The Institute of Medicine recommends an intake level for men of 125 oz and women 91 oz of water a day.

CHAPTER 3

BASIC NUTRITION

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NUTRITION CHAPTER A. Macronutrients 1. Carbohydrates 2. Proteins 3. Fats

B. Micronutrients (no caloric value) 1. Vitamins 2. Minerals 3. Water

C. Client Assessment 1. Dietary history 2. Body fat/lean body mass ratio 3. Exercise program a. Lose weight b. Gain weight 4. Assessment of caloric needs

F. Underlying Causes of Overeating/Undereating 1. Psychological 2. Physiological

G. Ergogenic Aids and Other Supplements 1. Protein and Carbohydrate Supplements 2. Amino Acid Supplements 3. Chromium 4. Creatine

5. Pain Relievers 6. Caffeine

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INTRODUCTION Life is a molecular process. Each living cell is a molecular machine that is unique to its complexity and organization. In order for us to comprehend the machinery, we must identify each part that makes up the whole. In doing so, we begin to comprehend what energy is imparted to our system and how our mechanisms convert that energy to usable fuel. (1) To begin with, it is important to identify the basic components, which are simple molecules. All cells contain an abundance of inorganic substances such as gaseous elements (oxygen and carbon dioxide for cellular oxidation), soluble salts or minerals (potassium and sodium for cellular balance), insoluble salts or minerals (calcium for structure), and most importantly, the universal solvent, water, which is the medium for reactions and transport of food and waste. (1) On the other hand, the molecules of life are those termed organic. The difference from inorganic is that organic molecules contain carbon in varying amounts. Carbon is the primary requisite for all living systems. The reason being, carbon is unique because of its structure and its tremendous versatility to undergo reactions (reductions and oxidations) which create energy to sustain life. In order to understand how nutrition interacts with our bodies, it is important to know about a few of the small, simple, organic substances. These substances are the building blocks of the larger components of the cells and tissues. These substances are: sugars, organic acids, amino acids, and nucleic acids. Sugars, such as glucose, serve as major fuels for cellular energy needs and are free to diffuse through body fluids from cell to cell. Organic acids, the building blocks of fats and lipids, act as intermediates in the breakdown and formation of other substances. Amino acids are the constituent parts of proteins in the body. Nucleotides form the bases that compose the nucleic acids of the genetic structure, DNA and RNA, as well as adenosine triphosphate, or ATP, the principle mediator of energy-driven reactions in cells. (1) To understand how these simple molecules create larger components it is important to understand the process of polymerization. Polymerization is the joining of single molecules into long chains similar to the beads on a necklace. The individual molecular substance is a monomer, which forms linkages with one another to create a polymer. Monomers, the units for polymerization, include the sugars which form polysaccharides such as starch, glycogen and cellulose; amino acids, which form polypeptides, or protein, and nucleotides which form polynucleotides or nucleic acids such as DNA and RNA. In most cases, the sugar units of polysaccharides are identical, as in the case of starch, glycogen and cellulose, in which all of the monomers are glucose molecules. This scenario allows for the body to easily access sugars as a primary energy source without a large expenditure of its own energy. The protein and nucleic acids, however are composed of non-identical monomers. They are joined together (amino acidamino acid) and (nucleotidenucleotide) in unique sequences that are characteristic to each macromolecule. This scenario requires more energy and organization for biosynthesis and breakdown for utilization. (1) Essentials of Human Metabolism; W. C. McMurray METABOLISM The understanding of polymerization of these vital components of life sheds light on how our bodies can utilize these components not only for the structure of larger components but for their energy yielding properties as well. To understand this, we must understand the term metabolism.

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Metabolism is the chemical and physiological process in the body that provides energy for the maintenance of life. These chemical transformations of molecules are brought about in living organisms by the actions of enzymes, under the control of genes, hormones, energy state, and end-products. (1) In simplified terms, it is essentially the building up or anabolism, and breaking down or catabolism, of essential components which provide energy for our existence. BMR (basal metabolic rate) or RMR (resting metabolic rate) is the amount of energy that is expended to support the ongoing metabolic work of the bodys cells. It is typically about 60 - 70% of the bodys energy supply. Maintenance of the body temperature, beating of the heart, and respiration are continuous processes that expend energy. The energy needs for these processes must be met before any calories can be used for physical activity or food digestion. A person who requires 2000 calories a day will expend as many as 1,200 - 1,400 of them to support the RMR. A persons RMR can be influenced by a number of factors, including age, height, gender, environmental temperature, exercise, and diet. Gradual weight loss of 1 lb to 3 lbs per week is ideal. Any weight loss over 3 lbs per week tends to involve loss of water, which is the water the body is forced to excrete when it relies on the bodys protein and fat for energy. When regular eating resumes, the lost water and the lost pounds are regained. The typical body can only burn off about 2 lbs of fat per week. CARBOHYDRATES Basic fundamental facts: Carbohydrates are the primary source of fuel in the human diet. There are two categories of carbohydrates popularly known as simple and complex. Simple carbohydrates or simple sugars are primarily in foods that are very sweet, such as fruit juices, syrups, honey, molasses and the majority of the processed foods in the industrialized diet. Complex carbohydrates are found in whole unprocessed foods such as potatoes, corn, rice and most vegetables. Complex sugars in foods are stored as starch or glucose polymers. Our bodies break down the complex sugar into mainly glucose in order to digest it and absorb it and then assimilate the sugar into a complex storage material called glycogen, which is found primarily in the muscle tissues and liver. There are four calories per one gram of carbohydrate. According to the ACSM (American College of Sports Medicine) the diet should consist of 58% of the bodys total calorie intake of healthy individuals. In 2002 the Institue of Medicine published recommendations of 45-65% of total caloric intake should be derived from carbohydrate. Carbohydrates include the sugars and their derivatives. Their general chemical formulation is that of the combination of carbon with water (CH2O), or hydrated carbon, as the name implies. (1) There are several types of sugars; but the key sugars are galactose, fructose, and glucose. Glucose is the most abundant sugar in the body. Carbohydrates are the chief source of energy for all body functions and muscular exertion and are

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necessary to assist in the digestion and assimilation of other foods. Carbohydrates provide us with immediately available calories for energy by producing heat in the body when carbon in the system unites with oxygen in the bloodstream. (4) Carbohydrates also help regulate protein and fat metabolism. Fats require carbohydrates for their breakdown within the liver. Free sugars, particularly glucose, are important energy fuels in the nervous system, brain, muscles, and many other tissues. To understand carbohydrates, it is key to know and understand the term glycogen. Glycogen is the storage energy substance produced by the polymerization of glucose. The synthesis of glycogen by polymerization of glucose is glycogenesis. The splitting of the glycogen polymer chain, which frees up glucose, is glycogenolysis. Glycogen is stored mainly in the liver and muscle tissues, as well as other body tissues. (1). When the liver is depleted of glycogen the body will break down lean body mass. Muscle glycogen stored in muscles is self serving only to the muscles. Because of the large total mass of muscle in the body, the total muscle stores of glycogen will exceed those of the liver roughly five times. Despite this large potential glucose store, muscle glycogen cannot be utilized to replace depleted blood sugar, since the tissue lacks a key enzyme. However, in prolonged starvation, over 24 hours, there is a line of defense of breaking down protein and other tissues (LBM) to release the carbons for glucose production. Most of the carbohydrates ingested in a natural diet consist of starch, the plant storage polysaccharide that is similar in structure to glycogen. Starches are considered complex carbohydrates because they require prolonged enzymatic action in order to be broken down into simple sugars (glucose) for digestion. (4) Cane sugar or sucrose, a disaccharide or double-sugar (glucosefructose) is abundant in civilized diets, and lactose (galactoseglucose) is a significant component in a high milk diet, such as that of infants. Small amounts of glucose and fructose are found in fruits and honey, which are very easily digested. Glucose and fructose are simple sugars or simple carbohydrates. Cellulose is a plant structural polysaccharide that cannot be a food source of carbohydrates for humans, but does provide bulk for the motility of the intestinal contents. There is no specific carbohydrate requirement for the human, but in a balanced diet, at least 50% of the energy requirements should be from this source.(1) The American College of Sports Medicine recommends a guideline of 58% of calories to come from carbohydrates. Carbohydrates from whole food sources should make up the bulk of the diet for many sound reasons but mainly because they are loaded with antioxidants and fiber, whereas, protein and fats are not adequate sources of these nutrients. The research shows that high protein and fat diets are correlated with cardiovascular disease and cancer. Only monosaccharides (glucose) are absorbed to any significant extent from the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. Examples of monosaccharides include glucose (dextrose), fructose (levulose), galactose, xylose and ribose. (Fructose is responsible for the sweet taste in fruit.) Therefore, the carbohydrates, disaccharides and polysaccharides, must be broken down by the enzymes, salivary and pancreatic amylase, maltase, lactase, and sucrase. An example of a disaccharide is lactose, which is made up of glucose and galactose. The liver serves as the major metabolizer and regulator of dietary carbohydrates. Of course, the major carbohydrate that emerges from the liver is glucose. One of the principal metabolic functions of the liver is to act as a blood glucostat, converting excess incoming glucose into glycogen (glycogenesis) in times of plenty and reconverting glycogen to glucose (glycogenolysis) during food restriction, thereby maintaining an adequate level of glucose in the bloodstream. This regulation of blood sugars exemplifies the principle recently coined as the zone. The key to any weight loss program is the regulation of blood sugars. Beware of diets that restrict too much caloric intake. They may be successful at first but they tend to fail in the long run.

