CARBON STRIPPING THE PRACTICAL ALTERNATIVES

Many methods are used commercia y !or reco"erin# #o d and si "er !rom oaded acti"ated car$on% The ma&or 'rocesses inc ude( )*+ Atmos'heric ,adra Stri''in# )-+ Pressuri.ed ,adra Stri''in# )/+ An# o American Research La$oratory )AARL+ Method )0+ A coho Stri''in# )1+ Micron E ution Procedure Each 'rocess is $rie! y descri$ed% Variations to and com$inations o! the $asic methods are a so hi#h i#hted% The ad"anta#es and disad"anta#es o! each 'rocedure are discussed% I% INTRO23CTION Acti"ated car$on has on# $een 4no5n to e6hi$it a stron# a!!inity !or the e6traction o! #o d !rom cyanide so utions% It 5as not7 ho5e"er7 unti methods !or chemica y desor$in# #o d !rom oaded car$on 5ere de"e o'ed7 that the 'rocess came into 5ides'read use !or #o d reco"ery !rom ore% These 'rocedures a o5ed the car$on to $e recyc ed !or !urther #o d reco"ery% Today7 many o'tions are a"ai a$ e to the reco"ery ' ant desi#ner and o'erator !or the stri''in# o! #o d !rom car$on% Each method has ad"anta#es and disad"anta#es7 5hich shou d $e e"a uated 5hen decidin# 5hich 'rocess to use% II% ATMOSPHERIC ,A2RA STRIPPING Atmos'heric 'ressure ,adra stri''in# 5as the !irst commercia y success!u 'rocess de"e o'ed !or stri''in# #o d !rom car$on% The 'rocess 5as de"e o'ed $y 8% B% ,adra7 and others7 at the 3%S% Bureau o! Mines )3SBM+ in the ear y *91:;s% The resu ts o! their research 5ere !irst a'' ied at Go den Cyc e Go d Cor'oration;s Car ton Mi at Victor7 Co orado in *91*% The resu ts o! ,adra;s 5or4 5ere 'u$ ished $y the 3SBM as RI <0=0/ )*+% This 'u$ ication is sti in 'rint and is actua y the !oundation !or the other stri''in# 'rocesses% The 'rocess is sti 5ide y used today $ecause o! its sim' icity% The ,adra 'rocess consists o! circu atin# a *> sodium hydro6ide and :%*> sodium cyanide 5ater $ased so ution u'! o5 throu#h a stationary $ed o! oaded car$on at a ! o5 rate o! a$out - $ed "o umes 'er hour at a$out -:: de#?@% Go d that 5as 're"ious y adsor$ed on the car$on as a sodium or ca ciumA#o d cyanide ion 'air )-+ is desor$ed !rom the car$on $y a re"ersa o! the adsor'tion 4inetics% Go d is reco"ered !rom the 're#nant stri' so ution $y e ectro5innin# onto stee 5oo % The #o d de' eted so ution is then reheated and recyc ed to the car$on $ed !or reuse )see @i#ure *+%

The 'rocess #enera y ta4es a$out 0= to B- hours% Ty'ica y the #o d content o! car$on is reduced !rom *1: o. AuAton o! car$on to ess than / o.% AuAton o! car$on% The ,adra 'rocess is characteri.ed $y sim' icity o! system desi#n and o'eration% Mi d stee eCui'ment is norma y used% Manua contro is the standard% @ uctuations in ! o5 and tem'eratures can reduce stri''in# e!!iciency $ut the on y ad"erse e!!ect is an e6tension o! the reCuired stri''in# cyc e time% A!ter the desor'tion "esse has $een !i ed 5ith oaded car$on and so ution ! o5 is started7 the on y o'erator attention reCuired is 'eriodic system chec4s ty'ica o! any 'rocess ' ant o'eration% The main disad"anta#e o! the ori#ina ,adra 'rocess is its o5 rate o! desor'tion% It is much s o5er than the a ternati"es% This necessitates ar#er car$on in"entories and ar#er eCui'ment than other !aster 'rocesses% Stri''in# tem'erature is the most si#ni!icant o'eratin# 'arameter so so utions are 4e't as c ose to $oi in# tem'erature as is 'ractica % Since many mines are at hi#h e e"ations7 5ith resu tant o5 $oi in# 'oints7 the reduction in stri''in# rate can $e si#ni!icant 5hen com'ared 5ith o'erations at near sea e"e a titudes% Bui du' o! misce aneous ions in so ution a!ter continued recyc in# a so reduces stri''in# e!!iciency% To a e"iate this 'ro$ em7 most o'erations routine y $ eed a !raction o! their stri' iCuor in"entory and re' enish 5ith !resh so ution% The e!!iciency o! the e ectro5innin# ce s is a so si#ni!icant to stri''in# e!!iciency% Hi#h e"e s o! #o d in recyc ed e uant resu t in a reduction in stri''in# rate as i ustrated ty'ica y $y @i#ure -)/+% III% PRESS3RE ,A2RA STRIPPING Continued research at the 3SBM re"ea ed that the ,adra 'rocess stri''in# rate cou d $e increased #reat y $y stri''in# at hi#her tem'eratures )0+% A com'arison o! the increase in stri''in# rate 5ith tem'erature is sho5n in @i#ure /% To o'erate at hi#her tem'eratures7 the 'rocess must o'erate at 'ressures hi#her than the "a'or 'ressure o! the so ution% Hi#h 'ressure o'eration is accom' ished $y so ution 'um' and a contro re#u ator% In 'ractice7 a so ution hydro6ide and :%*> de#?@ and D1 PSIG7 is "esse !i ed 5ith oaded $ed "o umes 'er hour% The time reCuired !or 'ressure to *0 hours%

