A NOVEL THREE-PHASE TO FIVE-PHASE TRANSFORMATION USING A SPECIAL TRANSFORMER CONNECTION

ABSTRACT
The first five-phase induction motor drive system was proposed in the late 1970s for adjustable speed drive applications. Since then, a considerable research effort has been in place to develop commercially feasible multiphase drive Systems . ultiphase !more than three phase" systems are the focus of research recently due to their inherent advanta#es compared to their three-phase counterparts. the multiphase motors are invariably supplied by ac$dc$ac converters. This is a special transformer connection scheme to obtain a balanced five-phase supply with the input as balanced three phases. The fi%ed volta#e and fi%ed fre&uency available #rid supply can be transformed to the fi%ed volta#e and fi%ed fre&uency five-phase output supply. Since input is a three-phase system, the windin#s are connected in an usual fashion. Three separate cores are desi#ned with each carryin# one primary and three secondary coils, e%cept in one core where only two secondary coils are used. Si% terminals of primaries are connected in an appropriate manner resultin# in star and$or delta connections and the 1' terminals of secondaries are connected in a different fashion resultin# in star or poly#on output. The connection scheme of secondary windin#s to obtain a star output. The turn ratios are different in each phase. The choice of turn ratio is the (ey in creatin# the re&uisite phase displacement in the output phases. The construction of output phases with re&uisite phase an#les of 7) between each phase is obtained usin# appropriate turn ratios. The desi#ned transformation turns ratio can be achieved by simply multiplyin# the #ain factor in the turn ratios. * five-phase induction motor under a loaded condition is used to prove the viability of the transformation system. +t is e%pected that the proposed connection scheme can be used in drives applications and may also be further e%plored to be utili,ed in multiphase power transmission systems.

INTRODUCTION
ultiphase !more than three phase" systems are the focus of research recently due to their inherent advanta#es compared to their three-phase counterparts. The applicability of multiphase systems is e%plored in electric power #eneration, transmission, and utili,ation. The research on si%-phase transmission system was initiated due to the risin# cost of ri#ht of way for transmission corridors, environmental issues, and various strin#ent licensin# laws. Si% phase transmission lines can provide the same power capacity with a lower phase-to-phase volta#e and smaller, more compact towers compared to a standard double-circuit three-phase line. The #eometry of the si%-phase compact towers may also aid in the reduction of ma#netic fields as well. The research on multiphase #enerators has started recently and only a few references are available. The present wor( on multiphase #eneration has investi#ated asymmetrical si%-phase !two sets of

stator windin#s with -0 phase displacement" induction #enerator confi#uration as the solution for use in renewable ener#y #eneration. *s far as multiphase motor drives are concerned, the first proposal was #iven by .ard and /arrer way bac( in 19'9 and since then, the research was slow and steady until the end of the last century. The research on multiphase drive systems has #ained momentum by the start of this century due to availability of cheap reliable semiconductor devices and di#ital si#nal processors. 0etailed reviews on the state of the art in multiphase drive research are available.

+t is to be emphasi,ed here that the multiphase motors are invariably supplied by ac$dc$ac converters. Thus, the focus of the research on the multiphase electric drive is limited to the modelin# and control of the supply systems !i.e., the inverters". 1ittle effort is made to develop any static transformation system to chan#e the phase number from three to -phase !where - and odd". The scenario has now chan#ed with this paper, proposin# a novel phase transformation system which converts an available three-phase supply to an output five-phase supply. ultiphase, especially a '-phase and 1)-phase system is found to produce less ripple with a hi#her fre&uency of ripple in an ac2dc rectifier system. Thus, '- and 1)-phase transformers are desi#ned to feed a multipulse rectifier system and the technolo#y has matured. 3ecently, )4-phase and -'-phase transformer systems have been proposed for supplyin# a multipulse rectifier system. The reason of choice for a '-, 1)-, or )4-phase system is that these numbers are multiples of three and desi#nin# this type of system is simple and strai#htforward. /owever, increasin# the number of phases certainly enhances the comple%ity of the system. 5one of these desi#ns are available for an odd number of phases, such as 6, 7, 11, etc., as far as the authors (now.

The usual practice is to test the desi#ned motor for a number of operatin# conditions with a pure sinusoidal supply to ascertain the desired performance of the motor. 5ormally, a no-load test, bloc(ed rotor, and load tests are performed on a motor to determine its parameters. *lthou#h the supply used for a multiphase motor drive obtained from a multiphase inverter could have more current ripple, there are control methods available to lower the current distortion even below 17, based on application and re&uirement. /ence, the machine parameters obtained by usin# the pulse width-modulated !8. " supply may not provide the precise true value. Thus, a pure sinusoidal supply system available from the utility #rid is re&uired to feed the motor. This paper proposes a special transformer connection scheme to obtain a balanced five-phase supply with the input as balanced three phases. The bloc( dia#ram of the proposed system is shown in 9i#. 1. The fi%ed volta#e and fi%ed fre&uency available #rid supply can be transformed to the fi%ed volta#e and fi%ed fre&uency five-phase output supply. The output, however, may be made variable by insertin# the autotransformer at the input side. The input and output supply can be arran#ed in the followin# manner: 1" input star, output star; )" input star, output poly#on; -" input delta, output star; 4" +nput delta, output poly#on. Since input is a three-phase system, the windin#s are connected in an usual fashion. The output$secondary side connection is discussed in the followin# subsections.

FIVE-PHASE <ariable speed electric drives predominately utili,e three-phase machines. /owever, since the variable speed ac drives re&uire a power electronic converter for their supply !in vast majority of cases an inverter with a dc lin(", the number of machine phases is essentially not limited. This has led to an increase in the interest in multi-phase ac drive applications, since multi-phase machines offer some inherent advanta#es over their three-phase counterpart. +nterestin# research results have been published over the years on multi-phase drives and detailed review is available in Sin#h !)00)", =ones and 1evi !)00)", >ojoi et al. !)00'", 1evi et al. !)007", 1evi !)00?a" and 1evi !)00?b". ajor advanta#es of usin# a multi-phase machine instead of a three-phase machine are hi#her tor&ue density, #reater efficiency, reduced tor&ue pulsations, #reater fault tolerance, and reduction in the re&uired ratin# per inverter le# !and therefore simpler and more reliable power conditionin# e&uipment". 5oise characteristics of multi-phase drives are better when compared three-phase drive as demonstrated by /od#e et al. !)00)" and @olubev and +#naten(o !)000". /i#her 8hase number yield smoother tor&ue due to the simultaneous increase of the fre&uency of the tor&ue pulsation and reduction of the tor&ue ripple ma#nitude, as presented by .illiamson and Smith !)00'" and *psley !)00'". /i#her tor&ue density in a multi-phase machine is possible because fundamental spatial field harmonic and space harmonic fields can be used to enhance total tor&ue as presented by Au et al. !)001a" and Au et al. !)001b", Shi et al. !)001", 1yra and 1ipo !)00)", 0uran et al. !)00?" and *rahal and 0uran !)009". This advanta#e of enhanced tor&ue production stems from the fact that vector control of the machineBs flu% and tor&ue, produced by the interaction of the fundamental field component and the fundamental stator current component, re&uires only two stator currents ! d-q current components". +n a multi-phase machine, with at least five phases or more, there are therefore additional de#rees of freedom, which can be utili,ed to enhance the tor&ue production throu#h injection of hi#her order current harmonics. The stability analysis of five-phase drive system for harmonic injection scheme is carried out by 0uran et al. !)00?" for both concentrated windin# and distributed windin# machines. +t was concluded that the -rd harmonic injection not only enhances the tor&ue production but also offers a more stable control structure. 8ower circuit topolo#y of a five-phase <S+ is shown in 9i#ure 1. Cach switch in the circuit consists of two power semiconductor devices, connected in anti-parallel.

Dne of these is a fully controllable semiconductor, such as a bipolar transistor or +@>T, while the second one is a diode. The input of the inverter is a dc volta#e, which is re#arded further on as bein# constant. The inverter outputs are denoted in 9i#ure 1 with lower case letters !a,b,c,d,e", while the points of connection of the outputs to inverter le#s have symbols in capital letters !A,B,C,D,E", The shift between each phase volta#e is !-'0E$6"F7)E.

