APA (American Psychological Association) is most commonly used to cite sources within the social sciences.

This resource, revised according to the 5th edition of the APA manual, offers examples for the general format of APA research papers, in-text citations, endnotes/footnotes, and the reference page. Please use the example at the bottom of this page to cite the Purdue OWL in APA.

1. General Format
General APA Guidelines
our essay should !e typed, dou!le-spaced on standard-si"ed paper (#.$% x &&%) with &% margins on all sides. ou should use &'-&( pt. Times )ew *oman font or a similar font. +nclude a page header in the upper right-hand of every page. To create a page header, type the first (-, words of the title of the paper, insert five spaces, then give the page num!er.

Major Paper Sections

our essay should include four ma-or sections. the Title Page, Abstract, Main Bod , and !eferences. Title Page our title page should already include the page header (descri!ed a!ove). /n the first line of the title page flush-left, add a running head. 0egin the running head with the words 1*unning 2ead3 followed !y a colon. Then give an a!!reviated title of your paper in $' characters or less in all caps. )ote. *emem!er that the page header will appear on every page of your paper, whereas the running head will only appear on your title page. +n the upper half of the title page, type your full title, your b line (name4s5), and affiliation (university, etc.) centered on separate lines. our title may ta6e up one or two lines as in the example !elow.

APA Title Page

Abstract
0egin a new page. our a!stract page should already include the page header (descri!ed a!ove). /n the first line of the a!stract page, center the word 1A!stract3 (otherwise unformatted, no !old, italics, underlining, or 7uotation mar6s). 0eginning with the next line, write a concise summary of the 6ey points of your research. (8o not indent.) The a!stract should !e a single paragraph dou!le-spaced of less than &(' words.

9ample APA A!stract

Please see our Additional !esources page for e"amples of APA papers. :ite the Purdue /;< in APA. Purdue University Online Writing Lab (OWL) (Last edited date available in the gray box at the top of the resource). Title of resource. Retrieved month day year from

http!""Web address for OWL resource.

#. $n%Te"t &itations' The Basics

*eference citations in text are covered on pages ('=-(&> of the Pu!lication ?anual. ;hat follows are some general guidelines for referring to the wor6s of others in your essay. (ote' APA style re7uires authors to use the past tense or present perfect tense when using signal phrases to descri!e earlier research. @.g., Aones (&BB#) found or Aones (&BB#) has found...

APA &itation Basics

;hen using APA format, follow the author-date method of in-text citation. This means that the authorCs last name and the year of pu!lication for the source should appear in the text, @.g., (Aones, &BB#), and a complete reference should appear in the reference list at the end of the paper. +f you are referring to an idea from another wor6 !ut ()T directly 7uoting the material, or ma6ing reference to an entire !oo6, article or other wor6, you only have to ma6e reference to the author and year of pu!lication in your in-text reference.

$n%Te"t &itation &apitali*ation+ ,uotes+ and $talics-.nderlining

Always capitali"e proper nouns, including author names and initials. 8. Aones.

+f you refer to the title of a source within your paper, capitali"e all words that are four letters long or greater within the title of a source. Permanence and Change. @xceptions apply to short words that are ver!s, nouns, pronouns, ad-ectives, and adver!s. Writing New Media, There s Nothing Left to Lose. ((ote' in your *eferences list, only the first word of a title will !e capitali"ed. ;riting new media.)

;hen capitali"ing titles, capitali"e !oth words in a hyphenated compound word. Natural!"orn C#borgs. :apitali"e the first word after a dash or colon. %8efining Dilm *hetoric. The :ase of 2itchcoc6Cs $ertigo.% +talici"e or underline the titles of longer wor6s such as !oo6s, edited collections, movies, television series, documentaries, or al!ums. The Closing of the American Mind E The Wi%ard of O%E &riends. Put 7uotation mar6s around the titles of shorter wor6s such as -ournal articles, articles from edited collections, television series episodes, and song titles. %?ultimedia )arration. :onstructing Possi!le ;orlds%E %The /ne ;here :handler :anCt :ry.%

Short ,uotations
+f you are directly 7uoting from a wor6, you will need to include the author, year of pu!lication, and the page num!er for the reference (preceded !y %p.%). +ntroduce the 7uotation with a signal phrase that includes the authorCs last name followed !y the date of pu!lication in parentheses. #ccording to $ones (%&&') ()tudents often had difficulty using #P# style especially *hen it *as their first time( (p. %&&). $ones (%&&') found (students often had difficulty using #P# style( (p. %&&)+ *hat implications does this have for teachers, -f the author is not named in a signal phrase place the author.s last name the year of publication and the page number in parentheses after the /uotation. )he stated ()tudents often had difficulty using #P# style ( ($ones %&&' p. %&&) but she did not offer an explanation as to *hy.

/ong ,uotations
Place direct 7uotations longer than >' words in a free-standing !loc6 of typewritten lines, and omit 7uotation mar6s. 9tart the 7uotation on a new line, indented five spaces from the left margin. Type the entire 7uotation on the new margin, and indent the first line of any su!se7uent paragraph within the 7uotation five spaces from the new margin. ?aintain dou!le-spacing throughout. The parenthetical citation should come after the closing punctuation mar6. $ones.s (%&&') study found the follo*ing! )tudents often had difficulty using #P# style especially *hen it *as their first time citing sources. 0his difficulty could be attributed to the fact that many students failed to purchase a style manual or to as1 their teacher for help. (p. %&&)

Summar or Paraphrase

+f you are paraphrasing an idea from another wor6, you only have to ma6e reference to the author and year of pu!lication in your in-text reference, !ut APA guidelines encourage you to also provide the page num!er (although it is not re7uired.) #ccording to $ones (%&&') #P# style is a difficult citation format for first2time learners. #P# style is a difficult citation format for first2time learners ($ones %&&' p. %&&).

0. $n%Te"t &itations' Author-Authors

APA style has a series of important rules on using author names as part of the author-date system. There are additional rules for citing indirect sources, electronic sources, and sources without page num!ers.

&iting an Author or Authors

A 1or2 b T3o Authors' )ame !oth authors in the signal phrase or in the parentheses each time you cite the wor6. Fse the word %and% !etween the authorsC names within the text and use the ampersand in the parentheses. Research by Wegener and Petty (%&&3) supports... (Wegener 4 Petty %&&3)

A 1or2 b Three to Fi4e Authors' <ist all the authors in the signal phrase or in parentheses the first time you cite the source. (5ernis 6ornell )un 7erry 4 8arlo* %&&9)

+n su!se7uent citations, only use the first authorCs last name followed !y %et al.% in the signal phrase or in parentheses. (5ernis et al. %&&9)

+n et al., et should not !e followed !y a period. Si" or More Authors' Fse the first authorCs name followed !y et al. in the signal phrase or in parentheses. 8arris et al. (:;;%) argued... (8arris et al. :;;%)

.n2no3n Author' +f the wor6 does not have an author, cite the source !y its title in the signal phrase or use the first word or two in the parentheses. Titles of !oo6s and reports are italici"ed or underlinedE titles of articles and chapters are in 7uotation mar6s.

# similar study *as done of students learning to format research papers ((Using #P# ( :;;%).

(ote. +n the rare case the %Anonymous% is used for the author, treat it as the authorCs name (Anonymous, (''&). +n the reference list, use the name Anonymous as the author. )rgani*ation as an Author' +f the author is an organi"ation or a government agency, mention the organi"ation in the signal phrase or in the parenthetical citation the first time you cite the source. #ccording to the #merican Psychological #ssociation (:;;;) ...