means o! a hi#h 'ressure stri''in# co umn 'ressure

containin# a$out *> sodium sodium cyanide at a$out -=: circu ated throu#h a 'ressure car$on at a ! o5 rate o! -%: stri''in# is #enera y !rom *:

Barren stri' so ution is ty'ica y 'um'ed throu#h a heat reco"ery heat e6chan#er and a so ution heater% The so ution then ! o5s u' throu#h the $ed o! car$on and o"er! o5s near the to' o! the stri''in# "esse % The so ution is coo ed $y e6chan#in# heat 5ith $arren so ution and ! o5s throu#h a $ac4 'ressure contro "a "e7 to the 're#nant so ution ho din# tan4% Pre#nant so ution is 'um'ed !rom the 're#nant so ution tan4 throu#h e ectro5innin# ce s 5here #o d is reco"ered $y e ectro ysis%

Barren so ution is then returned to the $arren so ution tan4 !or recyc e )see @i#ure 0+% Hi#h tem'erature imits are #enera y constrained $y 'ressure and tem'erature imitations o! system com'onents7 such as "esse desi#n 'ressures and #as4et tem'erature imits% 3SBM research indicated that increases in stri''in# e!!iciency cou d $e achie"ed u' to /1D de#?@% A$o"e /1D de#?@ cyanide 5as decom'osed and meta ic #o d 'reci'itated in the car$on% P ant 'ractice #enera y indicates that a$out /:: de#?@ is the u''er imit !or ma6imum stri''in# e!!iciency% Pressure stri''in# co umns are norma y si.ed 5ith a hei#ht to diameter ratio o! a$out 0 to *% Interna so ution distri$utors and co ectors are used to 'ro"ide e"en ! o5 o! so ution throu#hout the car$on $ed% The ma&ority o! 'ressure stri' "esse s are constructed !rom stain ess stee 7 $ut many car$on stee "esse s are 'ro"idin# satis!actory ser"ice% So ution ! o5 rate has itt e e!!ect on stri''in# e!!iciency in the ran#e o! * to 0 $ed "o umes 'er hour% Lo5 so ution ! o5 rates 'roduce s i#ht y hi#her e!!iciencies in most cases7 $ut the increase is not si#ni!icant% Stri''in# e!!iciency decreases as ! o5 rates are increased a$o"e / to 0 $ed "o umes 'er hour% The desi#n so ution ! o5 rate is #enera y $ased on a com'romise $et5een reduced e ution time and increased eCui'ment costs at hi#her ! o5 rates% Most co umns are o'erated 5ith u'! o5 o! so ution7 $ut some ' ants ha"e se ected to e ute $y do5n! o5% The ad"anta#e to do5n! o5 is reduced 'otentia !or $indin# o! ! o5 distri$ution screens $y tram' materia in the car$on% 3'! o5 o'eration means that the car$on $ed is a 5ays ! ooded7 and insures that the car$on is continua y contacted $y stri' so ution% The e6tent o! instrumentation is #enera y determined $y o'erator 're!erence% Automatic so ution tem'erature contro and co umn $ac4 'ressure contro are the minimum automation reCuired% So ution $ eedin# is reCuired to 're"ent the $ui du' o! contaminants7 5hich reduce stri''in# e!!iciency% The amount o! so ution $ eed reCuired "aries !rom a$out *A/ o! the e uant "o ume 'er cyc e7 to as o5 as the residua e uant on the car$on durin# car$on trans!er% Contro o! the amount o! so ution 'ur#ed !rom the system is done either on a routine schedu ed $asis or $y monitorin# stri''in# e!!iciency and $ eedin# as e!!iciency dro's% OPERATING SCHE23LE( The !o o5in# is a ty'ica o'eratin# schedu e !or a Pressure ,adra stri''in# cyc e( SOL3TION TIME 9: Trans!er Eater minutes :%*> NaCN7 *> 0=: NaOH minutes D: @resh Eater minutes /: Trans!er Eater minutes