8hase-to-neutral volta#es of the star connected load are most easily found by definin# a volta#e difference between the star point n of the load and the ne#ative rail of the dc bus N. The followin# correlation then holds true:

Since the phase volta#es in a star connected load sum to ,ero, summation of the e&uations !1" yields

Substitution of !)" into !1" yields phase-to-neutral volta#es of the load in the followin# form:

FIVE-PHASE DRIVE STRUCTURE * simple open-loop five-phase drive structure is elaborated in 9i#ure ). The dc lin( volta#e is adjusted from the controlled rectifier by varyin# the conduction an#les of the thyristors. The fre&uency of the fundamental output is controlled from the +@>T based volta#e source inverter. The inverter is operatin# in the &uasi s&uare wave mode instead of more comple% 8. mode. Thus the overall control scheme is similar to a three-phase drive system. Since the inverter is operatin# in s&uare wave mode the analo#ue circuit based controller is much simpler and cheaper compared to more sophisticate di#ital si#nal processor based control schemes. This type of solution is very cheap and convenient for use in coarse applications such as water pumpin#. These types of applications do not re&uire fast dynamic response of drive systems and thus the need of hi#h performance control schemes do not arise. The power &uality of the remote locations in developin# countries such as +ndian subcontinents are not ade&uate for reliable and durable operation of sensitive microprocessors$microcontrollers$di#ital si#nal processors based controllers. +t is thus intended to develop cheap and robust controller based on simple and reliable analo#ue circuit components for such locations. The subse&uent section describes the implantation issues of control of a five-phase volta#e source inverter. The motivation behind choosin# this structure lies in the fault tolerant nature of a five-phase drive system !*psley et al., )00'".

Three phase

THREE PHASE INVERTER

* standard three-phase inverter is shown in 9i#ure 1 consistin# of si% controlled switches such as +@>T. +n this converter, the line currents can be shaped to be sinusoidal at a unity power factor, as well as the output ac volta#e can be re#ulated at a desired value. The inverter is connected to the load throu#h three 1G filters. T/+8. employed to ma(e full use of the 0G bus volta#e with minimum harmonic distortion in the output volta#e and current.

Figure 1: Three-Phase Inverter The modulatin# si#nal is #enerated by injectin# the third harmonic component to the 60 /, fundamental component as #iven in the followin# e&uations.

Hsin# the modulator #iven will maintain the pea( volta#e e&ual to the dc volta#e. The S+ H1+5I Cmbedded Tar#et for the T+ G)000 bloc(s used to construct system models and real-time control al#orithm which is used from the S+ H1+5I library. Tar#et for T+ G)000 used alon# with 1in( for Gode Gomposer Studio to automate code #eneration, e%ecution, and communication with T+ evaluation boards by insertin# bloc(s for optimi,ed functions, to#ether with the appropriate board peripherals, into the model J?K. Three 8. Cach 8. bloc(s used to obtain three-phase T/+8. for the three-phase inverter. bloc( #enerate switchin# si#nal for one le# of the inverter as shown in 9i#ure ).

The modulatin# si#nal data #enerated usin# e&uation 1, ) and - and saved in loo(up table. The carrier is provided by the 8. bloc( by applyin# suitable 8. settin#. The carrier fre&uency is calculated from the followin# e&uations when the counter settin# is up$down.

Figure : !enerati"n "# THIP$%

.here T8.

is the 8.

interval, T>30 is the value saved in T>830 re#ister, is the carrier fre&uency. The cloc(

TT>G1I is the time of one cloc( cycle, and 98.

fre&uency is calculated usin# e&uation 4 where SLSG1IDHT is the synchronous cloc( fre&uency which 100 /,, /S8G1I0+< is /i#h Speed Time-base Gloc( 8resale >its which to be selected as one of the followin# values !1, ), 4, ', ?, 10, 1), or 14". G1I0+< is Time base Gloc( 8resale >its which to be selected as one of the followin# values !), ), 4, 1', -), '4, or 1)?". The 8. cycle !T8. " shown in 9i#ure -.

Figure &: One S'it(hing Interva) To prevent a short circuit in the dc lin( of +@>T volta#e source 8. converters, the

dead time period durin# which both the upper and lower +@>TBs of the inverter phase le# are off, need to be inserted in switchin# si#nals. The dead time can cause waveform distortion and the fundamental volta#e loss of the converter. To create dead time for the switches on the same le# the dead band !0>" module is used. The 0> module supports independent values for risin# ed#e !3C0" and fallin# ed#e !9C0" delays. The amount of delay is pro#rammed usin# the dead band risin# ed#e !0>3C0" and dead band fallin# ed#e !0>9C0" memory-mapped re#isters.

These are 10-bit re#isters and their value represents the number of T>G1I periods a si#nal ed#e is delayed by. The formulas to calculate 9C0 and 3C0 respectively are as follow J?K:

TRANSFOR%ER * transformer is a device that transfers electrical ener#y from one circuit to another throu#h inductively coupled conductorsMthe transformerNs coils. * varyin# current in the first or primary windin# creates a varyin# ma#netic flu% in the transformerNs core and thus a varyin# ma#netic field throu#h the secondary windin#. This varyin# ma#netic field induces a varyin# electromotive force !C 9" or Ovolta#eO in the secondary windin#. This effect is called mutual induction. +f a load is connected to the secondary, an electric current will flow in the secondary windin# and electrical ener#y will be transferred from the primary circuit throu#h the transformer to the load. +n an ideal transformer, the induced volta#e in the secondary windin# !<s" is in proportion to the primary volta#e !<p", and is #iven by the ratio of the number of turns in the secondary !5s" to the number of turns in the primary !5p" as follows: >y appropriate selection of the ratio of turns, a transformer thus allows an alternatin# current !*G" volta#e to be Ostepped upO by ma(in# 5s #reater than 5p, or Ostepped downO by ma(in# 5s less than 5p. +n the vast majority of transformers, the windin#s are coils wound around a ferroma#netic core, air-core transformers bein# a notable e%ception. Transformers ran#e in si,e from a thumbnail-si,ed couplin# transformer hidden inside a sta#e microphone to hu#e units wei#hin# hundreds of tons used to interconnect portions of power #rids. *ll operate with the same basic principles, althou#h the ran#e of desi#ns is wide.

While new technologies have eliminated the need for transformers in some electronic circuits, transformers are still found in nearly all electronic devices designed for household ("mains") voltage. Transformers are essential for high voltage power transmission, which makes long distance transmission economically practical.

Hist"r*
Dis("ver*
9aradayNs e%periment with induction between coils of wire The phenomenon of electroma#netic induction was discovered independently by ichael

9araday and =oseph /enry in 1?-1. /owever, 9araday was the first to publish the results of his e%periments and thus receive credit for the discovery. The relationship between electromotive force !C 9" or Ovolta#eO and ma#netic flu% was formali,ed in an e&uation now referred to as O9aradayNs law of inductionO: .here the ma#nitude of the C 9 in volts and P> is is the ma#netic flu% throu#h the circuit !in .eberBs" 9araday performed the first e%periments on induction between coils of wire, includin# windin# a pair of coils around an iron rin#, thus creatin# the first toroidal closed-core transformer.

In+u(ti"n ("i)s
The first type of transformer to see wide use was the induction coil, invented by 3ev. 5icholas Gallan of aynooth Golle#e, +reland in 1?-'. /e was one of the first researchers to reali,e that the more turns the secondary windin# has in relation to the primary windin#, the lar#er is the increase in C 9. +nduction coils evolved from scientistsN and inventorsN efforts to #et hi#her volta#es from batteries.

Since batteries produce direct current !0G" rather than alternatin# current !*G", induction coils relied upon vibratin# electrical contacts that re#ularly interrupted the current in the primary to create the flu% chan#es necessary for induction. >etween the 1?-0s and the 1?70s, efforts to build better induction coils, mostly by trial and error, slowly revealed the basic principles of transformers. +n 1?7', 3ussian en#ineer 8avel Labloch(ov invented a li#htin# system based on a set of induction coils where the primary windin#s were connected to a source of alternatin# current and the secondary windin#s could be connected to several Oelectric candlesO !arc lamps" of his own desi#n. The coils Labloch(ov employed functioned essentially as transformers. +n 1?7?, the @an, Gompany in /un#ary be#an manufacturin# e&uipment for electric li#htin# and, by 1??-, had installed over fifty systems in *ustria-/un#ary. Their systems used alternatin# current e%clusively and included those comprisin# both arc and incandescent lamps, alon# with #enerators and other e&uipment. 1ucien @aulard and =ohn 0i%on @ibbs first e%hibited a device with an open iron core called a Osecondary #eneratorO in 1ondon in 1??), then sold the idea to the .estin#house company in the Hnited States.J?K They also e%hibited the invention in Turin, +taly in 1??4, where it was adopted for an electric li#htin# system. /owever, the efficiency of their open-core bipolar apparatus remained very low. +nduction coils with open ma#netic circuits are inefficient for transfer of power to loads. Hntil about 1??0, the paradi#m for *G power transmission from a hi#h volta#e supply to a low volta#e load was a series circuit. Dpen-core transformers with a ratio near 1:1 were connected with their primaries in series to allow use of a hi#h volta#e for transmission while presentin# a low volta#e to the lamps. The inherent flaw in this method was that turnin# off a sin#le lamp affected the volta#e supplied to all others on the same circuit. any adjustable transformer desi#ns were introduced to compensate for this problematic characteristic of the series circuit, includin# those employin# methods of adjustin# the core or bypassin# the ma#netic flu% around part of a coil.

Cfficient, practical transformer desi#ns did not appear until the 1??0s, but within a decade the transformer would be instrumental in the O.ar of GurrentsO, and in seein# *G distribution systems triumph over their 0G counterparts, a position in which they have remained dominant ever since.

