Julius Caesar

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Gaius Julius Caesar

Consul/Dictator of the Roman Republic

Bust of Julius Caesar Reign October 4 BC ! "# $arch 44 BC %as dictator and&or consul'

Full name (aius Julius Caesar Born ") July "** BC or "*+ BC

Birthplace ,ubura, -ome Died Place of death Consort "# $arch 44 BC Curia of .ompey, -ome Cornelia Cinna minor /4!0/ BC .ompeia 0/!0) BC Calpurnia .isonis # !44 BC Julia Caesaris /#&/4!#4 BC Caesarion 41!)* BC Offspring 2ugustus 0) BC!23 "4 %grand4nephe5, posthumously adopted as Caesar6s son in 44 BC' Royal House Julio4Claudian Father other (aius Julius Caesar 2urelia Cotta

!hese articles co"er the #ncient Roman Comitium of the Republican era

$tructures%

Rostra, Curia Hostilia, Curia Julia, &apis 'iger

Politicians% #ssemblies%

Cicero, Gaius Gracchus, Julius Caesar Roman $enate, comitia curiata

Gaius Julius Caesar7"8 %pronounced [a.i.us juli.us kasar] in Classical 9atin: conventionally /a.;s duli.;s siz;r/ in <nglish', %") July "** BC7+8 ! "# $arch 44 BC7)8', 5as a -oman military and political leader= >e played a critical role in the transformation of the -oman -epublic into the -oman <mpire= 2s a politician, Caesar made use of popularist tactics= 3uring the late 0*s and into the #*s BC, he formed political alliances that led to the so4called ?First @riumvirate,? an eAtra4 legal arrangement 5ith $arcus 9icinius Crassus and (naeus .ompeius $agnus %?.ompey the (reat?' that 5as to dominate -oman politics for several years= @heir factional attempts to amass po5er for themselves 5ere opposed 5ithin the -oman ,enate by the optimates, among them $arcus .orcius Cato and $arcus Calpurnius Bibulus, 5ith the sometime support of $arcus @ullius Cicero= Caesar6s conBuest of (aul eAtended the -oman 5orld to the Corth ,ea, and in ## BC he also conducted the first -oman invasion of Britain= @hese achievements granted him unmatched military po5er and threatened to eclipse .ompey6s, 5hile the death of Crassus contributed to increasing political tensions bet5een the t5o triumviral survivors= .olitical realignments in -ome finally led to a stand4off bet5een Caesar and .ompey, the latter having taken up the cause of the ,enate= With the order that sent his legions across the -ubicon, Caesar began a civil 5ar in 4 BC from 5hich he emerged as the unrivaled leader of the -oman 5orld= 2fter assuming control of government, he began eAtensive reforms of -oman society and government= >e heavily centralised the bureaucracy of the -epublic and 5as eventually proclaimed ?dictator in perpetuity? %dictator perpetuo'= 2 group of senators, led by $arcus Junius Brutus, assassinated the dictator on the Ddes of $arch %"# $arch' 44 BC, hoping to restore the normal running of the -epublic= >o5ever, the result 5as another -oman civil 5ar, 5hich ultimately led to the establishment of a permanent autocracy by Caesar6s adopted heir, (aius Octavianus= Dn 4+ BC, t5o years after his assassination, the ,enate officially sanctified Caesar as one of the -oman deities= $uch of Caesar6s life is kno5n from his o5n Commentaries %Commentarii' on his military campaigns, and other contemporary sources such as the letters and speeches of his political rival Cicero, the historical 5ritings of ,allust, and the poetry of Catullus= $any more details of his life are recorded by later historians, such as 2ppian, ,uetonius, .lutarch, Cassius 3io and ,trabo=

Contents
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" <arly life + <arly career ) First consulship and triumvirate 4 $ilitary career # Civil 5ar 0 2ssassination 1 >ealth / 9iterary 5orks Came "* Family "" Chronology of his life "+ >onours and titles ") 3epictions "4 -eferences "# <Aternal links "0 ,uccession table

(arly life
Caesar 5as born into a patrician family, the gens Julia, 5hich claimed descent from Dulus, son of the legendary @roEan prince 2eneas, supposedly the son of the goddess Fenus=748 @he cognomen ?Caesar? originated, according to .liny the <lder, 5ith an ancestor 5ho 5as born by caesarean section %from the 9atin verb to cut, caedere, caes-'= 7#8 @he Historia Augusta suggests three alternative eAplanations: that the first Caesar had a thick head of hair %9atin caesaries': that he had bright grey eyes %9atin oculis caesiis': or that he killed an elephant %caesai in $oorish' in battle=708 Caesar issued coins featuring images of elephants, suggesting that he favoured this interpretation of his name=718 3espite their ancient pedigree, the Julii Caesares 5ere not especially politically influential, having produced only three consuls= Caesar6s father, also called (aius Julius Caesar, reached the rank of praetor, the second highest of the -epublic6s elected magistracies, and governed the province of 2sia, perhaps through the influence of his prominent brother4in4la5 (aius $arius=7/8 >is mother, 2urelia Cotta, came from an influential family 5hich had produced several consuls= $arcus 2ntonius (nipho, an orator and grammarian of (aulish origin, 5as employed as Caesar6s tutor=7 8 Caesar had t5o sisters, both called Julia= 9ittle else is recorded of Caesar6s childhood= ,uetonius and .lutarch6s biographies of him both begin abruptly in Caesar6s teens: the opening paragraphs of both appear to be lost=7"*8 Caesar6s formative years 5ere a time of turmoil= @he ,ocial War 5as fought from " to // BC bet5een -ome and her Dtalian allies over the issue of -oman citiGenship, 5hile

$ithridates of .ontus threatened -ome6s eastern provinces= 3omestically, -oman politics 5as divided bet5een politicians kno5n as optimates and populares, neither of 5hich had a common agenda and so cannot be considered a political party or even a faction= @he optimates 5ere those politicians 5ho pursued their agendas through traditional, constitutional routes in the ,enate: the populares those 5ho preferred to bypass traditional procedure and pursue their agendas by appealing directly to the electorate= Caesar6s uncle $arius 5as a popularis, $arius6 protHgH 9ucius Cornelius ,ulla 5as an optimas, and in Caesar6s youth their rivalry led to civil 5ar= Both $arius and ,ulla distinguished themselves in the ,ocial War, and both 5anted command of the 5ar against $ithridates, 5hich 5as initially given to ,ulla: but 5hen ,ulla left the city to take command of his army, a tribune passed a la5 transferring the appointment to $arius= ,ulla responded by marching on -ome, reclaiming his command and forcing $arius into eAile, but 5hen he left on campaign $arius returned at the head of a makeshift army= >e and his ally 9ucius Cornelius Cinna seiGed the city and declared ,ulla a public enemy, and $arius6s troops took violent revenge on ,ulla6s supporters= $arius died early in /0 BC, but his follo5ers remained in po5er=7""8 Dn /# BC Caesar6s father died suddenly 5hile putting on his shoes one morning, 5ithout any apparent cause,7"+8 and at siAteen, Caesar 5as the head of the family= @he follo5ing year he 5as nominated to be the ne5 Flamen Dialis, high priest of Jupiter, as $erula, the previous incumbent, had died in $arius6s purges=7")8 ,ince the holder of that position not only had to be a patrician but also be married to a patrician, he broke off his engagement to Cossutia, a plebeian girl of 5ealthy eBuestrian family he had been betrothed to since boyhood, and married Cinna6s daughter Cornelia=7"48 @hen, having brought $ithridates to terms, ,ulla returned to finish the civil 5ar against $arius6 follo5ers= 2fter a campaign throughout Dtaly he seiGed -ome at the Battle of the Colline (ate in Covember /+ BC and had himself appointed to the revived office of dictator: but 5hereas a dictator 5as traditionally appointed for siA months at a time, ,ulla6s appointment had no term limit= ,tatues of $arius 5ere destroyed and $arius6 body 5as eAhumed and thro5n in the @iber= Cinna 5as already dead, killed by his o5n soldiers in a mutiny=7"#8 ,ulla6s proscriptions sa5 hundreds of his political enemies killed or eAiled= Caesar, as the nephe5 of $arius and son4in4la5 of Cinna, 5as targeted= >e 5as stripped of his inheritance, his 5ife6s do5ry and his priesthood, but he refused to divorce Cornelia and 5as forced to go into hiding= @he threat against him 5as lifted by the intervention of his mother6s family, 5hich included supporters of ,ulla, and the Festal Firgins= ,ulla gave in reluctantly, and is said to have declared that he sa5 many a $arius in Caesar=7"*8