Load Co umn E ution Car$on Coo in# 3n oad Co umn

TOTAL IV% AARL STRIPPING

** hours

The An# o?American Research La$oratories )AARL+ stri''in# 'rocedure )1+ 5as !irst used on a ar#e sca e in *9=: at the President Brand Go d Mine in South A!rica% Since that time7 its a'' ication has $ecome standard 'ractice in South A!rica and Austra ia% The 'rocess in"o "es a series o! 'rocedures #enera y startin# 5ith an acid 5ash !o o5ed $y a 5ater 5ash to remo"e residua acid% The car$on is then soa4ed !or a$out /: minutes in a so ution containin# a$out /> sodium cyanide and *> sodium hydro6ide% Hi#h Cua ity !resh 5ater at a$out -/: de#?@ is then 'um'ed throu#h the 'ressuri.ed stri''in# "esse to 'roduce the 're#nant e uant% Go d is reco"ered !rom the 're#nant e uant $y e ectro5innin# and the $arren e uant is discarded )See @i#ure /+% It is interestin# to note that the ,adra stri''in# 'rocedures researched $y the 3SBM7 ori#ina y en"isioned 'resoa4in# car$on 5ith a caustic cyanide so ution !o o5ed $y e ution 5ith deioni.ed 5ater% This idea 5as discarded in 'ractice7 in !a"or o! the sim' er one ste' caustic cyanide e ution% The main ad"anta#e o! the AARL 'rocess is the a$i ity to stri' a $atch o! car$on to o5 #o d residua s in an = hour shi!t% This o!!ers the 'otentia o! either desi#nin# !or mu ti' e stri''in# cyc es each day and reducin# eCui'ment si.es in ne5 ' ant desi#n7 or increasin# dai y ca'acity in e6istin# mi s $y stri''in# on additiona shi!ts each day% 2isad"anta#es o! the AARL 'rocess inc ude the reCuirement !or hi#h Cua ity 5ater7 hi#h 5ater consum'tion7 the 'otentia !or mi6in# acid 5ith cyanide7 and the necessity !or automated contro s% ACI2 EASHING Eith the AARL 'rocess7 e ution is norma y 'roceeded $y acid 5ashin# the car$on% Acid 5ashin# is used 5ith a o! the other stri''in# systems7 $ut it is mentioned s'eci!ica y 5ith the AARL 'rocedure7 $ecause AARL systems #enera y use the stri''in# "esse to acid 5ash and acid 5ashin# is7 there!ore7 contro ed as 'art o! the stri''in# seCuence% Acid 5ashin# has $een sho5n to ty'ica y increase the e!!iciency o! AARL stri''in#% Hydroch oric acid is a 5ays used in AARL systems 5ith concentrations #enera y around /> $y "o ume% Acid 5ashin# is current y $ein# done $oth in a se'arate "esse !rom the stri''in# co umn and in the e ution "esse % @actors !a"orin# acid 5ashin# in the e ution "esse inc ude( )*+ e iminatin# a car$on trans!er 5hich reduces #o d osses !rom !ine car$on $rea4a#e o! oaded car$on7 )-+ conser"ation o! heat i! hot acid 5ashin# is em' oyed and )/+ reduction in stri''in# cyc e time $y e iminatin# a car$on trans!er% @actors !a"orin# insta ation o! a se'arate acid 5ash "esse inc ude( )*+ ess 'otentia !or mi6in# acid and% cyanide in the e"ent o! o'erator error or eCui'ment ma !unction7 and )-+ ess ri#orous reCuirements !or materia s o! construction in the stri''in# circuit since acid 'roo! eCui'ment is not reCuired% @o o5in# acid 5ashin#7 the car$on is rinsed 5ith !resh 5ater to 're"ent acid and ch orides !rom enterin# the stri' circuit%

