Geometry Book 1 Planimetry

Published by Sumizdat
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University of California, BerkeleyCataloging-in-Publication Data

Kiselev,
A.
(Andrei
Petrovich)
Book
Geometriia.
Chast 1, Planimetriia. English

l, Planimetry
Kiselev'sGeometry.
240 p.
/ by A.P.
Kiselev;
(\177
adapted from Russian by Alexander [El Cerrito,Calif.]:Sumizdat,

viii,
2006.
Givental.
23 cm.
references
Includesbibliographical
ISBN 0-9779852-0-2
and
index.
I. Geometry.2. Geometry,
QA453.K57213 2006
Plane.
I. Givental,
Alexander.
Library of Congress Control Number:

(\177)2006 by
All
any
2006924363
Alexander
Giv\177ntal
rights
part
reserved. Copies or derivative of it may not be produced without
products of
the edu),
the
written except
Alexander Givental (givental@math.berkeley. in connection with reviews or scholarly Credits
whole work or permission from for brief excerpts
analysis.
-
RECEVE'b
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ISBN
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Contents
INTRODUCTION
1
.......................
LINE
THE
STRAIGHT
Angles
...........................
\177
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Perpendicular lines . ................... Mathematicalpropositions ................

Polygons Isosceles Congruence Inequalities Right
Segment
9 15
20 22 26 30 34
and
triangles
\177triangles tests in triangles

and
triangles
.... ' ............. ......................

bisectors problems
.................. and symmetry ............ for triangles .............. ............... ...............
41
45 48 55
angle
10
Basic Parallel The
construction lines angle
11
.......................
of a
and
12
sum
polygon
trapezoids and
13
...............
..............
symmetries
64
Parallelograms
Methods
14
2
68
78
of
construction
........
THE
CIRCLE
Circles
Relative
and
chords
....................
of a
83 83
positions
line and
a circle
Relative Inscribed Construction
positions and
of two some
circles angles
4 5 6 7
other
............. .............
.........
89 92 97
problems
and
..................
polygons
102
.........
Inscribed
Four
circumscribed
110
concurrency
points
in a
Ill
triangle
..........
114
iv
Conten\177s
SIMILARITY
117
.................
of triangles
of
1 2 3
Mensuration
Similarity
Similarity Proportionality
Homothety
..................
..................
................ .................
to geometry
......
11 127 134
polygons
theorems
4 5 6 7
138
143
150
........................
functions
of
Geometricmean
Trigonometric
Applications
.....................
..........
\177
161
170
8 9
4
algebra
Coordinates
................
&;
........
174
183
183
REGULAR POLYGONS
1
2
CIRCUMFERENCE
Regular polygons
Limits
Circumference
...........................
and
.....................
arc
195
3
5
AREAS
length
..............
199
209
209 218 223 226 230
1
2 3 4 5
Areas of
Several Areas Areas The
formulas of disks Pythagorean
polygons ..................... for areas of triangles .........

figures and sectors
theorem
of similar
.................. ................
revisited \177'. ..............
...........
BIBLIOGRAPHY
INDEX
.............................
.......
235
237
Translator's
Foreword
Those reading these lines are

hereby
summoned
good
to
raise
command
their
of
children to a
Elementary
by
Geometry,
rigorous
the
ancient Greekmathematicians.
A
to be judged standards of the

magic
spell
is an ancient culture. It ispassedon by each generation to now call Elementary Geometry was created by Greeks some 2300 years ago and nurtured by them with pride for about a millennium. Then, for another millennium, Arabs were preserving Geometry and transcribingit to the language of Algebra that they, invented. The effort bore fruit in the Modern Age, when exact sciencesemergedthrough the work of Frenchman Rene Descartes, Englishman Isaac Newton, German Carl Friedrich Gauss, and their contemporaries and followers. Here is one reason. On the decline of-the 19th century, a Scottish-professor showedto his classthat the mathematical equations, he introduced to explainelectricity experiments, admit wave-like solutions. Afterwards a German engineer Heinrich Hertz, who happened to be a student in that class,managed to generate and register the waves. A century later we find that almost every thing we use: GPS, TV, ceil-phones, computers, and everything we manufacture, buy, or learn using them, descendsfrom the mathematical discovery made by James Clerk Maxwell.
Mathematics
What
the next.
we
then I cast a spell

Soon
I gave the above speech at a graduation ceremony California Berkeley,addressing the classof graduating
upon
at the University math majors --
of
and
them.
there came the realization that without a Magic Wand the spell won't work: I did not manage to find any textbook in English that I could recommend to a young person willing to master Elementary Geometry. This is when the thought of Kiselev's came to mind.
Andrei
Petrovich
Kiselev
(pronounced
And-\177rei
Pet-\177ro-vich
Ki-se\177lyov)
a provin-
left a unique
legacy to mathematics
education.Bornin 1852 in
vi
cial Russian town Mathematics and
reer as a math
\"A
and
Mzensk, he graduatedin 1875 from the Department of Physics of St.-Petersburg University to begin a long cascience teacher and author. His schoo14evel textbooks
of Arithmetic\" \177[9], \"Elementary (Book I \"Planimetry\", Book Algebra\"
Systematic
Course
Geometry\"
[10], and
[3]
\"Elementary
were
1888 and 1892respectively, and soon gained a leading position in the Russian mathematics education. Revised and published more than a hundred times altogether, the booksretainedtheir leadership over many decades both in Tsarist Russia, and after the Revolution of 1917, under the quite different cultural circumstances of the Soviet epoch. A few years prior to Kiselev's deathin 1940, his books were officially given the status of stable, i.e. main and only textbooks to be used in all schoolsto teach all teenagers in the totalitarian state with a 200-million
first
II
\"Stereomerry\")
published
in 1884,
population.Thebooksheldthis status
until
until
1955
(and
\"Stereomerry\" even
clones
1974)
when
they
got replaced in this

Yet
capacity by lesssuccessful
remained
written
by more
the
Soviet authors.
many
\"Planimetry\"
the
under-the-desk choiceof
teachers
dents.In
rarity,
last
decade,
Kiselev's
and a must for honors geometry stu\"Geometry,\" which has long becomea
favorite
by several major publishing housesin Moscow and St.versions: for teachers[6, 8] as an authentic pedagogical heritage, and for students [5, 7\177as a textbook tailored to fit the currently active school curricula. In the .post-Soviet educational market, Kiselev's \"Geometry\" continues to compete successfullywith its own grandchildren.
was
reprinted
Petersburg
in both
There are several. three key virtues of good textbooks: precision, simplicity, conciseness. And competence in the subjectfor we must now add this fourth criterion, which could have been 'taken for What is
ageless the
the secret of such Kiselev himself formulated

ago.
vigor?
following
granted a
century
Acquaintance with programs and principles of math education being developed by European mathematicians was another of Kiselev's assets. In his preface to the first edition of \"Elementary Geometry,\" in addition to domestic and translated textbooks, Kiselev quotesten geometry courses in French and German published in the previous decade. Yet another vital elixir that prolongs the life of Kiselev's work was the continuous effort of the author himself and of the editorsof later reprints to improve and update the books,and to accommodate the teachers' requests, curriculum fluctuations and pressuresof the 20th century classroom. Last but not least, deep and beautiful geometry is the most efficient preservative. Compared to the first textbook in this subject: the \"Elements\" [1], which was written by Euclid of Alexandria in the 3rd century B.C., and whose spirit and structure are so faithfully represented in Kiselev's \"Geometry,\" the latter is quite young.
Elementary geometry occupies a singular

The acquiring of
\177The
place
in secondary
education.
from
superb
reasoning
skills is
one of thosebenefits
on
study-
numbers
in brackets
refer to the
bibl'iography
p. 235.
vii ing geometry

(thanks
Another one is the

to
whose role reachesfar

unlimited
beyond
opportunity
mathematics for nurturing
education
per se.
thinking
creative
astonishingly broad difficulty range of elementary geomehave been accumulated over the decades).Finelearning habits of those who dared to face the challenge remain always at work for them. A lack thereof in those who missed it becomes hard to compensate by studying anything else. Above all, elementary geometry conveysthe essence and power of the theoretical method in its purest, yet intuitively transparent and aesthetically appealing, form. Suchhigh expectations seem to depend however on the appropriateframework: a textbook, a teacher, a culture.
the
try
problems
that
framework emerged apparently in the midas the key component. After the 2nd World War, countries of Eastern Europe and the Peoples Republic of China, adapted to their classrooms math textbooks based on Soviet programs. Thus, one way or another, Kiselev's \"Geometry\" has served several generations of students and teachers in a substantial portion of the planet. It is the time to make the book available to the English reader.
Russia,
In
the
adequate
thirties,
with
Kiselev's
books
\"Plantmerry,\" vides
targeting
the
usually
age group
appear
concise
yet crystal-clear
of current presentation of elementary

in modern
7-9th-graders,proplane
geome-
try, in
try commentaries
all its
aspectswhich
The
on
reader's mathematical maturity nature of mathematical reasoning distributedwisely throughout the book. Student's competence is reinforced by generously supplied exercises of varying degree of challenge. Among them, s\177rai#htedge and compass constructions play a prominent role, according to the author, they are essential for animating the subject and cultivating students' taste. marked with the general sense of measure (in both \177 and omissions), and non-cryptic, unambiguous language. This makesit equally suitable for independent study, teachers' professional development, or a regular s\177hool classroo-rn. The book was indeed designed
programs.
high-school geomeis gently advanced by
the
because,
Thebookis selections
b\177
and tuned to
Hopefully
stable.
the present
it
tried to
sions
follow
pretty
[3, 4, 5, 7, 8] when was not the goal, and I occurred.
adaptation retains the virtues of the original. I alternating between several available verthey disagreed. Yet authenticity of translation felt free to deviate from the source when the need
closely,
The most notable change isthe significant extension and rearrangement of exercise sections to comply with the US tradition of making textbook editions self-contained (in Russia separate problembooks are in fashion). Also, I added or redesigned a few sections to represent material which found its way to geometry curricula rather recently. Finally, having removed descriptions of several obsolete drafting devices (such as a pantograph), I would like to share with the reader the following
observation.
In
that
remote,
Kiselevian past,
engineer,
when
Elementary
Geometry
was the
the
most reliable ally
of every
the straightedge
and compass were
viii
main
267
items in his
gone
or her
thanks
drafting
ing has long

diagrams
to the
the aid of graphing is manifested in their designin multiple ways. Obviously, it is inherent in all modern technologiesthrough the \"custody chain\": Euclid - Descartes - Newton - Maxwell. Plausibly, it awakened the innovative powers of the many scientists and engineers who invented and created computers2 Possibly, it was among the skills of the' authors of Xfig. Yet, symbolically enough, the most reliable way of draw-
in the
Still,
present edition are producedwith