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The typical American diet consists of three large meals. If these meals are not balanced properly, especially if they are primarily simple sugars and refined carbohydrates, the effect can be a devastating emotional and energy roller coaster. Almost immediately after a highly refined carbohydrate meal the blood glucose level rises above the optimum zone and we feel full of energy, but only for a short while. The liver senses the flood of blood sugar and signals the pancreas to dump insulin into the bloodstream. Insulin removes glucose from the bloodstream and in this scenario, there is a high level of insulin that is clearing out most of the blood sugar. Some of the glucose is stored as glycogen; the rest is stored as fat. This rapid drop in blood sugar causes us to feel tired, weak, and even worse, hunger. An unbalanced, high carbohydrate meal will re-start the cycle. Although carbohydrates seem to be the culprit to obesity, it is important not to jump to conclusions. Any type of food whether it is protein, fats, or carbohydrates can cause obesity if consumed in excess. According to nutritionist Vicki Newell MS, a typical woman trying to watch her weight, in most cases is protein & fat deprived. She may have a bagel in the morning, (bagels can have anywhere from 200 to 400 calories each) which breaks down into glucose very quickly, flooding the blood stream with glucose that triggers insulin to take up the flood of glucose and store it either as glycogen or fat. When the blood has a flood of glucose, insulin tends to overreact and then the blood glucose levels are again too low. Therefore, her blood sugar is now low an hour after her bagel. She then snacks on another carbohydrate, whether it be juice or a sugar cookie which breaks down to glucose and enters the blood stream very quickly. Again the blood sugar peaks and then bottoms out. She feels light headed and ready for lunch. Unfortunately, she is watching her weight and typically eats readily available refined carbohydrate choices such as pasta with marinara sauce. Although pasta can be a healthy food choice, it is not going to do her much good because there is little or no protein or fat to balance the meal. One or two hours later she is hungry and snacks again on some sort of carbohydrate. She is feeling her willpower defeated and her energy levels plummeting. She ends the day too tired to exercise and has yet another low fat, low protein, high carbohydrate meal for dinner. What is happening to this womans body? By the end of the day, she consumed 1200 to 1500 calories. At least 80% of those calories were from carbohydrates. The lack of protein in her diet caused her body to catabolize her precious muscle tissue if not her vital organs as its source of protein to sustain itself. Catabolism of muscle tissue not only makes her weaker but it lowers her metabolism rate since muscle tissue requires more energy to sustain itself. It is the bodys innate defense mechanism to conserve energy. Ms. Newell found the lack of fat, particularly essential fatty acids lack of fat, particularly essential fatty acids, diminished her ability to metabolize stored fat, especially since her insulin was busy clearing her blood sugar and storing it as glycogen and fat. Again, this is another one of those innate defense mechanisms to conserve energy. Unfortunately, this is how carbohydrates get their bad reputation. She could have the same diet by integrating some protein and fat, and it would completely change this whole scenario. By eating a better mix of protein, carbohydrate and fat at each meal, sticking with complex carbohydrates instead of simple sugars, and by grazing with smaller balanced meals and snacks, it is possible to keep blood glucose within an optimum zone all day. The result: a steady supply of energy and far less stored fat.

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Examples of simple carbohydrates:

Examples of simple carbohydrates:

In review, carbohydrates are classified as simple and complex carbohydrates. The end result before absorption of a carbohydrate is glucose. The rate a carbohydrate is broken down into glucose is an important component to use when deciding which carbohydrates to incorporate into the diet. Each type of carbohydrate has a glycemic index, which is a number (1100) given to determine the rate at which the carbohydrate is broken down into glucose. The lower the number the longer it takes to break down, and the higher the number the faster. Apart from diabetes, the glycemic index (GI) concept has been applied to sports performance and appetite research. Low GI foods eaten before prolonged strenuous exercise were found to increase endurance time and provided higher concentrations of plasma fuels toward the end of exercise (16). In other studies, low-GI foods were found to produce greater satiety than
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did foods with high glycemic and insulin responses. (17) In general, it is optimal to incorporate mostly low-GI foods into the diet. High-GI foods are preferable when a quick supply of glucose is needed such as after prolonged strenuous exercise. Remember high-GI foods can be moderated to slower breakdown by adding some protein and fat. For example, a bagel has a high-GI of 72 (pure glucose being 100), but if you added peanut butter to the bagel (peanuts have a low-GI of 14) the GI for the meal is lowered. Examples of complex carbohydrates:

Carbohydrates are the most important source of fuel for athletic, fit people. Our muscles perform very efficiently burning carbohydrates at all levels of activity. In fact, carbohydrates are so critical to muscular work that when the muscle runs out of their stored form of carbohydrate, muscular work ceases completely. (6) This is called hitting the wall or bonking. The human body fuel stores are 76% fat, 23% protein, and 1% carbohydrate. Despite the fact that an athlete hitting the wall still might have lots of stored fat fuel remaining, carbohydrates must be present in order for those fats to be metabolized. Because our bodies can only store very limited amounts of glycogen, and because we tap into this glycogen supply so often throughout the day, adequate carbohydrate consumption throughout the day is vital to athletic performance. A well-trained endurance athlete can store only enough carbohydrate (in the form of glycogen) in the muscles and liver to run for a maximum of two hours. (6) Glycogen depletion occurs at an hour to an hour and a half in untrained individuals. After that, glycogen depletion causes a dramatic plunge in performance and can cause the body to cannibalize itself for survival. Total carbohydrate storage capacity in the liver and muscles range from just 200 to 500 grams (about 800 to 2000 calories) of glycogen. (6) If an individual were to have an inadequate carbohydrate intake, several events will happen. These events are dehydration, poor performance, and a catabolic state. The brain relies on glucose as its main fuel source. Normal brain function requires approximately 6 grams of glucose per hour which can be delivered only if arterial blood contains over 50 mg/dl (2). Therefore, in a state of inadequate carbohydrate intake the brain will signal the liver to free up its glycogen to replace depleted blood sugar for the brains consumption. However, muscle glycogen cannot be utilized to replace depleted blood sugar. (2) Because of its limited storage capacity, muscle glycogen is sensitive only to its own energy requirements. When the livers supplies are gone, the liver begins gluconeogenesis.
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Gluconeogenesis is the synthesis of glucose from non-carbohydrate sources: lactate, pyruvate, glycerol, and certain amino acids. All of these processes require a lot of water, and a lot of vital fluids are lost in the process. Also, they are not efficient sources of fuel for the muscles. Therefore, the body becomes dehydrated, which explains why there is a quick drop in weight in carbohydrate-restricted diets and a quick drop in performance during an endurance event. Prolonged carbohydrate-restricted diets are not recommended because, not only do they put a significant amount of work on the liver and kidneys, but they put the entire body in a state of catabolism. Essentially this lowers the rate of metabolism of foods at some point to counter the catabolic state. Once the individual consumes a normal diet, the body will be more inclined to store food as fat. The body has developed this innate primal defense mechanism to conserve itself. The American College of Sports Medicine recommends an individual obtain about 58% of their calories from carbohydrates. One gram of carbohydrates yields approximately 4 calories to the body. LIPIDS Basic fundamental facts: High source of energy yielding 9 calories per 1 gram of fat. 1 pound of fat yields 3500 calories of energy. Essential fats must be consumed in the diet. There are two key essential fatty acids called: linoleic and linolenic acids. A diet high in omega 3 fatty acids (fish oils) is essential to good health. A diet high in saturated fats (most animal fats and fried foods) is not associated with good health. According to ACSM (American College of Sports Medicine) the diet should consist of 20 to 30% fat, with a balance of saturated, polyunsaturated, and monounsaturated fats. In 2002 the Institute of Medicine published recommendations of 20-35% of total caloric intake should be derived fromfat. Fats or lipids are the most concentrated source of energy in the diet. When oxidized, fats furnish more than twice the number of calories per gram furnished by carbohydrates or proteins. One gram of fat yields approximately 9 calories to the body. In addition to providing energy, fats act as carriers for the fat-soluble vitamins, A, D, E, and K. By aiding in the absorption of vitamin D, fats help make calcium available to body tissues, particularly to the bones and teeth. Fats are also important for the conversion of carotene such as beta carotene to vitamin A. Vitamin E is a powerful antioxidant and is found in healthy high fat foods such as almonds, avocado, and sunflower seeds. Fat deposits surround, protect, and hold in place organs, such as kidneys, heart and liver. A layer of fat insulates the body from environmental temperature changes and preserves body heat. This layer also rounds out the contours of the body. Fats prolong the process of digestion by slowing down the stomachs secretions of hydrochloric acid. Thus, fats create a longer-lasting sensation of fullness after a meal. The substances that give fats their different flavors, textures, and melting points are known as the fatty acids. There are four types of fatty acids to discuss: saturated, monounsaturated, polyunsaturated, and trans-fatty acids.
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Examples of Saturated Fatty Acids:

