand at his side as he eAercises po#er4 "t is their duty to eAplain :cripture according to the rule of reason and in conformity #ith the #itness of the saints0 also to proclaim the la# of the king and to protect his #elfare and that of his kingdom4

[edit] 'ie$s on the &a&acy

9he &ooks and tracts of Wycliffe,s last siA years include continual attacks upon the papacy and the entire hierarchy of his times4 $ach year they focus more and more, and at the last, the pope and the @ntichrist seem to him practically eEuivalent concepts4 (@ similar conclusion #ould &e reached &y 7rotestants 1!! years later) Cet there are passages #hich are moderate in tone0 64 ;4 *echler identifies three stages in Wycliffe,s relations #ith the papacy4 9he first step, #hich carried the him to the out&reak of the schism, involves moderate recognition of the papal primacy0 the second, #hich carried him to 13'1, is marked &y an estrangement from the papacy0 and the third sho#s him in sharp contest4 5o#ever, Wycliffe reached no valuation of the papacy &efore the out&reak of the schism different from his later appraisal4 "f in his last years he identified the papacy #ith antichristianity, the dispensa&ility of this papacy #as strong in his mind &efore the schism4 "t #as this very man #ho la&oured to &ring a&out the recognition of Hr&an ;" (13B'213'>), #hich appears to contradict his former attitude and to demand an eAplanation4 Wycliffe,s influence #as never greater than at the moment #hen pope and antipope sent their am&assadors to $ngland in order to gain recognition for themselves4 "n the am&assadors, presence, he delivered an opinion &efore 7arliament that sho#ed, in an important ecclesiastical political Euestion (the matter of the right of asylum in Westminster @&&ey), a position that #as to the liking of the :tate4 5o# Wycliffe came to &e active in the interest of Hr&an is seen in passages in his latest #ritings, in #hich he eApressed himself in regard to the papacy in a favora&le sense4 =n the other hand he states that it is not necessary to go either to Rome or to @vignon in order to seek a decision from the pope, since the triune 6od is every#here4 =ur pope is 3hrist4 "t seems clear that Wycliffe #as an opponent of that papacy #hich had developed since 3onstantine4 5e taught that the 3hurch can continue to eAist even though it have no visi&le leader0 &ut there can &e no damage #hen the 3hurch possesses a leader of the right kind4 9o distinguish &et#een #hat the pope should &e, if one is necessary, and the pope as he appeared in Wycliffe,s day #as the purpose of his &ook on the po#er of the pope4 9he 3hurch militant, Wycliffe taught, needs a head 2 &ut one #hom 6od gives the

3hurch4 9he elector .cardinal/ can only make someone a pope if the choice relates to one #ho is elect .of 6od/4 -ut that is not al#ays the case4 "t may &e that the elector is himself not predestined and chooses one #ho is in the same case 2 a verita&le @ntichrist4 =ne must regard as a true pope one #ho in teaching and life most nearly follo#s Jesus and :aint 7eter4

[edit] ttack on monasticism

5is teachings concerning the danger attaching to the seculariDing of the 3hurch put Wycliffe into line #ith the mendicant orders, since in 1(BB +inorites #ere his defenders4 "n the last chapters of his De civili dominio, there are traces of a rift4 When he stated that 8the case of the orders #hich hold property is that of them all,8 the mendicant orders turned against him0 and from that time Wycliffe &egan a struggle #hich continued till his death4 9his &attle against #hat he sa# as an imperialised papacy and its supporters, the 8sects,8 as he called the monastic orders, takes up a large space not only in his later #orks as the Trialogus, Dialogus, pus evangelicum, and in his sermons, &ut also in a series of sharp tracts and polemical productions in *atin and $nglish (of #hich those issued in his later years have &een collected as 87olemical Writings8)4 "n these he teaches that the 3hurch needs no ne# sects0 sufficient for it no# is the religion of 3hrist #hich sufficed in the first three centuries of its eAistence4 9he monastic orders are &odies #hich are not supported &y the -i&le, and must &e a&olished together #ith their possessions4 :uch teaching, particularly in sermons, had one immediate effect 2 a serious rising of the people4 9he monks #ere deprived of alms and #ere &idden to apply themselves to manual la&or4 9hese teachings had more important results upon the orders and their possessions in -ohemia, #here the instructions of the 8$vangelical master8 #ere follo#ed to the letter in such a #ay that the no&le foundations and practically the #hole of the property of the 3hurch #ere sacrificed4 -ut the result #as not as Wycliffe #anted it in $ngland 2 the property fell not to the :tate &ut to the &arons of the land4 9he scope of the conflict in $ngland #idened0 it no longer involved the mendicant monks alone, &ut took in the entire hierarchy4 @n element of the contest appears in Wycliffe,s doctrine of :% the *ord,s :upper4