+f the organi"ation has a well-6nown a!!reviation, include the a!!reviation in !rac6ets the first time the source is cited and then use only the a!!reviation in later citations. <irst citation! (=others #gainst >run1 >riving ?=#>>@ )econd citation! (=#>> :;;;) :;;;)

T3o or More 1or2s in the Same Parentheses' ;hen your parenthetical citation includes two or more wor6s, order them the same way they appear in the reference list, separated !y a semi-colon. (7erndt :;;:+ 8arlo* %&'9)

Authors 1ith the Same /ast (ame' To prevent confusion, use first initials with the last names. (A. $ohnson :;;%+ L. $ohnson %&&')

T3o or More 1or2s b the Same Author in the Same 5ear' +f you have two sources !y the same author in the same year, use lower-case letters (a, !, c) with the year to order the entries in the reference list. Fse the lower-case letters with the year in the in-text citation. Research by 7erndt (%&'%a) illustrated that...

$ntroductions+ Prefaces+ Fore3ords+ and After3ards' ;hen citing an +ntroduction, Preface, Doreword, or Afterward in-text, cite the appropriate author and year as usual. (<un1 4 5olln %&&:)

Personal &ommunication' Dor interviews, letters, e-mails, and other person-to-person communication, cite the communicators name, the fact that it was personal communication, and the date of the communication. 8o not include personal communication in the reference list. (A. Robbins personal communication $anuary 3 :;;%).

#. P. )mith also claimed that many of her students had difficulties *ith #P# style (personal communication Bovember 9 :;;:).

&iting $ndirect Sources

+f you use a source that was cited in another source, name the original source in your signal phrase. <ist the secondary source in your reference list and include the secondary source in the parentheses. $ohnson argued that...(as cited in )mith :;;9 p. %;:).

(ote';hen citing material in parentheses, set off the citation with a comma, as a!ove.

6lectronic Sources
+f possi!le, cite an electronic document the same as any other document !y using the author-date style. 5enneth (:;;;) explained...

.n2no3n Author and .n2no3n 7ate' +f no author or date is given, use the title in your signal phrase or the first word or two of the title in the parentheses and use the a!!reviation %n.d.% (for %no date%). #nother study of students and research decisions discovered that students succeeded *ith tutoring ((0utoring and #P# ( n.d.).

Sources 1ithout Page (umbers

;hen an electronic source lac6s page num!ers, you should try to include information that will help readers find the passage !eing cited. ;hen an electronic document has num!ered paragraphs, use the 8 sym!ol, or the a!!reviation %para.% followed !y the paragraph num!er (2all, (''&, G $) or (2all, (''&, para. $). +f the paragraphs are not num!ered and the document includes headings, provide the appropriate heading and specify the paragraph under that heading. )ote that in some electronic sources, li6e ;e! pages, people can use the Dind function in their !rowser to locate any passages you cite. #ccording to )mith (%&&C) ... (=ind over =atter section para. D).

(ote' )ever use the page num!ers of ;e! pages you print outE different computers print ;e! pages with different pagination.

9. Footnotes and 6ndnotes

APA does not recommend the use of footnotes and endnotes !ecause they are often expensive for pu!lishers to reproduce. 2owever, if explanatory notes still prove necessary to your document, APA details the use of two types of footnotes. content and copyright. ;hen using either type of footnote, insert a num!er formatted in superscript following almost any punctuation mar6. Dootnote num!ers should not follow dashes ( H ), and if they appear in a sentence in parentheses, the footnote num!er should !e inserted within the parentheses. )cientists examinedEover several years%Ethe fossiliFed remains of the *ooly2*ooly ya1.: (0hese have no* been transferred to the 6hauan =useum.9)

All footnotes should appear on the final page of your document (usually this is after the *eferences page). :enter the word 1Dootnotes3 at the top of the page. +ndent five spaces on the first line of each footnote. Then, follow normal paragraph spacing rules. 8ou!le-space throughout.
%

While the method of examination for the *ooly2*ooly ya1 provides important insights this document does not focus on this particular species.

to this research

&ontent (otes
:ontent )otes provide supplemental information to your readers. ;hen providing :ontent )otes, !e !rief and focus on only one su!-ect. Try to limit your comments to one small paragraph. :ontent )otes can also point readers to information that is availa!le in more detail elsewhere.
%

)ee 7lac1mur (%&&G)

especially chapters three and four

for an insightful analysis

of this extraordinary animal.

&op right Permission (otes

+f you 7uote more than $'' words of pu!lished material or thin6 you may !e in violation of 1Dair Fse3 copyright laws, you must get the formal permission of the author(s). All other sources simply appear in the reference list. Dollow the same formatting rules as with :ontent )otes for noting copyright permissions. Then attach a copy of the permission letter to the document. +f you are reproducing a graphic, chart, or ta!le, from some other source, you must provide a special note at the !ottom of the item that includes copyright information. ou should also su!mit written permission along with your wor6. 0egin the citation with 1 Note.3 Note. <rom H0itle of the article I by W. $ones and R. )mith :;;C $ournal 0itle :% p.

%::. 6opyright :;;C by 6opyright 8older. Reprinted *ith permission.

5. !eference /ist' Basic !ules

our reference list should appear at the end of your paper. +t provides the information necessary for a reader to locate and retrieve any source you cite in the !ody of the paper. @ach source you cite in the paper must appear in your reference listE li6ewise, each entry in the reference list must !e cited in your text. our references should !egin on a new page separate from the text of the essayE la!el this page *eferences (with no 7uotation mar6s, underlining, etc.), centered at the top of the page. +t should !e dou!le-spaced -ust li6e the rest of your essay.

Basic !ules

All lines after the first line of each entry in your reference list should !e indented one-half inch from the left margin. This is called hanging indentation. AuthorsC names are inverted (last name first)E give the last name and initials for all authors of a particular wor6 unless the wor6 has more than six authors. +f the wor6 has more than six authors, list the first six authors and then use et al. after the sixth authorCs name to indicate the rest of the authors. *eference list entries should !e alpha!eti"ed !y the last name of the first author of each wor6. +f you have more than one article !y the same author, single-author references or multipleauthor references with the exact same authors in the exact same order are listed in order !y the year of pu!lication, starting with the earliest. ;hen referring to any wor6 that is )/T a -ournal, such as a !oo6, article, or ;e! page, capitali"e only the first letter of the first word of a title and su!title, the first word after a colon or a dash in the title, and proper nouns. 8o not capitali"e the first letter of the second word in a hyphenated compound word. :apitali"e all ma-or words in -ournal titles. +talici"e titles of longer wor6s such as !oo6s and -ournals. 8o not italici"e, underline, or put 7uotes around the titles of shorter wor6s such as -ournal articles or essays in edited collections.

:. !eference /ist' Author-Authors

The following rules for handling wor6s !y a single author or multiple authors apply to all APA-style references in your reference list, regardless of the type of wor6 (!oo6, article, electronic resource, etc.)

Single Author
<ast name first, followed !y author initials. 7erndt 0. $. (:;;:). <riendship /uality and social development. Current Directions in C2%;.

Psychological Science, 11

T3o Authors
<ist !y their last names and initials. Fse the ampersand instead of %and.% Wegener >. 0. 4 Petty R. A. (%&&3). =ood management across affective states! 0he %;932

hedonic contingency hypothesis. Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, 66 %;3'.