Saturated fatty acids may be synthesized in the body and thus are not essential nutrients. They tend to cause a rise in plasma LDLs and cholesterol. The specific saturated fatty acids in the diet may be important, since all saturated fats do not seem to have the same effect on serum lipids. The types of saturated fats found in coconut oil and large amounts in butterfat, beef fat, lard and chicken fat, seem to have the most effect on raising cholesterol levels. (4) These fats turn solid at room temperature. Monounsaturated fatty acids are almost solely from oleic acid which can be synthesized in the body as well. Therefore, it is not an essential fatty acid. Oleic acid has no effect on cholesterol levels which makes it a good choice of fat. Olive oil has 75% Oleic acid. Cocoa, real chocolate, is also a source of oleic acid. Polyunsaturated fatty acids cannot be synthesized in the body. They are essential as hormone precursors and as components of cell membranes. They must be obtained from dietary sources and therefore are the essential fatty acids. Both mono and polyunsaturates are usually liquid at room temperature and are derived from vegetable, nut or seed sources, such as corn, sunflowers, safflowers, and olives. There are two essential fatty acids, linoleic and linolenic acid, known as polyunsaturated fatty acids or PUFAs. Good Sources are safflower, sunflower, soybean, corn, and sesame oil. These fatty acids are necessary for normal growth and healthy blood, arteries, and nerves. They also keep the skin and other tissues youthful and healthy by preventing dry and scaly skin. They are necessary for the transport and breakdown of cholesterol and for the production and balance of hormones. One to two percent of calories (3 to 6 grams) is enough to prevent symptoms of deficiency in most healthy adults. If you were to ingest more than 3 to 6 grams of linoleic acid per day it is prudent to take extra vitamin E; due to the fact that a high intake of linoleic acid can be procarcinogenic. Some natural sources of essential fatty acids, such as avocados and sunflower seeds, just so happen to provide vitamin E as well.

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Vegetable shortening and margarine have undergone a process called hydrogenation in which unsaturated oils are converted to a more solid form of fat. These fats are found in all kinds of processed foods and are listed on the label as partially hydrogenated fats. These transformed fats are called transfatty acids and are potentially more dangerous to our bodies than saturated fats. Ingested in small quantities, our bodies will burn them off as energy and conserve the natural fatty acids for more important functions. However, if there is an over consumption of trans-fatty acids which exceeds our bodys capacity to break them down, disease begins to manifest because our body attempts to use altered molecules for vital structures and functions. It is highly recommended to limit consumption of this fatty acid. Margarine, which is loaded with trans-fatty acids, should be used sparingly even though it is lower in saturated fats. Estimated average intake of trans-fatty acids is about 12 grams per day in the U.S., of which 95% comes from partially hydrogenated vegetable oil products. The rest are from animal products, mainly beef and butter. (18) These foods are high in cholesterol

Cholesterol is a lipid or fat-related substance necessary for good health. It is a normal component of most body tissues, especially those of the brain, nervous system, liver, and blood. It is needed to form sex and adrenal hormones, vitamin D, and bile salts. Bile is needed for the digestion of fats. Cholesterol also seems to play a part in lubricating the skin. Cholesterol has been given the bad rap in its past history due to its association with arteriosclerosis. High cholesterol levels are a risk factor for heart disease. However, not everyone with high cholesterol gets heart disease. Some individuals are genetically predisposed to have high cholesterol levels no matter what their cholesterol intake or their health status. Cholesterol is part of all cell membranes and is a precursor to steroid hormones. According to the National Cholesterol Education Program, it is recommended that cholesterol levels remain below 200 mg/dl. (3) However, normal cholesterol levels range from 120 to 260 mg/dl. (3) Cholesterol levels are increased by excessive caloric intake regardless of the source of the calories. The kind of fat in the diet, as well as the amount, can have a considerable influence on cholesterol and other serum lipids. High saturated fat intake has the most negative influence on cholesterol levels. Serum lipids are comprised of various lipoproteins, which are fatty substances (fats, oils, cholesterol, carotene, vitamin E) carried in an envelope made of protein and phospholipid (lecithin-like) materials. Specifically, lipoproteins refer to transport vehicles for fats and cholesterol in our blood and lymph fluids.
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Lipoproteins carry lipids between our intestine, liver, and body cells There are five classes of lipoproteins, each of which contains triglycerides, cholesterol, and phospholipid in different proportions. Each type consists of a lipid and protein composition that gives it a specific size and density. Density increases and size decreases as the proportion of protein increases. The five classes are, in order of size and density: Chylomicrons, (the largest, containing the largest proportion of lipid and the least protein) Very-low-density lipoproteins (VLDLs) Intermediate-density lipoproteins(IDLs) Low-density lipoproteins (LDLs) High-density lipoproteins (HDLs) the smallest, containing the most proteins The two most important lipoproteins are the LDLs and the HDLs. LDLs contain the greatest amount of cholesterol and may be responsible for depositing cholesterol on the artery walls, hence, giving them the reputation as bad cholesterol. Levels of LDL cholesterol that are 160mg/dl and above are classified as high risk LDL. (2) LDL cholesterol can be lowered by exercise, weight loss, decreasing the overall percentage of fat calories and incorporating a better balance of monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats into diet. On the other hand, HDLs are responsible for removing cholesterol from the cells in the arteries and transporting it back to the liver for repackaging and removal from the body. Studies have shown that individuals with higher levels of HDL have less heart disease. Thus, HDLs have become known as the good cholesterol. HDL cholesterol below 35 mg/dl is considered a risk factor for coronary heart disease (2). Consistent exercise will raise the levels of HDL. Total Cholesterol: HDL + LDL HDL = Total Cholesterol Ratio. The basic rule of balance is to have a relatively high amount of HDLs in your body, in relation to your total amount of cholesterol. The ratio of total cholesterol should always be less than 5.0. If a persons total cholesterol was 200 than their HDLs should be at least 40. Fiber in the diet has been shown to be highly effective in lowering cholesterol levels in an indirect manner. It does so by increasing bulk in the diet and thus decreasing total energy intake or fat intake, increasing intestinal track transit time, and decreasing the absorption of fat-containing and cholesterolcontaining foods. A target of 25-30 grams of fiber per day is necessary for optimal health. 40 to 50 grams of fiber per day is suggested for cholesterol reduction. ACSM suggests that a daily intake of no more than 30% of calories from fat is compatible with good health. Basic Fundamental Facts: PROTEINS

Protein is found in various foods such as animal flesh, organ meats, eggs, dairy, nuts and seeds, and various combinations of grains and legumes. Protein is made up of amino acids. There are 22 amino acids and 9 of these are essential in the diet. Plus histidine. Essential Amino Acids: PVT MT HILL Phenylalanine, valine, threonine, methionine, tryptophan, histidine, isoleucine, lysine and leucine 1 gram of protein equals 4 calories. According to ACSM (American College of Sports Medicine) 12% of the diet should be from protein. In 2002 the Institute of Medicine published recommendations of 10-35% of total caloric intake should be derived from protein.
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Next to water, protein is the most plentiful substance in the body. Protein is a substance containing nitrogen and is one of the most important elements for the maintenance of good health and vitality. It is of primary importance in the growth and development of all body tissues. It is the major source of building material for muscles, blood, skin, hair, nails, and internal organs, including the heart and the brain. Protein is needed for the formation of hormones, which control a variety of body functions such as growth, sexual development, and rate of metabolism. Protein also helps prevent blood and tissues from becoming either too acid or too alkaline and helps regulate the bodys water balance. Enzymes are substances necessary for basic life functions and antibodies help fight foreign substances in the body. They are also formed from protein. Protein is important in the formation of milk during lactation and in the process of blood clotting. Because protein is the biological structure for many vital substances in our makeup, a deficiency in protein can not only catabolize muscle tissue, but it can weaken the immune system, slow the metabolic rate, cause hormonal imbalance as in PMS, increase hair loss, and cause an overall feeling of weakness. Aside from being the major source of building material for the body, protein may be used as a source of heat and energy, providing four calories per gram of protein. However, this energy function is spared when sufficient fats and carbohydrates are present in the diet. Excess protein that is not used for building tissue or energy will be converted by the liver and stored as fat in the body tissues. Under normal resting conditions, we derive only 1% to 2% of our total fuel (ATP recycling) requirements from protein metabolism. (6) Proteins contribution to energy only becomes significant under circumstances that the body recognizes (yet again) as survival situations. These situations are vigorous exercise for more than one or two hours without taking in any fuel during the exercise and during starvation, deprivation or very low-calorie diets. In these situations, the body will cannibalize its muscle tissue for emergency fuel instead of fat because muscle tissue is the largest consumer of energy in the body. The results are: less energy to workout, less muscle tissue, lower metabolism, increased tendency to store calories as fat rather than burn as fuel. During digestion the large molecules of proteins (polypeptides containing at least 100 dipeptide and tripeptide bonds) are decomposed into simpler units called amino acids. These amino acids in their simple form are necessary for the synthesis of specific body proteins and many other tissue constituents. For example, the amino acid tryptophan can be metabolized to form the tissue hormone, serotonin. The body requires approximately twenty-two amino acids in a specific pattern to make human protein. All but nine of these amino acids can be produced in the adult body. These nine amino acids that cannot be produced are called essential amino acids because they must be supplied in the diet. These include the branched chain amino acids: leucine, isoleucine, and valine; the aromatic amino acids phenylalanine and tryptophan; the aliphatic amino acids threonine and lysine; and the sulphur-containing amino acid methionine. Histidine, is considered an essential amino acid because it is synthesized too slowly by the body and therefore should be consumed in the diet. Essential Amino Acids: (PVT MT HILL) Phenylalanine Valine Threonine