PRESOAF The 'resoa4 ste' is started $y 'reheatin# the car$on 5ith hot 5ater% This is !o o5ed $y soa4in# the car$on $ed 5ith hot )9: de#?C+ / ET> NACNA* ET> NAOH so ution !or a$out /: minutes% Reduced e ution e!!iciency is e6'erienced i! soa4 so utions concentration are ess than /> NACN $ut e ution rates remain re ati"e y constant 5ith soa4 so ution concentrations a$o"e /> NACN% Chan#es in the duration o! soa4in# time7 !or most car$ons7 has itt e e!!ect on stri''in# e!!iciency% EL3TION E ution is #enera y 'er!ormed usin# a$out D $ed "o umes o! #ood Cua ity 5ater at a rate o! a$out - $ed "o umesAhour% The Cua ity o! 5ater used has a su$stantia e!!ect on stri''in# e!!iciency 5ith the AARL 'rocedure% The im' ementation o! a hot acid 5ash ste' has $een sho5n to reduce 5ater Cua ity reCuirements to a certain de#ree% The stri''in# e!!iciency is "irtua y inde'endent o! e uant 5ater ! o5 rate in the ran#e o! * to 1 $ed "o umes 'er hour% Se ection o! desi#n and o'eratin# ! o5s is made on the $asis o! eCui'ment costs and time constraints E uant 5ater tem'erature has a "ery si#ni!icant e!!ect on stri''in# e!!iciency% O'eration at -/D de#?@ reCuires o'eratin# 'ressures o! *: to *1 PSIG to 're"ent ! ashin# steam in the system% O'eratin# tem'erature imits o! -/D de#?@ are 5ide y s'eci!ied $ecause o! tem'erature imitations o! the $uty ru$$er inin# materia uti i.ed to ine the stri' "esse % Hi#her tem'eratures a so acce erate the decom'osition o! cyanide% The ast $ed "o ume o! e uant 5ater is #enera y introduced at am$ient tem'erature to coo the car$on !or trans!er out o! the co umn% PROCESS CONTROL 2ue to the timed cyc ica nature o! the 'rocedure7 a 'ro#ramma$ e o#ic contro er )PLC+7 automatic 'um' startin# and automatic "a "es are #enera y used to time and seCuence the system% Car$on is oaded and trans!erred manua y7 $ut the seCuencin# o!; "a "es and 'um's durin# the stri' cyc e is contro ed $y the PLC% ELECTROEINNING E ectro5innin# o! #o d !rom the 're#nant so ution is done on a $atch $asis% The so ution 'H is increased to *- $y the addition o! sodium hydro6ide and e ectro5innin# is started% So ution is circu ated throu#h e ectro5innin# and $ac4 to the 're#nant so ution tan4 unti acce'ta$ e $arren e"e s are achie"ed% The so ution is then discarded% OPERATING SCHE23LE( The !o o5in# is a ty'ica o'eratin# schedu e !or an AARL stri''in# cyc e( SOL3TION Car$on /> HC Pota$ e Eater Pota$ e Eater TIME 9: minutes -: minutes 9: minutes /: minutes

Load co umn Acid Eash Eater Rinse Pre Heat

Pre Soa4 E ution Coo in# Car$on Trans!er

/>NaCN7*>NaOH Pota$ e Eater Pota$ e Eater Trans!er Eater TOTAL V% ALCOHOL STRIPPING