C)"se+-("re )ighting trans#"r,ers

0rawin# of @an, GompanyNs 1??6 prototype. Gapacity: 1400 <*, fre&uency: 40 /,, volta#e ratio: 1)0$7) <

8rototypes of the worldNs first hi#h-efficiency transformers. They were built by the Q.>.0. team on 1'th September 1??4. +n the autumn of 1??4, @an, Gompany en#ineers IRroly Qipernows(y, DttS >lRthy and i(sa

0Tri had determined that open-core devices were impracticable, as they were incapable of reliably re#ulatin# volta#e. +n their joint patent application for the OQ.>.0.O transformers, they described two desi#ns with closed ma#netic circuits: the Oclosed-coreO and Oshell-coreO transformers.

+n the closed-core, the primary and secondary windin#s were wound around a closed iron rin#; in the shell-core, the windin#s were passed throu#h the iron core. +n both desi#ns, the ma#netic flu% lin(in# the primary and secondary windin#s traveled almost entirely within the iron core, with no intentional path throu#h air. .hen employed in parallel connected electric distribution systems, closed-core transformers finally made it technically and economically feasible to provide electric power for li#htin# in homes, businesses and public spaces. >lRthy had su##ested the use of closed-cores, Qipernows(y the use of shunt connections, and 0Tri had performed the e%periments; >lRthy also discovered the transformer formula, <s$<p F 5s$5p.The vast majority of transformers in use today rely on the basic principles discovered by the three en#ineers. They also reportedly populari,ed the word OtransformerO to describe a device for alterin# the C 9 of an electric current,J16KJ1?K althou#h the term had already been in use by 1??). +n 1??', the @an, Gompany installed the worldNs first power station that used *G #enerators to power a parallel-connected common electrical networ(, the steam-powered 3ome-Gerchi power plant. StanleyNs 1??' desi#n for adjustable #ap open-core induction coils *lthou#h @eor#e .estin#house had bou#ht @aulard and @ibbsN patents in 1??6, the Cdison Clectric 1i#ht Gompany held an option on the H.S. ri#hts for the Q.>.0. transformers, re&uirin# .estin#house to pursue alternative desi#ns on the same principles. /e assi#ned to .illiam Stanley the tas( of developin# a device for commercial use in Hnited States. StanleyNs first patented desi#n was for induction coils with sin#le cores of soft iron and adjustable #aps to re#ulate the C 9 present in the secondary windin#. !See drawin# at left." J))K This desi#n was first used commercially in the H.S. in 1??'.J1)K >ut .estin#house soon had his team wor(in# on a desi#n whose core comprised a stac( of thin OC-shapedO iron plates, separated individually or in pairs by thin sheets of paper or other insulatin# material. 8rewound copper coils could then be slid into place, and strai#ht iron plates laid in to create a closed ma#netic circuit. .estin#house applied for a patent for the new desi#n in 0ecember 1??'; it was #ranted in =uly 1??7.

Other ear)* trans#"r,ers

+n 1??9, 3ussian-born en#ineer @ermany +n 1?91, 5i(ola Tesla invented the Tesla coil, an air-cored, dual-tuned resonant transformer for #eneratin# very hi#h volta#es at hi#h fre&uency. *udio fre&uency transformers !Orepeatin# coilsO" were used by early e%perimenters in the development of the telephone i(hail 0olivo-0obrovols(y developed the first three-phase

transformer at the *ll#emeine Cle(tricitUts-@esellschaft !O@eneral Clectricity GompanyO" in

-asi( prin(ip)es
The transformer is based on two principles: first, that an electric current can produce a ma#netic field !electroma#netism", and, second that a chan#in# ma#netic field within a coil of wire induces a volta#e across the ends of the coil !electroma#netic induction". Ghan#in# the current in the primary coil chan#es the ma#netic flu% that is developed. The chan#in# ma#netic flu% induces a volta#e in the secondary coil. AN IDEA. TRANSFOR%ER *n ideal transformer is shown in the adjacent fi#ure. Gurrent passin# throu#h the primary coil creates a ma#netic field. The primary and secondary coils are wrapped around a core of very hi#h ma#netic permeability, such as iron, so that most of the ma#netic flu% passes throu#h both the primary and secondary coils.

In+u(ti"n )a'
The volta#e induced across the secondary coil may be calculated from 9aradayNs law of induction, which states that:

.here <s is the instantaneous volta#e, 5s is the number of turns in the secondary coil and P is the ma#netic flu% throu#h one turn of the coil. +f the turns of the coil are oriented perpendicular to the ma#netic field lines, the flu% is the product of the ma#netic flu% density > and the area * throu#h which it cuts. The area is constant, bein# e&ual to the cross-sectional area of the transformer core, whereas the ma#netic field varies with time accordin# to the e%citation of the primary. Since the same ma#netic flu% passes throu#h both the primary and secondary coils in an ideal transformer,J)?K the instantaneous volta#e across the primary windin# e&uals Ta(in# the ratio of the two e&uations for <s and <p #ives the basic e&uation for steppin# up or steppin# down the volta#e

I+ea) p"'er e/uati"n

The ideal transformer as a circuit element +f the secondary coil is attached to a load that allows current to flow, electrical power is transmitted from the primary circuit to the secondary circuit. +deally, the transformer is perfectly efficient; all the incomin# ener#y is transformed from the primary circuit to the ma#netic field and into the secondary circuit. +f this condition is met, the incomin# electric power must e&ual the out#oin# power: #ivin# the ideal transformer e&uation Transformers normally have hi#h efficiency, so this formula is a reasonable appro%imation. +f the volta#e is increased, then the current is decreased by the same factor. The impedance in one circuit is transformed by the s&uare of the turnBs ratio.J)?K 9or e%ample, if an impedance Qs is attached across the terminals of the secondary coil, it appears to the primary circuit to have an impedance of !5p$5s" )Qs. This relationship is reciprocal, so that the impedance Qp of the primary circuit appears to the secondary to be !5s$5p")Qp.

Detai)e+ "perati"n
The simplified description above ne#lects several practical factors, in particular the primary current re&uired to establish a ma#netic field in the core, and the contribution to the field due to current in the secondary circuit. odels of an ideal transformer typically assume a core of ne#li#ible reluctance with two windin#s of ,ero resistance. .hen a volta#e is applied to the primary windin#, a small current flows, drivin# flu% around the ma#netic circuit of the core. The current re&uired to create the flu% is termed the ma#neti,in# current; since the ideal core has been assumed to have near-,ero reluctance, the ma#neti,in# current is ne#li#ible, althou#h still re&uired to create the ma#netic field. The chan#in# ma#netic field induces an electromotive force !C 9" across each windin#.
J-1K

Since the ideal windin#s have no impedance, they have no associated volta#e drop, and so the

volta#es <8 and <S measured at the terminals of the transformer, are e&ual to the correspondin# C 9s. The primary C 9, actin# as it does in opposition to the primary volta#e, is sometimes termed the Obac( C 9O. This is due to 1en,Ns law which states that the induction of C 9 would always be such that it will oppose development of any such chan#e in ma#netic field.

Pra(ti(a) ("nsi+erati"ns

.ea0age #)u1

1ea(a#e flu% of a transformer ain article: 1ea(a#e inductance The ideal transformer model assumes that all flu% #enerated by the primary windin# lin(s all the turns of every windin#, includin# itself. +n practice, some flu% traverses paths that ta(e it outside the windin#s. Such flu% is termed lea(a#e flu%, and results in lea(a#e inductance in series with the mutually coupled transformer windin#s. 1ea(a#e results in ener#y bein# alternately stored in and dischar#ed from the ma#netic fields with each cycle of the power supply. +t is not directly a power loss !see OStray lossesO below", but results in inferior volta#e re#ulation, causin# the secondary volta#e to fail to be directly proportional to the primary, particularly under heavy load.J--K Transformers are therefore normally desi#ned to have very low lea(a#e inductance. /owever, in some applications, lea(a#e can be a desirable property, and lon# ma#netic paths, air #aps, or ma#netic bypass shunts may be deliberately introduced to a transformerNs desi#n to limit the short-circuit current it will supply. 1ea(y transformers may be used to supply loads that e%hibit ne#ative resistance, such as electric arcs, mercury vapor lamps, and neon si#ns; or for safely handlin# loads that become periodically short-circuited such as electric arc welders. *ir #aps are also used to (eep a transformer from saturatin#, especially audio-fre&uency transformers in circuits that have a direct current flowin# throu#h the windin#s 1ea(a#e inductance is also helpful when transformers are operated in parallel. +t can be shown that if the

Oper-unitO inductance of two transformers is the same !a typical value is 67", they will automatically split power OcorrectlyO !e.#. 600 (<* units in parallel with 1,000 (<* unit, the lar#er one will carry twice the current".