Geometry
toolbox. The craft of blueprim draftadvance of computers. Consequently, all
software
Xfig.
Elementary
ing a diagram on the computer screenis to use electronic surrogates of the straightedge and compass and follow literally the prescriptions given in the present book,often in the very same theorem that the diagram illustrates. This brings us back to Euclid of Alexandria, who was the first to describe the theorem, and to the task of passing on his culture.
fair can
I believethat the bookyou are chance to share in the \"custody.\"

cast
holding
This
in your hands gives everyone is my Magic Wand, and
a
now
my spell.
Alexander Givental
Department
of Mathematics
University
of California Berkeley
April,
2006
Authors
cited
in this
book:
Thales of Miletus
Pythagoras
624
about
of
Samos
Hippocrates
Plato
of Chios
Eudoxus of Cnidus
Euclidof
Archimedes
Alexandria
of
Syracuse
Apollonius
Heron of Alexandria
of Perga
4(27- B.C. 4(08 - 355 B.C. about 325 - 265B.C. - 212 B.C. 262 - 190 B.C.
34(7 287 about
- 4(75 B. C. 4(70 - 4(10B.C.

570
- 547 B.C.
10-
75A.D.
Claudius
Chongzhi
Ptolemy
85
4(3O
- 165 A.D.
-
Zu
al- Khwarizmi
about 780
Ren4 Descartes
Pierre
Isaac
1596- 1650
- 850 A.D.
1665
501
A.D.
\177'ermat
1601 164(3
Newton
- 1727
Robert
Simson
1687
\177777-
Leonard
Karl
James
Carl Friedrich Gauss

Wilhelm
Euler
1707- 1783
1855
- 1768
- 1834(
\177'euerbach
1800
Clerk
Maxwell
Lindemann
1831 - 1879
Richard
\337 'erdinand
Dedekind
Hertz
1831- 1916
1852 1857-
1939
Heinrich
1894(
Introduction
1. Geometric figures. part of space object is a geometric solid. A geometric solid is separatedfrom the
The called
occupied
surrounding
by a
physical
by
space
surface.
A part of
line.
A
the surfaceis separated

line is
from
an
adjacent
part by a
by a
point. The geometricsolid,surface, line and point do not exist separately. However by way of abstraction we can consider a surface independently of the geometric solid, a line -- independently of the surface, and the point -- independently of the line. In doing so we should think of a surface as having .no thickness, a line \337 as having neither thickness nor width, and a point -- as having no length, no width, and no thickness.
part
of the
separated
from
an
adjacent
part
set
of
points,
lines,
surfaces,
or_
solids
positioned
in a
certain
way in space is generally called a geometric.figure. Geometric figures can move throughspace without change. Two geometric figures are called congruent, if by moving one of the figures it is possibleto superimpose it onto the other so that the two figures become identified with each other in all their parts. 2. Geometry. A theory studying properties of geometric figures
is calledgeometry, which translates from Greek as land-measuring. This name was given to the theory because the main purpose of geometry in antiquity was to measure distances and areas on the
Earth's
surface.
their
First concepts of geometryas well as introduced as idealizations of the corresponding

everyday
face,
basic
common
properties,
notions
are
and
experiences.
3. The plane.
or the
The
most
familiar
of all
surfaces
is the
by
flat
sur-
plane.
The idea of the plane is conveyed
a window
2
pane,
fn\177roduction
a quiet pond. We note the following property of the plane: Onecan superimpose a plane on itself or any other plane in a way that takes one given point to any other given point, and this can also be done after flipping the plane upsidedown. 4. The straight line. The most simple line is the straight line. The image of a' thin thread stretched tight or a rky of light emitted through a small hole give an ideaof what a straight line is. The following fundamental property of the straight line agrees well
or
the
water
surface in
with
these
Fo\177
images:
every
two
points
in space,
through
It
them,
follows
and such a
from
lines
line is unique.
aligned
other
with
there is a
straight
line
p.assing
this property
are
that:
each
If two
have
straight
other
in such
two points of
would
lines coincidein all their

two
one line coincide with

points
two
points
of the
a way that other, then the
as well
(because otherwise
points,
which
straight is impossible).
distinct
lines passing
lines
we through the sametwo

intersect
holds
For the
same reason, two

line
straight
can
at most at
true:
one point.
A
straight
can
lie in a
plane. The
two
following
If a
straight
line passes
B
through
points
of a
plane,
then all
points of this line liein this

A
plane.
Figure
Figure 2
Figure 3
5. The
of a
straight line as extended indefinitely it an infinite (or unbounded) straight A straight line is usually denoted by ing any two points on it. Onesays \"the
I).
unbounded straight line.
Ray.
Segment. both
Thinking
in line. two
directions,
one calls mark(Figure
uppercase
letters
line
AB\"
or
\"BA\"
straight line bounded on both sidesis called a It is usually denoted by two letters marking its endpoints (the segment CD, Figure2). Sometimes a straight line 'or a segment is denotedby one (lowercase) letter; one may say \"the straight line a, the segment b.\"
A part
of the
straight
segment.
Introduction
3
\"straight
Us.ually instead of \"unboundedstraight line\" and ment\" we will simply say line and segment respectively. Sometimes a straight line is considered which direction only, for instance at the endpoint E straight line is called a ray (or half-line) drawn
(Figure
segone a
terminates 3).
in Such
from
Two
6. Congruent
are
congruent
if they
and non-congruent segments. can be laid one onto'the other

Suppose
for
segments
so
that
their
AB onto the segment CD point C aligning the ray

and
endpoints
coincide.
example 4)
that by
we put
(Figure
placing
the segment the point A at the

AB
this, the points B and are congruent. Otherwise

of
makes a
part of the otheris considered

A B
D merge,then the segments they are not congruent, and

smaller.
AB with
the ray CD. If, as a result

and
CD
the
one which
Figure 4
To mark on a line a segment uses the compass,a drafting
congruent device
to
a given
which
reader.
CD,
we assume
segment, one familiar to the
7 \177. Sum
of segments. Figure to
A/\177,
EF,
5) is
then
The sum of several given segments(A/\177, a segment which is obtained as follows. On
a line, congruent
and Then
pick any
point M and starting fromit

mark
marka
segm_ent
MJV
the
segments
P(\177 congruent the
to EF,
M(\177
segment
will
both going in the same direction asMN. be the sum of the segments A/\177, CD and
]VP congruent
to CD,
EF
obtain
(which
the
A I.
sum
are called summands of this sum). of any number of segments.

B
[
One can
similarly
C
I
D
3
E
2
F L
Figure 5
The sum of segments has the same bers. In particular it does notdepend (the commutativity law) and remains summantis are replaced with their sum
properties on
sum of numof .the summantis unchanged when some of the (the associativity law). For
as the the
order
Introduction
+ EF
instance:
AB
CD
= AB +
EF + CD= EF
CD
CD
+ AB
...
=
and
AB
+ CD
+ EF
= AB +
with to
(CD+ EF)
segments.
+ (AB
+ EF)
....
segments
whose
8.
Operations gives
rise
and
the
of
concept
of AB
with CD is congruent to AB; the product of the segment the number 3 is the sum of three segments each congruent to AB; the quotient of the segment AB by the number 3 is a third
sum
multiplication example, the

AB with
part
division
difference
The concept of addition of of subtraction of segments, and segments by a whole number. For and CD (if AB > CD) is a segment
of AB.
certain are
If given segments are measuredby stance, centimeters), and their lengths sponding numbers, then the length of
linear expressed
units by
(for inthe corre-
the
sum
expressed
by
the
sum
of the,numbers
measuring
of the segments is these segments, the
etc.
turn
length
of
the
difference
is expressed
setting point
by the differenceof the 'numbers,

compass
placingitspinlegat
the
9. The circle.
If, some
the
O of
compass
a-pencil
curved
touching
line
called a circle, and the point O -- its center. A segment (OA, OB, OC in Figure 6) connecting the center with a point of the circle is calleda radius. All radii of the same circle are congruent to eachother. Circles described by the compass set to the same radius are congruent because by placing their centers at .the same point one will identify such circles with each other at all their points. A line (MN, Figure 6) intersecting the circle at any two points
This
this point, then the other legequipped the plane will describe on the planea continuous all of-whose points are the same distance away from
around
to an arbitrary step and, the plane (Figure 6), we beginto

with
O.
curved
line is
is called
a secant.
a chord.
A A
A segment (EF)
chord
bothof
whose
endpoints
lie on
the circle
is called
(AD) is the
passing
diameter
sum of
same
-\"
circle are
A
congruent to eachother.
circle contained
through the center is calleda two radii, and.therefore all diameters
diameter.
of
the
part
of a
between any
two
points
(for example,
EmF)
is called an arc.
Introduction
The
chord
connecting
the endpoints of
the
an arc is s\177id
\177-\177; for
to
subtend
this
arc. An arc
is sometimes denoted by
of
sign
instance,
one
writes:
EmF.
p\177rt
The
The
the
plane
bounded
by a
circle is calleda disk?
part
of a
COB
by
in Figure secant (the
disk contained between two r\177dii (the shaded part 6) is calleda sector,\177nd the part of the disk cut off part EmF) is calleda disk segment.
\275
\177
Figure
10.
Congruent
two
and
their
AB
non-congruent
endpoints
7) with
arcs.
Two
arcs
of
the
same
be we
circle (or of
so the
congruent
ci\177rcles) are
congruent
if they
can
aligned align
that
\177rc
(Figure
coincide. Indeed, supposethat the arc CD by identifying the

the
point
CD.
A with
If,
the point C and
directing
center, the
arc
AB
along
well,
the
then
\177rc
the
as e\177 result of this, the endpoints intermedi&te points of these arcs will
B and D
coincide
\177nd
coincide,
since
efil
\177s
they
are the same But if B and
not congruent, and the onewhich is a pe\177rt of the other is considered smaller. 11. Sum of arcs. The sum of several given arcs of the same radius is defined as an arc of that same r\177dius which is composed from p\177rts congruent respectively to the given arcs. Thus, pick an arbitre\177ry point M (Figure 7) of the circle\177nd mark the part MN
then
distance e\177way from D do not coincide,
the
therefore
AB-CD.
arcs are
\177'Often doing
the
word
mistakes.
this
since
\"circle\" is used instead of \"disk.\" However one should avoid the use of the same term for different concepts may lead to
Introduction
Next, _IV/\177
congruentto AB. circle,mark part

the
moving congruent
in to
the
be
the
sum
of the
arcs AB and CD.