Three to Si" Authors

<ist !y last names and initialsE commas separate author names, while the last author name is preceded again !y ampersand. 5ernis =. 8. 6ornell >. P. )un 6. R. 7erry #. 4 8arlo* 0. (%&&9). 0here.s more to

self2esteem than *hether it is high or lo*! 0he importance of stability of self2 esteem. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 65 %%&;2%:;3.

More Than Si" Authors

+f there are more than six authors, list the first six as a!ove and then %et al.,% which stands for %and others.% *emem!er not to place a period after %et% in %et al.% 8arris =. 5arper A. )tac1s J. 8offman >. >eBiro R. 6ruF P. et al. (:;;%). :%92

Writing labs and the 8olly*ood connection. Journal of Film and :3G.

riting, !!(9)

)rgani*ation as Author
#merican Psychological #ssociation. (:;;9).

.n2no3n Author
"erriam# e$ster%s Webster. collegiate dictionary (%;th ed.).(%&&9). )pringfield =#! =erriam2

()T6. ;hen your essay includes parenthetical citations of sources with no author named, use a shortened version of the sourceCs title instead of an authorCs name. Fse 7uotation mar6s and italics as appropriate. Dor example, parenthetical citations of the two sources a!ove would appear as follows. (Merriam!Webster's, &BB,) and (%)ew 8rug,% &BB,).

T3o or More 1or2s b the Same Author

Fse the authorCs name for all entries and list the entries !y the year (earliest comes first). 7erndt 7erndt 0.$. (%&'%). 0.$. (%&&&).

;hen an author appears !oth as a sole author and, in another citation, as the first author of a group, list the one-author entries first. 7erndt 0. $. (%&&&). <riends. influence on students. adKustment to school. &ducational %G2:'. 5. (%&&G). <riends. influence on adolescents. adKustment to %9%:2%9:&.

Psychologist, '! 7erndt 0. $.

4 5eefe

school. Child De(elo)ment, 66

*eferences that have the same first author and different second and/or third authors are arranged alpha!etically !y the last name of the second author, or the last name of the third if the first and second authors are the same. Wegener >. 0. 5err B. L. <leming =. #. 4 Petty R. A. (:;;;). <lexible corrections

of Kuror Kudgments! -mplications for Kury instructions. Psychology, Pu$lic Policy, & *a+, 6 Wegener D:&2DG3. Petty R. A. 4 5lein >. $. (%&&3). Affects of mood on high elaboration &uro)ean Journal of

>. 0.

attitude change! 0he mediating role of li1elihood Kudgments. Social Psychology, ,! :G239.

T3o or More 1or2s b the Same Author in the Same 5ear

+f you are using more than one reference !y the same author (or the same group of authors listed in the same order) pu!lished in the same year, organi"e them in the reference list alpha!etically !y the title of the article or chapter. Then assign letter suffixes to the year. *efer to these sources in your essay as they appear in your reference list, e.g.. %0erdnt (&B#&a) ma6es similar claims...% 7erndt 0. $. (%&'%a). #ge changes and changes over time in prosocial intentions and 3;'23%D.

behavior bet*een friends. De(elo)mental Psychology, 17erndt

0. $. (%&'%b). Affects of friendship on prosocial intentions and behavior. Child D9D2D39.

De(elo)ment, 5,

$ntroductions+ Prefaces+ Fore3ords+ and After3ards

:ite the pu!lishing information a!out a !oo6 as usual, !ut cite +ntroduction, Preface, Doreword, or Afterward (whatever title is applica!le) as the chapter of the !oo6.

<un1

R. 4 5olln

=. (%&&'). -ntroduction. -n A.W. Ludlo* (Ad.) =#! #llyn and 7acon.

.nderstanding &nglish

/rammar (pp. %2:). Beedham

;. !eference /ist' Articles in Periodicals

Basic Form
APA style dictates that authors are named last name followed !y initialsE pu!lication year goes !etween parentheses, followed !y a period. The title of the article is in sentence-case, meaning only the first word and proper nouns in the title are capitali"ed. The periodical title is run in title case, and is followed !y the volume num!er which, with the title, is also italici"ed or underlined. #uthor #. #. #uthor 7. 7. 4 #uthor 6. 6. (Lear). 0itle of article. pages. Title of

Periodical, (olume num$er(issue number)

Article in <ournal Paginated b =olume

Aournals that are paginated !y volume !egin with page one in issue one, and continue num!ering issue two where issue one ended, etc. 8arlo* 8. <. (%&'9). <undamentals for preparing psychology Kournal articles. Journal of '&92'&D.

Com)arati(e and Physiological Psychology, 55

Article in <ournal Paginated b $ssue

Aournals paginated !y issue !egin with page one every issueE therefore, the issue num!er gets indicated in parentheses after the volume. The parentheses and issue num!er are not italici"ed or underlined. )cruton R. (%&&D). 0he eclipse of listening. The Ne+ Criterion, 15(9;) G2%9.

Article in a Maga*ine
8enry W. #. ---. (%&&; #pril &). =a1ing the grade in today.s schools. Time, 1'5 :'29%.

Article in a (e3spaper
Fnli6e other periodicals, p. or pp. precedes page num!ers for a newspaper reference in APA style. 9ingle pages ta6e p., e.g., p. 0(E multiple pages ta6e pp., e.g., pp. 0(, 0> or pp. :&, :,-:>. )chultF ). (:;;G >ecember :'). 6alls made to strengthen state energy policies. The pp. %# :#.

Country Today

/etter to the 6ditor

=oller J. (:;;: #ugust). Ripples versus rumbles ?Letter to the editor@. Scientific %:.

0merican, ,1-(:)

!e4ie3
7aumeister R. <. (%&&9). Axposing the self21no*ledge myth ?Revie* of the boo1 The self# 3DD23DC.

2no+er3 0 hero under control @. Contem)orary Psychology, '1

>. !eference /ist' Boo2s

Basic Format for Boo2s
#uthor #. #. (Lear of publication). Title of +or23 Ca)ital letter also for su$title .

Location! Publisher.

(ote. Dor %<ocation,% you should always list the city, !ut you should also include the state if the city is unfamiliar or if the city could !e confused with one in another state. 6alfee R. 6. 4 Malencia R. R. (%&&%). 0P0 guide to )re)aring manuscri)ts for 4ournal >6! #merican Psychological #ssociation.

)u$lication. Washington

6dited Boo2+ (o Author

>uncan J. $. 4 7roo1s2Junn $. (Ads.). (%&&C). Conse5uences of gro+ing u) )oor. Be*

Lor1! Russell )age <oundation.

6dited Boo2 3ith an Author or Authors

Plath ). (:;;;). The una$ridged 4ournals (5.M. 5u1il Ad.). Be* Lor1! #nchor.

A Translation
Laplace Amory P. ). (%&G%). 0 )hiloso)hical essay on )ro$a$ilities. (<. W. 0ruscott 4 <. L. 0rans.). Be* Lor1! >over. (Original *or1 published %'%3).

(ote. ;hen you cite a repu!lished wor6, li6e the one a!ove, wor6 in your text, it should appear with !oth dates. <aplace (&#&>/&B$&).

6dition )ther Than the First

8elfer =. A. 5eme R. ). 4 >rugman R. >. (%&&C). The $attered child (Gth ed.).

6hicago! University of 6hicago Press.