E##e(t "# #re/uen(*

Trans#"r,er universa) E%F e/uati"n +f the flu% in the core is purely sinusoidal, the relationship for either windin# between its r,s v")tage Crms of the windin# , and the supply fre&uency f, number of turns 5, core cross-sectional area a and pea( ma#netic flu% density > is #iven by the universal C 9 e&uation:J-0K +f the flu% does not contain even harmonics the followin# e&uation can be used for ha)#-(*()e average v")tage Cav# of any waveshape: The time-derivative term in 9aradayNs 1aw shows that the flu% in the core is the inte#ral with respect to time of the applied volta#e. /ypothetically an ideal transformer would wor( with direct-current e%citation, with the core flu% increasin# linearly with time. +n practice, the flu% would rise to the point where ma#netic saturation of the core occurs, causin# a hu#e increase in the ma#neti,in# current and overheatin# the transformer. *ll practical transformers must therefore operate with alternatin# !or pulsed" current. The C 9 of a transformer at a #iven flu% density increases with fre&uency. >y operatin# at hi#her fre&uencies, transformers can be physically more compact because a #iven core is able to transfer more power without reachin# saturation and fewer turns are needed to achieve the same impedance. /owever, properties such as core loss and conductor s(in effect also increase with fre&uency. *ircraft and military e&uipment employ 400 /, power supplies which reduce core and windin# wei#ht.J-7K Gonversely, fre&uencies used for some railway electrification systems were much lower !e.#. 1'.7 /, and )6 /," than normal utility fre&uencies !60 2 '0 /," for historical reasons concerned mainly with the limitations of early electric traction motors. *s such, the transformers used to step down the hi#h over-head line volta#es !e.#. 16 (<" are much heavier for the same power ratin# than those desi#ned only for the hi#her fre&uencies.

Dperation of a transformer at its desi#ned volta#e but at a hi#her fre&uency than intended will lead to reduced ma#neti,in# current; at lower fre&uency, the ma#neti,in# current will increase. Dperation of a transformer at other than its desi#n fre&uency may re&uire assessment of volta#es, losses, and coolin# to establish if safe operation is practical. 9or e%ample, transformers may need to be e&uipped with Ovolts per hert,O over-e%citation relays to protect the transformer from overvolta#e at hi#her than rated fre&uency. Dne e%ample of state-of-the-art desi#n is those transformers used for electric multiple unit hi#h speed trains, particularly those re&uired to operate across the borders of countries usin# different standards of electrification. The position of such transformers is restricted to bein# hun# below the passen#er compartment. They have to function at different fre&uencies !down to 1'.7 /," and volta#es !up to )6 (<" whilst handlin# the enhanced power re&uirements needed for operatin# the trains at hi#h speed. Inowled#e of natural fre&uencies of transformer windin#s is of importance for the determination of the transient response of the windin#s to impulse and switchin# sur#e volta#es.

Energ* )"sses
*n ideal transformer would have no ener#y losses, and would be 1007 efficient. +n practical transformers ener#y is dissipated in the windin#s, core, and surroundin# structures. 1ar#er transformers are #enerally more efficient, and those rated for electricity distribution usually perform better than 9?7. C%perimental transformers usin# superconductin# windin#s achieve efficiencies of 99.?67. The increase in efficiency from about 9? to 99.?67 can save considerable ener#y, and hence money, in a lar#e heavily-loaded transformer; the trade-off is in the additional initial and runnin# cost of the superconductin# desi#n.

1osses in transformers !e%cludin# associated circuitry" vary with load current, and may be e%pressed as Ono-loadO or Ofull-loadO loss. .indin# resistance dominates load losses, whereas

hysteresis and eddy currents losses contribute to over 997 of the no-load loss. The no-load loss can be si#nificant, so that even an idle transformer constitutes a drain on the electrical supply and a runnin# cost; desi#nin# transformers for lower loss re&uires a lar#er core, #ood-&uality silicon steel, or even amorphous steel, for the core, and thic(er wire, increasin# initial cost, so that there is a trade-off between initial cost and runnin# cost. !*lso see ener#y efficient transformer". Transformer losses are divided into losses in the windin#s, termed copper loss, and those in the ma#netic circuit, termed iron loss. 1osses in the transformer arise from: $in+ing resistan(e Gurrent flowin# throu#h the windin#s causes resistive heatin# of the conductors. *t hi#her fre&uencies, s(in effect and pro%imity effect create additional windin# resistance and losses. H*steresis )"sses Cach time the ma#netic field is reversed, a small amount of ener#y is lost due to hysteresis within the core. 9or a #iven core material, the loss is proportional to the fre&uency, and is a function of the pea( flu% density to which it is subjected. E++* (urrents 9erroma#netic materials are also #ood conductors, and a core made from such a material also constitutes a sin#le short-circuited turn throu#hout its entire len#th. Cddy currents therefore circulate within the core in a plane normal to the flu%, and are responsible for resistive heatin# of the core material. The eddy current loss is a comple% function of the s&uare of supply fre&uency and inverse s&uare of the material thic(ness. J40K Cddy current losses can be reduced by ma(in# the core of a stac( of plates electrically insulated from each other, rather than a solid bloc(; all transformers operatin# at low fre&uencies use laminated or similar cores.

%agnet"stri(ti"n

a#netic flu% in a ferroma#netic material, such as the core, causes it to physically e%pand and contract sli#htly with each cycle of the ma#netic field, an effect (nown as ma#netostriction. This produces the bu,,in# sound commonly associated with transformers, and can cause losses due to frictional heatin#. %e(hani(a) )"sses +n addition to ma#netostriction, the alternatin# ma#netic field causes fluctuatin# forces between the primary and secondary windin#s. These incite vibrations within nearby metalwor(, addin# to the bu,,in# noise, and consumin# a small amount of power. Stra* )"sses 1ea(a#e inductance is by itself lar#ely lossless, since ener#y supplied to its ma#netic fields is returned to the supply with the ne%t half-cycle. /owever, any lea(a#e flu% that intercepts nearby conductive materials such as the transformerNs support structure will #ive rise to eddy currents and be converted to heat. There are also radiative losses due to the oscillatin# ma#netic field, but these are usually small.

D"t ("nventi"n
+t is common in transformer schematic symbols for there to be a dot at the end of each coil within a transformer, particularly for transformers with multiple primary and secondary windin#s. The dots indicate the direction of each windin# relative to the others. <olta#es at the dot end of each windin# are in phase; current flowin# into the dot end of a primary coil will result in current flowin# out of the dot end of a secondary coil.

E/uiva)ent (ir(uit
The physical limitations of the practical transformer may be brou#ht to#ether as an e&uivalent circuit model !shown below" built around an ideal lossless transformer. 8ower loss in the windin#s is current-dependent and is represented as in-series resistances 3p and 3s. 9lu% lea(a#e results in a fraction of the applied volta#e dropped without contributin# to the mutual couplin#, and thus can be modeled as reactance of each lea(a#e inductance Ap and As in series with the perfectly coupled re#ion.

+ron losses are caused mostly by hysteresis and eddy current effects in the core, and are proportional to the s&uare of the core flu% for operation at a #iven fre&uency. Since the core flu% is proportional to the applied volta#e, the iron loss can be represented by a resistance 3G in parallel with the ideal transformer. * core with finite permeability re&uires a ma#neti,in# current +m to maintain the mutual flu% in the core. The ma#neti,in# current is in phase with the flu%; saturation effects cause the relationship between the two to be non-linear, but for simplicity this effect tends to be i#nored in most circuit e&uivalents.J44K .ith a sinusoidal supply, the core flu% la#s the induced C 9 by 90V and this effect can be modeled as a ma#neti,in# reactance !reactance of an effective inductance" Am in parallel with the core loss component. 3c and Am are sometimes to#ether termed the ma#neti,in# branch of the model. +f the secondary windin# is made open-circuit, the current +0 ta(en by the ma#neti,in# branch represents the transformerNs no-load current. The secondary impedance 3s and As is fre&uently moved !or OreferredO" to the primary side after multiplyin# the components by the impedance scalin# factor !5p$5s"). Transformer e&uivalent circuit, with secondary impedances referred to the primary side The resultin# model is sometimes termed the Oe%act e&uivalent circuitO, thou#h it retains a number of appro%imations, such as an assumption of linearity. *nalysis may be simplified by movin# the ma#neti,in# branch to the left of the primary impedance, an implicit assumption that the ma#neti,in# current is low, and then summin# primary and referred secondary impedances, resultin# in so-called e&uivalent impedance. The parameters of e&uivalent circuit of a transformer can be calculated from the results of two transformer tests: open-circuit test and short-circuit test.

T*pes
9or more details on this topic, see Transformer types. * wide variety of transformer desi#ns are used for different applications, thou#h they share several common features. +mportant common transformer types include:

Aut"trans#"r,er
ain article: *utotransformer

*n autotransformer with a slidin# brush contact *n autotransformer has a sin#le windin# with two end terminals, and one or more terminals at intermediate tap points. The primary volta#e is applied across two of the terminals, and the secondary volta#e ta(en from two terminals, almost always havin# one terminal in common with the primary volta#e. The primary and secondary circuits therefore have a number of windin#s turns in common. Since the volts-per-turn is the same in both windin#s, each develops a volta#e in proportion to its number of turns. +n an autotransformer part of the current flows directly from the input to the output, and only part is transferred inductively, allowin# a smaller, li#hter, cheaper core to be used as well as re&uirin# only a sin#le windin# J4'K. /owever, a transformer with separate windin#s isolates the primary from the secondary, which is safer when usin# mains volta#es.