N
CD.
same direction along Then the arc MP
the
will
Figure 7
Adding arcs of
when the
sum of the arcs doesnot
the same'radiusonemay
fit
encounter
in the
the
circle and
partiallycoversanother.In thiscase sum will be than the circle. ]For example, adding the arcs Arab and CnD 8) we obtain the arc consisting of the wholecircle the
whole (Figure and
one of the arcs an arc greater
the
situation
arc
AD
\177
Figure
\337 Similarly commutativity
to
addition
and
of line
segments, addition of arcs obeysthe

laws.
associativity
From the of subtraction whole number
concept of addition of arcs one derives the concepts of arcs, and multiplicationand division of arcs by'a. the same way as it was done for line segments.
The
12. Divisions of geometry.

divided into two
parts:
subject
of
geometry
can be
plane
geometry,
Planimetry fit
or planimetry,
studies the.same
geometric figures
geometry, or stereomerry. all of whoseelements
and solid
of those
properties plane.
Introduction
EXERCISES
1. Give examplesof geometric solids bounded by one, two, three, four planes (or parts of planes). 2. Show that if a geometric figure is congruent to another geometric figure, which is in its turn congruent to a third geometric figure, then the first geometric figure is congruent to the third. 3. Explain why two straight lines in space can intersect at most at
one point.
4{.
line can
5?
the
a
Referring
to
intersect
\3654,
show
that
it
at
most
a plane not at one point.
containing a given straight
Give
an
example'
plane,
can be
any
of a surface other than the planewhich, like superimposed on itselfin a way that takes any one
other
given point to
Remark:
given
point. for any
The required
to line
\3654\177 show
example is not unique.

that
6.
such
Referring
straight
lying
in this
plane and
draw
two points of a plane,thereisa passing through them,and that
a line
is unique.
to of
7. Usea on a
sheet It\361nt:
straightedge
paper.
Figure
a line passing through out how to check that
two points given
the line is really
straight.
Flip
the
straightedge
upside
down.
8. \177Fold
the edge
a sheet
of paper and, using the previous problem, check that is straight. Can you explain why the edge of a folded paper
._
is
\177traight?
Remark:
There
that
may
for
exist several
9.
lying
Show
each
correct answers to this question. point lying in a plane there is a straight line
many
lines
in this plane are there?
and passing throughthis point. How

the
such
10. Find surfaces otherthan

with through
each this
point point.
lying
on the
plane which, like the plane, together surface contain a straight line passing
bending
H\361nt: One
can obtain
such surfacesby
of
a sheet
of paper.
\3651,
11. Referring to the definition

that
congruent
figures
given in
that
show
any
two infinite
line,
straight lines are congruent;

mark
any
two
rays
are congruent.
12. On a given
segment, asters
a segment
times
congruent to
as
four
times
a given
using a * mark
compass as few
exercises
possible.
those
which we
consider more difficult.
Introduction
Give
13. is the sum (difference)of given segmentsunique? ample of two distinct segmentswhich both are sums
an
ex-
of the
given
segments. Showthat thesedistinctsegments are congruent. 1J. Give an example of two non-congruent arcs whose endpoints coincide. Can such arcs belong to non-congruent circles? to congruent circles? to the same circle? 15. Give examples of non-congruent arcs subtended by congruent
chords. there non-congruent chords subtending congruent arcs? 16. Describe the operations of subtraction of arcs, and multiplication and of an arc by a whole-number. 17. Follow the descriptions of with arcs, and show that multiplying a given arc 3 and then dividing the result by 2, obtain an arc congruent to the arc resultingfromthe sameoperations on the given arc in the reverse order.
Are explicitfly division operations by we performed
non-congruent segments, or arcsbe congruent? 19. Following the definition,of sum of segments or arcs,explain addition of segments (or arcs) obeys the commutativity law. Hint: Identify a segment (or arc) AB with BA.
or arcs, be
18.
Can
sums
(differences)
non-congruent?
of respectively
Can
congruent
(differences)
line segments,
of respectively
why
sums
Chapter
THE
STRAIGHT
LINE
Angles
13. from
Preliminary
concepts.
A figure
formed by two rays

which is
endpoint
drawn
the
same
point is
called an angle. The rays
form called
the the
away\177
angle are called its sides, and vertex of the angle. One\177should from the vertex indefinitely.
A
their common
think
of the
sides as
extending
A
A
D E
Figure 9
Figure
the middle one
letters of which label a point on eachof the sides. One says, e.g.: \"the angle AOB\" or \"the angle BOA\". (Figure 9). It is possible to denote an angle by one letter marking the vertex provided that no other angles with the same vertex are present on the diagram.Sometimes we will also denote an angle by a number placed inside the angle next to its vertex. An angle
denoted
is usually
marks
by
the
vertex,
three uppercase and the other two
Chapter1.
The
THE
STRAIGHT
LINE
an angle divide the whole plane containing the angle regions. One of them is calledthe interior region of the angle, and the other is calledthe exterior one.Usually the interior region is considered the one that containsthe segments joining any two points on the sides of the angle,e.g. the points A and B on the sides of the angle A\270B (Figure 9). Sometimes however one needs to considerthe other part of the plane as the interior one. In such cases a special comment will be made regardingwhich region of the plane is considered interior. Both cases are represented separately in Figure 10, where the interiorregionin each case is shaded. Rays drawn from the vertexof an angleand lying in its interior (OD, OF, Figure 9) form new angles (AOD, DOE, FOB) which are considered to be parts of the angle (AOB). In writing, the word \"angle\" is often replaced with the symbol Z.
sides of
into two
For instance, insteadof AOB\" one may write: ZAOB. 14. Congruent and non-congruent angles. In
\"angie
accordance
with
the with
general the
definition
by
of congruent
moving
considered
it
congruent if
other.
one
of
figures (\3651) two angles them it is possibleto identify
are
Figure 11
SUppose, for
example, 11)
that
we lay
OB goes along OB', and the interior regions of both angles the same sideofthe line O\177B( If OA turns out to coincide with O\177A \177, then the angles are congruent. If OA turns out to lieinsideor outside the angle A'O'B ', then the angles are non-congruent, and the one,that lies inside the other is said to be smaller. 15.Sum of angles. The sum of angles AOB and A'O'B' (Figure 12) is an angle defined as follows. Construct an angle MNP -congruent to the given angle AOB, and attach to it the angle PNQ, congruent to the given angle A'O\177B \177,as shown. Namely, the angle
the
A'O'B'
side
(Figure
in a
way such
the angle AOB ontothe angie that the vertexO coincides with
lie on
1. Angles
11
have-with
MNP
mon
should
side
NP,
and the
the angle PNQ the same vertex N, interior regions of bo\177h angles should
com-
lie on
the opposite
sides of the common ray NP. Then the angle MNQ is called the sum of the anglesAOB and A'O'B( The interior region of the sum is considered the part ofthe plane comprised by the interior regions of the summarids. Thisregioncontainsthe common side (NP)of the summarids. One can similarly form the sum of three
and
more
angles.
Figure 12
Addition of angles obeys the commutativity and associativity just the same way addition of segmentsdoes. From the concept of addition of angles one derivesthe concept of subtraction of angles, and multiplication and division of angles by a whole number.
laws
Figure
13
Figure 14
Figure
15
Very
often
one has
this
to deal
with
the
ray
which
angle into halves;
ray
is called concept
may
the bisector
of angle.
occur
divides a given of the angle (Figure
the sum of anglessomecases

tion.
16.Extension
of
the
When one computes

require
which
special
atten-
(1) 'It is possible that
after
addition
of several
angles, say,
the
Chapter1. STRAIGHT three angles: AOB, BOC and COD (Figure 14), side OD angle COD will happen to be continuation of the side OA angleAOB. will obtain therefore the figure formed by
12
THE the the We two
LINE
of the
of the
half-
lines straight
(OA
and OD)
a
each other. Such

angle.
drawn
figure
from
the
same
point
is aJso
considered
addition
an angle and is called

angles,
the
(O) and
continuing
a
(2) It
five
is possible that
AOB,
after
COD,
the
of several
angles:
BOG,
DOE and
by
OA
of the
angle EOA will
happen to coincide with

formed
EOA (Figure15)the
side
say, the
side
OA
of
the angle
AOB. The figure

the a
such
rays
(together
with the
whole plane surrounding
vertex
O)' is
and is
also considered
will
an angle
called
full
angle.
(3) Finally, it is possible that the whole plane around the common
added angles
vertex,
not
but
will
an
only fill in even overlap
with each other, covering

the
.the
plane
around with
second
time,
angles
for the
added
third time, and so on. Such

added
the common
vertex
sum
for
angle
is
congruent
to one full
angle
another
to
two
full
with
another angle,
A
and so on.
B
angle, or
congruent
Figure
16
Figure 17
17. Central angle. Theangle radii of a circle is called a central

contained
(AOB,
Figure
16) formed
angle;
such an
between
the
sides
of this
angle are said to
by two angle and the arc

correspond
to
each
other.
Central
properties.
angles and
circle\177
their corresponding arcs have

two
the
following
In
'ing
one
or
congruent
circles:
the
(1) If central
arcs
angles are congruent, then
correspond-
are
congruent;
(2) Vice versa, if
the arcs are congruent,

then
the
corre-
1.
An\177les
13
sponding
central
CD
about
.angles
are congruent.
(Figure
Let ZAOB =
AB
ZCOD
congruent
center
and
are
the
rotated
AB and
The
18. divided
the radius the angles,
second
into
CD will coincide too, i.e.they are property is established similarly.