(arly career
-ather than returning to -ome, Caesar Eoined the army, serving under $arcus $inucius @hermus in 2sia and ,ervilius Dsauricus in Cilicia= >e served 5ith distinction, 5inning the Civic Cro5n for his part in the siege of $ytilene= On a mission to Bithynia to secure the assistance of Iing Cicomedes6s fleet, he spent so long at his court that rumours of an

affair 5ith the king arose, 5hich 5ould persist for the rest of his life=7"08 Dronically, the loss of his priesthood had allo5ed him to pursue a military career: the Flamen Dialis 5as not permitted to touch a horse, sleep three nights outside his o5n bed or one night outside -ome, or look upon an army=7"18 Dn /* BC, after t5o years in office, ,ulla resigned his dictatorship, re4established consular government and, after serving as consul, retired to private life=7"/8 Caesar later ridiculed ,ulla6s relinBuishing of the dictatorshipJ?,ulla did not kno5 his political 2BC6s?=7" 8 >e died t5o years later in 1/ BC and 5as accorded a state funeral=7+*8 >earing of ,ulla6s death, Caesar felt safe enough to return to -ome= 9acking means since his inheritance 5as confiscated, he acBuired a modest house in the ,ubura, a lo5er class neighbourhood of -ome=7+"8 >is return coincided 5ith an attempted anti4,ullan coup by $arcus 2emilius 9epidus but Caesar, lacking confidence in 9epidus6s leadership, did not participate=7++8 Dnstead he turned to legal advocacy= >e became kno5n for his eAceptional oratory, accompanied by impassioned gestures and a high4pitched voice, and ruthless prosecution of former governors notorious for eAtortion and corruption= <ven Cicero praised him: ?Come no5, 5hat orator 5ould you rank above him===K?7+)8 2iming at rhetorical perfection, Caesar travelled to -hodes in 1# BC to study under 2pollonius $olon, 5ho had previously taught Cicero=7+48 On the 5ay across the 2egean ,ea,7+#8 Caesar 5as kidnapped by Cilician %not to be confused 5ith ,icilian' pirates and held prisoner in the 3odecanese islet of .harmacusa= 7+08 >e maintained an attitude of superiority throughout his captivity= When the pirates thought to demand a ransom of t5enty talents of silver, he insisted they ask for fifty=7+187+/8 2fter the ransom 5as paid, Caesar raised a fleet, pursued and captured the pirates, and imprisoned them in .ergamon= $arcus Junctus, the governor of 2sia, refused to eAecute them as Caesar demanded, preferring to sell them as slaves,7+ 8 but Caesar returned to the coast and had them crucified on his o5n authority, as he had promised to 5hen in captivity7)*8Ja promise the pirates had taken as a Eoke= >e then proceeded to -hodes, but 5as soon called back into military action in 2sia, raising a band of auAiliaries to repel an incursion from .ontus= On his return to -ome he 5as elected military tribune, a first step on the cursus honorum of -oman politics= @he 5ar against ,partacus took place around this time %1)!1" BC', but it is not recorded 5hat role, if any, Caesar played in it= >e 5as elected Buaestor for 0 BC,7)"8 and during that year he delivered the funeral oration for his aunt Julia, 5ido5 of $arius, and included images of $arius, unseen since the days of ,ulla, in the funeral procession= >is o5n 5ife Cornelia also died that year=7)+8 2fter her funeral, in the spring or early summer of 0 BC, Caesar 5ent to serve his Buaestorship in >ispania under 2ntistius Fetus=7))8 While there he is said to have encountered a statue of 2leAander the (reat, and realised 5ith dissatisfaction he 5as no5 at an age 5hen 2leAander had the 5orld at his feet, 5hile he had achieved comparatively little= >e reBuested, and 5as granted, an early discharge from his duties, and returned to -oman politics= On his return in 01 BC,7)48 he married .ompeia, a granddaughter of ,ulla=7)#8 >e 5as elected aedile and restored the trophies of $arius6s victories: a controversial move given the ,ullan regime 5as still in place= >e also brought prosecutions against men 5ho had benefited from

,ulla6s proscriptions, and spent a great deal of borro5ed money on public 5orks and games, outshining his colleague $arcus Calpurnius Bibulus= >e 5as also suspected of involvement in t5o abortive coup attempts=7)08

Coming to prominence

>is bust in the Iunsthistorisches $useum, Fienna= 0) BC 5as an eventful year for Caesar= >e persuaded a tribune, @itus 9abienus, to prosecute the optimate senator (aius -abirius for the political murder, )1 years previously, of the tribune 9ucius 2ppuleius ,aturninus, and had himself appointed as one of the t5o Eudges to try the case= -abirius 5as defended by both Cicero and Luintus >ortensius, but 5as convicted of perduellio %treason'= While he 5as eAercising his right of appeal to the people, the praetor Luintus Caecilius $etellus Celer adEourned the assembly by taking do5n the military flag from the Janiculum hill= 9abienus could have resumed the prosecution at a later session, but did not do so: Caesar6s point had been made, and the matter 5as allo5ed to drop=7)18 9abienus 5ould remain an important ally of Caesar over the neAt decade= @he same year, Caesar ran for election to the post of .ontifeA $aAimus, chief priest of the -oman state religion, after the death of Luintus Caecilius $etellus .ius, 5ho had been appointed to the post by ,ulla= >e ran against t5o po5erful optimates, the former consuls Luintus 9utatius Catulus and .ublius ,ervilius Fatia Dsauricus= @here 5ere accusations of bribery by all sides= Caesar is said to have told his mother on the morning of the election that he 5ould return as .ontifeA $aAimus or not at all, eApecting to be forced into eAile by the enormous debts he had run up to fund his campaign= Dn any event he 5on comfortably, despite his opponents6 greater eAperience and standing, possibly because the t5o older men split their votes=7)/8 @he post came 5ith an official residence on the Fia ,acra=7+"8 When Cicero, 5ho 5as consul that year, eAposed Catiline6s conspiracy to seiGe control of the republic, Catulus and others accused Caesar of involvement in the plot=7) 8 Caesar, 5ho had been elected praetor for the follo5ing year, took part in the debate in the ,enate on ho5 to deal 5ith the conspirators= 3uring the debate, Caesar 5as passed a note= $arcus .orcius Cato, 5ho 5ould become his most implacable political opponent, accused him of corresponding 5ith the conspirators, and demanded that the message be read aloud= Caesar passed him the note, 5hich, embarrassingly, turned out to be a love letter from Cato6s half4sister ,ervilia= Caesar argued persuasively against the death penalty for the conspirators, proposing life imprisonment instead, but a speech by Cato proved decisive, and the conspirators 5ere eAecuted=74*8 @he follo5ing year a commission 5as set up to investigate the conspiracy, and Caesar 5as again accused of complicity= On Cicero6s evidence that he had reported 5hat he kne5 of the plot voluntarily, ho5ever, he 5as cleared, and one of his accusers, and also one of the commissioners, 5ere sent to prison=74"8 While praetor in 0+ BC, Caesar supported $etellus Celer, no5 tribune, in proposing controversial legislation, and the pair 5ere so obstinate they 5ere suspended from office by the ,enate= Caesar attempted to continue to perform his duties, only giving 5ay 5hen violence 5as threatened= @he ,enate 5as persuaded to reinstate him after he Buelled public demonstrations in his favour=74+8

@hat year the festival of the Bona 3ea %?good goddess?' 5as held at Caesar6s house= Co men 5ere permitted to attend, but a young patrician named .ublius Clodius .ulcher managed to gain admittance disguised as a 5oman, apparently for the purpose of seducing Caesar6s 5ife .ompeia= >e 5as caught and prosecuted for sacrilege= Caesar gave no evidence against Clodius at his trial, careful not to offend one of the most po5erful patrician families of -ome, and Clodius 5as acBuitted after rampant bribery and intimidation= Cevertheless, Caesar divorced .ompeia, saying that ?my 5ife ought not even to be under suspicion=?74)8 2fter his praetorship, Caesar 5as appointed to govern >ispania Mlterior %Outer Dberia', but he 5as still in considerable debt and needed to satisfy his creditors before he could leave= >e turned to $arcus 9icinius Crassus, one of -ome6s richest men= Dn return for political support in his opposition to the interests of .ompey, Crassus paid some of Caesar6s debts and acted as guarantor for others= <ven so, to avoid becoming a private citiGen and open to prosecution for his debts, Caesar left for his province before his praetorship had ended= Dn >ispania he conBuered the Callaici and 9usitani, being hailed as imperator by his troops, reformed the la5 regarding debts, and completed his governorship in high esteem=7448 Being hailed as imperator entitled Caesar to a triumph= >o5ever, he also 5anted to stand for consul, the most senior magistracy in the republic= Df he 5ere to celebrate a triumph, he 5ould have to remain a soldier and stay outside the city until the ceremony, but to stand for election he 5ould need to lay do5n his command and enter -ome as a private citiGen= >e could not do both in the time available= >e asked the senate for permission to stand in absentia, but Cato blocked the proposal= Faced 5ith the choice bet5een a triumph and the consulship, Caesar chose the consulship=74#8

First consulship and trium"irate

$ain article: First @riumvirate @hree candidates stood for the consulship: Caesar, $arcus Calpurnius Bibulus, 5ho had been aedile 5ith Caesar several years earlier, and 9ucius 9ucceius= @he election 5as dirty= Caesar canvassed Cicero for support, and made an alliance 5ith the 5ealthy 9ucceius, but the establishment thre5 its financial 5eight behind the conservative Bibulus, and even Cato, 5ith his reputation for incorruptibility, is said to have resorted to bribery in his favour= Caesar and Bibulus 5ere elected as consuls for # BC=7408 Caesar 5as already in Crassus6s political debt, but he also made overtures to .ompey, 5ho 5as unsuccessfully fighting the ,enate for ratification of his eastern settlements and farmland for his veterans= .ompey and Crassus had been at odds since they 5ere consuls together in 1* BC, and Caesar kne5 if he allied himself 5ith one he 5ould lose the support of the other, so he endeavoured to reconcile them= Bet5een the three of them, they had enough money and political influence to control public business= @his informal alliance, kno5n as the First @riumvirate %rule of three men', 5as cemented by the marriage of .ompey to Caesar6s daughter Julia=7418 Caesar also married again, this time