Article or &hapter in an 6dited Boo2

#uthor #. #. 4 #uthor 7. 7. (Lear of publication). 0itle of chapter. -n #. Aditor 4 7.

Aditor (Ads.)

Title of $oo2 (pages of chapter). Location! Publisher.

(ote. ;hen you list the pages of the chapter or essay in parentheses after the !oo6 title, use %pp.% !efore the num!ers. (pp. &-(&). This a!!reviation, however, does not appear !efore the page num!ers in periodical references, except for newspapers. O.Beil $. =. 4 Agan $. (%&&:). =en.s and *omen.s gender role Kourneys! =etaphor for and transformation. -n 7. R. Wainrib (Ad.) /ender issues across

healing

transition

the life cycle (pp. %;C2%:9). Be* Lor1! )pringer.

Multi4olume 1or2
Wiener P. (Ad.). (%&C9). Dictionary of the history of ideas (Mols. %23). Be* Lor1!

)cribner.s.

?. !eference /ist' )ther Print Sources

An 6ntr in An 6nc clopedia
7ergmann P. J. (%&&9). Relativity. -n The ne+ encyclo)edia $ritannica (Mol. :D pp. G;%2

G;'). 6hicago! Ancyclopedia 7ritannica.

1or2 7iscussed in a Secondar Source

<ist the source the wor6 was discussed in. 6oltheart =. 6urtis 7. #t1ins P. 4 8aller =. (%&&9). =odels of reading aloud! >ual2 G'&2

route and parallel2distributed2processing approaches. Psychological 6e(ie+, 177 D;'.

()T6' Iive the secondary source in the references listE in the text, name the original wor6, and give a citation for the secondary source. Dor example, if 9eiden!erg and ?c:lellandCs wor6 is cited in :oltheart et al. and you did not read the original wor6, list the :oltheart et al. reference in the *eferences. +n the text, use the following citation. -n )eidenberg and =c6lelland.s study (as cited in 6oltheart %&&9) ... 6urtis #t1ins 4 8aller

7issertation Abstract
Loshida L. (:;;%). Assays in urban transportation (>octoral dissertation CC3%#. 7oston 6ollege

:;;%). Dissertation 0$stracts 8nternational, 6,

Go4ernment 7ocument
Bational -nstitute of =ental 8ealth. (%&&;). Clinical training in serious mental illness (>88) Publication Bo. #>= &;2%DC&). Washington >6! U.). Jovernment Printing Office.

!eport From a Pri4ate )rgani*ation

#merican Psychiatric #ssociation. (:;;;). Practice guidelines for the treatment of

)atients +ith eating disorders (:nd ed.). Washington

>.6.! #uthor.

&onference Proceedings
)chnase $.L. 4 6unnius A.L. (Ads.). (%&&G). Proceedings from 6)6L .&G! The First B$!

8nternational Conference on Com)uter Su))ort for Colla$orati(e *earning. =ah*ah Arlbaum.

1@. !eference /ist' 6lectronic Sources

Article From an )nline Periodical
)ote. +n (''=, the APA released several additions/modifications for documentation of electronic sources in the APA 9tyle Iuide to @lectronic *eferences. These changes are reflected in the entries !elow. Please note that there are no spaces used with !rac6ets in APA. /nline articles follow the same guidelines for printed articles. +nclude all information the online host ma6es availa!le, including an issue num!er in parentheses. Provide a retrieval date only if the information is li6ely to !e updated or changed at a later date (as in the case of !logs and wi6is). 9ince many online periodicals appear in their %final% form, a retrieval date is not necessary.

#uthor

#. #.

4 #uthor

7. 7. (>ate of publication). 0itle of article. Title of 9nline year (if

Periodical, (olume num$er(issue number if available). Retrieved month day necessary) from http!""***.someaddress.com"full"url" 7ernstein "a2e

=. (:;;:). %; tips on *riting the living Web. 0 *ist 0)art3 For Peo)le e$sites, 1!:. Retrieved =ay : :;;D

ho from

http!""***.alistapart.com"articles"*riteliving

)nline Scholarl <ournal Article

9ince online materials can potentially change F*<Cs, APA recommends providing a 8igital /!-ect +dentifier (8/+), when it is availa!le, as opposed to the F*<. 8/+Cs are an attempt to provide sta!le, long-lasting lin6s for online articles. They are uni7ue to their documents and consist of a long alphanumeric code. ?any-!ut not all-pu!lishers will provide an articleCs 8/+ on the first page of the document. )ote that some online !i!liographies provide an articleCs 8/+ !ut may %hide% the code under a !utton which may read %Article% or may !e an a!!reviation of a vendors name li6e %:ross*ef% or %Pu!?ed.% This !utton will usually lead the user to the full article which will include the 8/+. Dind 8/+Cs from print pu!lications or ones that go to dead lin6s with :ross*ef.orgCs %8/+ *esolver,% which is displayed in a central location on their home page.

Article From an )nline Periodical 3ith 7)$ Assigned

#uthor #. #. 4 #uthor 7. 7. (>ate of publication). 0itle of article. Title of Journal,

(olume num$er. doi!;;;;;;;";;;;;;;;;;;; 7ro*nlie >. 0o*ard effective poster presentations! #n annotated bibliography. &uro)ean %:3G2%:'9. doi!%;.%%;'";9;&;GD;C%;':%%D%

Journal of "ar2eting, !1(%%"%:)

Article From an )nline Periodical 3ith no 7)$ Assigned

/nline scholarly -ournal articles without a 8/+ re7uire a F*< !ut do not re7uire a retrieval date. Provide a retrieval date only if the information is li6ely to !e updated or changed at a later date (as in the case of !logs and wi6is). 9ince most -ournal articles appear in their %final% form, a retrieval date is not needed. #uthor #. #. 4 #uthor 7. 7. (>ate of publication). 0itle of article. Title of Journal, year from http!""***.someaddress.com"full"url"

(olume num$er. Retrieved month day 5enneth

-. #. (:;;;). # 7uddhist response to the nature of human rights. Journal of &thics, 1.Retrieved <ebruary :; :;;% from

;uddhist

http!""***.cac.psu.edu"Kbe"t*ocont.html

+f the article appears as a printed version as well, the F*< is not re7uired. Fse %@lectronic version% in !rac6ets after the articleCs title. Whitmeyer $.=. (:;;;). Po*er through appointment ?Alectronic version@. Social Science G9G2GGG.

6esearch, ,:

Article From a 7atabase

;hen referencing material o!tained from an online data!ase (such as a data!ase in the li!rary), provide appropriate print citation information (formatted -ust li6e a %normal% print citation would !e for that type of wor6). Then add information that gives the date of retrieval and the proper name of the data!ase. This will allow people to retrieve the print version if they do not have access to the data!ase from which you retrieved the article. ou can also include the item num!er or accession num!er in parentheses at the end, !ut the APA manual says that this is not re7uired. (Dor more a!out citing articles retrieved from electronic data!ases, see page (=# of the Pu!lication ?anual.) )myth #. =. Par1er #. L. 4 Pease >. L. (:;;:). # study of enKoyment of peas. Journal :;;9 from Psyc#R0-6LA) database.

of 0$normal &ating, 1(9). Retrieved <ebruary :;

Abstract
+f you only cite an a!stract !ut the full text of the article is also availa!le, cite the online a!stract as other online citations, adding %4A!stract5% after the article or source name. +f only the a!stract is availa!le, write %A!stract retrieved from% and provide the data!ase name or F*<. Paterson P. (:;;'). 8o* *ell do young offenders *ith #sperger )yndrome cope in custody,!