and angular 360 congruent parts
OA coincideswith OC. Then due to the congruence of the radius OB will coincide with OD; therefore the arcs
congruent.
17); we need to show that the arcs too. Imagine.that the sector AOB is in the direction shown by the arrow until
Circular
degrees. Imagine that a circle and all the division points are
is
con-
center by radii. Then around the center, 360 central formed which are congruent to each other as central angles corresponding to congruent arcs. Each of these arcs is called a circular degree, and each of those central angles is called an angular degree. Thus one can say that a circular degree is 1/360th part of the circle, and the angular degree is the centralanglecorresponding
nected with the
angles are
to it.
The
degrees
(both
parts
circular
called
into 60 congruent
minutes,
parts
and angular) are and the

called
further subdivided minutes are further
subdividedinto 60
congruent
seconds.
D
\337
55 \370
Figure
18
Figure
19
central angles and arcs. Let 18). Between its sides,draw an arc CD of arbitrary radius with the centerat the vertex O. Then the angle AOB will become the central angle corresponding to the arc CD. Suppose, for example, that this arc consists of 7 circular degrees (shown enlarged in Figure 18). Then the radii connectingthe division points with the center obviously divide the angleAOB into 7 angular degrees. More generally, one can say that an angle is measured by the arc corresponding to it, meaning that an anglecontains as many \177 angular degrees, minutes and seconds as the corresponding
19.
Correspondence
some
between
AOB
be
angle
(Figure
14
Chapter
1.
THE
STRAIGHT
LINE
arc contains circular degrees,minutes and seconds. For instance, if the arc \177'D contains 20 degrees 10 minutes and 15 secondsof circular units, then the angle A01\177 consists of 20 degrees 10 minutes and 15 seconds of angular units, which is customary to express as:
ZAOt\177
20\37010\17715
\177,using
the
symbols
\370, \177 and
\177to
denote
degrees,
minutes
and seconds
angular adding in
respectively.
angular
Indeed,
Whatever
Unitsof
degree 360
described
angle.
\36515, we
the
radius
that
Thus one can say

20.
depend on the radius of the circle. following the summation rule obtain the full angle at the centerof the circle. of the circle, this full ar\177gle will be the same. an angular degree is 1/360th part of the full
do
not
degrees
the
This device (Figure 19) is usedfor measuring of a semi-disk whosearc is divided into 180 \370. To measure the angle DCE, one places the protractorontothe angle in a way such that the.center of the semi-disk coincides with the vertex of the angle, and the radius CB lieson the side CE. Then the number of degrees in the arc contained between the sides of the angle DCE shows the mealsure of the angle. Using the protractor one can alsodraw an angle containing a given number of degrees (e.g.
angles.
Protractor. It consists
angle
of
90
\370 ,
45
\370 ,
30
\370 ,
etc.).
EXERCISES
its bisector.
20. Draw
the
any angle and, using

exterior
a protractor
and
a straightedge,
draw
of a given angle, draw another angle congruent this in the interiorof the given angle? 22. How many common sides can two distinct angles have? 25. Can two non-congruent anglescontain55 angular degrees each? 2\177{. Can two non-congruent arcs contain 55 circular degreeseach? What if these arcs have the same radius?
to
21. In
it.
Can
you do
lines intersect at an angle conGaining 25\370. Find the remaining three anglesformedby these lines. 26. Three lines passing through the samepoint divide the plane into six e\177ngles. Two of them turned out to contain 25 \370 and 55 \370 respectively. Find the measures of the remaining four angles. -'27.* Using only compass, construct a 1\370arc on a circle, if a 19\370arc of this circle is given.
Two
25.
straight
measures
of the
2. Perpendicuiarlines
15
obtuse
2 Perpendicular lines
21.
Right,
acute
and
angles.
An angle of 90 \370 (conangle
gruent
of
the
therefore full angle)
to one
half of the straight angie or to onequarter
is called
a right angle. An
than
smaller
than
the
one is called acute, and a greater straight is calledobtuse (Figure 20).

right
right
but
smaller
than
right
acute
obtuse
Figure 20
All right angles are,of course, congruent to each other since they contain the same number of degrees. The measure of a right angle is sometimes denoted by d (the initial letter of the Frenchword droit meaning \"right\. 22. Supplementary angles. Two angles(AOB and BOC, Figure 21) are called supplementary if they have one common side, and their remaining two sides form continuations of each other. Since the sumof such angles is a straight angle, the sum of two supplementary angles is 180 \370(in other words it is congruent to the sum of two
right
angles). B
C
21
D
Figure 22
Figure
one can constructtwo supplementary angles. For angle AOB (Figure22),prolonging the side AO we obtain one supplementary angleBO\177', and prolonging the side BO we obtain another supplementary angle AOD. Two angles supplementaw to the same one are congruent to each other, since they both
For
each angle
example,
for the
16
contain
Chapter 1. THE
same number of degrees, namely the the number of degreesin the angle\1774OB a straight angle.
the
STRAIGHT
LINE that
\370contained
number
sup-
plements
in
to
180
(Figure 23), i.e. if it contains90 \370, then angles COB and AOD must also be right, since it contains 180 \37090 \370, i.e. 90 \370. The fourth angle COD has to be right as well, since the three angles AOB, BOC and AOD contain 270 \370altogether, and therefore what is left from 360 \370for the fourth angle C\270D is 90\370too. Thus, if one of the four angles formedby two intersecting lines (AC and BD, Figure 23) is right, then the other three angles must be right as well. 23. A perpendicular and a slant. In the case when two supplementary angles are not congruent to each other, theircommon side (OB, Figure 24) is called a slant \177to the line (AC) Containing the other two sides. When, however, the supplementary angles are congruent(Figure25) and when, therefore, each of the angles is right, the common side is called a perpendicular to the line containing the other two sides. The common vertex (O) is called the foot of the slant in the first case, \177nd the foot of the perpendicular in
If
\1774OB
is
a right
angle
each
of its
supplementary
the second.
Figure
23
Figure
24
Figure
25
Two lines (AC and BD, Figure 23) intersecting at a right angle are calledperpendicular to each other. The-fact that the line AC is perpendicularto the line BD is written: AC J_ BD. aemarks. (1) If a perpendicular to a line AC (Figure 25) needs to be drawn througha pointO lying on this line, then the perpendicular is said to be \"erected\" to the line AC, and if the perpendicular. needsto be drawn through a point B lying outside the line,then the perpendicular is said to be \"dropped\" to the line (no matter if it is
_.upward,
downward
or
sideways).
a slant
CAnother name
used for
is an
oblique line.
2. Perpendicularlines
17
given
(2) it,one
Obviously,
at
any
can Let
erect us
a perpendicular, prove
drop
point of a given line, on either sideof and such a perpendicular is unique.
perpendicular is unique.
Let
line one can

a
24.
that
a
from
any point
to
perpendicular
lying outside a given this line, and such
(Figure 26) and an arbitrary point M the We need to show that, first, onecan drop a perpendicular from this point to AB, and second, that there is only one such
line
AB
outside
line
be
given.
perpendicular.
the diagram is folded so that the upperpart of it with the lower part. Then the point M will take some position N. Mark this position, unfold the diagram to the initial form and then connect the points M and N by a line. Let us show now that the resulting line MN is perpendicular to AB, and that any other line passing through M, for example MD, is not perpendicular to AB. For this, fold the diagram again. Then the point M will merge with N again, and the points .C and D will remain in their places. Therefore the line MC will be identified with NC, and MD with ND. It follows that ZMCB = ZBCN and ZMDC -- \177CDN.
Imagine
that
is identified
But
each
the them
of
angles MCB is right, and

and
and BCN
are supplementary.Therefore
\361
hence MN
can
AB.
Since
straight line (because there
be
no two
straight
the points M
MDN is not a lines connecting
MDC
not
the sum of the two congruent angles equal to 2d. Therefore the angle MDC right, and hence MD is not perpendicular to AB. Thus one can drop no other perpendicular from the point M to the line AB.
N),
then
and
CDN
is not
is
Figure 26
Figure 27
25. The drafting triangle. Forpractical pendicular to a given lineit is convenient to
construction
of a
per-
use
made to have oneof its angles
right.
To
draw
line
AB
(Figure
27)
through
poin\177
C lying
triangle the perpendicular to a on this line, or through

a drafting
18
a point
Chapter
1.
THE can
STRAIGHT
LINE
with the line AB, the drafting then slide the trianglealong
26.
D taken outsideof this line,

triangle the
one
with
align a straightedge the straightedge, and until

draw
straightedge
then
the right anglehits the pointCor D, and

Vertical
the other the line
side of
C/\177.
are called vertical if the sides of oneof them form continuations of the sides of the other. For instance, at the intersection of two lines AB and CD (Figure28) two pairs of vertical angles are formed: AOD and COB, AOC and DOB (and four pairs of supplementary angles).
angles.
Two angles
Two vertical angles are congruent

to \177AOD angle
each
other
(for
exhave
ample,
=/_BOC) (to are
since
each
of them
is supplementary to the
same
seen
A
ZDOB congruent
or to
(\36522),
to each
ZAOC), and other.
such angles,as we
B
Figure
28
Figure
29
Figure 30
27. Angles that have a common It member the following simple facts about anglesthat
vertex:
vertex.
is
have
useful
to re-
a common
(1) If the sum of severalangles (AOB, BOC, COD, DOE, Figure 29) that have a commonvertexis congruent to a straight angle, then the sum is 2d, i.e. 180 \370. (2) If the sum of several angles (AOB, BOC,COD, DOE, EOA, Figure 30) that have a common vertex is congruent to the full angle, then it is 4d, i.e. 360 \370. (3) If two angles (AOB and BOC, Figure 24) have a common (o) (os) a=a =p to then their two other sides (AO and OC) form continuations of each other (i.e. such angles are supplementary).
_EXERCISES
28.Is'the
sum
of
the
angles
14\37024'44 \177' and
75\37035'25
\177' acute
or obtuse?
2.
Perpendicular
rays
lines
from'the
19
same
29. Five
five
them
drawn
point
divide the
angles
full
angie
into
congruent
Which
parts.
of
How many
angles
different
do
these
five rays
of
form?
30.
obtuse?
these
are
acute?
Obtuse?
are congruent to each other? Which Find the degreemeasure of each of them.
Can
Find
both angles,
the smallest
whose sum is the straight angle, be acute?