Calpurnia, daughter of 9ucius Calpurnius .iso Caesoninus, 5ho 5as elected to the consulship for the follo5ing year=74/8 Caesar proposed a la5 for the redistribution of public lands to the poor, a proposal supported by .ompey, by force of arms if need be, and by Crassus, making the triumvirate public= .ompey filled the city 5ith soldiers, and the triumvirate6s opponents 5ere intimidated= Bibulus attempted to declare the omens unfavourable and thus void the ne5 la5, but 5as driven from the forum by Caesar6s armed supporters= >is lictors had their fasces broken, t5o tribunes accompanying him 5ere 5ounded, and Bibulus himself had a bucket of eAcrement thro5n over him= Dn fear of his life, he retired to his house for the rest of the year, issuing occasional proclamations of bad omens= @hese attempts to obstruct Caesar6s legislation proved ineffective= -oman satirists ever after referred to the year as ?the consulship of Julius and Caesar?=74 8 When Caesar and Bibulus 5ere first elected, the aristocracy tried to limit Caesar6s future po5er by allotting the 5oods and pastures of Dtaly, rather than governorship of a province, as their proconsular duties after their year of office 5as over=7#*8 With the help of .iso and .ompey, Caesar later had this overturned, and 5as instead appointed to govern Cisalpine (aul %northern Dtaly' and Dllyricum %the 5estern Balkans', 5ith @ransalpine (aul %southern France' later added, giving him command of four legions= @he term of his proconsulship, and thus his immunity from prosecution, 5as set at five years, rather than the usual one=7#"8 When his consulship ended, Caesar narro5ly avoided prosecution for the irregularities of his year in office, and Buickly left for his province=7#+8

Con)uest of Gaul
$ain article: (allic Wars Caesar 5as still deeply in debt, and there 5as money to be made as a provincial governor, 5hether by eAtortion7#)8 or by military adventurism= Caesar had four legions under his command, t5o of his provinces, Dllyricum and (allia Carbonensis, bordered on unconBuered territory, and independent (aul 5as kno5n to be unstable= -ome6s allies the 2edui had been defeated by their (allic rivals, 5ith the help of a contingent of (ermanic ,uebi under 2riovistus, 5ho had settled in conBuered 2eduan land, and the >elvetii 5ere mobilising for a mass migration, 5hich the -omans feared had 5arlike intent= Caesar raised t5o ne5 legions and defeated first the >elvetii, then 2riovistus, and left his army in 5inter Buarters in the territory of the ,eBuani, signaling that his interest in the lands outside (allia Carbonensis 5ould not be temporary=7#48

-oman silver 3enarius 5ith the head of captive (aul 4/ BC, follo5ing the campaigns of Caesar >e began his second year 5ith double the military strength he had begun 5ith, having raised another t5o legions in Cisalpine (aul during the 5inter= @he legality of this 5as dubious, as the Cisalpine (auls 5ere not -oman citiGens= Dn response to Caesar6s activities the previous year, the Belgic tribes of north4eastern (aul had begun to arm themselves= Caesar treated this as an aggressive move, and, after an inconclusive engagement against a united Belgic army, conBuered the tribes piecemeal= $ean5hile, one legion, commanded by Crassus6 son .ublius, began the conBuest of the tribes of the 2rmorican peninsula=7##8 3uring the spring of #0 BC the @riumvirate held a conference at 9uca %modern 9ucca' in Cisalpine (aul= -ome 5as in turmoil, and Clodius6 populist campaigns had been undermining relations bet5een Crassus and .ompey= @he meeting rene5ed the @riumvirate and eAtended Caesar6s proconsulship for another five years= Crassus and .ompey 5ould be consuls again, 5ith similarly long4term proconsulships to follo5: ,yria for Crassus, the >ispanian provinces for .ompey=7#08 @he conBuest of 2rmorica 5as completed 5hen Caesar defeated the Feneti in a naval battle, 5hile young Crassus conBuered the 2Buitani of the south45est= By the end of campaigning in #0 BC only the $orini and $enapii of the coastal 9o5 Countries still held out=7#18 Dn ## BC Caesar repelled an incursion into (aul by the (ermanic Msipetes and @encteri, and follo5ed it up by building a bridge across the -hine and making a sho5 of force in (ermanic territory, before returning and dismantling the bridge= 9ate that summer, having subdued the $orini and $enapii, he crossed to Britain, claiming that the Britons had aided the Feneti against him the previous year= >is intelligence 5as poor, and although he gained a beachhead on the Ient coast he 5as unable to advance further, and returned to (aul for the 5inter=7#/8 >e returned the follo5ing year, better prepared and 5ith a larger force, and achieved more= >e advanced inland, establishing $andubracius of the @rinovantes as a friendly king and bringing his rival, Cassivellaunus, to terms= But poor harvests led to 5idespread revolt in (aul, led by 2mbioriA of the <burones, forcing Caesar to campaign through the 5inter and into the follo5ing year= With the defeat of 2mbioriA, Caesar believed (aul 5as no5 pacified=7# 8

While Caesar 5as in Britain his daughter Julia, .ompey6s 5ife, had died in childbirth= Caesar tried to resecure .ompey6s support by offering him his great4niece Octavia in marriage, alienating Octavia6s husband (aius $arcellus, but .ompey declined= Dn #) BC Crassus 5as killed leading a failed invasion of .arthia= -ome 5as on the edge of violence= .ompey 5as appointed sole consul as an emergency measure, and married Cornelia, daughter of Caesar6s political opponent Luintus $etellus ,cipio, 5hom he invited to become his consular colleague once order 5as restored= @he @riumvirate 5as dead=70*8

Vercingetori surrenders to Caesar , by 9ionel -oyer Dn #+ BC another, larger revolt erupted in (aul, led by FercingetoriA of the 2rverni= FercingetoriA managed to unite the (allic tribes and proved an astute commander, defeating Caesar in several engagements including the Battle of (ergovia, but Caesar6s elaborate siege45orks at the Battle of 2lesia finally forced his surrender=70"8 3espite scattered outbreaks of 5arfare the follo5ing year,70+8 (aul 5as effectively conBuered= @itus 9abienus 5as Caesar6s most senior legate during his (allic campaigns, having the status of propraetor=70)8 Other prominent men 5ho served under him included his relative 9ucius Julius Caesar,7048 Crassus6 sons $arcus70#8 and .ublius,7008 Cicero6s brother Luintus, 7018 3ecimus Brutus,70/8 and $ark 2ntony=70 8 .lutarch claimed that the army had fought against three million men in the course of the (allic Wars, of 5hom " million died, and another million 5ere enslaved= )** tribes 5ere subEugated and /** cities 5ere destroyed=71*8 2lmost the entire population of the city of 2varicum %Bourges' %4*,*** in all' 5as slaughtered=71"8 Julius Caesar reports that )0/,*** of the >elvetii left home, of 5hom +,*** could bear arms, and only ""*,*** returned after the campaign=71+8 >o5ever, in vie5 of the difficulty of finding accurate counts in the first place, Caesar6s propagandistic purposes, and the common gross eAaggeration of numbers in ancient teAts, the totals of enemy combatants in particular are likely to be far too high= Furger4(unti considers an army of more than 0*,*** fighting >elvetii eAtremely unlikely in the vie5 of the tactics described, and assumes the actual numbers to have been around 4*,*** 5arriors out of a total of "0*,*** emigrants=71)8 3elbrNck suggests an even lo5er number of "**,*** people, out of 5hich only "0,*** 5ere

fighters, 5hich 5ould make the Celtic force about half the siGe of the -oman body of ca= )*,*** men=7148

ilitary career
$ain article: $ilitary career of Julius Caesar >istorians place the generalship of Caesar as one of the greatest military strategists and tacticians 5ho ever lived, along 5ith 2leAander the (reat, ,un @Gu, >annibal, (enghis Ihan, and Capoleon Bonaparte= Caesar suffered occasional tactical defeats, such as Battle of (ergovia during the (allic War and the Battle of 3yrrhachium during the Civil War= >o5ever, his tactical brilliance 5as highlighted by such feats as his circumvallation of 2lesia during the (allic War, the rout of .ompey6s numerically superior forces at .harsalus during the Civil War, and the complete destruction of .harnaces6 army at Battle of Oela= Caesar6s successful campaigning in any terrain and under all 5eather conditions o5es much to the strict but fair discipline of his legionaries, 5hose admiration and devotion to him 5ere proverbial due to his promotion of those of skill over those of nobility= Caesar6s infantry and cavalry 5ere first rate, and he made heavy use of formidable -oman artillery and his army6s superlative engineering abilities= @here 5as also the legendary speed 5ith 5hich he manoeuvred his troops: Caesar6s army sometimes marched as many as 4* miles %04 km' a day= >is Commentaries on the !allic "ars describe ho5, during the siege of one (allic city built on a very steep and high plateau, his engineers tunnelled through solid rock, found the source of the spring from 5hich the to5n 5as dra5ing its 5ater supply, and diverted it to the use of the army= @he to5n, cut off from their 5ater supply, capitulated at once= Caesar also used a cipher system to communicate 5ith his generals 5hich has no5 come to be kno5n as the Caesar cipher=