0*o prison case studies ?#bstract@. ;ritish Journal of *earning Disa$ilities, '6 (%) G32G'. Retrieved from A7)6O 8ost database. 7ossong J. Argativity in 7as/ue. *inguistics, ,,(9) 93%29&:. #bstract retrieved from

Linguistics #bstracts Online.

(e3spaper Article
#uthor #. #. (Lear =onth >ay). 0itle of article. Title of Ne+s)a)er. Retrieved

http!""***.someaddress.com"full"url" Par1er2Pope 0. (:;;' =ay D). Psychiatry handboo1 lin1ed to drug industry. The Ne+ <or2

Times. Retrieved from http!""***.nytimes.com

6lectronic Boo2s

@lectronic !oo6s may include !oo6s found on personal we!sites, data!ases, or even in audio form. Fse the following format if the !oo6 you are using is only provided in a digital format or is difficult to find in print. +f the wor6 is not directly availa!le online or must !e purchased, use %Availa!le from,% rather than %*etrieved from,% and point readers to where they can find it. >e 8uff A.W. Taytay=s tales3 Traditional Pue$lo 8ndian tales. Retrieved from

http!""digital.library.upenn.edu"*omen"dehuff"taytay" taytay.html >avis $. Familiar $irdsongs of the North+est . #vailable from http!""***.po*ells.com"cgi2

bin"biblio,in1eyN%2 &C';&9%D'D%;'2;

&hapter-Section of a 1eb document or )nline Boo2 &hapter

#uthor or #. #. larger 4 #uthor document 7. 7. (>ate of publication). 0itle of article. -n 0itle of boo1 (chapter or section number). Retrieved month day year from

http!""***.someaddress.com"full"url". Angelshcall R. ). (%&&C). =odule modOre*rite! URL Re*riting Angine. -n 0)ache >TTP :;;D from

Ser(er ?ersion 1@' Documentation (#pache modules.) Retrieved =arch %; http!""httpd.apache.org"docs"%.9"mod"modOre*rite.html Pec1inpaugh

$. (:;;9). 6hange in the Bineties. -n $.). 7ough and J.7. >u7ois (Ads.)

century of gro+th in 0merica. Retrieved from Jold)tar database.

()T6. Fse a chapter or section identifier and provide a F*< that lin6s directly to the chapter section, not the home page of the ;e! site.

)nline Boo2 !e4ie3s

:ite the information as you normally would for the wor6 you are 7uoting. (The first example !elow is from a newspaper articleE the second is from a scholarly -ournal.) +n !rac6ets, write %*eview of the !oo6% and give the title of the reviewed wor6. Provide the we! address after the words %*etrieved from,% if the review is freely availa!le to anyone. +f the review comes from a su!scription service or data!ase, write %Availa!le from% and provide the information where the review can !e purchased. Pachare1 <or2 ). (:;;' Times. #pril :C). Batural *omen ?Revie* of the boo1 /irls li2e us @. The Ne+ from http!""***.nytimes.com":;;'";3":C"boo1s"revie*"Pacharec1

Retrieved

2t.html,page*antedN: 6astle J. (:;;C). Be* millennial $oyce ?Revie* of the boo1s T+enty#first Joyce, Joyce%s

critics3 Transitions in reading and culture, and Joyce%s messianism3 Dante, negati(e

eAistence, and the messianic selfB. "odern Fiction Studies, 57(%)

%D92%C9. #vailable

from ProKect =U)A Web site! http!""muse.Khu.edu"Kournals"modernOfictionOstudies"toc" mfsG:.%.html

7issertation-Thesis from a 7atabase

7is*as ). (:;;'). Do)amine D' rece)tor3 0 neuro)rotecti(e treatment target in

Par2inson%s disease. Retrieved from ProQuest >igital >issertations. (##0 9:&G:%3)

)nline 6nc clopedias and 7ictionaries

/ften encyclopedias and dictionaries do not provide !ylines (authorsC names). ;hen no !yline is present, move the entry name to the front of the citation. Provide pu!lication dates if present or specify (n.d.) if no date is present in the entry. 0ecause updates and modifications are not normally specified, provide the retrieval date in the citation. ;hen listing the F*<, give only the home or index root as opposed to the F*< for the entry. <eminism. (n.d.) -n &ncyclo)Cdia ;ritannica online. Retrieved =arch %D ***.britannica.com :;;' from http!""

)nline Bibliographies and Annotated Bibliographies

$Rrgens R. (:;;G). >8?D08DS from and >C? in Prisons3 0 Select 0nnotated ;i$liogra)hy .

Retrieved

http!""***.hc2sc.gc.ca"ahc2asc"altOformats"hpb2dgps"

pdf"intactiv"hiv2vih2aids2sida2prison2carceralOe.pdf

7ata Sets
Point readers to raw data !y providing a ;e! address (use %*etrieved from%) or a general place that houses data sets on the site (use %Availa!le from%). United )tates >epartment of 8ousing and Urban >evelopment. 8ndiana income limits ?>ata file@. Retrieved from http!""***.huduser.org">atasets"-L"-L;'"inOfy:;;'.pdf

Graphic 7ata Ae.g. $nteracti4e Maps and )ther Graphic !epresentations of 7ataB
Iive the name of the researching organi"ation followed !y the date. +n !rac6ets, provide a !rief explanation of what type of data is there and in what form it appears. Dinally, provide the pro-ect name and retrieval information.

)olar Radiation and 6limate Axperiment. (:;;C). ?Jraph illustration the )OR6A )pectral Plot =ay ' :;;'@. Solar S)ectral Data 0ccess from the S8", S9*ST8C&, and EPS

8nstruments.

Retrieved

from

http!""lasp.colorado.edu"cgi2bin"ion2p,

pageNinputOdataOforO spectra.ion

,ualitati4e 7ata and )nline $nter4ie3s

+f an interview is not retrieva!le in audio or print form, cite the interview only in the text (not in the reference list) and provide the month, day, and year in the text. +f an audio file or transcript is availa!le online, use the following model, specifying the medium in !rac6ets (e.g. 4+nterview transcript, +nterview audio file5). 7utler 6. (-ntervie*er) 4 )tevenson R. (-ntervie*ee). (%&&&). 9ral >istory , ?-ntervie*

transcript@. Retrieved from $ohnson )pace 6enter Oral 8istories ProKect Web site! http!"" histories.htm ***%%.Ksc.nasa.gov"history"oralOhistories"oralO

)nline /ecture (otes and Presentation Slides

;hen citing online lecture notes, !e sure to provide the file format in !rac6ets after the lecture title (e.g. PowerPoint slides, ;ord document). 8allam Web index.html Roberts 5. <. (%&&'). Federal regulations of chemicals in the en(ironment ?Po*erPoint #. Duality in consumer theory ?P>< document@. Retrieved from Lecture Botes Online site! http!""***.econ.iastate.edu"classes"econG;%"8allam"

slides@. Retrieved from http!""siri.uvm.edu"ppt"3;hrenv"index.html

(onperiodical 1eb 7ocument+ 1eb Page+ or !eport

<ist as much of the following information as possi!le (you sometimes have to hunt around to find the informationE donCt !e la"y. +f there is a page li6e http.//www.somesite.com/somepage.htm, and somepage.htm doesnCt have the information youCre loo6ing for, move up the F*< to http.//www.somesite.com/). #uthor day #. #. 4 #uthor 7. 7. (>ate of publication). Title of document. Retrieved month from http!""Web address

year (only if the text may potentially change over time)

()T6. ;hen an +nternet document is more than one ;e! page, provide a F*< that lin6s to the home page or entry page for the document. Also, if there isnCt a date availa!le for the document use (n.d.) for no date.