*n adjustable autotransformer is made by e%posin# part of the windin# coils and ma(in# the secondary connection throu#h a slidin# brush, #ivin# a variable turns ratio. Such a device is often referred to as a variac. *utotransformers are often used to step up or down between volta#es in the 110-117-1)0 volt ran#e and volta#es in the ))0-)-0-)40 volt ran#e, e.#., to output either 110 or 1)0< !with taps" from )-0< input, allowin# e&uipment from a 100 or 1)0< re#ion to be used in a )-0< re#ion.

P")*phase trans#"r,ers
9or more details on this topic, see Three-phase electric power.

Three-phase step-down transformer mounted between two utility poles 9or three-phase supplies, a ban( of three individual sin#le-phase transformers can be used, or all three phases can be incorporated as a sin#le three-phase transformer. +n this case, the ma#netic circuits are connected to#ether, the core thus containin# a three-phase flow of flu%. J4?K * number of windin# confi#urations are possible, #ivin# rise to different attributes and phase shifts. Dne particular polyphase confi#uration is the ,i#,a# transformer, used for #roundin# and in the suppression of harmonic currents.

.EA2A!E TRANSFOR%ERS

1ea(a#e transformer * lea(a#e transformer, also called a stray-field transformer, has a si#nificantly hi#her lea(a#e inductance than other transformers, sometimes increased by a ma#netic bypass or shunt in its core between primary and secondary, which is sometimes adjustable with a set screw. This provides a transformer with an inherent current limitation due to the loose couplin# between its primary and the secondary windin#s. The output and input currents are low enou#h to prevent thermal overload under all load conditionsMeven if the secondary is shorted. 1ea(a#e transformers are used for arc weldin# and hi#h volta#e dischar#e lamps !neon lamps and cold cathode fluorescent lamps, which are series-connected up to 7.6 (< *G". +t acts then both as a volta#e transformer and as a ma#netic ballast. Dther applications are short-circuit-proof e%tra-low volta#e transformers for toys or doorbell installations.

RESONANT TRANSFOR%ERS * resonant transformer is a (ind of lea(a#e transformer. +t uses the lea(a#e inductance of its secondary windin#s in combination with e%ternal capacitors, to create one or more resonant circuits. 3esonant transformers such as the Tesla coil can #enerate very hi#h volta#es, and are able to provide much hi#her current than electrostatic hi#h-volta#e #eneration machines such as the <an de @raff #enerator. Dne of the applications of the resonant transformer is for the GG91 inverter. *nother application of the resonant transformer is to couple between sta#es of a super heterodyne receiver, where the selectivity of the receiver is provided by tuned transformers in the intermediate-fre&uency amplifiers. AUDIO TRANSFOR%ERS *udio transformers are those specifically desi#ned for use in audio circuits. They can be used to bloc( radio fre&uency interference or the 0G component of an audio si#nal, to split or combine audio si#nals, or to provide impedance matchin# between hi#h and low impedance circuits, such as between a hi#h impedance tube !valve" amplifier output and a low impedance loudspea(er, or between a hi#h impedance instrument output and the low impedance input of a mi%in# console. Such transformers were ori#inally desi#ned to connect different telephone systems to one another while (eepin# their respective power supplies isolated, and are still commonly used to interconnect professional audio systems or system components. >ein# ma#netic devices, audio transformers are susceptible to e%ternal ma#netic fields such as those #enerated by *G current-carryin# conductors. O/umO is a term commonly used to describe unwanted si#nals ori#inatin# from the OmainsO power supply !typically 60 or '0 /,". *udio transformers used for low-level si#nals, such as those from microphones, often include shieldin# to protect a#ainst e%traneous ma#netically coupled si#nals.

INSTRU%ENT TRANSFOR%ERS
+nstrument transformers are used for measurin# volta#e and current in electrical power systems, and for power system protection and control. .here a volta#e or current is too lar#e to be conveniently used by an instrument, it can be scaled down to a standardi,ed, low value. +nstrument transformers isolate measurement, protection and control circuitry from the hi#h currents or volta#es present on the circuits bein# measured or controlled.

Gurrent transformers, desi#ned for placin# around conductors * current transformer is a transformer desi#ned to provide a current in its secondary coil proportional to the current flowin# in its primary coil. +nstrument transformers !+Ts" are desi#ned to transform volta#e or current from the hi#h values in the transmission and distribution systems to the low values that can be utili,ed by low volta#e meterin# devices. There are three primary applications for which +Ts are used: meterin# !for ener#y billin# and transaction purposes"; protection control !for system protection and protective relayin# purposes"; and load survey !for economic mana#ement of industrial loads". 0ependin# on the re&uirements for those applications, the +Tdesi#n and construction can be &uite different. @enerally, the meterin# +Ts re&uire hi#h accuracy in the ran#e of normal operatin# volta#e and current. 8rotection +Ts re&uire linearity in a wide ran#e of volta#es and currents. 0urin# a disturbance, such as system fault or overvolta#e transients, the output of the +T is used by a protective relay to initiate an appropriate action !open or close a brea(er, reconfi#ure the system, etc." to miti#ate the disturbance and protect the rest of the power system. +nstrument transformers are the most common and economic way to detect a disturbance.

Typical output levels of instrument transformers are 1-6 amperes and 116-1)0 volts for GTs and <Ts, respectively. There are several classes of accuracy for instrument transformers defined by the +CCC, GS*, +CG, and *5S+ standards. T3PES OF INSTRU%ENT TRANSFOR%ERS 1. <D1T*@C T35S9D3 C3S !8DTC5T+*1 T3*5S9D3 C3" ). GH33C5T T3*5S9D3 C3S VO.TA!E TRANSFOR%ERS * Transformer does not #enerate electrical power, it transfers electrical power. * transformer is a volta#e chan#er. ost transformers are desi#ned to either step volta#e up or to step it down, althou#h some are used only to isolate one volta#e from another. The transformer wor(s on the principle that ener#y can be efficiently transferred by ma#netic induction from one windin# to another windin# by a varyin# ma#netic field produced by alternatin# current . *n electrical volta#e is induced when there is a relative motion between a wire and a ma#netic field. *lternatin# current !*G" provides the motion re&uired by chan#in# direction which creates a collapsin# and e%pandin# ma#netic field. <olta#e transformers !<Ts", also referred to as Opotential transformersO !8Ts", are desi#ned to have an accurately (nown transformation ratio in both ma#nitude and phase, over a ran#e of measurin# circuit impedances. * volta#e transformer is intended to present a ne#li#ible load to the supply bein# measured. The low secondary volta#e allows protective relay e&uipment and measurin# instruments to be operated at a lower volta#es. Two types of volta#e transformer are used for protective-relayin# purposes, as follows: !1" the Oinstrument potential transformer,O hereafter to be called simply Opotential transformer,O and !)" the Ocapacitance potential device.O * potential transformer is a conventional transformer havin# primary and secondary windin#s. The primary windin# is connected directly to the power circuit either between two phases or between one phase and #round, dependin# on the ratin# of the transformer and on the re&uirements of the application. * capacitance potential device is a

volta#e-transformin# e&uipment usin# a capacitance volta#e divider connected between phase and #round of a power circuit. ACCURAC3 OF POTENTIA.TRANSFOR%ERS The ratio and phase-an#le inaccuracies of any standard *S* accuracy class1 of potential transformer are so small that they may be ne#lected for protective-relayin# purposes if the burden is within the OthermalO volt-ampere ratin# of the transformer. This thermal volt-ampere ratin# corresponds to the full-load ratin# of a power transformer. +t is hi#her than the volt-ampere ratin# used to classify potential transformers as to accuracy for meterin# purposes. >ased on the thermal volt-ampere ratin#, the e&uivalent-circuit impedances of potential transformers are comparable to those of distribution transformers. The OburdenO is the total e%ternal volt-ampere load on the secondary at rated secondary volta#e. .here several loads are connected in parallel, it is usually sufficiently accurate to add their individual volt-amperes arithmetically to determine the total volt-ampere burden. +f a potential transformer has acceptable accuracy at its rated volta#e, it is suitable over the ran#e from ,ero to 1107 of rated less volta#e. Dperation in e%cess of 107 overvolta#e may cause increased errors and e%cessive heatin#. .here precise accuracy data are re&uired, they can be obtained from ratio-correction factor curves and phase-an#le-correction curves supplied by the manufacturer >oth current and volta#e instrument transformers are desi#ned to have predictable characteristics on overloads. 8roper operation of over-current protective relays re&uires that current transformers provide a predictable transformation ratio even durin# a shortcircuit. CURRENT TRANSFOR%ERS Gurrent Transformers !GTBs" can be used for monitorin# current or for transformin# primary current into reduced secondary current used for meters, relays, control e&uipment and other instruments.