/: minutes *=: minutes /: minutes /: minutes B hours 1: minutes

@urther research at the 3SBM sho5ed that the atmos'heric 'ressure ,adra stri''in# cyc e can $e made to o'erate much !aster $y the addition o! a coho to the stri' so ution )D+% @i#ure D sho5s the dramatic a$oratory resu ts o$tained $y addin# -:> ethy a coho to a ,adra so ution% Se"era di!!erent a coho s 5ere in"esti#ated% Methano 7 ethano 7 and Iso'ro'ano 5ere a !ound to increase the #o d desor'tion rate% Ethano and methano 5ere !ound to 'er!orm a most eCua y7 $ut 5ere su$stantia y $etter that Iso'ro'ano % In ' ant o'eration a coho stri''in# norma y reCuires a$out *- to *D hours to stri' car$on to ess than / o.% Au 'er ton o! car$on% This is achie"ed at ! o5 rates in the ran#e o! - $ed "o umes 'er hour o'eratin# in series ! o5 5ith e ectro5innin# ce s% The main dra5$ac4 to the a coho stri''in# 'rocess is the 'otentia !or !ires% @ires ha"e $een re'orted at se"era a coho stri''in# o'erations% The e ectro5innin# section is es'ecia y "u nera$ e to !ires $ecause o! the 'otentia !or s'ar4s% Ethano is #enera y used rather than methano % This is due to ethano ;s #reat y o5er hea th ris4s !rom e6'osure to "a'ors% There are7 ho5e"er7 iso ated e6am' es o! o'erations usin# methano % Ethy ene or 'ro'y ene # yco are !reCuent y used7 rather than a coho 7 to increase the s'eed o! atmos'heric 'ressure ,adra stri''in# )B+% Ty'ica stri' times 5ith # yco are -0 to /D hours% G yco s are #enera y used7 rather than a coho s7 $ecause they are "irtua y unin! amma$ e% The disad"anta#es o! # yco s are their in!erior stri' rate increase and hi#her costs% A ty'ica # yco stri''in# so ution contains -: to -1 5t > ethy ene or 'ro'y ene # yco 7 and - 5t> sodium hydro6ide% Sodium cyanide is sometimes added to the so ution $ut it is !reCuent y unnecessary% The so ution is heated to a$out *9: de#?@ and 'um'ed throu#h the car$on stri''in# "esse at a ! o5 rate o! a$out - Bed Vo umes 'er hour% Go d and si "er "a ues are reco"ered !rom the 're#nant so ution $y e ectro5innin# and the $arren so ution is reheated and recyc ed throu#h the stri''in# "esse % G yco consum'tion is ty'ica y in the ran#e o! -: to 0: #a ons7 'er ton o! car$on stri''ed% VI% MICRON STRIPPING The most recent y de"e o'ed stri''in# 'rocedure $ein# used commercia y 5as de"e o'ed at Micron Research7 in Austra ia )=+% The Micron method in"o "es

'retreatment o! oaded car$on7 5ith a caustic cyanide so ution !o o5ed $y e ution 5ith an a coho mi6ture% The Micron e ution 'rocedure ta4es ad"anta#e o! the enhanced stri''in# rate achie"ed 5ith a coho 7 $ut con!ines the a coho to the c osed stri''in# unit% @ire dan#ers are reduced Cuite su$stantia y7 as the 're#nant e uant that is su$seCuent y 'rocessed !or #o d reco"ery does not contain a coho % The e ution unit is con!i#ured i4e a 'ac4ed $ed disti ation to5er 5ith a heater on the $ase o! the co umn7 an o"erhead condenser7 a re! u6 'um' and the oaded car$on !unctionin# as the to5er 'ac4in#% Loaded car$on is !irst 'resoa4ed 5ith sodium cyanideAsodium hydro6ide so ution% The 'resoa4 so ution is drained !rom the car$on $ed and an a coho so ution is added to the "esse % The unit is then s5itched to the $atch disti ation mode% Eithin a !e5 hours7 the a coho is concentrated in the o"erhead condenser tan4% The to5er $ottoms so ution is then !ree o! a coho and oaded 5ith #o d so ution 5hich has $een stri''ed $y the re! u6in# action in the co umn% The Micron 'rocess consists o! the !o o5in# o'erations )See @i#ure B+( )*+ Presoa4 The car$on is !irst soa4ed in a so ution o! * to - > sodium hydro6ide and 1 to *: > sodium cyanide at am$ient tem'erature% Car$ons 5ith 'articu ar y hi#h concentrations o! #o d7 si "er7 or co''er may reCuire so utions containin# u' to -:> sodium cyanide% The so ution is then drained !rom the car$on unti !ree o! e6cess moisture% )-+ 2esor'tion A$out :%1 Bed Vo ume o! a coho is added a!ter the car$on $ed has drained% Methy a coho is used in the ma&ority o! a'' ications7 $ut ethano is occasiona y a'' ied% Acetonitri e may $e su$stituted !or the a coho 7 $ut its hi#her cost #enera y discoura#es its use% Heat is then a'' ied to the $ase o! the desor'tion "esse % Or#anic "a'ors rise throu#h the car$on $ed and are condensed in the o"erhead condenser% The condensate is 'um'ed $ac4 to the to' o! the car$on $ed and is s'rayed on the car$on% The do5n! o5in#condensate 5ashes the #o d "a ues !rom the car$on 'artic es into the $oi er section $e o5% )/+ A coho Reco"ery Ehen desor'tion is com' eted7 as indicated $y #o d so ution concentration reachin# a constant e"e in the co umn $oi er7 a coho reco"ery commences% The condensate recyc e s'ray is sto''ed and the a coho is a o5ed to $oi out o! the 're#nant so ution% The $oi in# is terminated 5hen the tem'erature in the $oi er rises to the $oi in# 'oint o! the 5ater so ution% The 're#nant iCuor is then drained !rom the desor'tion "esse % The car$on is then steam stri''ed to reco"er residua a coho %