&omputer Soft3are-7o3nloaded Soft3are

8o not cite standard office software (e.g. ;ord, @xcel) or programming languages. Provide references only for speciali"ed software. Lud*ig 0. (:;;:). Psych-n/uiry ?computer soft*are@. Be* Lor1! Worth.

9oftware that is downloaded from a ;e! site should provide the softwareJs version and year when availa!le. 8ayes 7. 0esar 7. 4 Pura* 5. (:;;9). O0)oft! Optimality 0heory )oft*are (Mersion :.%)

?)oft*are@. #vailable from http!""***.linguistics.ucla.edu"people"hayes"otsoft"

6%mail
@-mails are not included in the list of references, though you parenthetically cite them in your main text. (@. *o!!ins, personal communication, Aanuary >, (''&).

)nline Forum or 7iscussion Board Posting

+nclude the title of the message, and the F*< of the newsgroup or discussion !oard. Please note that titles for items in online communities (e.g. !logs, newsgroups, forums) are not italici"ed. +f the authorCs name is not availa!le, provide the screen name. Place identifiers li6e post or message num!ers, if availa!le, in !rac6ets. +f availa!le, provide the F*< where the message is archived (e.g. %?essage posted to..., archived at...%). <roo1 7. >. (%&&& $uly :9). Be* inventions in the cyber*orld of toylandia ?=sg :G@.

=essage posted to http!""groups.earthlin1.com"forum"messages";;;:G.html

Blog A1eblogB and =ideo Blog Post

+nclude the title of the message and the F*<. Please note that titles for items in online communities (e.g. !logs, newsgroups, forums) are not italici"ed. +f the authorJs name is not availa!le, provide the screen name. >ean $. (:;;' =ay C). When the self emerges! -s that me in the mirror, =essage posted to

http!""***.spring.org.u1" the%sttransport. (:;;3 )eptember :D). Psychology Mideo 7log S9 ?Mideo <ile@. Mideo posted

to http!""***.youtube.com"*atch,vNl/=&;eQiG2=

1i2is
Please note that the APA (t#le )uide to *lectronic +eferences warns writers that wi6is (li6e ;i6ipedia, for example) are colla!orative pro-ects which cannot guarantee the verifia!ility or expertise of their entries. OLP6 Peru"#rahuay. (n.d.). Retrieved =ay % org"go"OLP6OPeru"#rahuay :;;' from the OLP6 Wi1i! http!""*i1i.laptop.

Audio Podcast
Dor all podcasts, provide as much information as possi!leE not all of the following information will !e availa!le. Possi!le addition identifiers may include Producer, 8irector, etc. 7ell 0. 4 Phillips 0. :;;' =ay D). # solar flare. Science F N0S0 Podcast. Podcast

retrieved from http!""science.nasa.gov"podcast.htm

=ideo Podcasts
Dor all podcasts, provide as much information as possi!leE not all of the following information will !e availa!le. Possi!le addition identifiers may include Producer, 8irector, etc. )cott >. (Producer). (:;;C $anuary G). 0he community college classroom ?Apisode C@.

0d(entures in &ducation. Podcast retrieved from http!""***.adveeducation.com

Dor more help with citing electronic sources, please use these lin6s.

7ocumenting 6lectronic Sources APA st le 3eb siteCs co4erage of electronic references APA FreDuentl As2ed ,uestions

11. !eference /ist' )ther (on%Print Sources

$nter4ie3s+ 6mail+ and )ther Personal &ommunication
)o personal communication is included in your reference listE instead, parenthetically cite the communicators name, the fact that it was personal communication, and the date of the communication in your main text only. (A. Robbins personal communication $anuary 3 :;;%).

#. P. )mith also claimed that many of her students had difficulties *ith #P# style (personal communication Bovember 9 :;;:).

Motion Picture
0asic reference list format. Producer P. P. (Producer) 4 >irector >.>. (>irector). (>ate of publication). Title of

motion )icture ?=otion picture@. 6ountry of origin! )tudio or distributor.

(ote. +f a movie or video tape is not availa!le in wide distri!ution, add the following to your citation after the country of origin. (Availa!le from 8istri!utor name, full address and "ip code).

A Motion Picture or =ideo Tape 3ith $nternational or (ational A4ailabilit

)mith $.>. (Producer) 4 )mithee #.<. (>irector). (:;;%). 6eally $ig disaster mo(ie

? =otion picture@. United )tates! Paramount Pictures.

A Motion Picture or =ideo Tape 3ith /imited A4ailabilit

8arris =. (Producer) 4 0urley =. $. (>irector). (:;;:). riting la$s3 0 history ?=otion G;; Oval >rive West Lafayette

picture@. (#vailable from Purdue University Pictures -B 3C&;C)

Tele4ision Broadcast or Series 6pisode

Producer P. P. (Producer). (>ate of broadcast or copyright). 0itle of broadcast ?

Tele(ision $roadcast or Tele(ision series @. 6ity of origin! )tudio or distributor.

Single 6pisode of a Tele4ision Series

Writer W. W. (Writer) 4 >irector >.>. (>irector). (>ate of publication). 0itle of Series title. 6ity of

episode ?0elevision series episode@. -n P. Producer (Producer) origin! )tudio or distributor. Wendy ). W. (Writer) ape 4 =artian series

-.R. (>irector). (%&'D). 0he rising angel and the episode@. -n >. >ude (Producer) Creatures and

falling

?0elevision

monsters. Los #ngeles! 7elarus )tudios.

Tele4ision Broadcast

-mportant

-.

=.

(Producer).

(%&&;

Bovember

%).

The

nightly

ne+s

hour

?0elevision

broadcast@. Be* Lor1! 6entral 7roadcasting )ervice.

A Tele4ision Series
7ellisario >.L. (Producer). (%&&:). &Aciting action sho+ ?0elevision series@. 8olly*ood!

#merican 7roadcasting 6ompany.

Music !ecording
)ong*riter W. W. (>ate of copyright). 0itle of song ?Recorded by artist if different from

song *riter@. On Title of al$um ?=edium of recording@. Location! Label. (Recording date if different from copyright date). 0aupin 7. (%&CG). )omeone saved my life tonight ?Recorded by Alton $ohn@. On Ca)tain

fantastic and the $ro+n dirt co+$oy ?6>@. London! 7ig Pig =usic Limited.

Dor more a!out citing audiovisual media, see pages (KK-(KB of the Pu!lication ?anual. Dor information a!out citing legal sources in your reference list, see the 1estfield State &ollege page on &iting /egal Materials in APA St le .

1#. Additional !esources

+tCs always !est to consult the Pu!lication ?anual first for any APA 7uestion. +f you are using APA style for a class assignment, itCs a good idea to consult your professor, advisor, TA, or other campus resources for help with using APA styleHtheyCre the ones who can tell you how the style should apply in your particular case. Dor extraordinary 7uestions that arenCt covered clearly in the style manual or havenCt !een answered !y your teacher or advisor, contact the ;riting <a! for help at (=K$) >B>-,=(, or email b using our )1/ tutor email form.