GTBs that transform current isolate the hi#h volta#e primary, permit #roundin# of the secondary, and step-down the ma#nitude of the measured current to a standard value that can be safely handled by the instrument. To determine which GT is appropriate for a particular application, it is important to understand the followin# characteristics that are used to classify current transformers. Rati" The GT ratio is the ratio of primary current input to secondary current output at full load. 9or e%ample, a GT with a ratio of -00:6 is rated for -00 primary amps at full load and will produce 6 amps of secondary current when -00 amps flow throu#h the primary. +f the primary current chan#es the secondary current output will chan#e accordin#ly. 9or e%ample, if 160 amps flow throu#h the -00 amp rated primary the secondary current output will be ).6 amps !160:-00 F ).6:6".

C.ASSIFICATION Transformers can be classified in many different ways; an incomplete list is:

>y power capacity: from a fraction of a volt-ampere !<*" to over a thousand >y fre&uency ran#e: power-, audio-, or radio fre&uency; >y volta#e class: from a few volts to hundreds of (ilovolts; >y coolin# type: air-cooled, oil-filled, fan-cooled, or water-cooled;

<*;

>y application: such as power supply, impedance matchin#, output volta#e and current stabili,er, or circuit isolation;

>y purpose: distribution, rectifier, arc furnace, amplifier output, etc.; >y windin# turns ratio: step-up, step-down, isolatin# with e&ual or near-e&ual ratio, variable, multiple windin#s.

CONSTRUCTION

C"res

1aminated core transformer showin# ed#e of laminations at top of photo .a,inate+ stee) ("res Transformers for use at power or audio fre&uencies typically have cores made of hi#h permeability silicon steel.J66K The steel has a permeability many times that of free space, and the core thus serves to #reatly reduce the ma#neti,in# current, and confine the flu% to a path which closely couples the windin#s. Carly transformer developers soon reali,ed that cores constructed from solid iron resulted in prohibitive eddy-current losses, and their desi#ns miti#ated this effect with cores consistin# of bundles of insulated iron wires. 1ater desi#ns constructed the core by stac(in# layers of thin steel laminations, a principle that has remained in use. Cach lamination is insulated from its nei#hbors by a thin non-conductin# layer of insulation. The universal transformer e&uation indicates a minimum cross-sectional area for the core to avoid saturation. The effect of laminations is to confine eddy currents to hi#hly elliptical paths that enclose little flu%, and so reduce their ma#nitude. Thinner laminations reduce losses, but are more laborious and e%pensive to construct. Thin laminations are #enerally used on hi#h fre&uency transformers, with some types of very thin steel laminations able to operate up to 10 (/,.

1aminatin# the core #reatly reduces eddy-current losses Dne common desi#n of laminated core is made from interleaved stac(s of C-shaped steel sheets capped with +-shaped pieces, leadin# to its name of OC-+ transformerO. Such a desi#n tends to e%hibit more losses, but is very economical to manufacture. The cut-core or G-core type is made by windin# a steel strip around a rectan#ular form and then bondin# the layers to#ether. +t is then cut in two, formin# two G shapes, and the core assembled by bindin# the two G halves to#ether with a steel strap. They have the advanta#e that the flu% is always oriented parallel to the metal #rains, reducin# reluctance. * steel coreNs remanence means that it retains a static ma#netic field when power is removed. .hen power is then reapplied, the residual field will cause a hi#h inrush current until the effect of the remainin# ma#netism is reduced, usually after a few cycles of the applied alternatin# current. Dver current protection devices such as fuses must be selected to allow this harmless inrush to pass. Dn transformers connected to lon#, overhead power transmission lines, induced currents due to #eoma#netic disturbances durin# solar storms can cause saturation of the core and operation of transformer protection devices. 0istribution transformers can achieve low noload losses by usin# cores made with low-loss hi#h-permeability silicon steel or amorphous !non-crystalline" metal alloy. The hi#her initial cost of the core material is offset over the life of the transformer by its lower losses at li#ht load. S")i+ ("res 8owdered iron cores are used in circuits !such as switch-mode power supplies" that operate above main fre&uencies and up to a few tens of (ilohert,. These materials combine hi#h ma#netic permeability with hi#h bul( electrical resistivity. 9or fre&uencies e%tendin# beyond the </9 band, cores made from non-conductive ma#netic ceramic materials called ferrites are common.J67K Some radio-fre&uency transformers also have movable cores !sometimes called Nslu#sN" which allow adjustment of the couplin# coefficient !and bandwidth" of tuned radiofre&uency circuits.

T"r"i+a) ("res

Small toroidal core transformer Toroidal transformers are built around a rin#-shaped core, which, dependin# on operatin# fre&uency, is made from a lon# strip of silicon steel or 8ermalloy wound into a coil, powdered iron, or ferrite.J'1K * strip construction ensures that the #rain boundaries are optimally ali#ned, improvin# the transformerNs efficiency by reducin# the coreNs reluctance. The closed rin# shape eliminates air #aps inherent in the construction of an C-+ core. J-4K The cross-section of the rin# is usually s&uare or rectan#ular, but more e%pensive cores with circular cross-sections are also available. The primary and secondary coils are often wound concentrically to cover the entire surface of the core. This minimi,es the len#th of wire needed, and also provides screenin# to minimi,e the coreNs ma#netic field from #eneratin# electroma#netic interference.

Toroidal transformers are more efficient than the cheaper laminated C-+ types for a similar power level. Dther advanta#es compared to C-+ types, include smaller si,e !about half", lower wei#ht !about half", less mechanical hum !ma(in# them superior in audio amplifiers", lower e%terior ma#netic field !about one tenth", low off-load losses !ma(in# them more efficient in standby circuits", sin#le-bolt mountin#, and #reater choice of shapes. The main disadvanta#es are hi#her cost and limited power capacity !see OGlassificationO above". >ecause of the lac( of a residual #ap in the ma#netic path, toroidal transformers also tend to e%hibit hi#her inrush current, compared to laminated C-+ types.

9errite toroidal cores are used at hi#her fre&uencies, typically between a few tens of (ilohert, to hundreds of me#ahert,, to reduce losses, physical si,e, and wei#ht of switch-mode power supplies. * drawbac( of toroidal transformer construction is the hi#her labor cost of windin#. This is because it is necessary to pass the entire len#th of a coil windin# throu#h the core aperture each time a sin#le turn is added to the coil. *s a conse&uence, toroidal transformers are uncommon above ratin#s of a few (<*. Small distribution transformers may achieve some of the benefits of a toroidal core by splittin# it and forcin# it open, then insertin# a bobbin containin# primary and secondary windin#s. Air ("res * physical core is not an absolute re&uisite and a functionin# transformer can be produced simply by placin# the windin#s near each other, an arran#ement termed an Oair-coreO transformer. The air which comprises the ma#netic circuit is essentially lossless, and so an aircore transformer eliminates loss due to hysteresis in the core material.J-)K The lea(a#e inductance is inevitably hi#h, resultin# in very poor re#ulation, and so such desi#ns are unsuitable for use in power distribution.J-)K They have however very hi#h bandwidth, and are fre&uently employed in radio-fre&uency applications,J')K for which a satisfactory couplin# coefficient is maintained by carefully overlappin# the primary and secondary windin#s. TheyNre also used for resonant transformers such as Tesla coils where they can achieve reasonably low loss in spite of the hi#h lea(a#e inductance.

$in+ings

.indin#s are usually arran#ed concentrically to minimi,e flu% lea(a#e. Gut view throu#h transformer windin#s. .hite: insulator. @reen spiral: @rain oriented silicon steel. >lac(: 8rimary windin# made of o%y#en-free copper. 3ed: Secondary windin#. Top left: Toroidal transformer. 3i#ht: G-core, but C-core would be similar. The blac( windin#s are made of film. Top: C&ually low capacitance between all ends of both windin#s. Since most cores are at least moderately conductive they also need insulation. >ottom: 1owest capacitance for one end of the secondary windin# needed for low-power hi#h-volta#e transformers. >ottom left: 3eduction of lea(a#e inductance would lead to increase of capacitance. The conductin# material used for the windin#s depends upon the application, but in all cases the individual turns must be electrically insulated from each other to ensure that the current travels throu#hout every turn. 9or small power and si#nal transformers, in which currents are low and the potential difference between adjacent turns is small, the coils are often wound from enamelled ma#net wire, such as 9ormvar wire. 1ar#er power transformers operatin# at hi#h volta#es may be wound with copper rectan#ular strip conductors insulated by oil-impre#nated paper and bloc(s of pressboard. /i#h-fre&uency transformers operatin# in the tens to hundreds of (ilohert, often have windin#s made of braided 1it, wire to minimi,e the s(in-effect and pro%imity effect losses. 1ar#e power transformers use multiple-stranded conductors as well, since even at low power fre&uencies nonuniform distribution of current would otherwise e%ist in hi#h-current windin#s.