[edit] Relation to the English Bible

John Wycliffe portraited in -ale,s Scriptor !a"oris Britanni# 1?('4 <ational honor seemed to reEuire an $nglish translation, since mem&ers of the no&ility possessed the -i&le in French4 7ortions of the -i&le had &een translated into $nglish as early as the seventh century under the auspices of the 3atholic 3hurch4 While Wycliffe is credited, it is not possi&le eAactly to define his part in the translation, #hich #as &ased on the ;ulgate4.1B/ 9here is no dou&t that it #as his initiative, and that the success of the proIect #as due to his leadership4 From him comes the translation of the <e# 9estament, #hich #as smoother, clearer, and more reada&le than the rendering of the =ld 9estament &y his friend <icholas of 5ereford4 9he #hole #as revised &y Wycliffe,s younger contemporary John 7urvey in 13''4 9hus the cry of his opponents may &e heard: 89he Ie#el of the clergy has &ecome the toy of the laity48 "n spite of the Deal #ith #hich the hierarchy sought to destroy it due to #hat they sa# as mistranslations and erroneous commentary, there still eAist a&out 1?! manuscripts, complete or partial, containing the translation in its revised form4 From this, one may easily infer ho# #idely diffused it #as in the fifteenth century4 For this reason the Wycliffites in $ngland #ere often designated &y their opponents as 8-i&le men48 Just as *uther,s version had great influence upon the 6erman language, so Wycliffe,s, &y reason of its clarity, &eauty, and strength, influenced the $nglish language as the Ging James ;ersion #as later to do4

[edit] cti(ity as a &reacher

Wycliffe aimed to do a#ay #ith the eAisting hierarchy and replace it #ith the 8poor priests8 #ho lived in poverty, #ere &ound &y no vo#s, had received no formal consecration, and preached the 6ospel to the people4 9hese itinerant preachers spread the teachings of Wycliffe4 9#o &y t#o they #ent, &arefoot, #earing long dark1red ro&es and carrying a staff in the hand, the latter having sym&olic reference to their pastoral calling, and passed from place to place preaching the sovereignty of 6od4 9he &ull of 6regory L"

impressed upon them the name of *ollards, intended as an oppro&rious epithet, &ut it &ecame, to them, a name of honour4 $ven in Wycliffe,s time the 8*ollards8 had reached #ide circles in $ngland and preached 86od,s la#, #ithout #hich no one could &e Iustified48

[edit] nti)Wycliffe synod

"n the summer of 13'1 Wycliffe formulated his doctrine of the *ord,s :upper in t#elve short sentences, and made it a duty to advocate it every#here4 9hen the $nglish hierarchy proceeded against him4 9he chancellor of the Hniversity of =Aford had some of the declarations pronounced heretical4 When this fact #as announced to Wycliffe, he declared that no one could change his convictions4 5e then appealed 2 not to the pope nor to the ecclesiastical authorities of the land, &ut to the king4 5e pu&lished his great confession upon the su&Iect and also a second #riting in $nglish intended for the common people4 5is pronouncements #ere no longer limited to the classroom, they spread to the masses4 8$very second man that you meet,8 #rites a contemporary, 8is a *ollard48 "n the midst of this commotion came the 7easants, Revolt of 13'14 @lthough Wycliffe disapproved of the revolt, he #as &lamed4 Cet his friend and protector John of 6aunt #as the most hated &y the re&els, and #here Wycliffe,s influence #as greatest the uprising found the least support4 While in general the aim of the revolt #as against the spiritual no&ility, this came a&out &ecause they #ere no&les, not &ecause they #ere churchmen4 Wycliffe,s old enemy William 3ourtenay, no# @rch&ishop of 3anter&ury, called in 13' an ecclesiastical assem&ly of nota&les at *ondon4 %uring the consultations on 1 +ay an earthEuake occurred0 the participants #ere terrified and #ished to &reak up the assem&ly, &ut 3ourtenay declared the earthEuake a favora&le sign #hich meant the purification of the earth from erroneous doctrine, and the result of the 8$arthEuake :ynod8 #as assured4 =f the ( propositions attri&uted to Wycliffe #ithout mentioning his name, ten #ere declared heretical and fourteen erroneous4 9he former had reference to the transformation in the sacrament, the latter to matters of church order and institutions4 "t #as for&idden from that time to hold these opinions or to advance them in sermons or in academic discussions4 @ll persons disregarding this order #ere to &e su&Iect to prosecution4 9o accomplish this the help of the :tate #as necessary0 &ut the 3ommons reIected the &ill4 9he king, ho#ever, had a decree issued #hich permitted the arrest of those in error4 9he citadel of the reformatory movement #as =Aford, #here Wycliffe,s most active helpers #ere0 these #ere laid under the &an and summoned to recant, and <icholas of 5ereford #ent to Rome to appeal4 "n similar fashion the poor priests #ere hindered in their #ork4 =n 1' <ovem&er 13' , Wycliffe #as summoned &efore a synod at =Aford0 he appeared, though apparently &roken in &ody in conseEuence of a stroke, &ut nevertheless determined4 5e still commanded the favour of the court and of 7arliament, to #hich he addressed a memorial4 5e #as neither eAcommunicated then, nor deprived of his living4