The Micron 'rocess 'roduces a "ery concentrated e uant !ree o! a coho 7 5ith #o d and si "er "a ues t5o or three times hi#her than those in the oaded car$on% This is in direct contrast 5ith the ,adra and AARL 'rocedures7 5hich 'roduce e uant concentrations one or t5o orders o! ma#nitude o5er% The hi#h so ution #rades ma4e reco"ery methods such as chemica 'reci'itation and a uminum !oi e ectro? de'osition "ery attracti"e% The micron e uted car$on a so a''ears to ha"e a some5hat hi#her e"e o! acti"ity than car$on e uted $y other methods% This may reduce the need to reacti"ate car$on as !reCuent y at some o'erations% The entire stri''in# cyc e ta4es a$out = hours% O"er -: icenses !or this 'rocess ha"e $een issued7 $ut none are in the 3nited States% VII% VARIATIONS There are numerous "ariations to7 and com$inations o!7 the $asic 'rocesses as i ustrated $y the !o o5in#( )*+ G yco or a coho are sometimes added to 'ressure stri' or AARL stri' o'erations to increase stri''in# rates% )-+ A causticAcyanide 'resoa4 may $e used in a ,adra system% )/+ A hot 5ater 5ash is sometimes used at the end o! a 'ressuri.ed ,adra stri' to #ain some o! the ad"anta#e o! the 5ater e ution used in AARL stri''in#% )0+ In situations 5here ar#e amounts o! co''er oad onto car$on 5ith the #o d and si "er7 a t5o sta#e stri' may $e $ene!icia % Co''er may o!ten $e se ecti"e y e uted 5ith a co d causticAcyanide so ution% This is then !o o5ed $y one o! the standard stri''in# methods% )1+ Car$on is norma y stri''ed $atch 5ise7 $ut mo"in# $ed continuous e ution systems ha"e occasiona y $een used 5ith $oth ,adra and AARL 'rocedures% )D+ E ectro5innin# may $e done under 'ressure to a"oid re'ressurin# so ution on each 'ass throu#h the car$on% )B+ ,inc 'reci'itation may $e su$stituted !or e ectro5innin#% VIII% CONCL3SIONS G RECOMMEN2ATIONS Each ne5 'ro&ect shou d $e e"a uated indi"idua y to determine the $est 'rocedure !or the 'articu ar ore and site s'eci!ic circumstances% In #enera atmos'heric 'ressure ,adra stri''in# is !a"ored !or sma er 'ro&ects 5here the increased si.e o! eCui'ment can $e &usti!ied $y a sim' i!ication o! the system% It may a so $e 're!erred !or areas 5here e6treme ease o! maintenance and o'era$i ity are a 'riority due to a ac4 o! s4i ed man'o5er% The 'ressuri.ed ,adra system has recent y $een the 're!erred 'rocess in the 3nited States !or most medium to ar#e si.ed 'ro&ects% This is due to its si#ni!icant cost ad"anta#e o"er atmos'heric 'ressure ,adra systems% The AARL 'rocess is the 're!erred 'rocess in Austra ia and South A!rica7 e6ce't 5here 5ater $a ance or 5ater Cua ity 'ro$ ems e6ist% Se"era recent 3nited States

'ro&ects ha"e a so e ected to use AARL systems% The AARL 'rocess shou d de!inite y $e considered !or ar#e 'ro&ects 5ith so'histicated o'erators% A coho stri''in# has #enera y !a en out o! !a"or due to the ! amma$i ity concerns% G yco stri''in# !reCuent y is used to increase ca'acity in e6istin# ,adra o'erations7 $ut economics usua y !a"or con"ersion to 'ressure stri''in# i! continuin# o'eration is ' anned%

*1B:0 Hi#h5ay *0 Ster in#7 CO =:B1*7 3SA )9B:+ 1-- ?:9*D @a6( )9B:+ 1--?:9*= sa esHden"erminera %com