Methionine
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Tryptophan Histidine Leucine Lysine Isoleucine

The nonessential amino acids are alanine, aspartate, asparagine, cysteine, glutamate, glutamine, glycine, proline, serine, and tyrosine. These so-called nonessential amino acids may replace one another in the diet since they are interconvertible. Alternatively, nonessential amino acids may be formed from carbohydrate or lipid intermediates provided that an adequate source of total nitrogen is present. Due to the fact that essential amino acids cannot replace each other, a continuous daily input of a balanced mixture of each of these amino acids is required. An imbalance (i.e., an increase in one amino acid relative to the others) or their ingestion at different meals rather than simultaneously can also lead to dietary insufficiencies. Not all protein containing foods have all the essential amino acids. Foods that lack or are extremely low in any one of the essential amino acids are called incomplete protein. Therefore, if the diet is limited to just corn, rice or beans in which one essential amino acid is missing, even temporarily, protein synthesis will fall to a very low level or stop altogether. The result is that all amino acids are reduced in the same proportion as the amino acid that is low or missing. This should only happen if the diet is chronically incomplete of a particular amino acid for more than 3 or 4 days. The reason that most plant proteins are inadequate is that their content of certain essential amino acids is lower in comparison with that of other sources, such as beef, whole milk, or whole egg. Eggs have often been considered an ideal protein source, although this must be weighed against the high cholesterol content of the yolk if it is of concern to the individual. Milk and beef products are associated with increased ingestion of saturated animal fats unless you choose the leaner and low or non-fat products. In developing countries and in vegetarian diets, protein requirements are met with a combination of cereals, grains, and legumes. The minimum daily protein requirement, the smallest amino acid intake that can maintain optimum growth and good health in man, is difficult to determine. Protein requirements differ according to the nutritional status, body size, and activity of the individual. An infant requires 1800 mg/kg/day due to its rapid growth rate, whereas a 10 to 12 year old child requires 950 mg/kg/day because the growth rate is not as rapid. Also, an individual undergoing extreme stress such as a burn victim will require more protein/day. For example, a 154 pound man would require roughly 94 g of protein/day. However, with 40% burns this man would require 140 g/day. This is an extreme example, but it demonstrates how stress, whether from mental anguish or illness, can alter an individuals nutritional needs. Some athletes may require more protein but not much more than standard recommendations. For optimal health, protein intake should not exceed 20% of the diet unless an individual is under the care of a nutritionist. A high protein diet from animal products can result in an undesirably high intake of saturated fats and cholesterol as well as damaging to the liver and kidneys due to high ketone formation if the diet is low in carbohydrates.