number of acute (or obtuse)angleswhich
find add
31. up
to the full
angle.
the
32. An angle measures38\37020';
measure
of its
supplementary
angles.
33. Oneof
the
the
angles
formed
by two
intersecting
which
lines is 2d/5. Find

to twice
measures
of the
other
three.
an
34. Find the measureof supplementary one.
angie
is congruent
its
35.
the
Two
angles
ABC
and
common
side
BC
not cover
one another. The angle ABC = 100\37020 CBD = 79\37040 '. Do the sides AB and BD form a bent one?
CBD having the common vertex B are positioned in such a way that they
',
and
do
and
the
straight
angle line or a
36.
Two
distinct point.
rays, Find
perpendicular
to a
a
37.
given
the
measure
of the
given line, are erectedat angle betweentheserays.

perpendiculars
In
the
interior
are erected
of an obtuse angie,two at the vertex.Find the measure
to
its sides
of the
obtuse
angle, if
the angle betweenthe perpendiculars-is 4d/5.
Prove:
other.
38.
Bisectors
of
two
supplementary
angles
are
are perpendicular of each
to each other.
39.Bisectors of
A\270D
two
vertical of
angles
continuations
J0. If at a point
and
\270
the
line
AB (Figure
B\270C
and
are
built
sidesOD
J1. If
from
on the
(Figure
28) two congruent angles opposites sidesof AB, then their

line.
\270C form the
a straight
\270
point
in
are
constructed
such
is
a way
LC\270B, then \270B uation of OC.

Hin\177:
the
28) rays OA, OB, OC and OD that ZAOC = ZD\270B and ZA\270D -continuation of OA, and \270D is the contin2 and
Apply
\36527,
statements
3.
20
Chapter 1. THE STRAIGHT LINE
3
far
Mathematical propositions
so one quite
and
\3654)
28.
Theorems,
axioms,
can
conclude
(for
that
obvious
example,
while
some
others
geometry,
example,the properties of
angles
way
definitions. From what we have said some geometric statements we consider the properties of planes and lines in \3653 are established by way of reasoning (for
supplementary
angles
in
\36522
and
vertical.
in
to
\36526).
In
this
process
the
of reasoning
is a principal
be
discover
properties
of geometric
figures. It
forms
would
instruc-
tive
therefore
to acquaint
yourself with
of reasoning
usual
form
in geometry.
All facts establishedin geometryare expressed
in
the
of
propositions. These propositions are divided into the following types. Definitions. Definitions are propositionswhich explain what meaning one attributes to a name or expression.. For instance, we have already encountered the definitionsof centralangle,right angle,
perpendicular
lines,
etc.
2 ar\177
Axioms.
Axioms
through
those
facts some
which
proof. This includes, for

earlier
points
(\3654):
example,
propositions
are accepted without we encountered
the
line lie in same plane.

of a
any two points there is a unique line; if two a given planethen all pointsofthis line lie in
Let ds alsomentionthe following of quantities:
axioms
which
apply
to any
kind
to a third quantity, then these other; if the same quantity is added to or subtractedfromequal quantities, then the equality remains true; if the samequantity is added to or subtracted from unequal quantities,then the inequality remains unchanged, i.e. the greater quan-
if eachof two
quantities
quantities
is equal
two
are
equal
to each
tity
remains
greater.
Theorems.
found
only
through
lowing
propositions
Theorems are those propositions whosetruth is a certain reasoning process (proof). The folmay serve as examples: some
congruent;
if in one circleor two congruent circles congruent, then the corresponding arcs are
if one
central
angles are
out to be
2In
of the
right,
four
angles
formed
by two
then
the
remaining
traditionally
three
intersecting lines turns angles are right as well.

postulates.
geometry,
some
axioms are
called
3.
Mathematical
propositions
21
Corollaries. Corollaries arethosepropositions which follow difrom an axiom or a theorem. For instance, it follows from the axiom \"there is only one line passing through two points\" that \"two lines can intersect at one point at most.\"
rectly
29. The contentofa theorem.

In
any
theorem
guish two parts: the hypothesis and the expresses what is considered given, the to prove. For example, in the theorem
conclusion.
conclusion \"if central
gruent, then the corresponding arcs are congruent\" is the first part of the theorem: \"if central angles and the conclusion is the second part: \"then the corrdsponding arcs are congruent;\" in other words, it is given (known to us) that the central angles are congruent,and it is required to prove that under this hypothesis the corresponding-arcs are congruent.
The
one can distinThe hypothesis what is required angles are conthe hypothesis are congruent,\"
hypothesi's
and
the
\177onclusion
of
a theorem
may sometimes
consist of several separate hypotheses and conclusions; for instance, in the theorem \"if a number is divisible by 2 and by 3, then it is divisible by 6,\" the hypothesis consistsof two parts: \"if a number is divisible by 2\" and \"if the number is divisible by 3.\" It is useful to notice that any theorem can be rephrasedin such a way that the hypothesis will begin with the word \"if,\" and the conclusion with the word \"then.\"For example, the theorem \"vertical angles are congruent\" can be rephrased this way: \"if two angles are vertical, then they are congruent.\" 30. The converse theorem. The theorem converse to a given theorem is obtained by replacing the hypothesis of the given theorem with the conclusion (or some part of--the conclusion), and the conclusion with the hypothesis (or some.part ofthe hypothesis) of the given theorem. For instance, the following two theorems are converse to each other:
If centralanglesare congruent,
If arcs are congruent,

arcs
the
then
then
the
corresponding
corresponding
central
angles
are congruent.
are congruent.
direct,
If we calloneofthesetheorems be calledconverse.
then
the
other
one should
In this
turn
example
both
theorems,
the
always
direct
the
and the
case.
converse one,
example
out
to
\"if
be true.
two
This is
not
\"if
For
the
theorem:
but
angles
are vertical,
two
then they
angles
are congruent\" istrue,

congruent,
are vertical\"is false.
the
converse
statement:
are
then they
22
Chapter
1.
THE bisector ones.
STRAIGHT is drawn
LINE
Indeed, suppose that in some angle 13). It divides the angleinto two smaller are congruent to eachother,but they EXERCISES
the
These
smaller
(Figure angles
are
not
vertical.
4{2. Formulate definitionsof supplementary angles(\36522) and vertical angles (\36526) using the notion of sidesof an angle. 43. Find in the text the definitions of an angl\177, its vertex and sides, in terms of the notionof a ray drawn from a point. JJ.\177 In Introduction, find the definitions of a ray and a straight segment in terms of the notionsof a straight line and a point. Are there
Remark:
ered
definitions of a point,line,plane, surface, geometric solid? Why? These are examplesof geometric notions which are considundefinable.
45. Is
the
that
following
proposition
from
\3656
definition,
axiom
or theo-
rem:
J 6.
\"Two
segments their
otherso
congruent if they endpoints coincide\"?

are
the
can be
Iaid one onto the
In the text, find

figures. congruent
deilnitions
Are
of a
Why?
ent geometric congruent arcs,

4{7. Define is divisible
49.
there
angles?
definitions
geometric figure, and congruof congruent segments,
a circle.
48. Formulatethe proposition converse to the theorem: \"If a number by 2 and by 3, then it is divisible by 6.\" Is the converse
true?
proposit. ion
In the
if the
Why?
proposition
they
from
be
from
\36510:
separate hypothesis proposition. Is

the
congruent
50. In
can
aligned
the
of the same circle are their endpointscoincide,\" conclusion, and state the converse
\"Two
arcs
so that
converse
proposition
true?
Why?
the theorem: \"Bisectors of supplementary angles are perpenseparate the hypothesis from the conclusion, and formulate the converse-proposition. Is the converse proposition true? 51. Give an example that disprovesthe proposition: \"If the bisectors of two angles with a commonvertexare perpendicular, then the angles are s.upplementary.\" Is the converse proposition true?
dicular,\"
4
Polygons
31.
and
lines.
triangles
Straight segments'
31,
--
Broken
are said
to form a broken line (Figures
not
32)
lying
on
the
same
line
if the
endpoint of the
4.
Polygons
and
\177ri\177gles
23
first segment is the beginningof the second one,the endpoint of the second segment is the beginningof the third one,and so on. These segments are called sides, and the vertices of the angles formed by the adjacent segments vertices of the brokenline. A broken line is denoted by the row of letters labelingits vertices and endpoints; for instance,' one says: \"the broken line ABCDE.\" A broken line is called convexif it lieson onesideof each of
its
the
segments
broken
continued
line
indefinitely
in Figure
shown
in both directions. For example, 31 is convex while the one shown in

line
Figure 32
is not (it liesnot ononesideof the
BC).
Figure 31
Figure
32
line whose endpoints coincide is called the or ADOBE in Figure 33). A closed brokenline may have self-intersections. For instance, in Figure 33, the line Self-intersecting, while ABODE is not.
A broken fiBODE
lines
closed(e.g.
is
ADOBE
D N
E
Figure
M
33
32. closed
Polygons. broken line
The figure formed by a together with the part of the
non-self-intersecting
plane
bounded
by
24
Chapter
line
1. THE STRAIGHT LINE
this of this
is
broken
called
line
terior) angles
respectively sides and vertices of the polygon, and the angles formed by each two adjacent sides (inof the polygon. More precisely, the interior of a polygon's angle is Considered that side which containsthe interior part of the polygon in the vicinity of the vertex. For instance, the angle at the vertex P of the polygon M2VPQ_/\177q is the angle greater than 2d (with the interior region shaded in Figure 33). The broken line itselfis calledthe the polygon, and the segment congruent to the sum of allof the perimeter. A half of
a polygon are called
(Figure 33).
The sides and vertices
the perimeter
boundaryof its sides -is often referred to as semiperimeter.