[edit] *ast days

5e returned to *utter#orth, and sent out tracts against the monks and Hr&an ;", since the latter, contrary to the hopes of Wycliffe, had not turned out to &e a reforming or 8true8 pope, &ut had &een involved in mischievous conflicts4 9he crusade in Flanders aroused the Reformer,s &iting scorn, #hile his sermons &ecame fuller1voiced and dealt #ith #hat he sa# as the imperfections of the 3hurch4 9he literary achievements of Wycliffe,s last days, such as the Trialogus, stand at the peak of the kno#ledge of his day4 5is last #ork, the pus evangelicum, the last part of #hich he named in characteristic fashion 8=f @ntichrist8, remained uncompleted4 While he #as hearing mass in the parish church on 5oly "nnocents, %ay, ' %ecem&er 13'(, he #as again stricken #ith apopleAy and died on the last day of the year4 :hortly after his death, the great 5ussite movement arose and spread through +iddle $urope4

-urning Wycliffe,s &ones, from John FoAe,s -ook of +artyrs (1?)3) 9he 3ouncil of 3onstance declared Wycliffe (on ( +ay 1(1?) a stiff1necked heretic and under the &an of the 3hurch4 "t #as decreed that his &ooks &e &urned and his remains &e eAhumed4 9he eAhumation #as carried out in 1( ' #hen, at the command of 7ope +artin ;, his remains #ere dug up, &urned, and the ashes cast into the River :#ift, #hich flo#s through *utter#orth4 9his is the most final of all posthumous attacks on John Wycliffe, &ut previous attempts had &een made &efore the 3ouncil of 3onstance4 9he @nti1 Wycliffite :tatute of 1(!1 eAtended persecution to Wycliffe,s remaining follo#ers4 9he 83onstitutions of =Aford8 of 1(!' aimed to reclaim authority in all ecclesiastical matters, specifically naming John Wycliffe in a &an on certain #ritings, and noting that translation of :cripture into $nglish is a crime punisha&le &y charges of heresy4 <one of Wycliffe,s contemporaries left a complete picture of his person, his life, and his activities4 9he pictures representing him are from a later period4 =ne must &e content #ith certain scattered eApressions found in the history of the trial &y William 9horpe (1(!B)4 "t appears that Wycliffe #as lacking of &ody, indeed of #asted appearance, and physically #eak4 5e #as of un&lemished #alk in life, says 9horpe, and #as regarded affectionately &y people of rank, #ho often consorted #ith him, took do#n his sayings,

and clung to him4 8" indeed clove to none closer than to him, the #isest and most &lessed of all men #hom " have ever found4 From him one could learn in truth #hat the 3hurch of 3hrist is and ho# it should &e ruled and led48 5us #ished that his soul might &e #herever that of Wycliffe #as found4 9homas <etter highly esteemed John Gynyngham in that he 8so &ravely offered himself to the &iting speech of the heretic and to #ords that stung as &eing #ithout the religion of 3hrist84 -ut this eAample of <etter is not #ell chosen, since the tone of Wycliffe to#ard Gynyngham is that of a Iunior to#ard an elder #hom one respects, and he handled other opponents in similar fashion4 -ut #hen he turned his roughest side upon his opponents, as for eAample in his sermons, polemical #ritings and tracts, he met the attacks #ith an unfriendly tone4