Cach strand is individually insulated, and the strands are arran#ed so that at certain points in the windin#, or throu#hout the whole windin#, each portion occupies different relative positions in the complete conductor. The transposition e&uali,es the current flowin# in each strand of the conductor, and reduces eddy current losses in the windin# itself. The stranded conductor is also more fle%ible than a solid conductor of similar si,e, aidin# manufacture.J'-K 9or si#nal transformers, the windin#s may be arran#ed in a way to minimi,e lea(a#e inductance and stray capacitance to improve hi#h-fre&uency response. This can be done by splittin# up each coil into sections, and those sections placed in layers between the sections of the other windin#. This is (nown as a stac(ed type or interleaved windin#. >oth the primary and secondary windin#s on power transformers may have e%ternal connections, called taps, to intermediate points on the windin# to allow selection of the volta#e ratio. +n power distribution transformers the taps may be connected to an automatic on-load tap chan#er for volta#e re#ulation of distribution circuits. *udio-fre&uency transformers, used for the distribution of audio to public address loudspea(ers, have taps to allow adjustment of impedance to each spea(er. * center-tapped transformer is often used in the output sta#e of an audio power amplifier in a push-pull circuit. very similar. Gertain transformers have the windin#s protected by epo%y resin. >y impre#natin# the transformer with epo%y under a vacuum, one can replace air spaces within the windin#s with epo%y, thus sealin# the windin#s and helpin# to prevent the possible formation of corona and absorption of dirt or water. This produces transformers more suited to damp or dirty environments, but at increased manufacturin# cost. odulation transformers in * transmitters are

Goolant

Gut-away view of three-phase oil-cooled transformer. The oil reservoir is visible at the top. 3adiative fins aid the dissipation of heat. /i#h temperatures will dama#e the windin# insulation. Small transformers do not #enerate si#nificant heat and are cooled by air circulation and radiation of heat. 8ower transformers rated up to several hundred (<* can be ade&uately cooled by natural convective air-coolin#, sometimes assisted by fans. +n lar#er transformers, part of the desi#n problem is removal of heat. Some power transformers are immersed in transformer oil that both cools and insulates the windin#s. The oil is a hi#hly refined mineral oil that remains stable at transformer operatin# temperature. +ndoor li&uid-filled transformers are re&uired by buildin# re#ulations in many jurisdictions to use a non-flammable li&uid, or to be located in fire-resistant rooms. J'?K *ircooled dry transformers are preferred for indoor applications even at capacity ratin#s where oilcooled construction would be more economical, because their cost is offset by the reduced buildin# construction cost. The oil-filled tan( often has radiators throu#h which the oil circulates by natural convection; some lar#e transformers employ forced circulation of the oil by electric pumps, aided by e%ternal fans or water-cooled heat e%chan#ers.

Dil-filled transformers under#o prolon#ed dryin# processes to ensure that the transformer is completely free of water vapor before the coolin# oil is introduced. This helps prevent electrical brea(down under load. Dil-filled transformers may be e&uipped with >uchhol, relays, which detect #as evolved durin# internal arcin# and rapidly deener#i,e the transformer to avert catastrophic failure. Dil-filled transformers may fail, rupture, and burn, causin# power outa#es and losses. +nstallations of oil-filled transformers usually include fire protection measures such as walls, oil containment, and fire-suppression sprin(ler systems. 8olychlorinated biphenyls have properties that once favored their use as a coolant, thou#h concerns over their environmental persistence led to a widespread ban on their use. Today, nonto%ic, stable silicone-based oils, or fluorinated hydrocarbons may be used where the e%pense of a fire-resistant li&uid offsets additional buildin# cost for a transformer vault. >efore 1977, even transformers that were nominally filled only with mineral oils may also have been contaminated with polychlorinated biphenyls at 10-)0 ppm. Since mineral oil and 8G> fluid mi%, maintenance e&uipment used for both 8G> and oil-filled transformers could carry over small amounts of 8G>, contaminatin# oil-filled transformers. Some OdryO transformers !containin# no li&uid" are enclosed in sealed, pressuri,ed tan(s and cooled by nitro#en or sulfur he%afluoride #as. C%perimental power transformers in the ) are cooled by li&uid nitro#en or helium. <* ran#e have been built with

superconductin# windin#s which eliminates the copper losses, but not the core steel loss. These

Insu)ati"n +r*ing
This section does not cite any references or sources. 8lease help improve this article by addin# citations to reliable sources. Hnsourced material may be challen#ed and removed. Gonstruction of oil-filled transformers re&uires that the insulation coverin# the windin#s be thorou#hly dried before the oil is introduced. There are several different methods of dryin#.

Gommon for all is that they are carried out in vacuum environment. The vacuum ma(es it difficult to transfer ener#y !heat" to the insulation. 9or this there are several different methods. The traditional dryin# is done by circulatin# hot air over the active part and cycle this with periods of vacuum !/ot *ir <acuum dryin#, /*<". ore common for lar#er transformers is to use evaporated solvent which condenses on the colder active part. The benefit is that the entire process can be carried out at lower pressure and without influence of added o%y#en. This process is commonly called <apour 8hase 0ryin# !<80". 9or distribution transformers which are smaller and have a smaller insulation wei#ht, resistance heatin# can be used. This is a method where current is injected in the windin#s and the resistance in the windin#s is heatin# up the insulation. The benefit is that the heatin# can be controlled very well and it is ener#y efficient. The method is called 1ow 9re&uency /eatin# !19/" since the current is injected at a much lower fre&uency than the nominal of the #rid, which is normally 60 or '0 /,. * lower fre&uency reduces the affect of the inductance in the transformer and the volta#e can be reduced.

Ter,ina)s
<ery small transformers will have wire leads connected directly to the ends of the coils, and brou#ht out to the base of the unit for circuit connections. 1ar#er transformers may have heavy bolted terminals, bus bars or hi#h-volta#e insulated bushin#s made of polymers or porcelain. * lar#e bushin# can be a comple% structure since it must provide careful control of the electric field #radient without lettin# the transformer lea( oil.

APP.ICATIONS

+ma#e of an electrical substation in

elbourne, *ustralia showin# - of 6 ))0(<$''(<

transformers, each with a capacity of 1?6 <*. * major application of transformers is to increase volta#e before transmittin# electrical ener#y over lon# distances throu#h wires. .ires have resistance and so dissipate electrical ener#y at a rate proportional to the s&uare of the current throu#h the wire. >y transformin# electrical power to a hi#h-volta#e !and therefore low-current" form for transmission and bac( a#ain afterward, transformers enable economic transmission of power over lon# distances. Gonse&uently, transformers have shaped the electricity supply industry, permittin# #eneration to be located remotely from points of demand.J7-K *ll but a tiny fraction of the worldNs electrical power has passed throu#h a series of transformers by the time it reaches the consumer. Transformers are also used e%tensively in electronic products to step down the supply volta#e to a level suitable for the low volta#e circuits they contain. The transformer also electrically isolates the end user from contact with the supply volta#e. Si#nal and audio transformers are used to couple sta#es of amplifiers and to match devices such as microphones and record players to the input of amplifiers. *udio transformers allowed telephone circuits to carry on a two-way conversation over a sin#le pair of wires.

* balun transformer converts a si#nal that is referenced to #round to a si#nal that has balanced volta#es to #round, such as between e%ternal cables and internal circuits. The principle of open-circuit !unloaded" transformer is widely used for characterisation of soft ma#netic materials, for e%ample in the internationally standardised Cpstein frame methodK. Turns rati" Transformers are used in a wide array of electrical or electronic applications, providin# functions that ran#e from isolation and steppin# up or steppin# down volta#e and current to noise rejection, si#nal measurement, re#ulation and a host of functions particular to specific applications. +n order to test that a transformer will meet its desi#n specification, a number of functions should be tested and one of the most commonly used tests is turns ratio. This technical note will review briefly the basic theory of turns ratio and then introduce some additional issues that should be considered when testin# this critical transformer characteristic.

-asi( The"r* The turns ratio of a transformer is defined as the number of turns on its secondary divided by the number of turns on its primary. The volta#e ratio of an ideal transformer is directly related to the turns ratio

The current ratio of an ideal transformer is inversely related to the turnBs ratio

.here <s F secondary volta#e, +s F secondary current, <p F primary volta#e, +p F primary current, 5s F number of turns in the secondary windin# and 5p F number of turns in the primary windin#. The turns ratio of a transformer therefore defines the transformer as stepup or step-down. * step-up transformer is one whose secondary volta#e is #reater than its primary volta#e and a transformer that steps up volta#e will step-down current. * step-down transformer is one whose secondary volta#e is lower than its primary volta#e and a transformer that steps down volta#e will step-up current. Fa(t"rs A##e(ting Turns Rati" %easure,ents .ith a theoretical, WidealX transformer, the ratio of the physical turns on any windin# could be established simply by measurin# the rms output volta#e on one windin#, while applyin# a (nown rms input volta#e of an appropriate fre&uency to another windin#. Hnder these conditions, the ratio of the input to output volta#es would be e&ual to the physical turns ratio of these windin#s. Hnfortunately, however, WrealX transformers include a number of electrical properties that result in a volta#e or current ratio that may be not e&ual to the physical turns ratio. The followin# schematic dia#ram illustrates the electrical properties of a real transformer, with the ideal transformer component shown in the center, plus the electrical components that represent various additional properties of the transformer.