Ci"il *ar
$ain article: Caesar6s civil 5ar

2n engraving depicting (aius Julius Caesar=

Dn #* BC, the ,enate, led by .ompey, ordered Caesar to disband his army and return to -ome because his term as .roconsul had finished=71#8 $oreover, the ,enate forbade Caesar to stand for a second consulship in absentia=71#8 Caesar thought he 5ould be prosecuted and politically marginalised if he entered -ome 5ithout the immunity enEoyed by a Consul or 5ithout the po5er of his army= .ompey accused Caesar of insubordination and treason= On January "*, 4 BC Caesar crossed the -ubicon river %the frontier boundary of Dtaly' 5ith only one legion and ignited civil 5ar= Mpon crossing the -ubicon, .lutarch reports that Caesar Buoted the 2thenian play5right $enander in (reek, saying #$%%&'() *+,-. %let the die be thro5n'=7108 ,uetonius gives the 9atin approAimation alea iacta est %the die is thro5n'=7118 @he Optimates, including $etellus ,cipio and Cato the Pounger, fled to the south, having little confidence in the ne5ly raised troops especially since so many cities in northern Dtaly had voluntarily surrendered= 2n attempted stand by a consulate legion in ,amarium resulted in the consul being handed over by the defenders and the legion surrendering 5ithout significant fighting= 3espite greatly outnumbering Caesar, 5ho only had his @hirteenth 9egion 5ith him, .ompey had no intention of fighting= Caesar pursued .ompey to Brindisium, hoping to capture .ompey before the trapped ,enate and their legions could escape=71/8 .ompey managed to elude him, sailing out of the harbour before Caesar could break the barricades= 9acking a naval force since .ompey had already scoured the coasts of all ships for evacuation of his forces, Caesar decided to head for >ispania saying ?D set forth to fight an army 5ithout a leader, so as later to fight a leader 5ithout an army=? 9eaving $arcus 2emilius 9epidus as prefect of -ome, and the rest of Dtaly under $ark 2ntony as tribune, Caesar made an astonishing +14day route4march to >ispania, reEoining t5o of his (allic legions, 5here he defeated .ompey6s lieutenants= >e then returned east, to challenge .ompey in (reece 5here on July "*, 4/ BC at 3yrrhachium Caesar barely avoided a catastrophic defeat 5hen the line of fortification 5as broken= >e decisively defeated .ompey, despite .ompey6s numerical advantage %nearly t5ice the number of infantry and considerably more cavalry', at .harsalus in an eAceedingly short engagement in 4/ BC=71 8 Dn -ome, Caesar 5as appointed dictator,7/*8 5ith $ark 2ntony as his $aster of the >orse: Caesar presided over his o5n election to a second consulate %5ith .ublius ,ervilius Fatia as his colleague' and then, after eleven days, resigned this dictatorate=7/*87/"8

Cleopatra /efore Caesar by the artist Jean49Hon (HrQme, "/00= >e pursued .ompey to 2leAandria, 5here .ompey 5as murdered by a former -oman officer serving in the court of Iing .tolemy RDDD=7/+8 Caesar then became involved 5ith the 2leAandrine civil 5ar bet5een .tolemy and his sister, 5ife, and co4regent Bueen, the .haraoh Cleopatra FDD= .erhaps as a result of .tolemy6s role in .ompey6s murder, Caesar sided 5ith Cleopatra: he is reported to have 5ept at the sight of .ompey6s head,7/)8 5hich 5as offered to him by .tolemy6s chamberlain .othinus as a gift= Dn any event, Caesar defeated the .tolemaic forces in 41 BC in the Battle of the Cile and installed Cleopatra as ruler= Caesar and Cleopatra celebrated their victory of the 2leAandrine civil 5ar 5ith a triumphant procession on the Cile in the spring of 41 B=C= @he royal barge 5as accompanied by 4** additional ships, introducing Caesar to the luAurious lifestyle of the <gyptian pharaohs= Caesar and Cleopatra never married, as -oman 9a5 only recognised bet5een t5o -oman citiGens= Caesar continued his relationship 5ith Cleopatra throughout his last marriage, 5hich lasted "4 years ! in -oman eyes, this did not constitute adultery ! and possibly fathered a son called Caesarion= Cleopatra visited -ome on more than one occasion, residing in Caesar6s villa Eust outside -ome across the @iber= 9ate in 4/ BC, Caesar 5as again appointed 3ictator, 5ith a term of one year=7/"8 2fter spending the first months of 41 BC in <gypt, Caesar 5ent to the $iddle <ast, 5here he annihilated Iing .harnaces DD of .ontus in the Battle of Oela: his victory 5as so s5ift and complete that he mocked .ompey6s previous victories over such poor enemies=7/48 @hence, he proceeded to 2frica to deal 5ith the remnants of .ompey6s senatorial supporters= >e Buickly gained a significant victory at @hapsus in 40 BC over the forces of $etellus ,cipio %5ho died in the battle' and Cato the Pounger %5ho committed suicide'=7/#8 2fter this victory, he 5as appointed 3ictator for ten years=7/08 Cevertheless, .ompey6s sons (naeus .ompeius and ,eAtus .ompeius, together 5ith @itus 9abienus, Caesar6s former propraetorian legate %legatus propraetore' and second in command in the (allic War, escaped to >ispania= Caesar gave chase and defeated the last remnants of opposition in the Battle of $unda in $arch 4# BC=7/18 3uring this time,

Caesar 5as elected to his third and fourth terms as consul in 40 BC %5ith $arcus 2emilius 9epidus' and 4# BC %5ithout colleague'=

#ftermath of the ci"il *ar

While he 5as still campaigning in >ispania, the ,enate began besto5ing honours on Caesar in absentia= Caesar had not proscribed his enemies, instead pardoning almost all, and there 5as no serious public opposition to him= (reat games and celebrations 5ere held on 2pril +" to honour CaesarSs victory at $unda= .lutarch 5rites that many -omans found the triumph held follo5ing Caesar6s victory to be in poor taste, as those defeated in the civil 5ar had not been foreigners, but instead fello5 -omans=7//8

Caesar 5as the first to print his o5n bust on a -oman minted coin= On Caesar6s return to Dtaly in ,eptember 4# BC, he filed his 5ill, naming his grandnephe5 (aius Octavius %Octavian' as the heir to everything, including his name= Caesar also 5rote that if Octavian died before Caesar did, $arcus Junius Brutus 5ould be the neAt heir in succession= Caesar tightly regulated the purchase of state4subsidised grain and reduced the number of recipients to a fiAed number, all of 5hom 5ere entered into a special register=7/ 8 From 41 to 44 he made plans for the distribution of land to about "#,*** of his veterans=7 *8 Dn 0) BC Caesar had been elected .ontifeA $aAimus, and one of his roles as such 5as settling the calendar= 2 complete overhaul of the old -oman calendar proved to be one of his most long lasting and influential reforms= Dn 40 BC, Caesar established a )0#4day year 5ith a leap year every fourth year=7 "8 %@his Julian calendar 5as subseBuently modified by .ope (regory RDDD in "#/+ into the modern (regorian calendar=' 2s a result of this reform, a certain -oman year %mostly eBuivalent to 40 BC in the modern calendar' 5as made 44# days long, to bring the calendar into line 5ith the seasons=7 "8 @he month of July is named after Julius in his honour=7 +8 @he Forum of Caesar, 5ith its @emple of Fenus (enetriA, 5as built among many other public 5orks=

#ssassination
,ee also: 2ssassination of Julius Caesar

On the Ddes of $arch %$arch "#: see -oman calendar' of 44 BC, Caesar 5as due to appear at a session of the ,enate= $ark 2ntony, having vaguely learned of the plot the night before from a terrified 0iberator named ,ervilius Casca, and fearing the 5orst, 5ent to head Caesar off at the steps of the forum= >o5ever, the group of senators intercepted Caesar Eust as he 5as passing the @heatre of .ompey, located in the Campus $artius, and directed him to a room adEoining the east portico=7 )8

@he senators encircle Caesar= 2ccording to .lutarch, as Caesar arrived at the ,enate @illius Cimber presented him 5ith a petition to recall his eAiled brother=7 48 @he other conspirators cro5ded round to offer support= Both .lutarch and ,uetonius say that Caesar 5aved him a5ay, but Cimber grabbed his shoulders and pulled do5n Caesar6s tunic= Caesar then cried to Cimber, ?Why, this is violenceT? %?1sta 2uidem 3is est4?'=7 #8 2t the same time, Casca produced his dagger and made a glancing thrust at the dictator6s neck= Caesar turned around Buickly and caught Casca by the arm= 2ccording to .lutarch, he said in 9atin, ?Casca, you villain, 5hat are you doingK?7 08 Casca, frightened, shouted ?>elp, brotherT? in (reek %?UVWXY, Z[\]V^T?, ?adelphe, boethei4?'= Within moments, the entire group, including Brutus, 5as striking out at the dictator= Caesar attempted to get a5ay, but, blinded by blood, he tripped and fell: the men continued stabbing him as he lay defenceless on the lo5er steps of the portico= 2ccording to <utropius, around siAty or more men participated in the assassination= >e 5as stabbed +) times=7 18 2ccording to ,uetonius, a physician later established that only one 5ound, the second one to his chest, had been lethal=7 /8 @he dictator6s last 5ords are not kno5n 5ith certainty, and are a contested subEect among scholars and historians alike= ,uetonius reports that others have said Caesar6s last 5ords 5ere the (reek phrase ?_` ab, cY_d[d:?7 8 %transliterated as ?5ai su, te6non7?: ?Pou too, childK? in <nglish'= >o5ever, ,uetonius himself says Caesar said nothing=7 #8 .lutarch also reports that Caesar said nothing, pulling his toga over his head 5hen he sa5 Brutus among the conspirators=7"**8 @he version best kno5n in the <nglish4speaking 5orld is the 9atin phrase ?8t tu, /rute7? %?2nd you, BrutusK?, commonly rendered as ?Pou too, Brutus?':7"*"87"*+8 this derives from ,hakespeare6s Julius Caesar, 5here it actually forms the first half of a macaronic line: ?8t tu, /rute7 @hen fall, Caesar=? Dt has no basis in historical fact and ,hakespeare6s use of 9atin here is not from any assumption that Caesar 5ould have been using the language, but because the phrase 5as already popular at the time the play 5as 5ritten=7"*)8 2ccording to .lutarch, after the assassination, Brutus stepped for5ard as if to say something to his fello5 senators: they, ho5ever, fled the building=7"*48 Brutus and his companions then marched to the Capitol 5hile crying out to their beloved city: ?.eople of -ome, 5e are once again freeT?= @hey 5ere met 5ith silence, as the citiGens of -ome had locked themselves inside their houses as soon as the rumour of 5hat had taken place had begun to spread=