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VITAMINS Basic Fundamental Facts: 13 vitamins are required in the diet according to the FDA. Water soluble vitamins: Vitamin C, B1, B2, B3, B5, B6, B12, Biotin, Folic Acid Fat soluble vitamins: Vitamin A (beta carotene), Vitamin E, Vitamin D, and K Key Antioxidants: beta carotene, E, and C There are zero calories per one gram of vitamins All natural vitamins are organic food substances found only in living things such as plants and animals, required by the body for physiological maitenance and growth . Since the discovery of vitamins in the early part of the 20th century, less than 20 substances have been identified to be active as vitamins in human nutrition. To qualify as a vitamin, a substance must not only be organic (living) from a plant or animal, it must be essential to human health. Because the body cannot synthesize this substance, it must be obtained from the diet or in dietary supplements. Vitamins function with enzymes. Enzymes are made up of two parts: one is a protein molecule and the other is a coenzyme. This coenzyme is often a vitamin, or contains a vitamin, or it is a molecule made from a vitamin. Enzymes are responsible for all oxidation processes in the body (metabolism) and are a major factor in biochemical processes such a growth, metabolism, cellular reproduction, and digestion. The origination of the Recommended Daily Allowance (RDA) came from the need to establish a requirement for the soldiers in WWII. The recommended levels of these nutrients were designed to prevent deficiency. Since deficiency symptoms are what led us to discover vitamins in the first place, it seems only natural that we focused so much attention on deficiency alone. Much debate and research has been focused on vitamin requirements. It comes down to an individual decision of just how healthy they want to be, once they have read the overwhelming amount of research on this subject. The question is Do I want to prevent deficiency or do I want to prevent illness? A cell which is poorly nourished may actually have many enzymes without the proper (vitamin) coenzyme part. Enough functional enzymes will remain for the cell itself to function, perhaps for a long time. However, the cell will go through its paces more and more slowly until either proper nourishment is received or it dies. This explains why vitamin deficiency doesnt happen overnight, in contrast to the quick manner of infectious diseases or foreign poisons. Many weeks, or even many months, are usually required for signs of a vitamin deficiency to appear. The cells continue to function, but at reduced efficiency due to lower enzyme levels. Then as they decline further or die, different tissues and organs will slowly be affected. (7) Due to the fact that our industrialized culture has flooded the food supply with over processed and nutrient depleted products, it has become prudent to take a basic multi-vitamin and mineral supplement to cover the RDA as insurance to prevent deficiency. A growing body of evidence suggests that while the old daily allowances are fine for warding off acute deficiencies, higher intakes may help combat
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everything from bone loss to cancer (8) Dr. Walter Willet, a Harvard epidemiologist and his colleagues grabbed the worlds attention in 1993 with two studies suggesting that vitamin E can help prevent heart attacks. These researchers followed more than 120,000 men and women for up to eight years and found that individuals taking daily supplements of at least 100 IU reduced their risk of heart disease by about 40 percent. (8) Furthermore, in 1996, Cambridge University released its study which found that in 2,000 patients with heart disease, supplementation of 800 IU of Vitamin E reduced the risk of both fatal and non-fatal heart attacks by 47% and non-fatal heart attacks by 77%. (9) Other studies have shown that Vitamin E supplementation can prevent birth defects, Calcium and Vitamin D supplementation can reduce osteoporosis and colon cancer, and Vitamin C can prolong life. (8) Researchers at UCLA reported that low vitamin C intake was a strong predictor of death from heart disease and other causes. During the study, men who consumed in the neighborhood of 300 mg daily (five times the RDA) suffered 40% fewer heart attack deaths than those consuming less than 50 mg. (8) Researchers at Harvard found that 50 mg of beta-carotene supplements, taken every other day, can halve the risk of heart attack among men with histories of heart disease. (8) Let alone the piles of research on beta-carotene and lung cancer. What this research is telling us is that there is a lot to be learned about nutrition and health. It looks as though we are at the tip of the iceberg with this new paradigm. It is very important to follow the research and not get overwhelmed by marketing hype. It is also prudent not to get carried away into thinking more is better. There are definite guidelines to follow whether you feel preventing deficiency is sufficient or preventing illness and prolonging a quality life is important. Follow the research guidelines and you should be at no risk of toxicity or wasteful consumption. Vitamins can be distinguished as being water-soluble or fat-soluble. Water-soluble vitamins are vitamin C and the bioflavonoids, and the B vitamins including folic acid, biotin, choline, inositol, and PABA. Water-soluble vitamins are excreted more readily than fat-soluble vitamins because they are not stored in the fat tissues like the fat-soluble vitamins. The blood levels of these water-soluble vitamins will decrease more rapidly in times of stress, such as illness or emotional disturbances, and therefore, must be replaced more frequently than fat-soluble vitamins. Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) is one of the most popular vitamins to supplement. It is a powerful antioxidant because of its extreme sensitivity to oxygen. All animals, except primates and humans, have the capacity to synthesize vitamin C from carbohydrate. They normally make several grams per 100 pounds of body weight, and can increase production in response to infection, stress, or free radical producing influences. It was reported that a 150 Lb. goat produces 13,000 mg of vitamin C when under a little stress. (21) Humans, however, do not naturally produce Vitamin C. Because of this genetic mutation that occurred 40 million years ago in humans, vitamin C must be obtained in the diet. Unfortunately in the ice age, our ancestors were unable to obtain vitamin C in their diet. There was a unique adaptation that occurred as a result. The lack of vitamin C caused scurvy. Scurvy affects all connective tissue including arteries. In order to prolong the deterioration of the arteries, they produced an adhesive repair agent called a polipoprotein which thickens the artery walls. In modern humans, high polipoprotein levels are markers for cardiovascular disease. Studies have shown that high plasma levels of vitamin C can reduce this thickening of the arterial walls, called arteriosclerosis. (19) The term thickening is the actual narrowing in diameter of the arteries from the plaque buildup. A recent study shows that vitamin C causes thickening of the arteries. They did not express whether or not the diameter of the artery was smaller or if the artery itself just got thicker, which could actually be a very good thing in preventing arteriosclerosis.
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The primary function of vitamin C is maintaining collagen (the most abundant protein in the body), a protein necessary for the formation of connective tissue in skin, ligaments, and bones. Studies show vitamin C can reduce histamines as much as 40% at an intake of 2000 mg/day. (20) This is why vitamin C is readily used in preventing and treating allergies and common colds. There is a fat-soluble form of vitamin C called ascorbyl palmitate. This fat-soluble form keeps the blood levels of vitamin C at a higher saturation level and is not excreted as quickly from the body. This is beneficial because of Vitamin Cs antioxidant effects against toxins in the blood. Interestingly, high concentrations of vitamin C are found in blood plasma, eye fluids and tissues, and sperm to name a few. Studies have found a correlation between Vitamin C levels and arteriosclerosis, macular degeneration, vital reproduction and prostate health to just name a few. (14) It is also interesting to note that one cigarette can burn about 100 mg of Vitamin C, (10) and that a smokers skin tends to age more quickly. Vitamin C can also help protect against infections and promote the absorbtion of iron. A good Vitamin C complex will include a non-acidic form of vitamin C, calcium ascorbate, a fat soluble form, ascorbyl palmitate, and bioflavonoids including quercetin, hesperidin, and rutin. When taking optimum levels of Vitamin C, it is important to ingest the non-acidic form to prevent diarrhea. Lowering the dose of vitamin C after ingestion of high doses can result in symptoms of scurvy (bleeding of the gums and bruising easily). Therefore, reduction of the vitamin should be done slowly over a period of time until the body has adjusted. Of course, the best sources of vitamin C comes from whole foods such as citrus fruits and vegetables. Four ounces of orange juice yields about 60 mg vitamin C. The Bcomplex vitamins are active in providing the body with energy, basically by converting carbohydrates into glucose, which the body burns to produce energy. They are also vital in the metabolism of fats and protein, and are necessary for normal functioning of the nervous system and may be the single most important factor for health of the nerves.(4) Stress, alcohol, caffeine, cigarettes, antibiotics, and sugar diminish B vitamins rapidly and therefore should be replaced more frequently. A good Bcomplex will include all of the B vitamins: thiamin(B1), riboflavin (B2), niacin (B3), pantothenic acid (B5), pyridoxine (B6), cobalamin (B12), biotin, and folic acid. The bright yellow color of urine following vitamin supplementation comes solely from the B vitamin riboflavin (B2). It is a normal side effect that should take place if youre taking a good supplement. It does not mean that the vitamin is not used and excreted. A percentage of the B2 is absorbed and because of the nature of B vitamins, it is excreted rapidly. It is important to supplement all of the B vitamins together as they are integrative in their processes. An over-consumption of one B vitamin can counterbalance the others. B vitamins also serve as co-enzymes. Due to industrialization of our food supply, B vitamins have been affected the most. The most abundant natural sources of most B vitamins are found in whole grains such as wheat, specifically the wheat germ. Wheat germ and its extremely nutritious oils will go rancid very quickly. They are removed from the wheat in most mass produced wheat products because they decrease the shelf life of the product. Manufacturers must fortify these products with some of the B vitamins as per the FDA. The bioavailability (absorption factor) of fortified B vitamins is questionable. The fat-soluble vitamins are Vitamin A, D, E, and K. Because they are fat soluble they can be stored in the fat tissues. They also require ingestion of fat for proper absorption and utilization. Toxicity is a factor to consider when supplementing fat-soluble vitamins. It is prudent to follow the research guidelines unless you are under the care of a knowledgeable physician. Vitamin A is more commonly being replaced by beta carotene (and mixed carotenoids) in quality vitamin supplements because beta carotene is non-toxic in high doses, is a powerful antioxidant, and is converted to vitamin A as needed to fulfill the bodys vitamin A requirement. Quality is mentioned
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because beta carotene is more expensive than vitamin A. Vitamin A, retinol, can be toxic in high doses (25,000 IU). Beta Carotene, however, is plentiful in fruits and vegetables like carrots and cantaloupe. An average carrot yields 20,000 IU of beta carotene. One glass of carrot juice using 6 carrots yields over 100, 000 IU. Good vitamin supplements will usually provide 25,000 IU of beta carotene with mixed carotenoids. The following excerpt demonstrates the importance of discriminating between reliable and hyped information. A Finnish study raised concerns that beta carotene may statistically promote lung cancer in smokers. The study involved 30+ yrs., one pack per day, male smokers ages 50 to 69 divided into four groups over a five to eight year period. One group took only beta carotene, another took beta carotene and vitamin E, another took just vitamin E, and the forth group took a placebo. Of all four groups there were over 400 deaths from lung cancer in each group. Statistically, the beta carotene group had the highest percentage of deaths by 8% over those not given beta carotene. The media took this information and grotesquely exploited it in major U.S. publications. The front headlines read Beta carotene causes lung cancer! Needless to say, it created enormous concern among smokers using supplements. However, in the study report it stressed, There are no known or described mechanisms of toxic effects of beta carotene, no data from studies in animals suggesting beta carotene toxicity, and no evidence of serious toxic effects of this substance in humans. In light of all the data available, an adverse effect of beta carotene seems unlikely; in spite of its formal statistical significance, therefore, this finding may well be due to chance. (11) There are many factors influencing lifes courses. Scientifically, it is much more difficult to prove the effects of essential nutrients such as vitamins than some foreign chemical as in prescription drugs. However, it is important to recognize that research on antioxidants has been published in medical journals for over three decades. News from the Mayo Clinic Health letter reporting evidence from more than a hundred studies suggests that eating fruits and vegetables rich in vitamin C or beta carotene, or taking supplements, is linked with a reduced risk of virtually all cancers (12) is less likely to be front page news because there are a lot of unknowns. As in the Finnish study, it is interesting to note that they used low doses of synthetic vitamin E and beta carotene, since our bodies do not recognize and absorb up to 50% of synthetic vitamin E (dl alpha tocopherol) (15) and the positive studies on beta carotene and cancer used natural beta carotene with naturally occurring mixed carotenoids.(13) Vitamin E is probably one of the most important vitamins to supplement according to the research. Vitamin E plays an essential role in cellular respiration of all muscles, especially cardiac and skeletal. Vitamin E makes it possible for these muscles and their nerves to function with less oxygen, thereby increasing their endurance and stamina. (4) Vitamin E has a dramatic effect on reproductive organs. It helps prevent miscarriages, increases male and female fertility, and helps restore male potency. (4) The female sex hormone, estrogen, has an antagonistic effect on vitamin E, therefore, supplementation of vitamin E is important for those ingesting estrogen from birth control pills or hormone replacement therapy. Obese women produce higher than normal levels of estrogen, which has negative affects on good health. Based on all the mounting evidence on vitamin Es importance, these women should clearly supplement their diets with vitamin E. Vitamin E saturates fat tissues including every lipid layer surrounding every single cell membrane in our body. Vitamin E is an antioxidant, which means it opposes oxidation of substances in the body. Vitamin E prevents saturated fatty acids and vitamin A from breaking down and combining with other substances that may become harmful to the body. Fat oxidation results in the formation of free radicals. Free radicals are highly destructive molecules that can cause extensive damage to the body, from cancer to blood clots
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to damage of DNA. (4) Because of its powerful antioxidant effects, adequate tissue saturation is key to minimizing free radical damage on a cellular level. Therapeutic doses arc generally in the 300 to 1200 IU range. (14) Similar levels could not conceivably be obtained from foods. The richest sources of vitamin E are oils, seeds, nuts, and green leafy vegetables. As an example, to get 100 lU one would have to eat 2 cups (1 lb.) of almonds, 1 cup (1/2 lb.) of sunflower seeds, or 4 cups of olive oil. There are no reports of toxicity of vitamin E and supplementation, however. Since vitamin E has the effect of increasing coagulation time, high levels are contraindicated in cases of patients on anticoagulant therapy. (14) Because vitamin E can raise blood pressure, individuals with high blood pressure should consult their physician. The best supplement form of vitamin E is the natural form, d-alpha tocopherol succinate, in a dry powder capsule. In this form, it is the most bioactive and more stable on the shelf than oils which can go rancid very quickly because they are more likely to become oxidized. MINERALS Fundamental basic facts: There are 21 minerals required in the diet according to the FDA. Major minerals: Phosphorus, Calcium, Magnesium, Potassium, Sodium, Chloride, and Sulphur Trace Minerals: Iron, Chromium, Selenium, Zinc, Molybdenum, Manganese, Copper, Iodine, Fluoride, Boron, Nickel, Tin, Silicon, and Vanadium Sources are vegetables, grains, animal flesh, organs, and dairy There are zero calories per one gram of vitamins. Minerals are inorganic (non-living) nutrients found in the body and in food of organic and inorganic combinations. Approximately 26 minerals have been found to be essential to human nutrition. The minerals that are known to be essential and that are present in fairly large quantities in body tissues, known as macrominerals, are measured in milligrams (mg). Some of these are calcium, phosphorus, sodium, chloride, magnesium, and sulphur. The minerals present in trace amounts in body tissues, known as trace minerals, are usually measured in micrograms (mcg). Some of these trace minerals include iron, copper, cobalt, manganese, zinc, iodine, molybdenum, selenium, chromium, and fluoride. Additionally, the trace minerals boron, nickel, silicon, tin, and vanadium have been found to be essential as well. Although 4 to 5 percent of the human body weight is mineral matter, minerals are vital to overall mental and physical well-being. (4) All tissues and internal fluids of living things contain varying quantities of minerals. Minerals are constituents of the bones, teeth, soft tissue, muscle, blood, and nerve cells. Similar to vitamins, minerals act as catalysts for many biological reactions such as muscle response, the transmission of messages through the nervous system, digestion and metabolism or utilization of nutrients in foods. Minerals co-exist with vitamins and their work is interrelated. For example, Bcomplex vitamins are absorbed only when combined with phosphorus. Vitamin C greatly increases the absorption of iron, and calcium absorption would not occur without vitamin D. (4) Calcium Calcium is the most abundant mineral in the body. About 99% is deposited in the bones and teeth. One percent is involved in the blood-clotting process, in nerve and muscle stimulation, parathyroid
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hormone function, and metabolism of vitamin D. The major function of calcium is to act in cooperation with phosphorus to build and maintain bones and teeth. Calcium and magnesium are important for cardiovascular health and maintaining normal heartbeats. Calcium can ease insomnia and also buffer too much acid in the blood or an upset stomach. Calcium absorption is very inefficient, and usually only 20% to 30% of ingested calcium is absorbed. (4) The RDA for calcium is 800 mg. During Pregnancy and lactation, this amount increases to 1200 mg. Absorption is reduced with age and it is routine for physicians to recommend 1500 mg per day to women past menopause as insurance to ward off osteoporosis, degeneration of the bones. Sedentary, aging men are also at risk. Osteoporosis can be slowed by adequate calcium intake by supplying the bodys needs without further leaching calcium from the bones. It is crucial for teenage females to get enough calcium to build a strong skeletal structure for their future. By the age of 25, the skeletal system has completed its growth. Exercise (primarily weight-bearing such as walking or weight lifting) is key to building and maintaining strong and healthy bones. Certain substances interfere with calcium absorption such as excessive amounts of caffeine, protein, fat, oxalic acid found in chocolate and spinach, phytic acid present in cereals and grains. Other interfering factors are: lack of exercise, excessive stress, excitement, depression, and too rapid of a flow of food through the intestinal tract. Studies show that calcium intake of at least 1200 mg per day reduces the incidence of colon cancer. (22) One out of six people in the U.S. will die from colon cancer, one out of five in people over 50. (22) Calcium reduces incidence by binding to the free fatty acids that could, otherwise, oxidize and sit in the colon, which has a carcinogenic affect. A typical life style, which includes drinking coffee, eating chocolate, being stressed-out or depressed would greatly benefit from a quality calcium supplement. A good supplement will be in capsule form, since powders dissolve quickly. The best sources of calcium are calcium aspartate and calcium citrate, These are chelated (inorganic mineral bound with organic amino acid) for optimal absorption since our bodies only absorb minerals in their organic chelated state. It is very important to take calcium with adequate food intake to get magnesium and phosphorus, which are prevalent in the natural food supply. Especially if one does not drink milk or eat milk products. Magnesium Marginal magnesium deficiencies are prevalently found in the elderly, those on low calorie diets, diabetics, those on diuretics, consumers of alcohol, pregnant women, and regular exercisers. Important for proper metabolism of foods and good heart health. Magnesium aspartate or citrate are optimal sources. Potassium Potassium is a major component of our cells. It plays a major role in many of the most important functions of our bodies, including the production of energy, muscle contraction, beating of the heart, synthesis of protein, nerve tranquilization, and kidney function. Deficiencies can lead to fatigue, generalized weakness, muscle pains, acne, continuous thirst, dry skin, constipation, and insomnia. Individuals using diuretics, alcohol, caffeine, cortisone, laxatives, excessive salt, or excessive sugar are susceptible to deficiencies, as well as individuals under stress. Consuming a variety of whole and natural foods is key for adequate potassium intake. Although allowances have not been established for potassium, authorities suggest that between 2000 and 2500 mg be included in the diet daily. (4) However, excessive potassium supplementation can be lethal. Abnormally elevated potassium levels in the blood, outside the cell membrane, can cause a sudden heart attack. Potassium supplementation is beneficial when following the guidelines.
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Iron Iron deficiency is the leading nutrient deficiency found in humans. Iron is essential for oxygen and electron transport, hemoglobin (red blood cell) production, stress and disease resistance, and growth in children. Menstruating females are at risk to deficiency especially if they exercise excessively and have a poor diet. Signs of deficiency are pale skin color, dark circles under the eyes and fatigue.. Tip: when acclimating to high altitudes, iron supplementation is helpful. Ferrous sulfate can be constipating, ferrous glycinate is optimal for absorption without side affects. Copper Essential for hemoglobin production due to its interaction with iron, cross linking of elastin, and oxidative enzymes. Constituent of antioxidant enzyme superoxide dismutase, SOD. Zinc Antioxidant essential for over 200 enzymes activity: facilitates burn and wound healing, growth, metabolism, and rejuvenates immune system cells. Zinc is a precursor to the bodys key antioxidant enzyme superoxide dismutase, SOD. Too much zinc without a balance of copper can cause a SOD deficiency since SOD requires copper as well. Particularly important for the prostate. Deficiencies lead to night blindness, fatigue, loss of taste, smell, and vision, sterility, hair loss and rough, dry skin. Zinc aspartate and histidine are optimal sources. Doses over 150 mg daily could be toxic. Manganese Essential for the make-up of two manganese containing enzymes: pyruvate carboxylase and superoxide dismutase(SOD). All tumors examined to date have diminished amounts of SOD. Selenium Antioxidant essential in assisting vitamin E metabolism and the interactive system of protection against prooxidative damage. Individuals living in areas of low selenium levels in the soil may be at higher risk for heart disease. Selenium is a precursor to the bodys key antioxidant enzyme glutathione peroxidase. Chromium Without this trace mineral, our bodies can not remove sugar from the blood for cellular nourishment, which inevitably leads to diabetes, cardiovascular disease, and high blood pressure. A U.S. government study shows that 9 out of 10 Americans tested were not getting enough chromium from their diet. Those high at risk for deficiency are athletes, diabetics, child-bearing women, and the elderly. Deficiencies can lead to hyperglycemia, disturbed amino acid metabolism, impaired growth, elevated blood cholesterol, fatty deposits in arteries, decreased life span, decreased sperm count and infertility. Countering agents are age, multiple pregnancies, high fat, refined processed diets, iron, and exercise. Supplementation of 200 mcg per day is adequate for most individuals. It is not necessary and could be harmful if ingesting over 1000 mcg per day. The optimal source is GTF chromium niacinate or polynicotinate. Chromium picolinate is not optimal because the body does not recognize picolinic acid and treats it as a foreign substance. Chromium is an antioxidant.
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Molybdenum Essential in prevention of nitrosamine build-up. Identified as a constituent of several enzymes, one of which breaks down sulfites found in preservatives. Iodine The role of iodine is related solely to its function as a constituent of the thyroid hormones, which in turn, plays a vital role in the production of energy. Vanadium Appears to have a role in lipid and glucose metabolism. Boron Essential in prevention of calcium loss from bone. Vitamins and minerals do not provide any calories to the body. THE FOOD GUIDE PYRAMID A Guide to Daily Food Choices