Print !esources
2ere are some print resources for using APA style. :lic6 The Purdue /;< does not ma6e any profit from nor does it endorse these agenciesE lin6s are merely offered for information. ?ost of these !oo6s are pro!a!ly availa!le in your local li!rary. Drom the American Psychological Association.

Publication Manual of the American Ps#chological Association ($th edition) &$$=B#=B&() Mastering APA (t#le, (tudent's Wor-boo- and Training )uide (+90). &$$=B##B&B) Mastering APA (t#le, nstructor's +esource ) uide (+90). &$$=B##B'')

(+90).

.ispla#ing /our &indings, A Practical )uide for Creating &igures0 Posters0 and Presentations (+90). &$$=B#B=##)

Drom other pu!lishers.

The World's *asiest )uide to 1sing the APA (+90). 'BK>,#$,&=) Writing With (t#le, APA (t#le Made *as# (+90). '$,>,K,K$() Writing With (t#le, APA (t#le for (ocial Wor- (+90). '$,>(K,&&B)

)nline !esources from the APA

APA St le 1ebsite 6lectronic !eferences in APA St le

o o

6lectronic Media and .!/s &itations in Te"t of 6lectronic Material

APA St le Tips Tip of the 1ee2 FreDuentl As2ed ,uestions about APA St le APA St le Eelper (software programE re7uires purchase)

)ther )nline !esources' Formatting and 1riting in APA St le

APA 7ocumentation (from the Fniversity of ;isconsin-?adison ;riting :enter) APA%St le &hec2list (from 0ill 9outherly)

)ther )nline !esources' St le Templates and Sample Papers

Sample paper' APA st le (8iana 2ac6er) APA Simulated <ournal Article (from @lmira :ollege) A Sample Paper in American Ps chological Association St le (Drom Lalencia :ommunity :ollege) Sample reference list (from Lanier :ollege)

)ther )nline Sources

!esources'

7ocumenting

and

!eferencing

.sing APA St le to &ite and 7ocument Sources (from 0edford 9t. ?artinCs Online2) APA St le crib sheet (from the Fniversity of ?innesota at :roo6ston) Eo3 to &ite )nline (ursing !esources .sing APA St le (from the Fniversity of )evada at *eno) APA &itation St le' 6"amples for (ursing Students (from :ollege of 9t. 0enedict/9t. AohnCs Fniversity)

&iting /egal Materials in APA St le (;estfield 9tate :ollege)

10. T pes of APA Papers

There are two common types of papers written in fields using APA 9tyle. the literature review and the experimental report. @ach has uni7ue re7uirements concerning the sections that must !e included in the paper.

/iterature !e4ie3
A literature review is a summary of what the scientific literature says a!out your specific topic or 7uestion. /ften student research in APA fields falls into this category. our professor might as6 you to write this 6ind of paper to demonstrate your familiarity with wor6 in the field pertinent to the research you hope to conduct. A literature review typically contains the following sections.

title page introduction section list of references

9ome instructors may also want you to write an a!stract for a literature review, so !e sure to chec6 with them when given an assignment. Also, the length of a literature review and the re7uired num!er of sources will vary !ased on course and instructor preferences. ()T6' A literature review and an annotated !i!liography are not synonymous. +f you are as6ed to write an annotated !i!liography, you should consult the Publication Manual for the APA Dormat for Annotated 0i!liographies.

6"perimental !eport
+n many of the social sciences, you will !e as6ed to design and conduct your own experimental research. +f so, you will need to write up your paper using a structure that is more complex than that used for -ust a literature review. ;e have a complete resource devoted to writing an experimental report in the field of psychology here. This structure follows the scientific method, !ut it also ma6es your paper easier to follow !y providing those familiar cues that help your reader efficiently scan your information for.

why the topic is important (covered in your introduction) what the pro!lem is (also covered in your introduction) what you did to try to solve the pro!lem (covered in your methods section) what you found (covered in your results section) what you thin6 your findings mean (covered in your discussion section)

Thus an experimental report typically includes the following sections.

title page a!stract introduction method results discussion references appendixes (if necessary) ta!les and/or figures (if necessary)

?a6e sure to chec6 the guidelines for your assignment or any guidelines that have !een given to you !y an editor of a -ournal !efore you su!mit a manuscript containing the sections listed a!ove. As with the literature review, the length of this report may vary !y course or !y -ournal, !ut most often it will !e determined !y the scope of the research conducted.

)ther Papers
+f you are writing a paper that fits neither of these categories, follow the guidelines a!out General Format, consult your instructor, or loo6 up advice in the Pu!lication ?anual. ;hen su!mitting a manuscript to a -ournal, ma6e sure you follow the guidelines descri!ed in the su!mission policies of that pu!lication, and include as many sections as you thin6 are applica!le to presenting your material. *emem!er to 6eep your audience in mind as you are ma6ing this decision. +f certain information is particularly pertinent for conveying your research, then ensure that there is a section of your paper that ade7uately addresses that information.

19. APA St listics' A4oiding Bias

*esearchers who use APA often wor6 with a variety of populations, some of whom tend to !e stereotyped !y the use of la!els and other !iased forms of language. Therefore, APA offers specific recommendations for eliminating !ias in language concerning race, disa!ility, and sexuality.

Ma2e Adjustments to /abels

Although you should avoid la!eling whenever possi!le, it is sometimes difficult to accurately account for the identity of your research population or individual participants without using language that can !e read as !iased. ?a6ing ad-ustments in how you use identifiers and other linguistic categories can improve the clarity of your writing and minimi"e the li6elihood of offending your readers. +n general, you should call people what they prefer to !e called, especially when dealing with race and ethnicity. 0ut sometimes the common conventions of language inadvertently contain !iases towards certain populations - e.g. using %normal% in contrast to someone identified as %disa!led.% Therefore,

you should !e aware of how your choice of terminology may come across to your reader, particularly if they identify with the population in 7uestion. ou can find an in-depth discussion of this issue and specific recommendations for how to appropriately represent people in your text on the APA we!site on the following pages.

!emo4ing Bias in /anguage' 7isabilities !emo4ing Bias in /anguage' !ace F 6thnicit !emo4ing Bias in /anguage' Se"ualit

A4oid Gendered Pronouns

;hile you should always !e clear a!out the sex identity of your participants (if you conducted an experiment), so that gender differences are o!vious, you should not use gender terms when they arenCt necessary. +n other words, you should not use %he,% %his% or %men% as generic terms applying to !oth sexes. APA does not recommend replacing %he% with %he or she,% %she or he,% %he/she,% %(s)he,% %s/he,% or alternating !etween %he% and %she% !ecause these su!stitutions are aw6ward and can distract the reader from the point you are trying to ma6e. The pronouns %he% or %she% inevita!ly cause the reader to thin6 of only that gender, which may not !e what you intend. To avoid the !ias of using gendered pronouns.

*ephrase the sentence Fse plural nouns or plural pronouns - this way you can use %they% or %their% *eplace the pronoun with an article - instead of %his,% use %the% 8rop the pronoun - many sentences sound fine if you -ust omit the trou!lesome %his% from the sentence *eplace the pronoun with a noun such as %person,% %individual,% %child,% %researcher,% etc.

Dor more a!out addressing gender in academic writing, visit the /;<Cs handout on non%se"ist language use.