[edit] Doctrines

John Wycliffe at #ork in his study Wycliffe,s first encounter #ith the official 3hurch of his time #as prompted &y his Deal in the interests of the :tate4 5is first tracts and greater #orks of ecclesiastical1political content defended the privileges of the :tate, and from these sources developed a strife out of #hich the neAt phases could hardly &e determined4 =ne #ho studies these &ooks in the order of their production #ith reference to their inner content finds a direct development #ith a strong reformatory tendency4 9his #as not originally doctrinal0 #hen it later took up matters of dogma, as in the teaching concerning transu&stantiation, the purpose #as the return to original simplicity in the government of the 3hurch4 -ut it #ould have &een against the diplomatic practice of the time to have sent to the peace congress at -ruges, in #hich the 3uria had an essential part, a participant #ho had &ecome kno#n at home &y his allegedly heretical teaching4

:ince it #as from dealing #ith ecclesiastical1political Euestions that Wycliffe turned to reformatory activities, the former have a large part in his reformatory #ritings4 While he took his start in affairs of church policy from the $nglish legislation #hich #as passed in the times of $d#ard ", he declined the connection into #hich his contemporaries &rought it under the lead of =ccam4 "ndeed, he distinctly disavo#s taking his conclusions from =kham, and avers that he dra#s them from :cripture, and that they #ere supported &y the %octors of the 3hurch4 :o that dependence upon earlier schismatic parties in the 3hurch, #hich he never mentions in his #ritings (as though he had never derived anything from them), is counterindicated, and attention is directed to the true sources in :cripture, to #hich he added the collections of canons of the 3hurch4 Wycliffe #ould have had nothing to gain &y professing inde&tedness to 8heretical8 parties or to opponents of the papacy4 5is reference to :cripture and orthodoA Fathers as authorities is #hat might have &een eApected4 :o far as his polemics accord #ith those of earlier antagonists of the papacy, it is fair to assume that he #as not ignorant of them and #as influenced &y them4 9he -i&le alone #as authoritative and, according to his o#n conviction and that of his disciples, #as fully sufficient for the government of this #orld (%e sufficientia legis 3hristi)4 =ut of it he dre# his comprehensive statements in support of his reformatory vie#s 2 after intense study and many spiritual conflicts4 5e tells that as a &eginner he #as desperate to comprehend the passages dealing #ith the activities of the divine Word, until &y the grace of 6od he #as a&le to gather the right sense of :cripture, #hich he then understood4 -ut that #as not a light task4 Without kno#ledge of the -i&le there can &e no peace in the life of the 3hurch or of society, and outside of it there is no real and a&iding good0 it is the one authority for the faith4 9hese teachings Wycliffe promulgated in his great #ork on the truth of :cripture, and in other greater and lesser #ritings4 For him the -i&le #as the fundamental source of 3hristianity #hich is &inding on all men4 Wycliffe #as called 8%octor evangelicus8 &y his $nglish and -ohemian follo#ers4 =f all the reformers #ho preceded +artin *uther, Wycliffe put most emphasis on :cripture: 8$ven though there #ere a hundred popes and though every mendicant monk #ere a cardinal, they #ould &e entitled to confidence only insofar as they accorded #ith the -i&le48 9herefore in this early period it #as Wycliffe #ho recogniDed and formulated one of the t#o great formal principles of the Reformation Mthe uniEue authority of the -i&le for the &elief and life of the 3hristian4 "t is not enough realiDed that, #ell &efore *uther, Wycliffe also recogniDed the other great Reformation doctrine, that of Iustification &y faith, though not in fully #orked out form as *uther achieved4 "n $hrist stilling the Storm he #rote: 8"f a man &elieve in 3hrist, and make a point of his &elief, then the promise that 6od hath made to come into the land of light shall &e given &y virtue of 3hrist, to all men that make this the chief matter48

[edit] Basal &ositions in &hiloso&hy

Wycliffe earned his great repute as a philosopher at an early date4 5enry Gnighton says that in philosophy he #as second to none, and in scholastic discipline incompara&le4 "f this pronouncement seems hardly Iustified, no# that Wycliffe,s #ritings are in print, it must &e &orne in mind that not all his philosophical #orks are eAtant4 "f Wycliffe #as in