2 5aA statue of Caesar 5as erected in the forum displaying the +) stab 5ounds= 2 cro5d 5ho had amassed there started a fire, 5hich badly damaged the forum and neighbouring buildings= Dn the ensuing chaos $ark 2ntony, Octavian %later 2ugustus Caesar', and others fought a series of five civil 5ars, 5hich 5ould end in the formation of the -oman <mpire=

#ftermath of the assassination

Deification of Julius Caesar as represented in a "0th4century engraving= @he result unforeseen by the assassins 5as that Caesar6s death precipitated the end of the -oman -epublic=7"*#8 @he -oman middle and lo5er classes, 5ith 5hom Caesar 5as immensely popular and had been since before (aul, became enraged that a small group of high4bro5ed aristocrats had killed their champion= 2ntony, 5ho had been drifting apart from Caesar, capitalised on the grief of the -oman mob and threatened to unleash them on the Optimates, perhaps 5ith the intent of taking control of -ome himself= But, to his surprise and chagrin, Caesar had named his grandnephe5 (aius Octavian his sole heir, beBueathing him the immensely potent Caesar name as 5ell as making him one of the 5ealthiest citiGens in the -epublic=7"*08 (aius Octavian became, for all intents and purposes, the son of the great Caesar, and conseBuently also inherited the loyalty of much of the -oman populace= When Caesar6s funeral 5as held several days later in the -oman Forum, 2ntony did not give the speech that ,hakespeare penned for him more than "0** years later %?Friends, -omans, countrymen, lend me your ears===?', but he did give a dramatic eulogy that appealed to the common people, a reflection of public opinion follo5ing Caesar6s murder= Further, it 5as announced to the public during the funeral oration that Caesar in his 5ill had left his private gardens on the @iber to the -oman public as 5ell as )** sesterces to every enrolled -oman citiGen= %While )** sesterces 5as not a fortune, such 5as the eBuivalent of three month6s 5ages for the average -oman 5orker, a very nice gift=' @hese beBuests, combined 5ith 2ntony6s funeral oration, only served to increase Caesar6s posthumous stature among the populace, increasing the grief at his death as 5ell as the rage against his assassins= @he cro5d at the funeral boiled over, thro5ing dry branches, furniture and even clothing on to Caesar6s funeral pyre, causing the flames to spin out of control, seriously damaging the Forum= @he mob then attacked the houses of Brutus and Cassius, 5here they 5ere repelled only 5ith considerable difficulty, ultimately providing the spark for the 9iberators6 civil 5ar, fulfilling at least in part 2ntony6s threat against the aristocrats= 7"*18 >o5ever, 2ntony did not foresee the ultimate outcome of the neAt series of civil 5ars, particularly 5ith regard to Caesar6s adopted heir= Octavian, aged only " at the time of Caesar6s death, proved to have

considerable political skills, and 5hile 2ntony dealt 5ith 3ecimus Brutus in the first round of the ne5 civil 5ars, Octavian consolidated his tenuous position= Dn order to combat Brutus and Cassius, 5ho 5ere massing an enormous army in (reece, 2ntony needed soldiers, the cash from Caesar6s 5ar chests, and the legitimacy that Caesar6s name 5ould provide for any action he took against them= With the passage of the le 9itia on Covember +1, 4) BC,7"*/8 the ,econd @riumvirate 5as officially formed, comprised of 2ntony, Octavian, and Caesar6s loyal cavalry commander 9epidus=7"* 8 Dt formally deified Caesar as 3ivus Dulius in 4+ BC, and Caesar Octavian henceforth became Di3i filius %?,on of a god?'=7""*8 ,eeing that Caesar6s clemency had resulted in his murder, the ,econd @riumvirate brought back the horror of proscription, abandoned since ,ulla=7"""8 Dt engaged in the legally4sanctioned murder of a large number of its opponents in order to secure funding for its forty4five legions in the second civil 5ar against Brutus and Cassius=7""+8 2ntony and Octavius defeated them at .hilippi=7"")8 2fter5ard, $ark 2ntony married Caesar6s lover, Cleopatra, intending to use the fabulously 5ealthy <gypt as a base to dominate -ome= 2 third civil 5ar broke out bet5een Octavian on one hand and 2ntony and Cleopatra on the other= @his final civil 5ar, culminating in the latter6s defeat at 2ctium, resulted in the permanent ascendancy of Octavian, 5ho became the first -oman emperor, under the name Caesar 2ugustus, a name that raised him to status of a deity=7""48 Julius Caesar had been preparing to invade .arthia, the Caucasus and ,cythia, and then s5ing back onto (ermania through <astern <urope= @hese plans 5ere th5arted by his assassination=7""#8 >is successors did attempt the conBuests of .arthia and (ermania, but 5ithout lasting results=

Health
Based on remarks by .lutarch,7""08 Caesar is sometimes thought to have suffered from epilepsy= $odern scholarship is ?sharply divided? on the subEect, and it is more certain that he 5as plagued by malaria, particularly during the ,ullan proscriptions of the /*s=7""18 Caesar had four documented episodes of 5hat may have been compleA partial seiGures= >e may additionally have had absence seiGures in his youth= @he earliest accounts of these seiGures 5ere made by the biographer ,uetonius 5ho 5as born after Caesar died= @he claim of epilepsy is countered among some medical historians by a claim of hypoglycemia, 5hich can cause epileptoid seiGures=7""/87"" 87"+*8

&iterary *or+s
Caesar 5as considered during his lifetime to be one of the best orators and authors of prose in -omeJeven Cicero spoke highly of Caesar6s rhetoric and style=7"+"8 2mong his most famous 5orks 5ere his funeral oration for his paternal aunt Julia and his Anticato, a

document 5ritten to blacken Cato6s reputation and respond to Cicero6s Cato memorial= Mnfortunately, the maEority of his 5orks and speeches have been lost=

emoirs

Commentarii de /ello !allico, an account 5ritten by Julius Caesar about his nine years of 5ar in (aul @he Commentarii de /ello !allico %Commentaries on the !allic "ar', campaigns in (allia and Britannia during his term as proconsul: and @he Commentarii de /ello Ci3ili %Commentaries on the Ci3il "ar', events of the Civil War until immediately after .ompey6s death in <gypt= Other 5orks historically attributed to Caesar, but 5hose authorship is doubted, are:

De /ello Ale andrino %:n the Ale andrine "ar', campaign in 2leAandria: De /ello Africo %:n the African "ar', campaigns in Corth 2frica: and De /ello Hispaniensi %:n the Hispanic "ar', campaigns in the Dberian peninsula=

@hese narratives 5ere 5ritten and published on a yearly basis during or Eust after the actual campaigns, as a sort of ?dispatches from the front?= 2pparently simple and direct in styleJto the point that Caesar6s Commentarii are commonly studied by first and second year 9atin studentsJthey are in fact highly sophisticated and subtly slanted advertisements for his political agenda, aimed most particularly at the middle4bro5 readership of minor aristocrats in -ome, Dtaly, and the provinces=

'ame
$ain article: <tymology of the name of Julius Caesar Msing the 9atin alphabet as it eAisted in the day of Caesar %i=e=, 5ithout lo5er case letters, ?J?, or ?M?', Caesar6s name is properly rendered ?(2DF, DF9DF, C2<,2-?= @he form ?C2DF,? is also attested using the old -oman pronunciation of letter C as (: it is an antiBue form of the more common ?(2DF,?= Dt is often seen abbreviated to ?C= DF9DF, C2<,2-?= %@he letterform ?e? is a ligature, 5hich is often encountered in 9atin inscriptions 5here it 5as used to save space, and is nothing more than the letters ?ae?=' Dn Classical 9atin, it 5as pronounced [aius julius kaisar]=7"++8 Dn the days of the late

-oman -epublic, many historical 5ritings 5ere done in (reek, a language most educated -omans studied= Poung 5ealthy -oman boys 5ere often taught by (reek slaves and sometimes sent to 2thens for advanced training, as 5as Caesar6s principal assassin, Brutus= Dn (reek, during Caesar6s time, his family name 5as 5ritten ;<&=<%, reflecting its contemporary pronunciation= @hus his name is pronounced in a similar 5ay to the pronunciation of the (erman Iaiser= @his (erman name 5as phonemically but not phonetically derived from the $iddle 2ges <cclesiastical 9atin, in 5hich the familiar part ?Caesar? is [tesar], from 5hich the modern <nglish pronunciation is derived, as 5ell as the title of @sar= >is name is also remembered in Corse mythology, 5here he is manifested as the legendary king IEfrr=7"+)8

Family
$ain article: Julio4Claudian family tree

Parents

Father (aius Julius Caesar the <lder $other 2urelia %related to the 2urelia Cottae'

$isters

Julia Caesaris ?$aior? %the elder' Julia Caesaris ?$inor? %the younger'

,i"es

First marriage to Cornelia Cinnilla, from /) BC until her death in childbirth in 0 or 0/ BC ,econd marriage to .ompeia, from 01 BC until he divorced her around 0" BC @hird marriage to Calpurnia .isonis, from # BC until Caesar6s death

Children

Julia 5ith Cornelia Cinnilla, born in /) or /+ BC Caesarion, 5ith Cleopatra FDD, born 41 BC= >e 5as killed at age "1 by Caesar6s adopted son Octavianus= adopted: (aius Julius Caesar Octavianus, his great4nephe5 by blood, 5ho later became <mperor 2ugustus= $arcus Junius Brutus: @he historian .lutarch notes that Caesar believed Brutus to have been his illegitimate son, as his mother ,ervilia had been Caesar6s lover during their youth=7"+48

Grandchildren

(randson from Julia and .ompey, dead at several days, unnamed=

&o"ers

Cleopatra FDD ,ervilia Caepionis mother of Brutus <unog, Bueen of $auretania and 5ife of Bogudes