The Food Guide Pyramid is an outline of what to eat each day based on the Dietary Guidelines. It's not a rigid prescription but a general guide that lets you choose a healthful diet that's right for you. The Pyramid calls for eating a variety of foods to get the nutrients you need and at the same time the right amount of calories to maintain healthy weight.
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Use the Pyramid to help you eat better every day...the Dietary Guidelines way. Start with plenty of breads, cereals, rice, pasta, vegetables, and fruits. Add 2-3 servings from the milk group and 2-3 servings from the meat group. Remember to go easy on fats, oils, and sweets, the foods in the small tip of the Pyramid. What Counts as One Serving? The amount of food that counts as one serving is listed below. If you eat a larger portion, count it as more than 1 serving. For example, a dinner portion of spaghetti would count as 2 or 3 servings of pasta. Be sure to eat at least the lowest number of servings from the five major food groups listed below. You need them for the vitamins, minerals, carbohydrates, and protein they provide. Just try to pick the lowest fat choices from the food groups. No specific serving size is given for the fats, oils, and sweets group because the message is USE SPARINGLY. Milk, Yogurt, and Cheese
1 cup of milk or yogurt 2-3 ounces of cooked lean meat, poultry, or fish 1 cup of raw leafy vegetables 1 1/2 ounces of natural cheese 2 ounces of process cheese

Meat, Poultry, Fish, Dry Beans, Eggs, and Nuts Vegetable Fruit

1/2 cup of cooked dry beans, 1 egg, or 2 tablespoons of peanut butter count as 1 ounce of lean meat 1/2 cup of other vegetables, cooked or chopped raw 3/4 cup of vegetable juice

1 medium apple, banana, orange 1 slice of bread

1/2 cup of chopped, cooked, or canned fruit

Bread, Cereal, Rice, and Pasta

1 ounce of ready-to-eat cereal

3/4 cup of fruit juice 1/2 cup of cooked cereal, rice, or pasta

CLIENT ASSESSMENT The idea of losing weight has been an obsession in the U.S. to say the least. The scale has been perceived as the tool to determine whether one is thin or fat. Unfortunately, it is not that simple. Muscle is more dense which means it is more compact than fat. Fat is more voluminous so it adds more dimension. These facts are the very stumbling blocks that most people will encounter in their attempt to lose weight the right way. They need to focus on dimension not weight. Obviously, this must be explained to the client thoroughly or the client will get discouraged and give up. Assessing the clients percent body fat and lean body mass LBM will be a vital tool in convincing the client of their progress. If the clients LBM is known then determining the correct protein, fat, and carbohydrate intake will be more accurate. Only metabolically active tissue like muscles, brain and other organs can actually burn calories throughout the day. It is the trainers goal to set up a program that at least maintains LBM or in some cases builds muscle tissue. Setting up this program involves the following steps: Step 1: Diet History One of the first pieces of information to obtain from clients is their diet history. A client should provide at least three days worth of information, preferably 2 weekdays and 1 weekend day. The client
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should be as detailed as possible. 1. What foods are consumed: A burrito or a sandwich is not helpful: what exactly was in the burrito or sandwich. Especially if there were ingredients like mayonnaise or cheese.