Find Alternati4e 7escriptors

To avoid unintentional !iases in your language, loo6 to the parameters of your research itself. ;hen writing up an experimental report, descri!e your participants !y the measures you used to classify them in the experiment, as long as the la!els are not offensive. Example: -f you had people ta1e a test measuring their reaction times and you *ere interested in loo1ing at the differences bet*een people *ho had fast reaction times and those *ith slo* reaction times you could call the first group the (fast reaction time group( and the second the (slo* reaction time group.( Also, use ad-ectives to serve as descriptors rather than la!els. ;hen you use terms such as %the elderly% or %the amnesiacs,% the people lose their individuality. /ne way to avoid this is to insert an

ad-ective (e.g., %elderly people,% %amnesic patients%). Another way is to mention the person first and follow this with a descriptive phrase (e.g., %people diagnosed with amnesia%), although it can !e cum!ersome to 6eep repeating phrases li6e this.

15. APA St listics' Basics

;riting in APA is more than simply learning the formula for citations or following a certain page layout. APA also includes the stylistics of your writing, from point of view to word choice.

Point of =ie3 and =oice

;hen writing in APA 9tyle, you rarely use the first person point of view (%+ studied ...%). Dirst person is not often found in APA pu!lications unless the writer is a senior scholar who has earned some credi!ility to spea6 as an expert in the field. ou should use the third person point of view (%The study showed ...) unless you are co-authoring a paper with at least one other person, in which case you can use %we% (%/ur finding included ...%). +n general, you should foreground the research and not the researchers. 2owever, it is a common misconception that foregrounding the research re7uires using the passive voice (%@xperiments have !een conducted ...%). This is inaccurate. APA 9tyle encourages using the active voice (%;e conducted an experiment ...%). The active voice is particularly important in experimental reports, where the su!-ect performing the action should !e clearly identified (e.g. %;e interviewed ...% vs. %The participants responded ...%). :onsult the /;< handout for more on the distinction !etween passi4e and acti4e 4oice.

&larit and &onciseness

:larity and conciseness in writing are important when conveying research in APA 9tyle. ou donCt want to misrepresent the details of a study or confuse your readers with wordiness or unnecessarily complex sentences. Dor clarity, !e specific rather than vague in descriptions and explanations. Fnpac6 details accurately to provide ade7uate information to your readers so they can follow the development of your study. Example: (-t *as predicted that marital conflict *ould predict behavior problems in school2aged children.( To clarify this vague hypothesis, use parallel structure to outline specific ideas. (0he first hypothesis stated that marital conflict *ould predict behavior problems in school2aged children. 0he second hypothesis stated that the effect *ould be stronger for girls than for boys. 0he third hypothesis stated that older girls *ould be more affected by marital conflict than younger girls.( To !e more concise, particularly in introductory material or a!stracts, you should pare out unnecessary words and condense information when you can (see the /;< handout on &onciseness in academic writing for suggestions).

Example: 0he above list of hypotheses might be rephrased concisely as! (0he authors *anted to investigate *hether marital conflict *ould predict behavior problems in children and they *anted to 1no* if the effect *as greater for girls than for boys particularly *hen they examined t*o different age groups of girls.( 0alancing the need for clarity, which can re7uire unpac6ing information, and the need for conciseness, which re7uires condensing information, is a challenge. 9tudy pu!lished articles and reports in your field for examples of how to achieve this !alance.

1ord &hoice
ou should even !e careful in selecting certain words or terms. ;ithin the social sciences, commonly used words ta6e on different meanings and can have a significant effect on how your readers interpret your reported findings or claims. To increase clarity, avoid !ias, and control how your readers will receive your information, you should ma6e certain su!stitutions.

Fse terms li6e %participants% or %respondents% (rather than %su!-ects%) to indicate how individuals were involved in your research Fse terms li6e %children% or %community mem!ers% to provide more detail a!out who was participating in the study Fse phrases li6e %The evidence suggests ...% or %/ur study indicates ...% rather than referring to %proof% or %proves% !ecause no single study can prove a theory or hypothesis

As with the other stylistic suggestions here, you should study the discourse of your field to see what terminology is most often used.

A4oiding Poetic /anguage

;riting papers in APA 9tyle is unli6e writing in more creative or literary styles that draw on poetic expressions and figurative language. 9uch linguistic devices can detract from conveying your information clearly and may come across to readers as forced when it is inappropriately used to explain an issue or your findings. Therefore, you should.

minimi"e the amount of figurative language used in an APA paper, such as metaphors and analogies unless they are helpful in conveying a complex idea avoid rhyming schemes, alliteration, or other poetic devices typically found in verse use simple, descriptive ad-ectives and plain language that does not ris6 confusing your meaning

1:. APA Eeadings

APA 9tyle uses a uni7ue headings system to separate and classify paper sections. There are $ heading le4els in APA. The# are not0 howe3er0 used in order . Their respective formatting is as follows. <evel & 2eadings Are :entered and *e7uire 9tandard :apitali"ation

Le3el 4 5eadings Are Centered and talici%ed with (tandard Capitali%ation Le3el 6 5eadings Are talici%ed0 &lush!Left with (tandard Capitali%ation Le3el 7 headings are indented, onl# first words and words after colons capitali%ed8 end with a period.Text follows immediately. <@L@< $ 2@A8+)I9 A*@ :@)T@*@8 +) A<< :AP9 8etermine how many headings your paper will re7uire. The introduction of a paper is never given its own section name (e.g. +ntroduction). ou may only need one level of !asic headings (i.e. ?ethods, *esults, etc.). 2owever, you may re7uire su!-headings within those !asic headings and su!-headings !elow those sections. ?ost undergraduate papers will use three levels of headings or less. After determining how many headings your paper will re7uire, follow these guidelines. Dor one level of headings, use /e4el 1. +n the example !elow, we use 1Principal Dindings3 and 1*ationale3 as our only headings.

9ample <evel & 2eading

For t3o le4els of headings+ use /e4els 1 and 0. <evel , will act as a su!-heading to <evel &. +n the example !elow, 1Principal Dindings,3 a <evel & heading, re7uires two su!sections with <evel , formatting 1Fsing APA for our Paper3 and 1Proper 2eadings.3 The next section of the paper, 1*ationale,3 returns to <evel & formatting.

9ample <evels & and , 2eadings

For three le4els of headings+ use /e4els 1+ 0+ and 9. <evel & serves as the main heading. <evel , goes under <evel &, and <evel > goes under <evel ,. +n the example !elow, we 1Ieneral guidelines.3 and 19pecial cases.3 as <evel > headings under our existing <evel , heading 1Fsing APA for your paper. )either 1Proper 2eadings3 (<evel ,) or 1*ationale3 (<evel &) re7uire additional headings at this time.

9ample APA 2eading <evels &, , and >

For four le4els of headings+ use /e4els 1+ #+ 0+ and 9. <evel & acts as the main heading. <evel ( wor6s under <evel &. <evel > wor6s under <evel ,. +n the example !elow we !rea6 up <evel &Js 1Principal Dindings3 into two <evel ( sections 1Fsing APA in the Fniversity3 and 1Fsing APA in the Dield.3 <evels , and > follow <evel (.

9ample APA <evels &, (, , and > 2eadings

For fi4e le4els of headings+ use /e4els 5+ 1+ #+ 0+ and 9. <evel $ serves as the main heading. <evels &, (, ,, and > then wor6 in order. <evel $ adds an upper level. /ften this level is the title as in the example !elow. This method is employed more in pu!lishing than in standard university papers.

9ample of Dive