the
A polygon is called convex if it line. For example, the polygonABCD/\177
is bounded
shown
by
convex
broken
while the polygon
M2V.P(\177R$
is not.
We will
...,
convex mainly consider convex

in Figure
33 is
polygons.
Any
segment
(like
AD,
BE,
to
M\177R,
Figure
two vertices not belonging
the
same
in
side of
diagonalof
The
33) which connects a polygon is calleda
the
pplygon.
smallest
number
the
o\177[sides
a polygon their
so
named according to number of laterals, pentagons, hexagons,

The
33.
sides:
on.
is three. Polygons are triangles, quadriby the

symbol/\177.
and
word
Types
\"triangle\"
will
often
be replaced
'of
triangles.
Triangles
are classified by
(Figure
relative
With
of their sides and by respect to the lengths of sides, triangles when all three sides have different lengths,
lengths
the magnitudeof theirangles. can be scalene

isosceles
34)
(Figure (Figure
35)
when two sides are congruent, when all three sidesare congruent.
'and
equilateral
36)
Figure
34
Figure
35
Figure 36
\" (Figure
With
respect
34)
to the
--
when
magnitude of angles, trianglescanbe acute all three angles are acute,right (Figure 37)
4. when
Polygons
and
\177rian\177les
25 one, obtuse
among the angles there is a right -- whenamongthe anglesthereis an
and one.
obtuse
(Figure
38)
Figure
37
Figure 38
In a right triangle, the sidesof the right angle are called legs, and the side oppositeto the right angle the hypotenuse. 34. Important lines in a triangle. One of a triangle's sides is often referred to as the in which case the opposite vertex is called the vertex of the triangle, and the other two sides are called lateral. Then the perpendicular dropped from the vertex to the base or to its continuation is called an altitude. Thus, if in the triangle ABe (Figure 39),thesideAC is taken for the base, then B is the vertex, and BD is the altitude.
base,
Figure 39
The segment (BE, Figure39) connecting the vertex of a triangle with the midpointofthe baseiscalled a median. The segment (BF) dividing the angle at the vertex into halves is called a bisector of the triangle (which generally speaking differs from both the median
and the altitude).

*We
Will
se\177 in
\36543
that
a triangle
may have at
most one right
or obtuse
angle.
26
Any
Chapter
triangle
since
1. THE STRAIGHT LINE medians, and three bi-
has
each
sectors,
base.
side
three altitudes, three of the triangle can
take on the roleof the

each
In an isosceles triangle, usually the side other than two congruent ones is calledthe base.Respectively, the
of
the
vertex
of an
isosceles triangle
is the vertexof that
angle
v\177hich is
formed
by the
congruent sides.
EXERCISES
52.
Four
points
on
the
broken
plane
are vertices of
self-intersect?
by
three
different
quadri-
laterals.
How
can this
happen?
line non-overlapping
53. Can a convex
5g. Is it possible to tile the entire plane all of whose angles contain 140 \370each?
55. its
for
polygons
Prove interior,
which
that each diagonal of a quadrilateraleitherliesentirely or entirely in its exterior. Give an exampleof a pentagon this is false. ,
convex
in
56. Prove that a closed polygon.
broken
line
is the
boundary Is an
of a
triangle considered
58.* 59.
57. Is
an
equilateral
triangle
scalene?
considered
isosceles?
isosceles
How Prove
many that point.
intersection in a
points can
three straight lineshave?
right triangle, three
altitudespass
intersect. one
through
common
60. Show that in any triangle, every two medians same true for every two bisectors? altitudes? 61. Give an example of a trianglesuch that only
Is 'the
lies in its interior.
of its
altitudes
Isosceles triangles and
symmetry
35.
(1)
the
Theorems.
In
an
is an
vertex
(2)
isosceles triangle, at the same time

isosceles
(Figure
congruent.
-'-
In
triangle,
40) be
at
the bisector of the angleat the median and the altitude. the angles at the base are
Let
AABC
bisector of the
angleB
the
vertex
isosceles, and let the line BD be the of the triangle. It is requiredto
5. Isosceles
prove that
\177ri\177n\177les
and
symmetry
27
this bisector BD is alsothe median and the altitude. that the diagram is foldedalongthe line BD so that ZABD falls onto ZCBD. Then, due to congruence of the angles1 and 2, the side AB will fall onto the sideCB,and due to congruence of these sides, the point A will merge with C. Therefore DA will coincide with DC, the angle 3 will coincidewith the angle4, and the
Imagine
angle
with
6. Therefore
DA=DC,
_/_3=Z4,
DC
and Z5=Z6. is the median.It follows

are from
It
the
follows
from
DA
that BD
congruence
hence
BD is
at the baseof the triangle
of the angles 3 and 4 that theseangles the altitude of the triangle.Finally, the
are
right,
angles
and 5 and 6
congruent.
Figure
40
We see that in the isosceles triangle ABC (Figthe very same line BD possesses four properties: it is the bisector drawn from the vertex, the median to the base, the altitude dropped from the vertex to the base, and finally the perpendicular erected from the base at its midpoint. Since each of these properties determines the position of the line BD unambiguously, then the validity of any of them impliesall the others. For example, the altitude dropped to the base of an isosceles triangle is at the same time its bisector drawn from the vertex, the medianto the base, and the perpendicular erected at its midpoint. 37. Axial symmetry. If two points (A and A', Figure 41) are situated on the opposite sides of a line a, on the sameperpendicular to this line, and the same distance away from the foot of the perpendicular (i.e. if AF is congruent to FA\177), then such points are called
36.
Corollary.
ure 40)
symmetric about the line a.
28
Two figures
line
Chapter
1.
THE
STRAIGHT
LINE
of the same figure) are called symmetric of one figure (A, B, C, D, E, Figure 41) the point symmetric to it about this li\177e ( A', B', C \177, D \177, E \177, ... ) belongs to the other figure, and vice versa. A figure is said to have an axis of symmetry a if this figure is symmetric to itself about the line a, i.e. if for any point of the figure the symmetric point also
parts
(or two
each
about a
if for
point
...,
belongs to the
figure.
B'
C
Figure
C'
41
Figure
42
For example, we have ure 42) is divided by the
seen that the isosceles triangle

bisector
ABC
(Fig-
and by folding the diagram along the can conclude from this that whatever point is taken on the left half of the isosceles triangle, onecan always \177nd the point symmetric to it in the right half. Forinstance, on the side AB, take a point M. Mark on the side BC the segment congruent to BM. We obtain the point M' in the triangle symmetBD
into
two triangles (left
right)
which
can
identified bisector. One

be
with
each other
ric to M aboutthe BM = BM: F

Let
axis
BD.
Indeed,
AMBM'
MM'
in the
with
the
bisector
denote the BD of the

perpendicular
intersection
it
angle B. Then BK is the

is also
to
is isosceles since point of the segment

blsector
median. Therefore MM' is i.e. M and M' situated on

are
isosceles
triangle MBM:
By \36535
the
the altitude and the BD, and MF = M'F,
opposite
sides of BD,
away
on the
its
same.
an isosceles triangle, the bisectorof theangle at the vertex is an axis of symmetry of the triangle. 38.Remarks. (1) Two symmetric figures can be superimposed -'-by rotating one of them in space about the axis of symmetry until the rotated figure falls into the originalplaneagain. Conversely, if
Thus in
perpendicular
to
BD,
and the
same distance
from
foot
F.
5.
two
Isosceles
figures
triangles and
can
symmetry
with each
in
29
other
then
by
be
identified
turning
the
plane
in space
about a line lying

Although
the
plane,
these two
figures are
symmetric aboutthisline. (2) symmetric

not identicalin
in
figures
their
position
in the
of them
can be superimposed, they are plane. This should be understood
the
following
sense:
flip
in order
one
it is
the
necessary to
plane
temporarily;
if
to superimpose two symmetric figures around and therefore to pull it off however a figure is bound to remain in the
it
plane,
no motion
symmetric to it
of symmetric letters:\"b\" and letters inside the pageone can

\"p,\"
about a line.For
can generally speakingidentify

example,
with
the
figure
Figure
\"p\"
\"d,\"
and
and
43 shows two \"q.\" By rotating

\"q,\"
pairs
the
\"p\"
transform
'%\" into
or
and
\"d\"
\"d\" into
or
but
it
is impossible
without
lifting
to identify \"b\" the symbols off the page.
\"q\" 'with
(3) Axial
symmetry
is frequently found
in
nature
(Figure
44).
pq
Figure
43
Figure
44
EXERCISES
62. How many axes of symmetry How about an isosceles triangle 63.* How many axesof symmetry
does which can
an
equilateral
is not
triangle equilateral? have?
have?
a quadrilateral
6J.
kite
is a
quadrilateral
symmetric
about a diagonal. Give

is
an
example
of: (a)
a kite;
(b) a quadrilateral which
not
a kite
but has
two
an axis of symmetry.
65.
Can
a pentagon
(one, none)
66.*
Two
have an axis of symmetry passing through of its vertices? points A and B are given on the samesideofa line
30
Chapter
such
1.
THE STRAIGHT
LINE
Find a point C on 2WN
that
the
line MN
angles the sides Prove theorems:

with
would make congruent
of the
broken line
ACB.
are congruent, two
are congruent, altitudes are congruent. 68. If from the midpointof eachof congruent sides of triangle, the segmentperpendicular to thisside is tinued to its intersection with the otherofthe triangle, then these two segments are congruent. 69. line perpendicular to the bisector of an anglecuts
two the erected congruent A
67.In
an
isosceles
triangle,
two medians
bisectors
an isosceles
and sides
conof the
off
congruent
segments
on its
equilateral
sides.
triangle
70.
71.
An
is equiangular
(i.e. all of
its anglesare
the
congruent).
Vertical
angles
bisector
of their
triangle
72.
73.
are symmetric to each otherwith respect to supplementary angles. that has two axes of symmetry has three axes
of
symmetry.
through a
74{.
A quadrilateral
vertex.
is a kite if
kite are
it
has
an
axis of
symmetry passing
Diagonals
Of a
perpendicular.
6
congruent
Congruence
tests for triangles