'otable relati"es

(aius $arius %married to his 2unt Julia' $ark 2ntony 9ucius Julius Caesar Julius ,abinus, a (aul of the 9ingones at the time of the Batavian rebellion of 23 0 , claimed to be the great4grandson of Caesar on the grounds that his great4 grandmother had been Caesar6s lover during the (allic 5ar=7"+#8

Political ri"als and rumours of homose-ual acti"ity

-oman society vie5ed the passive role during seA, regardless of gender, to be a sign of submission or inferiority= Dndeed, ,uetonius says that in Caesar6s (allic triumph, his soldiers sang that, ?Caesar may have conBuered the (auls, but Cicomedes conBuered Caesar=?7"+08 2ccording to Cicero, Bibulus, (aius $emmius, and others %mainly Caesar6s enemies', he had an affair 5ith Cicomedes DF of Bithynia early in his career= @he tales 5ere repeated, referring to Caesar as the Lueen of Bithynia, by some -oman politicians as a 5ay to humiliate and degrade him= Dt is possible that the rumors 5ere spread only as a form of character assassination= Caesar himself, according to Cassius 3io, denied the accusations under oath=7"+18 @his form of slander 5as popular during this time in the -oman -epublic to demean and discredit political opponents= 2 favorite tactic used by the opposition 5as to accuse a popular political rival as living a >ellenistic lifestyle based on (reek and <astern culture, 5here homoseAuality and a lavish lifestyle 5ere more acceptable than in -oman tradition=7citation needed8 Catullus 5rote t5o poems suggesting that Caesar and his engineer $amurra 5ere lovers, 7"+/8 but later apologised=7"+ 8 $ark 2ntony charged that Octavian had earned his adoption by Caesar through seAual favours= ,uetonius described 2ntony6s accusation of an affair 5ith Octavian as political slander= @he boy Octavian 5as to become the first -oman emperor follo5ing Caesar6s death=7")*8

Chronology of his life

Honours and titles

2s a young man he 5as a5arded the Corona Civica %civic cro5n' for valour 5hile fighting in 2sia $inor and 5ent on to receive many honours= @hese included titles such as .ater .atriae %Father of the Fatherland', and 3ictator= >e 5as also elected .ontifeA $aAimus in 0) BC= @he many titles besto5ed on him by the ,enate are sometimes cited as a cause of his assassination, as it seemed inappropriate to many contemporaries for a man to be a5arded so many honours= Di3us 1ulius or Di3us Julius %the divine Julius or the deified Julius' 5as the official title that 5as given to Caesar posthumously by decree of the -oman ,enate on the " January 4+ BC= $ark 2ntony had been appointed as flamen %priest' to Caesar shortly before the latter 5as assassinated=7")"8 Julius Caesar 5as the first historical -oman to be deified= @he cult of 3ivus Dulius 5as promoted by both Octavian and $ark 2ntony= 2fter the death of 2ntony, Octavian, as the adoptive son of Caesar, assumed the title of Di3i Filius %son of a god'= Caesar6s cognomen 5ould itself become a title: it 5as greatly promulgated by the Bible, by the famous verse ?-ender unto Caesar the things 5hich are CaesarSs, and unto (od the things that are (odSs?= @he title became the (erman Iaiser and ,lavic @sar&CGar= @he last tsar in nominal po5er 5as ,imeon DD of Bulgaria 5hose reign ended in " 40: for t5o thousand years after Julius Caesar6s assassination, there 5as at least one head of state bearing his name=

Depictions
$ain article: Cultural depictions of Julius Caesar For the marble bust from Arles disco3ered in >??@AB alleged to be CaesarCs li6eness, and the ensuing contro3ersD, see Arles portrait bust.

Bust in Caples Cational Bust of Julius Caesar $odern bronGe statue of 2rchaeological $useum, photograph from the British Julius Caesar, -imini, Dtaly published in " *+ $useum

References
"= . Fully, Caius 1ulius Caii filius Caii nepos Caesar 1mperator %?(aius Julius Caesar, son of (aius, grandson of (aius, Dmperator?'= Official name after deification in 4+ BC: Di3us 1ulius %?@he 3ivine Julius?'= += . @here is some dispute over the date of Caesar6s birth= @he day is sometimes stated to be "+ July 5hen his feast4day 5as celebrated after deification, but this 5as because his true birthday clashed 5ith the 0udi Apollinares= ,ome scholars, based on the dates he held certain magistracies, have made a case for "*" or "*+ BC as the year of his birth, but scholarly consensus favours "** BC= (olds5orthy, )* )= . 2fter Caesar6s death the leap years 5ere not inserted according to his intent and there is uncertainty about 5hen leap years 5ere observed bet5een 4# BC and 23 4 inclusive: the dates in this article bet5een 4# BC and 23 4 inclusive are those observed in -ome and there is an uncertainty of about a day as to 5here those dates 5ould be on the proleptic Julian calendar= ,ee Blackburn, B and >olford4 ,trevens, 9= %" corrected +**)'= 9he : ford Companion to the Eear= OAford Mniversity .ress= p= 01"= D,BC 1/4*" +"4+)") 4= . Froude, James 2nthony %"/1 '= 0ife of Caesar= .roEect (utenberg e4teAt= p= 01= http:&&555=mirrorservice=org&sites&ftp=ibiblio=org&pub&docs&books&gutenberg&eteAt *#&/cesr"*=tAt= ,ee also: ,uetonius, 0i3es of the 9Fel3e Caesars: Julius 0: Felleius .aterculus, Goman HistorD +=4": Firgil, Aeneid #= . .liny the <lder, Hatural HistorD 1=1= @he misconception that Julius Caesar himself 5as born by Caesarian section dates back at least to the "*th century %Iuda kappa "" '= Julius 5asn6t the first to bear the name, and in his time the procedure 5as only performed on dead 5omen, 5hile Caesar6s mother, 2urelia, lived long after he 5as born= 0= . Historia Augusta: Aelius += 1= . ?Coins of Julius Caesar?= http:&&members=aol=com&dkaplan///&Ecae=htm= /= . ,uetonius, Julius ": .lutarch, Caesar ", Jarius 0: .liny the <lder, Hatural HistorD 1=#4: 1nscriptiones 1taliae, ")=)=#"!#+ = . ,uetonius, 0i3es of 8minent !rammarians 1 "*= h a b .lutarch, Caesar ": ,uetonius, Julius " ""= . 2ppian, Ci3il "ars "=)4!1#: .lutarch, Jarius )+!40, Iulla 0!"*: Felleius .aterculus, Goman HistorD >.KLA>?M 8utropius LM Florus, <pitome of -oman >istory >.N, >.O "+= . ,uetonius, Julius ": .liny the <lder, Hatural HistorD 1=#4 ")= . Felleius .aterculus, Goman HistorD +=++: Florus, 8pitome of Goman HistorD += "4= . ,uetonius, Julius ": .lutarch, Caesar ": Felleius .aterculus, Goman HistorD +=4" "#= . 2ppian, Ci3il "ars "=10!"*+: .lutarch, Iulla +4!)): Felleius .aterculus, Goman HistorD +=+)!+/: <utropius, Abridgement of Goman HistorD #: Florus, 8pitome of Goman HistorD += "0= . ,uetonius, Julius +!): .lutarch, Caesar +!): Cassius 3io, Goman HistorD 4)=+* "1= . William ,mith, A DictionarD of !ree6 and Goman Anti2uities: Flamen "/= . 2ppian= Ci3il "ars "="*)

" = . ,uetonius, Julius 11= +*= . .lutarch, Iulla )0!)/ +"= h a b ,uetonius, Julius 40 ++= . ,uetonius, Julius ): 2ppian, Ci3il "ars "="*1 +)= . ,uetonius, Julius ## +4= . ,uetonius, Julius 4= .lutarch %Caesar )!4' reports the same events but follo5s a different chronology= +#= . 2gain, according to ,uetonius6s chronology %Julius 4'= .lutarch %Caesar "=/!+' says this happened earlier, on his return from Cicomedes6s court= Felleius .aterculus %Goman HistorD +:4"=)!4+ says merely that it happened 5hen he 5as a young man= +0= . .lutarch, Caesar "!+ +1= . @horne, James %+**)'= Julius CaesarP Con2ueror and Dictator= @he -osen .ublishing (roup= p= "#= +/= . Freeman, ) + = . Freeman, ) !4* )*= . Freeman, 4* )"= . Freeman, #" )+= . Freeman, #+ ))= . (olds5orthy, "** )4= . (olds5orthy, "*" )#= . ,uetonius, Julius #!/: .lutarch, Caesar #: Felleius .aterculus, Goman HistorD +=4) )0= . ,uetonius, Julius !"": .lutarch, Caesar #=0!0: Cassius 3io, Goman HistorD )1=/, "* )1= . Cicero, For !aius Gabirius: Cassius 3io, Goman HistorD +0!+/ )/= . Felleius .aterculus, Goman HistorD +=4): .lutarch, Caesar 1: ,uetonius, Julius ") ) = . ,allust, Catiline "ar 4 4*= . Cicero, Against Catiline 4=1! : ,allust, Catiline "ar #*!##: .lutarch, Caesar 1=#!/=), Cicero +*!+", Cato the Eounger ++!+4: ,uetonius, Julius "4 4"= . ,uetonius, Julius "1 4+= . ,uetonius, Julius "0 4)= . Cicero, 0etters to Atticus "="+, "="), "="4: .lutarch, Caesar !"*: Cassius 3io, Goman HistorD )1=4# 44= . .lutarch, Caesar ""!"+: ,uetonius, Julius "/=" 4#= . .lutarch, Julius "): ,uetonius, Julius "/=+ 40= . .lutarch, Caesar ")!"4: ,uetonius " 41= . Cicero, 0etters to Atticus +=", +=), +="1: Felleius .aterculus, Goman HistorD +=44: .lutarch, Caesar ")!"4, QompeD 41, Crassus "4: ,uetonius, Julius " =+: Cassius 3io, Goman HistorD )1=#4!#/ 4/= . ,uetonius, Julius +" 4 = . Cicero, 0etters to Atticus +="#, +="0, +="1, +="/, +=" , +=+*, +=+": Felleius .aterculus, Goman HistorD 44=4: .lutarch, Caesar "4, QompeD 41!4/, Cato the Eounger )+!)): Cassius 3io, Goman HistorD )/="!/ #*= . ,uetonius, Julius " =+