2. How much food is consumed: How many ounces, slices or tablespoons of each ingredient is the only way to know just how much or little is consumed. 3. When the food is consumed: Timing is extremely important in eating healthy. If there is too much time between meals there is a risk of over-consumption and the BMR (Basal Metabolic Rate) tends to slow.

The client should be giving you their typical eating habits and not their good behavior eating habits. To gain their trust, do not be judgmental. It is also beneficial to know what foods they like/dislike, lifestyle, family eating habits, etc. From this information, it is evident if they are eating typically balanced or unbalanced meals. To assess this information accurately the trainer can determine how many grams of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins were consumed for the day and when they were consumed. * A good reference guide is Nutrition Facts Desk Reference by Dr. Art Ulene From this diet history, the client is also able to learn how their eating habits can be modified to provide optimal energy and fat burning scenarios. Step 2 Weigh the client __________ lbs. Step 3 The next step is to assess the clients percent body fat which will also provide their lean body mass. There are several tools to measure the percent body fat such as calipers, infrared detectors, and underwater weighing. Underwater weighing is the most accurate but it is also the most time consuming and expensive. Calipers are the most economical and provide somewhat accurate measurements. Obese people with 30% or higher body fat will not get an accurate percentage because the calipers will be pinching only one roll of fat. In this case, it is explained that the client has over 30% body fat and needs to lose weight. The problems arises, however, in calculating how much lean body mass is present. More accurate ways to measure may be needed. Body Fat = __________% Step 4 Calculate how much the stored body fat weighs: Current weight __________ lbs. x __________% body fat = __________ lbs. of fat Step 5 Calculate Lean Body Mass: Current weight __________ lbs. minus fat lbs. __________ = __________ lbs. of LBM

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Step 6 Determine the body fat percentage loss goal. This is an optional step that merely demonstrates in a systematic method how to calculate fat loss. Since fat loss is achieved by stoking the furnace with the right amount of fuel (food) and the right amount of reactor, oxygen, the longer the duration of the aerobic activity, the more fat that is burned. Whether the client wants to lose weight or gain weight, lowering the amount of body fat is almost always the goal. The effort the client is willing to put into the workouts will determine the amount of body fat that client will lose. Effort includes number of days and hours working out plus the average heart rate for the duration of the workout. This effort is performed in a cardiovascular aerobic workout over a 12-week period. Average effort: 4 days/week of 1 hour at 50% of maximum heart rate. Above average effort: 5 days/week of 1 hour at 60% of maximum heart rate. Intense effort: 6 days/week of 1 hour at 70% of maximum heart rate. The more intense the effort the more body fat loss occurs to achieve a lower % body fat as demonstrated in these formulas. Average effort: current body fat __________% x 0.85 = body fat __________% goal Above average effort: current body __________% x 0.80 = body fat __________% goal Intense effort: current body fat __________% x 0.75 = body fat __________% goal Example: A person who weighs 135 lbs. and is 25% body fat. To achieve a lower % body fat, this equation can show how their efforts will affect their goal by these calculations: Average effort (0.85 multiplier) 0.25 x (0.85) = a goal of 21% body fat by 12 wks. Above avg. effort (0.80 multiplier) 0.25 x (0.80) = a goal of 20% body fat by 12 wks. Intense effort (0.75 multiplier) 0.25 x (0.75) = a goal of 19% body fat by 12 wks. Step 7 Determine the goal weight based on LBM and body fat goal: Here is another example: LBM __________ lbs. / 1.00 __________% body fat goal = goal weight __________ lbs. Sally weighs in at 150 lbs. and with calipers, her body fat is determined to be 25% body fat. 25% of 150 lbs. is 37.5 lbs. of fat. LBM is 150 lbs. 37.5 lbs. = 112.5 lbs. of LBM. Sally decides that she will give above average effort to her program so she multiplies her current body fat % which is 25% by 0.80. 25% x 0.80 = 20% body fat goal
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To get goal weight, Sally will divide 112.5 by (1.00 0.20) or 112.5 / 0.80 = 140 lbs. goal weight. At 140 lbs. and at 20% body fat, Sally will have 28 lbs. of fat from 37.5 lbs. of fat. That is 9.5 lbs. of fat to lose. With this information, assessing the amount of calories to consume is pure mathematics. Remember, the three fuels to work with are: Fat = 9 calories per gram Carbohydrates = 4 calories per gram Protein = 4 calories per gram

Determining Daily Caloric Requirements: Step 1: Determine resting metabolic requirements. * kg = weight in pounds/2.2 Men: 13 calories for each pound of LBM, if you dont know LBM use: 1.0 x kg x 24 = kcal (Basal Metabolic Rate (BMR)) Women: 12 calories for each pound of LBM, if you dont know LBM use: 0.9 x kg x 24 = kcal (BMR) Step 2: Apply a lifestyle multiplier which does not include workouts. Light office work, mostly seated ..................................................1.2 Housework, including shopping, errands .....................................1.3 Clerical, on feet most of the day doing light work.......................1.4 Light construction, or lots of walking ..........................................1.5 Step 3: Adding it up. Scenario 1: Weight Loss Multiply the resting metabolic rate (RMR) by lifestyle multiplier and then add 1/2 the amount of additional calories used during workout. (most people burn between 450 to 750 calories per 1 hour workout). The amount of calories per pound of fat is 3500 kcal. To lose 1 pound/week you divide 3500/7 = 500 kcal/day. Subtract an extra 500 kcal to lose one pound/week. Depending on the type of workout will determine calories burned. Reference the chart in the appendix at the back of this manual to help determine calories per hour. Most gyms have aerobic exercise equipment that tells how many calories were burned. Based on the number determined is the basis upon which an eating plan is designed. The amount of calories and the stored fat should cover all caloric needs throughout the day.
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Heavy construction, warehousing, moving, etc............................1.6

Review the formula for total caloric intake:

1. LBM = __________ lbs. x 13(men) or 12(women) = __________ calories (RMR) 3. Add in 1/2 the number of calories burned in workout.

2. RMR = __________ x lifestyle factor (1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, or 1.6) = __________ calories 4. Subtract 500 kcal/day to lose one pound/week (maximum 2 lbs./week). RMR x lifestyle factor + (1/2 calories burned working out) - 500 kcal = total daily caloric intake Scenario 2: Weight Gain 1. LBM = __________ lbs. x 13(men) or 12 (women) = __________ calories (RMR) 3. Add in the total number of calories burned in workout. 4. Add 500 kcal for one pound of weight gain/week.

2. RMR = __________ x lifestyle factor (1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, or 1.6) = __________ calories

RMR x lifestyle factor + (total calories burned working out) + 500 kcal = total daily caloric intake Step 4: Determine quantities of protein, fat, and carbohydrates. Weight Loss: 1. Calculate protein in the ratio of 0.7 grams protein to each pound of current LBM or take 12% of total caloric intake. 2. Calculate fats not to exceed 30% of calories. 3. Calculate carbohydrates to make up the balance of total daily calories or take 58% of total caloric intake.

Protein: LBM x 0.7 = __________ grams of protein x 4 = __________ calories Fat:

Total calories x 30% = __________ fat calories divided by 9 = fat grams

Carbohydrates: Remaining calories divided by 4 = __________carbohydrate grams. Weight Gain: (Appropriate for body builders and athletes) 2. Calculate fats not to exceed 30% of calories. 1. Calculate protein in the ratio of 0.8 grams of protein to each pound of current LBM. 3. Calculate carbohydrates to make up the balance to total daily calories. Protein: LBM x 0.8 = __________ grams of protein x 4 = __________ calories Fat: Total calories x 30% = __________ fat calories divided by 9 = fat grams
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Carbohydrates: Remaining calories divided by 4 = __________carbohydrate grams STEP 5: Determine how much to eat and when. Timing is critical to a successful eating plan. The goal is to eat 4 to 6 meals per day. Depending on the lifestyle of the person, the amount of time to fit in meals, will determine what is most realistic. Take the number of meals and divide it into the total number of calories for the day. Each meal should have the same portion of protein, carbs, and fat. The first meal should be eaten within the first hour upon waking up and then eat every 3 or 4 hours depending on the number of meals. For example, eating 4 meals/day, meals should be every 4 hours. Ideally, dividing the total calories and grams of protein, fat, and carbohydrates into 6 meals per day will provide enough fuel in a timely manner for the optimal fat burning scenario. Simply stated, the body is similar to a funnel, it can overflow from too much fuel at one time. That overflow is handled by the body by storing the excess fuel as fat, whether the food is protein, fat or carbohydrate. Timing is just as crucial as content. Some helpful tips when eating out at restaurants that typically serve large portions: Eat 1/2 of a meal at a restaurant and take the other half to eat as the next meal Take the dessert home for later Split a meal with a friend Order half or lunch portions EATING BEHAVIORS