As we know, two geometric be identified with each other by
39.
Of course,
Preliminaries.
figures are called

superimposing.
if they
can
in the identified triangles, all theircorresponding elements, such as sides, angles, altitudes, medians and bisectors, are congruent. However, in order to ascertain that two triangles are congruent, there is no need to establish congruence of all their corresponding elements. It sufficesonly to verify congruence of some of them.
40. Theorems.
4
(1)
SAS-test:
If
two
in
one triangle are the angle enclosed

triangles
sides and the angle enclosed by them congruent respectively to two sides and by them in another triangle, then such
are
congruent.
(2) ASA-test:
one
If one
are
triangle
4SAS
congruent
side and two angles adjacentto it in respectively to one side and two
ASA
for
SSS for
stands
for
\"side-angle-side\",
\"angle-side-angle,
and
of course
\"side-side-side.\"
6.
Congruence
tests for
triangles
.another
31
triangle,
angles adjacent to it.in

are congruent.
then
such
triangles
respectively to three sides

triangles
(3)
SSS-\177est'
If
three
sides
of one
another
triangle are. congruent

triangle,
of
then
such
are congruent.
A
C'
B'
Fiqure 45
(1) Let
ABC and A'B'C'be two

AC=
A\177C
triangles
(Figure
45)
such that
'
AB
= A'B'
ZA =
ZA'.
It is to prove that these triangles are congruent. Superimpose/kABConto/kA'B'C' such a way that
required in
\1774 would
coincide
with
\1774 ',
the
side
side
would lie on the same congruent to \1774\177C\177 the

of
AC would
of
go along \1774'C
A\177B \177.
t, and
\1774'C \177as
Then:
the side AB since AC .is to congruence

the
by
point
C will
merge with
C'; due to congruence

due
\177. Therefore
ZA
and
Z\1774 \177, the
side
AB
will go
will
along
A\177B \177, and
of these
sides, the point B
merge
with
side
only
BC will coincide with B\177C ' (since two points can be one line),-and hence the entire triangles will be identified other. Thus they are congruent.
joined
with
each
(2) Let ABC

ZC
and
A\177B\177'\177(Figure
46)
be two
tri\177angles
such
that
= ZC',
that
side
/B = ZB',
these
CB
CB = C'B'.
It is
coincide
required /kABC
to onto
prove
pose
/kJ\177B\177C \177 in
with
would lie 5For this

flip
on the samesideof C\177B

point some
\177, the
are congruent. Superimthat the point C would would go along C\177B \177, and the vertex .4
triangles
such
a way
\177 as
\1774 \177. Then:
since due
CB
is congru-
ent to C'B\177, the

and the
B will other
merge with
in
B\177, and
section
to congruence
of
operations
this
it might
be necessaryto
triangle
over.
32
Chapter
angles
1. THE STRAIGHT LINE

side
the
and
and
the
side
are
B t, and CA will go
and
A
and
C t,
will
the
BA
only at
triangles
one point, the vertex A

identified
along CtA: Sincetwo

have
will go
lines
along B'A t,
intersect
can
to merge
with A:
A'
Thus the
are therefore
congruent.
C'
B'
Figure 46
(3) Let
ABC and A'B'C t be

AB = A'B',
two
triangles
CA
such that
=
BC = BtC ',
these the
CtA
'.
It is required to prove
tha\177
this test
two
by
superimposing,
triangles are same way as
congruent. Proving we proved the first

nothing
tests,
turns
out to
the
measure
of the
be awkward, becauseknowing angles, we would not be able

sides
let in.
about
to conclude
from
coincidenceof two
corresponding
superimposing,
that
us
as well. Insteadof ent sidesAa

and
the other sides apply juxtaposing.

a way
coincide
that their congruA would merge with A t and a with at), and the verticesB and B t would lie on the opposite sides of ArC( Then AABC will occupy the position /\\AtBttat (Figure 47). Joiningthe vertices B\177 and Btt we obtain two isosceles triangles BtA\177B tt and BratBit with the common base BtBt\177. But in an isosceles triangle\177 the angle\177 at the base are congruent (\36535). Therefore /1 = Z2 and /3 =/4, and hence/AtBtCt =/A'Bt'C t = lB. But then the given triangles must be congruent, since two sides and the angleenclosed by them in one triangle are congruent respectively to two sides and the angle enclosed by them in the othertriangle. Remark. In congruent triangles, congruent angles are opposed .. to congruent sides, and conversely, congruent sides are opposed to Juxtapose/\177A/\177a and/\\A\177Btat
Ata\177
such
would
coincide
(i.e.
congruent
angles.
The
congruent
congruence
triangles
tests
by
the
--geometry
problems
and
rems.
These
congruence
just proved, and the skill of recognizing above criteria facilitate solutions to many are necessary in the proofs of many theotests are the principalmeans in discovering
6.
Congruence
tests for
trianKies
figures.
33
The
propertiesof complex-geometric occasions to see this.

B\177
reader
will
have many
B'
A'
C'
A'
B\"
B\"
Figure
47
EXERCISES
75. Prove
that a trianglethat has

given
two
congruent
angles
is isosceles.
76. In a
triangle
triangle,
an
altitude
is a
bisector.
median.
Prove that the

Prove
is
isosceles.
77. In a given triangle, triangle is isosceles.
an altitudeis a
that
the
75. On eachside ofan equilateral triangle ABe, congruent segments ABe, BCl and A\177 are marked, and-the points \177i', B\177, and C\" are connected by lines. Prove that the triangle A\177B\177 \177 is also equilateral. 79. Suppose that an angle, its bisector, and one side of this angle in one triangle are respectively congruent to an angle, its bisector, and one sideof this angle in another triangle. Prove that such triangles are congruent. $0. Prove that if two sides and the median drawn to the first of them in one triangle are respectively congruent to two sides and the median drawn to the first of them in another triangle, then such
trianglesare
$1.
sides
congruent.
Give
and
one
one
an example angle of
of two non-congruent trianglessuch that one triangle are respectively congruent to

A\177 are A\177 =
of
two
two
sides
$\177.*
and one
On
the other sidethe that the linesB\177 \177and

and on
angle of the other triangle. side of an angle A, the segments \1774\177and

segments
A\177 =
\1774\177and bisect\177or
\177C meet
on the
the
marked, AC. Prove angle A.
34
88.

Derive
using fr\177)m
the
previous and
bisector
ent, and
congruent,
straightedge
problem a compass.
method of
if
constructing the
84. Prove that in a convexpentagon: (a) and all diagonals are congruent, then all
(b)
all
sides
interior
if then
all all
sides are diagonals

in
congruent, and all are congruent.
interior angles are
are congruent, angles are congru-
ent,
ent?
85. Is this true that

and
a convex
all
interior
angles
polygon, if.all diagonals are congruare congruent, then all sides are congru-
Inequalities
in
angles. polygon)
triangles
The
41.
triangle
Exterio\177
angle
(or
is called
supplementary an exterior angle
to an angleof of this triangle
(polygon).
D
A
Figure 48
Figure 49
For instance (Figure 48), ZBCD, ZCBE,ZBAF are exterior of the triangle ABC. In contrast with the exterior angles, the angles of the triangle (polygon) are sometimes called interior. For each interior angleof a triangle (or polygon), one can construct two exterior angles(by extending one or the other side of the angle). Such two exterior angles are congruent since they are vertical. 42.Theorem. An exterior angle of a triangle is greater
angles
than each interioranglenot

to
supplementary
to
it. of AABC
and
For example, let us prove that the exterior angle BCD (Figure 49) is greater than each of the interior angles A
supplementary
not
\177
it.
the
Throug.h \"and on the
the midpoint E of the sideBC, draw continuation of the medianmark the gruent to AE. The point F will obviously lie in
median
AE
segment
EF
con-
the interior
.of the
7. Inequalities
in
triangles
35
angle
they gruent
BCD.
have sides.
and
Connect-F
Figure
with C
49)
by
segment.
The
triangles
ABE
and EFC (shadedin

congruent From ECF,
too.
anglesB
are
angle
6ongruent
BCD
is smaller
By
than the angleBCD.
and
is
the vertex angles enclosed between two respectively concongruence of the triangles we concludethat the opposite to the congruent sides AE and But-the angle ECF forms a part of the exterior therefore smaller than ZBCD. Thus the angle B
are congruent
since at
continuing
angle ACH
draw the
smaller
median to thesideAC
then
the side BC past the point C we congruent to the angle BCD. If from
and
obtain the
the vertex
exterior B,
we
is
double
the
median
the
by continuing
it past the sideAC,

than
we
will
the angle
ACH, i.e. it is smaller than

B
similarly
prove that
the angleA
angle
BCD.
C
Figure
50
Figure
51
43. Corollary. the other two angles

Indeed,
If in a triangleoneangle
are
is
right
or obtuse,
50
then is BCD by the
acute.
(Figure
right or
suppose that the angleC'-in AABC obtuse. Then the supplementary to

Therefore
this
or 51)
it
A
exterior
and
angle
which
has to be right or acute. theorem are smallerthan

Theorems.
the angles
angle,
B,
exterior
must
both be
of
acute.
44. Relationships betweensidesand angles