11, 1) and 1- represent the primary and secondary lea(a#e inductance caused by incomplete ma#netic couplin# between the windin#s. 31, 3) and 3- represent the resistance !or copper loss" of the primary and secondary windin#s. G1, G), and G- represent the interwindin# capacitance. 1p represents the ma#neti,in# inductance core loss. 3c represents the core loss of which three areas contribute, eddy current loss !increases with fre&uency", hysteresis loss !increases with flu% density" and residual loss !partially due to resonance".

T*pes "# Turns Rati" Tests .hen considerin# the ran#e of elements shown in the transformer schematic and considerin# also the varyin# re&uirements of different transformer applications, it can be seen that no sin#le measurement techni&ue will fully satisfy all turns ratio &uestions. 9or this reason, <oltech *T series transformer testers offer five different turns ratio measurement techni&ues, which can be selected individually to meet specific needs.

TR 4turns rati"5. This test ener#i,es any chosen windin# at a specified volta#e and measures the induced volta#e on any other windin#. The results are then presented as a ratio !e.#. ):1, 6:1, etc." <oltech *T testers do this by dividin# one volta#e by the other while compensatin# for windin# resistance. 8hase is also measured: Yin-phaseB !positive polarity" and Yanti phaseB !ne#ative polarity". TR. 4turns rati" 6* in+u(tan(e5. This test separately ener#i,es two selected windin#s and measures the inductance value of each windin#. The results are then presented as a ratio of turns !e.#. ):1, 6:1, etc." calculated from the s&uared root of the inductance values. 8hase is also measured: Yin- phaseB !positive polarity" and Yanti-phaseB !ne#ative polarity". .VOC 4)"' v")tage "pen (ir(uit5. This test applies a volta#e to the primary windin#, reads the volta#e induced in the secondary windin# and presents the results as a secondary volta#e !e.#. ).646<". 8hase is also measured: Yin- phaseB !positive polarity" and Yanti-phaseB !ne#ative polarity". VOC 4v")tage "pen (ir(uit - AT&788 "n)*5. This test uses the same principal as 1<DG but by usin# a hi#h-power #enerator, capable of ener#i,in# a windin# at volta#es up to )70<, the test is suitable for testin# low-fre&uency power transformers. 8hase is also measured: Yin- phaseB !positive polarity" and Yanti-phaseB !ne#ative polarity". VOC9 4v")tage "pen (ir(uit 'ith e1terna) s"ur(e - AT&788 "n)*5. This test, which is used in conjunction with the <oltech *G +nterface 9i%ture, will control an e%ternal *G source or step-up transformer for testin# hi#her power and hi#her volta#e transformers up to '00< and 10*.8hase is also measured: Yin-phaseB !positive polarity" and Yanti-phaseB !ne#ative polarity".

Ch""sing the C"rre(t Turns Rati" Test +n order to determine which type of turns ratio test is most appropriate for a particular transformer, a number of issues should be considered. The table below shows each test with a description, the related specifications and a summary of the benefit provided by that test.

CONC.USION .hile turns ratio may be a well (nown and very fundamental function in a transformer, it can be seen that testin# this function effectively re&uires the consideration of many issues. >y providin# a fle%ible ran#e of turns ratio test options, the <oltech *T series testers provide desi#ners and manufacturers ali(e with the opportunity to select the most appropriate tests for any transformer desi#n and therefore optimi,e the &uality and efficiency of their test process.

%ODE..IN! OF CASE STUD3

$INDIN! ARRAN!E%ENT FOR FIVE-PHASE STAR OUTPUT Three separate cores are desi#ned with each carryin# one primary and three secondary coils, e%cept in one core where only two secondary coils are used. Si% terminals of primaries are connected in an appropriate manner resultin# in star and$or delta connections and the 1' terminals of secondaries are connected in a different fashion resultin# in star or poly#on output. The connection scheme of secondary windin#s to obtain a star output is illustrated in 9i#. ) and the correspondin# pharos dia#ram is illustrated in 9i#. -. The construction of output phases with re&uisite phase an#les of 7) between each phase is obtained usin#

appropriate turn ratios, and the #overnin# pharos e&uations are illustrated in !1"2!10". The turn ratios are different in each phase. The choice of turn ratio is the (ey in creatin# the re&uisite phase displacement in the output phases. The input phases are desi#nated with letters WAX WLX, and WQX and the output are desi#nated with letters W*X, W>X, WGX, W0X, and WCX. *s illustrated in 9i#. -, the output phase W*X is alon# the input phase WAX. The output phase W>X results from the phasor sum of windin# volta#e W X and W X, the output phase WGX is obtained by the phasor sum of windin# volta#es . The output phase W0X is obtained by the phasor addition of windin# volta#es and similarly output phase WCX results from the pharos sum of the windin# volta#es W X and W X.

+n this way, five phases are obtained. The transformation from three to five and vice-versa is further obtained by usin# the relation #iven in !1"2!10"

%AT.A- DESIN! OF CASE STUD3 AND RESU.TS

%ODE. OF THE THREE- TO FIVE-PHASE TRANSFOR%ATION:

Three phase input v")tage

Output #ive phase )"a+ v")tage

Output #ive phase )"a+ (urrent

S"ur(e (urrent

CONC.USION
This paper proposes a new transformer connection scheme to transform the three-phase #rid power to a five-phase output supply. The connection scheme and the phasor dia#ram alon# with the turn ratios are illustrated. The successful implementation of the proposed connection scheme is elaborated by usin# simulation and e%perimentation. * five-phase induction motor under a loaded condition is used to prove the viability of the transformation system. +t is e%pected that the proposed connection scheme can be used in drives applications and may also be further e%plored to be utili,ed in multiphase power transmission systems.

REFERENCES
J1K C. C. .ard and /. /arer, W8reliminary investi#ation of an inverter-fed 6-phase induction motor,X 8roc. +nst. Clect. Cn#., vol. 11', no. ', 19'9. J)K 0. >asic, =. @. Qhu, and @. >oardman, WTransient performance study of brushless doubly fed twin stator #enerator,X +CCC Trans. Cner#y Gonvers., vol. 1?, no. -, pp. 400240?, =ul. )00-. J-K @. I. Sin#h, WSelf e%cited induction #enerator research- a survey,X Clect. 8ower Syst. 3es., vol. '9, pp. 1072114, )004. J4K D. Djo and +. C. 0avidson, W8. -<S+ inverter-assisted stand-alone dual stator windin# induction #enerator,X +CCC Trans +nd. *ppl., vol. -', no. ', pp. 1'0421'11, 5ov.$0ec. )000. J6K @. I. Sin#h, I. >. Ladav, and 3. 8. Saini, W odellin# and analysis of multiphase !si%-phase" self-e%cited induction #enerator,X in 8roc. Ci#ht +nt. Gonf. on Clectric Ghina, )006, pp. 19))219)7. achines and Systems,

J'K @. I. Sin#h, I. >. Ladav, and 3. 8. Sani, W*nalysis of saturated multiphase !si%-phase" self e%cited induction #enerator,X +nt. =. Cmer#in# Clect. 8ower Syst., *rticle 6, vol. 7, no. ), Sep. )00'. J7K @. I. Sin#h, I. >. Ladav, and 3. 8. Sani, WGapacitive self-e%citation in si%-phase induction #enerator for small hydro power-an e%perimental investi#ation,X presented at the +CCC Gonf. 8ower Clectronics, 0rives and Cner#y Systems for +ndustrial @rowthM)00' !8C0CS-)00'" 8aper*- )0. !G0-3D ", 5ew 0elhi, +ndia, 0ec. 1)216, )00'. J?K @. I. Sin#h, W odellin# and e%perimental analysis of a self e%cited si%-phase induction #enerator for standalone renewable ener#y #eneration,X 3enew. Cner#y, vol. --, no. 7, pp. 1'062 1'), =ul. )00?. J9K =. 3. Stewart and 0. 0..ilson, W/i#h phase order transmission- a feasibility analysis 8art-+Steady state considerations,X +CCC Trans. 8ower *pp. Syst., vol. 8*S-97, no. ', pp. )-002)-07, 5ov. 197?. J10K =. 3. Stewart and 0. 0. .ilson, W/i#h phase order transmission- a feasibility analysis 8art++-Dver volta#es and insulation re&uirements,X+CCC Trans. 8ower *pp. Syst., vol. 8*S-97, no. ', pp. )-0?2)-17, 5ov. 197?. J11K =. 3. Stewart, C. Iallaur, and =. S. @rant, WCconomics of C/< hi#h phase order transmission,X +CCC Trans. 8ower *pp. Syst., vol. 8*S-b 10-, no. 11, pp. --?'2--9), 5ov. 19?4. J1)K S. 5. Tewari, @. I. Sin#h, and *. >. Saroor, W ultiphase power transmission research-a survey,X Clect. 8ower Syst. 3es., vol. )4, pp. )072)16, 199).