The obsession with losing weight is not only frustrating but can lead to dangerous acts of desperation. Ironically, it is this very obsession that has triggered obesity to begin its path of enlarging our nation. Most obese people become obese from trying to lose weight the wrong way, typically by yoyo dieting. Over 40% of the U.S. population is obese. Obesity is determined by the percent body fat. For women, obesity begins at 32% body fat. For men, obesity begins at 25% body fat. There are several factors that have influenced this evolution of obesity in America. Physiological Factors 1. Gastric effectsnutrients, hormones and mechanical (filling of the gut) all influence food intake. 2. Hypothalamusthirst, hunger, behavior, sex drive, feeding and satiety centers are in this part of the brain that regulates hunger and satiety. 3. Carbohydrate balanceif the body is low in carb stores there is a chemical signal to increase food intake. If the body has high carb stores (best scenario) there are chemical signals to decrease food intake and there is an increase in BMR (basal metabolic rate) and a decrease in weight. 4. Genetics
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5. Low BMR from being obese 6. Set point theory states that the number of fat cells will influence weight. The more fat cells the higher capacity to store fat, these fat cells send out chemicals to keep weight at a set level. Fat cells are developed in children, so they have a higher probability of fighting obesity when they are older. Strong argument for keeping the youth active. Environmental Factors I. Sedentary lifestyles have dramatically affected weight gain in many ways. a. Less energy expenditure b. More likelihood of depression c. More time to eat d. Decreased LBM

II. Industrialization of the food supply

a. Essential metabolic nutrients are lost in the modern farming/processing of foods 1. B vitamins 2. Chromium 3. Fiber b. Increased supply of junk food with empty calories 1. Fat-free cookies 2. Potato chips 3. Sodas c. Additions of synthetic substances that can inhibit proper metabolism 1. Partially hydrogenated oils 2. Additives and fillers 3. Preservatives d. Convenience 1. Fast food 2. Easy or no prep food

III. Media a. Get thin quick scams 1. Phen-fen 2. Liposuction 3. All low calorie diets b. Misleading journalism Do not expect to get accurate information on nutrition from journalists c. Radio, T.V., magazines, advertising etc. Food conditioning
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IV. Portion overload a. Restaurants b. Holidays c. Dinner parties Psychological Factors 1. Stress/Depression This is a rather new field of study that is extremely important in understanding the causes of obesity, particularly in women. Studies show that chronic stress overload which can lead to depression, can elevate hormone levels in the neuroendocrine system and can damage the center of the brain that controls appetite and metabolism. For further clarification, read Why Zebras Dont Get Ulcers by Robert M. Sapolsky. 2. Food is comfort 3. Eating and drinking is social 4. Starvation/bingeing is control *a. Anorexia Nervosa: starvation symptoms: 1. 25% less than ideal weight w/o medical reason 2. denial of problem 3. denial of hunger 4. excessive exercise 5. dress in baggy clothes 6. Lanugovery fine hair, growing fur (face/arms) 7. Avoids social gatherings 8. Food rituals *b. Bulimia: bingeing and purging symptoms: 1. abdominal pain 2. fatigue 3. purging (enamel of teeth rotting) 4. esophagitis (blood) 5. amenorrhea (low iron stores) 6. laxative abuse 7. chipmunk cheeks 8. light headed *1 in 5 women suffer from these eating disorders

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VEGETARIAN Some vegetarians are strict vegans, which means they consume no animal sources of food including dairy, meat, fish. Some vegetarians will eat dairy and fish. If they are strict vegans, they need to supplement vitamin B12 and possibly iron if they are female. They should pay close attention to their protein intake. It is important for them to get complete protein from their diet. If they are a novice, a good protein powder may be beneficial. Most vegetarians get enough protein from the diet to meet adequate requirements if they eat balanced wholesome meals. ERGOGENIC AIDS AND SUPPLEMENTS I. Protein and Carbohydrate Supplements

Great for convenience when short on time for real food. Studies have shown that a liquid combination of protein and carbohydrate taken immediately and two hours after resistance training enhances recovery.(23) This form of supplementation increased blood levels of insulin and growth hormone, both of which are body-tissue building agents. Besides convenience, protein supplements are almost always derived from high-quality sources such as milk, egg, whey, or soy protein and are usually low in fat and cholesterol. Be aware that there are missing nutrients in these supplements and are not to be substituted for real food too often. A carbohydrate supplement is advantageous during resistance training when muscle glycogen is low. Another study found that 0.5 grams of carbohydrate per pound of body weight immediately after resistance training decreased the amount of body-protein breakdown that normally occurs with intense weight training.(23) II. Amino Acid and Muscle Building

Research does not support taking arginine and ornithine for stimulating the growth hormone. Supplementing the branched chain amino acids for muscle tissue repair is okay before and after a workout, but over-consumption of any of the essential amino acids sets off an imbalance of the others. It is best to have a well-balanced formulation of all the essential amino acids. III. Chromium

Has not been found to increase lean muscle tissue in athletes or sedentary adults. Although it is not an ergogenic aid in building muscle tissue, it is essential for the function of insulin which affects muscle tissue building. A deficiency could inhibit muscle tissue formation. A daily supply of 200 mcg should be sufficient. IV. Creatine

Has been found to enhance muscle tissue building by increasing the muscles ability to perform repetitive, high-intensity exercise, such as weight training, as ATP is more readily regenerated and available. This is successful due to the creatine loading protocols of 20 to 30 grams daily for five to six days, or 3 grams daily for four weeks. There are some questions regarding some of the weight gain. The jury is still out, but researchers think this gain is part muscle and part fluid. How much of each is unknown. Creatine should not be used with caffeine since caffeine negates the creatine loading. Besides
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the question of weight gain, long-term use has not been researched. One factor is the body will suppress its own ability to produce creatine. Also, stress may be placed on the kidneys and liver. Endurance athletes may find that creatine may actually weaken their performance. V. Analgesic Pain Relievers

NSAIDs (non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs) and acetaminophen are great for sore muscles but overuse can be dangerous. These OTC (over the counter) medications can negatively affect the liver, kidneys, and stomach. More natural approaches to sore muscle pain relief include arnica montana, a homeopathic medicine (which can be taken sublingually and applied topically), heat producing rubbing creams, and massage. VI. Caffeine

Has an ergogenic effect in more ways than one. Not only does it stimulate the adrenals for action, but it circulates fatty acids for fuel during a workout. Moderation is key, since too much caffeine can overstimulate the adrenals and cause fatigue and dehydration. Ephedrine and ma huang have the same physiological effects as caffeine. V. Cortisol Reduction

Phosphatidyl serine is recommended for those athletes such as marathon runners or triathletes who place their body under enormous amounts of stress causing chronically elevated cortisol levels. Too much cortisol can lead to excessive injuries, inflammation, slow recovery, bone demineralization, memory loss, reproduction dysfunction, digestive disorders, and possibly obesity, to name a few. Dose 500 mg three times a day.

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REFERENCES 1. Essentials of Human Metabolism; Second Edition; W.C. McMurray 2. Clinical Nutrition and Dietetics; Frances J. Zeman, Ph.D., R.D. 3. Nutrition, an Integrated Approach; Ruth L. Pike and Myrtle L. Brown 5. American council on Exercise Personal Trainer Manual; 1991

4. Nutrition Almanac; Second Edition; John D. Kirschmann, Director, Lavon J.Dunne 6. The Ultimate Lean Routine; Mark Sisson, President of Primal Fitness 7. The Doctors Book of Vitamin Therapy, Dr. Harold Rosenberg 8. Newsweek; June 7, 1993; pg. 46; Vitamin revolution

9. Dr. Morris Browns study; Cambridge University; PR Newswire press release, 1996

10. Andrew Lessman; Founder and President of The Winning Combination State of the Art Nutrition 41494; 330 (15), pp10291035

11. The Alpha-tocopherol/beta carotene cancer prevention study; New England Journal of Medicine; 12. Mayo Clinic Health Letter; August 1993

13. Environmental Nutrition; June, 1994; Volume 17 no.6 14. Nutrition News;1993; Volume xvii, no. 10 15. Natural Verses Synthetic; Health Connection; Sept, 1989

16. Thomas DE, Brotherhood JR., Brand JC.; Carbohydrate feeding before exercise, effect of glycemic 17. Holt S. Brand J, Soveny C. Hanksy J; Relationship of satiety to postprandial glycemic, insulin and 18. Fats That Heal, Fats That Kill; Udo Erasmus; 1986 cholecystokinin responses. Appetite; 1992;18: 12941 index; International Journal Sports Medicine; 1991; 121806.

19. Epidemiology; May, 1992; James Enstrom, Ph.D., UCLA 21. Nutrition News; 1991; Vol. XIV. No. 3

20. Health Counselor; Nov/Dec 1991; Study from Arizona State University, Tempe 22. Sheilds; Advanced Nutrition; graduate level

23. Inside Triathlon; Dec. 1998; Monique Ryan, R.D., Sports Nutritionist

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