#"= . Felleius .aterculus, Goman HistorD +:44=4: .lutarch, Caesar "4="*, Crassus "4=), QompeD 4/, Cato the Eounger ))=): ,uetonius, Julius ++: Cassius 3io, Goman HistorD )/:/=# #+= . ,uetonius, Julius +) #)= . ,ee Cicero6s speeches against Ferres for an eAample of a former provincial governor successfully prosecuted for illegally enriching himself at his province6s eApense= #4= . Cicero, 0etters to Atticus "=" : Julius Caesar, Commentaries on the !allic "ar Book ": 2ppian, !allic "ars <pit= ): Cassius 3io, Goman HistorD )/=)"!#* ##= . Julius Caesar, Commentaries on the !allic "ar Book +: 2ppian, !allic "ars <pit= 4: Cassius 3io, Goman HistorD ) ="!# #0= . Cicero, 0etters to his brother Ruintus +=): ,uetonius, Julius +4: .lutarch, Caesar +", Crassus "4!"#, QompeD #" #1= . Julius Caesar, Commentaries on the !allic "ar Book ): Cassius 3io, Goman HistorD ) =4*!40 #/= . Julius Caesar, Commentaries on the !allic "ar Book 4: 2ppian, !allic "ars <pit= 4: Cassius 3io, Goman HistorD 41!#) # = . Cicero, 0etters to friends 1=0, 1=1, 1=/, 1="*, 1="1: 0etters to his brother Ruintus +="), +="#, )=": 0etters to Atticus 4="#, 4="1, 4="/: Julius Caesar, Commentaries on the !allic "ar Book #!0: Cassius 3io, Goman HistorD 4*="!"" 0*= . ,uetonius, Julius 7"8: .lutarch, Caesar +)=#, QompeD #)!##, Crassus "0!)): Felleius .aterculus, Goman HistorD 40!41 0"= . Julius Caesar, Commentaries on the !allic "ar Book 1: Cassius 3io, Goman HistorD 4*=))!4+ 0+= . 2ulus >irtius, Commentaries on the !allic "ar Book / 0)= . Julius Caesar, Commentaries on the !allic "ar "=+" 04= . Julius Caesar, Commentaries on the !allic "ar 1=0# 0#= . Julius Caesar, Commentaries on the !allic "ar 0=0 00= . Julius Caesar, Commentaries on the !allic "ar +=)4 01= . Julius Caesar, Commentaries on the !allic "ar 0=)+f= 0/= . Julius Caesar, Commentaries on the !allic "ar )="" 0 = . Julius Caesar, Commentaries on the !allic "ar 1=/"f= 1*= . ?9ives of the Coble (recians and -omans, by .lutarch %chapter4/'?= http:&&eteAt=library=adelaide=edu=au&p&plutarch&lives&chapter4/=html= 1"= . ?Chapter +/?= SDe /ello !allicoS T :ther Commentaries of Caius Julius Caesar %@ranslated by @homas de Luincey ed='= http:&&555=gutenberg=org&files&"*0#1&"*0#1=tAt= 1+= . ?Chapter + ?= SDe /ello !allicoS T :ther Commentaries of Caius Julius Caesar %@ranslated by @homas de Luincey ed='= http:&&555=gutenberg=org&files&"*0#1&"*0#1=tAt= 1)= . Furger4(unti, "*+= 14= . >= 3elbrNck !eschichte der 5riegs6unst im Gahmen der politischen !eschichte, Fol= ", " **, pp= 4+/ and 4# f= 1#= h a b ,uetonius, Julius +/ 10= . .lutarch, Caesar 0*=+ 11= . ,uetonius, Julius )+

1/= . .lutarch, Caesar )#=+ 1 = . .lutarch, Caesar 4+!4# /*= h a b .lutarch, Caesar )1=+ /"= h a b $artin Jehne, Der Itaat des Dicators Caesar, Iiln&Wien " /1, p= "#4)/= /+= . .lutarch, QompeD 11!1 /)= . .lutarch, QompeD /*=# /4= . ,uetonius, Julius )#=+ /#= . .lutarch, Caesar #+!#4 /0= . $artin Jehne, Der Itaat des Dicators Caesar, Iiln&Wien " /1, p= "#4)/= @echnically, Caesar 5as not appointed 3ictator 5ith a term of ten years but he 5as appointed annual dictator for the neAt ten years in advance= /1= . .lutarch, Caesar #0 //= . .lutarch, Caesar #0=1!#0=/ / = . $ackay, Christopher ,= %+**4'= Ancient GomeP A JilitarD and Qolitical HistorD= Cambridge Mniversity .ress= p= +#4= *= . Campbell, J= B= %" 4'= 9he Goman ArmD, UK /CAAD UU@= -outledge= p= "*= "= h a b ,uetonius, Julius 4* += . ,uetonius, Julius 10 )= . ?@heatrum .ompei?= OAford Mniversity .ress= http:&&penelope=uchicago=edu&@hayer&<&(aGetteer&.laces&<urope&Dtaly&9aGio&-oma &-ome&j@eAts&.92@O.k&@heatrumj.ompei=html= -etrieved on +**/4*/4+/= 4= . .lutarch 4 9ife of Brutus #= h a b ,uetonius, 0ife of the Caesars, Julius trans= J C -olfe 0= . .lutarch, 0ife of Caesar, ch= 00: ? lVd mWnoVpq, rl`^acps 6t^`uvc`cV wxa_`, cp m[^Vq:6? 1= . Woolf (reg %+**0', 8t 9u /rute7 A 9he Jurder of Caesar and Qolitical Assassination, " pages ! D,BC "4/0" 4114"41 /= . ,uetonius, Julius, c= /+= = . ,uetonius, Julius /+=+ "**= . .lutarch, Caesar 00= "*"= . ,tone, Jon -= %+**#'= 9he Goutledge DictionarD of 0atin Ruotations= 9ondon: -outledge= pp= +#*= D,BC *4"# 0 * )= "*+= . $or5ood, James %" 4'= 9he Qoc6et : ford 0atin DictionarD (0atin8nglish)= OAford, <ngland: OAford Mniversity .ress= D,BC *" /0*+/) = "*)= . Dt appears, for eAample, in -ichard <edes6s 9atin play Caesar 1nterfectus of "#/+ and 9he 9rue 9ragedie of Gicharde Du6e of Eor6e Ttc of "# #, ,hakespeare6s source 5ork for other plays= 3yce, 2leAander: %Buoting $alone' %"/00'= 9he "or6s of "illiam Iha6espeare= 9ondon: Chapman and >all= pp= p 04/= "*4= . .lutarch, Caesar 01 "*#= . Florus, 8pitome +=1=" "*0= . ,uetonius, Julius /)=+ "*1= . ,uetonius, 9ife of Caesar, Chapters 9RRRDDD, 9RRRDF, 9RRRF "*/= . Osgood, Josiah %+**0'= CaesarCs 0egacDP Ci3il "ar and the 8mergence of the Goman 8mpire= Cambridge Mniversity .ress= p= 0*= "* = . ,uetonius, Augustus ")=": Florus, 8pitome +=0

""*= . Warrior, Falerie $= %+**0'= Goman Geligion= Cambridge Mniversity .ress= p= ""*= D,BC *#+"/+#"")= """= . Florus, 8pitome +=0=) ""+= . Ooch, .aul 2= %+**'= Ancient GomeP An 1ntroductorD HistorD= Mniversity of Oklahoma .ress= pp= +"1!+"/= D,BC */*0")+/10= "")= . Florus, 8pitome +=1=""!"4: 2ppian, 9he Ci3il "ars #=) ""4= . Florus, 8pitome +=)4=00 ""#= . .lutarch, Caesar #/=0 ""0= . .lutarch, Caesar "1, 4#, 0*: see also ,uetonius, Julius 4#= ""1= . -onald @= -idley, ?@he 3ictator6s $istake: Caesar6s <scape from ,ulla,? Historia 4 %+***', pp= ++#!++0, citing doubters of epilepsy: F= Ianngiesser, ?Cotes on the .athology of the Julian 3ynasty,? !lasgoF Jedical Journal 11 %" "+' 4+/!4)+: @= Ca5thorne, ?Julius Caesar and the Falling ,ickness,y Qroceedings of GoDal IocietD of Jedicine #" %" #1' +1!)*, 5ho prefers $Hnizre6s disease: and O= @emkin, 9he Falling Iic6nessP A HistorD of 8pilepsD from the !ree6s to the /eginnings of Jodern HeurologD %Baltimore " 1"', p "0+= ""/= . >ughes J %+**4'= ?3ictator .erpetuus: Julius CaesarJdid he have seiGuresK Df so, 5hat 5as the etiologyK?= 8pilepsD /eha3 / %#': 1#0!04= doi:"*="*"0&E=yebeh=+**4=*#=**0= .$D3 #)/*")"= "" = . (omeG J, Iotler J, 9ong J %" #'= ?Was Julius Caesar6s epilepsy due to a brain tumorK?= 9he Journal of the Florida Jedical Association 01 %)': " !+*"= .$D3 11)/#+4= "+*= . >= ,chneble %" January +**)'= ?(aius Julius Caesar?= (erman <pilepsy $useum= http:&&555=epilepsiemuseum=de&alt&caesaren=html= -etrieved on +**/4 */4+/= "+"= . Cicero, /rutus, +#+= "++= . Cote that the first name, like the second, is properly pronounced in three syllables, not t5o= ,ee 9atin spelling and pronunciation= "+)= . 2nderson, Carl <dlund= %" '= Formation and Gesolution of 1deological Contrast in the 8arlD HistorD of Icandina3ia= .h=3= thesis, Mniversity of Cambridge, 3epartment of 2nglo4,aAon, Corse { Celtic %Faculty of <nglish'= p= 44=.3F %)*/ IB' "+4= . ?Considering that Brutus 5as born about that time in 5hich their loves 5ere at the highest, Caesar had a belief that he 5as his o5n child?: .lutarch: @ranslated 2= >= Clough %" 0'= ?$arcus Brutus?= 9he QroVect !utenberg 8te t of QlutarchCs 0i3es= .roEect (utenberg= http:&&555=gutenberg=org&dirs&eteAt 0&plivs"*=tAt= -etrieved on +**/4*14"4= "+#= . @acitus, Histories 4=## "+0= . ,uetonius, Julius 4 "+1= . ,uetonius, Julius 4 : Cassius 3io, Goman HistorD 4)=+* "+/= . Catullus, Carmina + , #1 "+ = . ,uetonius, Julius 1) ")*= . ,uetonius, Augustus 0/, 1" ")"= . 2ccording to 3io Cassius, 44=0=4=