philosophy the superior of his contemporaries and had no eEual in scholastic discipline, he &elongs #ith the series of great scholastic philosophers and theologians in #hich $ngland in the +iddle @ges #as so rich 2 #ith @leAander of 5ales, Roger -acon, %uns :cotus, William of =ckham (=ccam), and -rad#ardine4 9here #as a period in his life #hen he devoted himself eAclusively to scholastic philosophy: 8#hen " #as still a logician,8 he used later to say4 9he first 8heresy8 #hich 8he cast forth into the #orld8 rests as much upon philosophical as upon theological grounds4 "n 7lato, kno#ledge of #hom came to Wycliffe through :aint @ugustine, he sa# traces of a kno#ledge of the 9rinity, and he championed the doctrine of ideas as against @ristotle4 5e said that %emocritus, 7lato, @ugustine, and 6rosseteste far outranked @ristotle4 "n @ristotle he missed the provision for the immortality of the soul, and in his ethics the tendency to#ard the eternal4 5e #as a close follo#er of @ugustine, so much so that he #as called 8John of @ugustine8 &y his pupils4 "n some of his teachings, as in De annihilatione, the influence of 9homas @Euinas can &e detected4 :o far as his relations to the philosophers of the +iddle @ges are concerned, he held to realism as opposed to the nominalism advanced &y =ccam, although in Euestions that had to do #ith ecclesiastical politics he #as related to =ccam and indeed #ent &eyond him4 5is vie#s are &ased upon the conviction of the reality of the universal, and he employed realism in order to avoid dogmatic difficulties4 9he uni1divine eAistence in the 9rinity is the real universal of the three 7ersons, and in the $ucharist the ever1real presence of 3hrist Iustifies the deliverance that complete reality is compati&le #ith the spatial division of the eAistence4 9he center of Wycliffe,s philosophical system is formed &y the doctrine of the prior eAistence in the thought of 6od of all things and events4 9his involves the definiteness of things and especially their num&er, so that neither their infinity, infinite eAtension, nor infinite divisi&ility can &e assumed4 :pace consists of a num&er of points of space determined from eternity, and time of eAactly such a num&er of moments, and the num&er of these is kno#n only to the divine spirit4 6eometrical figures consist of arranged series of points, and enlargement or diminution of these figures rests upon the addition or su&traction of points4 -ecause the eAistence of these points of space as such, that is, as truly indivisi&le unities, has its &asis in the fact that the points are one #ith the &odies that fill them0 &ecause, therefore, all possi&le space is coincident #ith the physical #orld (as in Wycliffe,s system, in general, reality and possi&ility correspond), there can as little &e a vacuum as &ounding surfaces that are common to different &odies4 9he assumption of such surfaces impinges, according to Wycliffe, upon the contradictory principle as does the conception of a truly continuous transition of one condition into another4 Wycliffe,s doctrine of atoms connects itself, therefore, #ith the doctrine of the composition of time from real moments, &ut is distinguished &y the denial of interspaces as assumed in other systems4 From the identity of space and the physical #orld, and the circular motion of the heavens, Wycliffe deduces the spherical form of the universe4

[edit] ttitude to$ard s&eculation

Wycliffe,s fundamental principle of the preeAistence in thought of all reality involves the most serious o&stacle to freedom of the #ill0 the philosopher could assist himself only &y the formula that the free #ill of man #as something predetermined of 6od4 5e demanded strict dialectical training as the means of distinguishing the true from the false, and asserted that logic (or the syllogism) furthered the kno#ledge of catholic verities0 ignorance of logic #as the reason #hy men misunderstood :cripture, since men overlooked the connection 2 the distinction &et#een idea and appearance4 Wycliffe #as not merely conscious of the distinction &et#een theology and philosophy, &ut his sense of reality led him to pass &y scholastic Euestions4 5e left aside philosophical discussions #hich seemed to have no significance for the religious consciousness and those #hich pertained purely to scholasticism: 8#e concern ourselves #ith the verities that are, and leave aside the errors #hich arise from speculation on matters #hich are not48

[edit] %ee also

+he Bible in English =ld $nglish (pre11!))) +iddle $nglish (1!))11?!!) $arly +odern $nglish (1?!!11'!!) +odern 3hristian (1'!!1) +odern Je#ish (1'?31) +iscellaneous
9his &oA: vie# N talk N edit

Wyclif,s -i&le Wycliffe -i&le 9ranslators, one of the #orlds largest international organisations dedicated to translating the -i&le into every living language in the World0 named in honour of John Wycliffe4 Wycliffe 5all, =Aford, one of the 3hurch of $ngland,s designated $vangelical theological colleges, is also named in his honour4 Wycliffe 3ollege at the Hniversity of 9oronto Wycliffe 3ollege (6loucestershire) +ovie: John Wycliffe: 9he +orning :tar +iddle $nglish -i&le translations William 9yndale Jan 5us Wyclef Jean