Primary sources

Find more about Julius Caesar on Wikipedia6s sister proEects: 3efinitions from Wiktionary @eAtbooks from Wikibooks Luotations from WikiBuote ,ource teAts from Wikisource Dmages and media from Commons Ce5s stories from Wikine5s 9earning resources from Wikiversity

O*n *ritings
Forum -omanum DndeA to Caesar6s 5orks online in 9atin and translation omnia munda mundis >yperteAt of Caesar6s 3e Bello (allico Works by Julius Caesar at .roEect (utenberg

#ncient historians2 *ritings

2ppian, Book ") %<nglish translation' Cassius 3io, Books )1!44 %<nglish translation' .lutarch on 2ntony %<nglish translation, 3ryden edition' .lutarch: @he 9ife of Julius Caesar %<nglish translation' .lutarch: @he 9ife of $ark 2ntony %<nglish translation' ,uetonius: @he 9ife of Julius Caesar= %9atin and <nglish, cross4linked: the <nglish

translation by J= C= -olfe'
,uetonius: @he 9ife of Julius Caesar %J= C= -olfe <nglish translation, modified'

$econdary sources
Canfora, 9uciano %+**0'= Julius CaesarP 9he QeopleCs Dictator= <dinburgh Mniversity .ress= D,BC *414/40" )044= Freeman, .hilip %+**/'= Julius Caesar= ,imon and ,chuster= D,BC *414)4+/ #)40= (olds5orthy, 2drian %+**0'= CaesarP 0ife of a Colossus= Pale Mniversity .ress= D,BC *4)**4"+*4/4 0= >olland, @om %+**)'= GubiconP 9he 0ast Eears :f 9he Goman Gepublic= 2nchor Books= D,BC "4 4***41/ 14*= JimHneG, -amon 9= %+***'= Caesar Against GomeP 9he !reat Goman Ci3il "ar= .raeger= D,BC *4 +1#4 00+*4/= Ileiner, 3iana <= <= %+**#'= Cleopatra and Gome= >arvard Mniversity .ress= D,BC *40144*" *#4 = $eier, Christian %" 0'= CaesarP A /iographD= Fontana .ress= D,BC *4**04/0)4 4)= Weinstock, ,tefan %" 1"'= Di3us Julius= OAford Mniversity .ress= D,BC 1/4*" /"4+/14=

(-ternal lin+s
&isten to this article 34 parts5 6 3info5
Qart K W Qart > W Qart U
@his audio file 5as created from a revision dated +**14*"4"*, and does not reflect subseBuent edits to the article= %2udio help'

ore spo+en articles C= Julius Caesar Jona 9endering6s in4depth history of Caesar %9ivius= Org' (uide to online resources Julius Caesar in the (erman Cational 9ibrary catalogue 3German5 >istory of Julius Caesar Julius Caesar at BBC >istory

$uccession table
Political offices .receded by &ucius #franius and 7uintus Caecilius etellus Celer .receded by none
office last held by $ulla in 08 BC

Consul of the Roman Republic Fith Jarcus Calpurnius /ibulus # BC Dictator 4 BC %eleven days' Consul of the Roman Republic Fith Qublius Ier3ilius Vatia 1sauricus 4/ BC

,ucceeded by &ucius Calpurnius Piso Caesoninus and #ulus Gabinius ,ucceeded by none
office ne-t held by himself in 90 BC

.receded by &ucius Cornelius &entulus Crus and Gaius Claudius arcellus aior .receded by none
office last held by himself in 9; BC

,ucceeded by 7uintus Fufius Calenus and Publius :atinius ,ucceeded by none

office ne-t held by himself in 9< BC

Dictator 4/ 4 41 BC

.receded by 7uintus Fufius Calenus and Publius :atinius .receded by none

office last held by himself in 9= BC

Consul of the Roman Republic Fith Jarcus Aemilius 0epidus 40 BC

,ucceeded by Gaius Julius Caesar alone Fithout colleague ,ucceeded by himself

as Dictator in perpetuity

Dictator for ten years 40444 BC Consul of the Roman Republic alone Fithout colleague 4# BC Consuls of the Roman Republic

.receded by Gaius Julius Caesar and arcus #emilius &epidus .receded by

,ucceeded by Gaius Julius Caesar and arcus #ntonius ,ucceeded by

Gaius Julius Caesar alone Fithout colleagueCCC .receded by himself

as Dictator for ten years

Fith Jarcus Antonius 44 BC Dictator in perpetuity 44 BC Religious titles

Publius Cornelius Dolabella 3with Marcus Antonius5 ,ucceeded by none> office abolished

.receded by 7uintus Caecilius etellus Pius

Pontife- a-imus 0)444 BC

,ucceeded by arcus #emilius &epidus

Caesar 5as acclaimed 1mperator in 0* and 4# BC= Dn the -oman -epublic, this 5as an honorary title assumed by certain military commanders= 2fter an especially great victory, an army6s troops in the field 5ould proclaim their commander imperator, an acclamation necessary for a general to apply to the ,enate for a triumph= 2fter being acclaimed imperator, the victorious general had a right to use the title after his name until the time of his triumph, 5here he 5ould relinBuish the title as 5ell as his imperium=

7sho58
v|d|e

!he ,or+s of Plutarch

7hide8
v|d|e

#ncient Gree+ and Roman ,ars

@roEan War 6 $essenian Wars 6 9elantine War 6 ,icilian Wars 6 (reco!.ersian Wars 6 2eginetan War 6 Wars of the 3elian 9eague 6 ,amian War 6 .eloponnesian War 6 Corinthian War 6 ,ars of ancient Greece ,acred Wars %First, ,econd, @hird' 6 ,ocial War %)#1!)## BC' 6 Wars of 2leAander the (reat 6 Wars over 2leAander6s empire 6 9amian War 6 Chremonidean War 6 Cleomenean War 6 ,ocial War %++*!+"1 BC' 6 Cretan War 6 2etolian War 6 War against Cabis 6 $accabean -evolt 6

War 5ith the 9atin 9eague 6 ,amnite Wars 6 9atin War 6 .yrrhic War 6 .unic Wars %First, ,econd, @hird' 6 Wars 5ith (reece %Dllyrian, First $acedonian, ,econd $acedonian, ,eleucid, @hird $acedonian, Fourth $acedonian' 6 Jugurthine War 6 Cimbrian ,ars of the Roman Republic War 6 -oman ,ervile Wars %First, ,econd, @hird' 6 ,ocial War 6 Civil 5ars of 9ucius Cornelius ,ulla %First, ,econd' 6 $ithridatic Wars %First, ,econd, @hird, Fourth' 6 (allic Wars 6 Julius Caesar6s civil 5ar 6 <nd of the -epublic %.ost4Caesarian, 9iberators6, ,icilian, Fulvia6s, Final' (ermanic Wars %$arcomannic, 2lamannic, (othic, Fisigothic' 6 Wars in Britain 6 Wars of Boudica 6 2rmenian War 6 Civil War of ,ars of the Roman (mpire 0 6 Je5ish Wars 6 3omitian6s 3acian War 6 @raEan6s 3acian Wars 6 .arthian Wars 6 .ersian Wars 6 Civil Wars of the @hird Century 6 Wars of the Fall of the Western -oman <mpire ilitary History

-etrieved from ?http:&&en=5ikipedia=org&5iki&JuliusjCaesar? Categories: Julius Caesar } "**s BC births } 44 BC deaths } 2ncient -oman generals } 2ncient -oman politicians } Characters in Book FD of the 2eneid } Correspondents of Cicero } 3eaths by stabbing } (olden 2ge 9atin 5riters } Dulii } 9atin 5riters } .eople from -ome %city' } -epublican holders of the role of pontifeA maAimus } -oman military 5riters } -oman -epublican consuls } -oman governors of >ispania } 2ssassinated military personnel } "st4century BC -omans } "st4century BC clergy } "st4century BC 5riters } "st4century BC historians } "st4century BC rulers } 2ssassinated -oman politicians >idden categories: 2rticles containing 2ncient (reek language teAt } Wikipedia indefinitely move4protected pages } 2ll articles 5ith unsourced statements } 2rticles 5ith unsourced statements from February +** } ,poken articles