In
triangle.
any triangle
(1) the angles opposite to congruent sidesare congruent; (2) the angle opposite to a greater side is greater. (1) If two sides of a triangle are congruent,then the triangle is isosceles, and therefore the angles opposite to thesesides have to be congruent as the angles at the baseof an isosceles triangle (\36535). (2) Let in AABC (Figure 52) the side AB be greater than BC. It is required to prove that the angle C is greater than the angle A. On the greater side BA, mark the segmentBD congruent to the smaller side BC and draw the line joining D with C. We obtain an
36
isosceles ZBDC
Chapter 1.
triangle DBC, = ZBCD. But
greater
THE
STRAIGHT
LINE
base,
respect to
containing
BCD is also
AADC, is greaterthan
than
which has congruentanglesat the the angleBDC,being an exterior

the
i.e.
angle
with
angle
A, and
the
angle
A.
Therefore
hence the angle the angle BCA

too.
ZBCD
as its
part is
greater than the angleA
Figure
52
45. The
(t)
(2)
the
the
Let
(1) it is
required
converse theorems. In any triangle opposite to congruent angles are congruent; side opposite to a greater angle is greater. in ZkABC the angles A and C be congruent(Figure 53); to prove that AB -- BC.
sides
c
Figure
53
Figure 54
Suppose the contrary is true,i.e. that the sides AB and BC are not congruent. Then oneof these sides is greater than the other, and thereforeaccording to the direct theorem, one of the angles A and C has to be greater than the other. But this contradicts the hypothesis that ZA = ZC. Thus the assumptionthat AB and BC are non-congruent is impossible. This leavesonly the possibility that
AB =
BC.
Inequalities in triangles
(2)
37
54) the angle C be greater than the is required to prove that AB \177 BC. Suppose the contrary is true, i.e. that AB is not greater than BC. Then two cases can occur:either AB = BC or AB < BC. Accordingto the direct theorem, in the first case the angle C would have been congruent to the angle A, and in the second casethe angle C would have been smaller than the angleA. Either conclusion contradicts the hypothesis, and therefore both casesare excluded. Thus the only remaining possibility is AB \177 BC.
Let
in AABC-(Figure
angle
A. It
Corollary.
an equilateral triangle all angles are congruent. (2) In an equiangular triangle all sidesare congruent. 46. Proof by contradiction. The method we have just used to prove the converse theorems is called proof by contradiction, or reductio ad absurdurn. In the beginning of the argument the assumption contrary to what is required to prove is made. Then by reasoning on the basis of this assumption onearrivesat a contradiction (absurd). This result forces one to reject the im'.tial assumption and thus to accept the one that was required to prove. This way of
(1) In
reasoning'is frequently
47'. A remark
used
in
mathematical
proofs.
on converse theorems. It is a mistake, not uncommon for beginning geometry students, to assumethat the corn verse theorem is automatically established whenever the validity of a direct theorem has been verified. Hencethe false impression that proof of converse theorems is unnecessary at all. As it can' be shown by examples, like the onegiven in \36530, this conclusion is erroneous.. Therefore converse theorems, when they are valid, require separate
proofs.
of a
However; in the case' of congruence ornon-congruence triangle.ABC, e.g. the sidesAB and BC, three cases can occur:
AB
of
two
sides
only
the following
BC,
AB >
BC,
AB < BC. other two:

the have
say,
Each
of
these
three
cases
excludes the
neither we
if
the
first
case AB
is possible. In theorem cases and at the the oppositeanglesC

the arrived
= BC takes place,then
of
\36544,
nor the 3rd case considered all the three

2nd
following
A:
respective
conclusions
regarding
and
ZC=/A,
ZC>ZA,
ZC<ZA.
38
Each
Chapter 1. THESTRAIGHT
of these
that
LINE
conclusions
converse
in
by
\36545
the
excludes the other two. We have theorems are true and can be easily
theorems, can
also
seen
proved
reductio
ad absurdura.
we address occur
In general, if in a theorem, orseveral sible mutually exclusive cases(which tude of a certain quantity or disposition
regarding
mutually
all posthe magniq
of certain
parts of
and it
true.
turns
out
that
in these
cases we
o\177her
arrive at
or
a figure),
exclusive
conclusions
then we can claima priorithat

We 48\177
(regarding
some
quantities the
converse
parts of propositions
the figure), also hold
will
encounter
\234n two
this
a
rule of' convertibility

each
Theorem.
sum of the other

of courseit
Therefore If we
triangle\177
sides. the
side
quite often. is smaller than the the other two

in a
take a
will
side which is not

be
greatest
one
triangle, then
sides.
smaller
than
the
sum of
we need to prove that even the greatest side of a triangle than the sum of the othertwo sides. In AABC (Figure 55), let the greatest sidebe AC. Continuing the side AB past B mark on it the segment BD = BC and draw DC. Since ABDC is isosceles, then /D -- ZDCB. Therefore the angle D is smaller than the angle DCA, and hence in AADC the side AC is smallerthan AD (\36545), i.e. AC \177 AB d- BD. Replacing BD with BC we get
is smaller
AC
<
AB
+ BC.
subtract
Corollary.
AB
From both sidesofthe obtained inequality,

AC-
or BC:
AB < BC,
AC- BC <
AB.
Reading
these
inequalities
AB
sides BC and
Obviously, therefore
other
is greater
the
same can
in a triangle, two sides.
also be saidabout the greatest sideAC, each side is greater than the difference
from right to left we see that each of the than the difference of the other two sides.
and
of
\177he
(1) The inequality describedin the theorem is often triangle inequality. (2) When the point B lies on the segmentAC, the triangle inequality turns into the equality AC = AB + BC. More generally, if three points lie on the same line (and thus do not form a triangle), -\177hen the greatest of the three segments connecting thesepoints is the sum of the other two segments. Therefore for any three pointsit is
Remarks.
called the
7.
Inequalities
in
triangles is
39 smaller
still true than or
that the segment connecting two of them congruent to the sum of the othertwo
D
segments.
c B
A Figure
Figure
55
56
is
smaller
If
49. Theorem. The than any

the
broken
has
line
broken line connecting these points. in question consists of only two sides, then the
proved in
two
\36548.
line segment connecting

Consider
any
two
points
theorem
already
been
the
broken line consistsof morethan
sides.
A
Let
We
AE
the linesegmentconnecting the points and E, and a brokenlineconnectingthe samepoints. are required that AE is smaller the sum AB + BC + CD + DE. A with C and D and using the triangle
than Connecting
case when the (Figure 56) be let ABCDE be to prove
inequality
we
find:
AE
_< AD
+ DE,
AD <
AC
CD,
AC
_<
AB
BC.
these inequalities cannot t-urn into equalities all at once. Indeed, if this happened,then (Figure57) D would lie on the segment A/\177, C on AD, B on AB, i.e. ABG'DE would not be a broken line, but the straightsegmentAE. Thus adding the inequalities termwise
Moreover,
AC=AB+BC
.,.\177
AE
= \177 AD+DE
/ /\177
\\c AD=AC+CD
E
B
A
Figure 57
and subtracting
AD and AC
from
both
sides
+
we get
DE.
AE < AB +
BC + CD
40
Chapter
1. THE
triangle,
STRAIGHT LINE
then:
respectively to
50.
Theorem. two
If
two
sides
sides
of
of one
another
triangle are congruent
(1) the greater angle containedby these sides is opposed to the greater side; (2) vice versa, the greater of the non-congruent sides is
opposed to the'
greater
angle.
D B
B'
C
Fiqure
A'
C'
58
(1) In
AABC
and
AA\177B'C',
we
are
given:
ZA
AB = We are required AABC in a way
A'B',
AC = A'C',
such
>
ZA'.
Put
to prove that BC (shownin Figure58)

Since/A'
> B'C(
that
AA'B'C'
onto
the
side A'C'
would'
inside vertex
coincide with
AC.
the angle .4. Let ZkA'B'C' B\" may fall outside or
forthcoming argument applies to allthesecases). Draw AD of the angle BAB\" and connect D with B'( Then
insideof AABC, or on
which
</A, then the side A'B' will lie occupy the position AB\"C (the
the
side
BC,
the
but
the
bisector
we obtain
triangles ABD and DAB\"
are
congruent
because
commonside
by
two they have a
AD,
AB
AB\"
derive:
construction.
we
Congruence
now
From/kDCB\"
B\"D
by hypothesis, and ZBAD = ZBAD\" of the triangles implies BD = B\"C < B\"D + DC (\36548). Replacing
with
BD
we get
hence
B\"C < BD + DC, and
B'C'
< BC.
(2) Suppose in the sametrianglesABCand WB'C' we are given that AB = A'B', AC = A'C' and BC > B'C'; let us prove that
/A --Then
first
>/A
Assume
\177.
the
two cases
case
the
i.e. that the ZA is not greaterthan /A t. can occur: either ZA =/A' or /A < /At. In the triangles would have been congruent (by the SAS-test)
contrary,
8.
Right
triangIes
have
41
been
and thereforethe side BCwould

contradicts
have
congruent
to
B\177C \177, which
been
the
the hypotheses. smaller than B\177C

hypotheses
tradicts
the
too.
only
case
that
remains
second case the sideBC would \177 by part (1) of the theorem, which conThus both of these cases are excluded; possible is ZA > ZA \177.
In the
EXERCISE$
exterior angle of an isosceles triangle be smaller supplementary interior angle? Considerthe cases when the
86.
Can an
than
angle
the
is:
87. Can
88.
a triangle have sides: (a)

cm
1,
2, and
3 cm
(centimeters) long?
10
(b) 2, 3, and.4
Can
long?
a quadrilateral
have sides: 2, 3,4, and
cm
long?
Prove
theorems:
side median
A
89.
A A
of a
triangle
of
90.
Hint:
91.*
first
median
is smaller than its semiperimeter. a triangle is smaller than its semiperimeter. drawn to a side of a triangle is smaller than
two
the
the
semisum side.
of the
Double
other
sides.
the median
by prolongingit past the midpoint
of
92. The sum of the medians ofa triangle is smaller than its perimeter but greater than its semi-perimeter. 90 \370. The sum of the diagonals of a quadrilateralis smaller than its perimeter but greater than its semi-perimeter. 94{. The sum of segments connecting a point inside a triangle with its vertices is smaller than the semiperimeter of the triangle. 95.* Given an acute angle XOY and an interiorpoint A. Find a point B on the side OX and a pointC ontheside OY such that the perimeter of the triangle ABe is minimal. Hint: Introduce points symmetric to 24 with respect to the sides of
the angle.
Right triangles
Theorem.
lineis
to this
51. Comparative length of the perpendicular and a slant. The perpendicular dropped from any point to
smaller
than
any
slant
drawn
from
the
same
point
'line.
42
Let
AB
LINE
59) be the perpendiculardropped from a point MN, and AC be any slant drawn from the same point A to the line MN. It is required to show that AB < AC. In AABC, the angle B is right, and the angle C is acute (\36543). Therefore XC < ZB, and hence AB \177 AC, as required. Remark. By \"the distance from a point to a line,\" one means the
(Figure
A to
the line
shortesidistance
from
which
is
measured
along
the perpendicular
dropped
this
point
to the
A
line.
A
Figure 59
Figure 60
52.
drawn (1)
Theorem. to
if
from
gruent;
(2) away whose
the
perpendicular and some slants are the same point autside this line,then: the feet of the slants are the same distance away foot of the perpendicular, then such slants areconIf
the
a line
from
if
the
from
foot
greater.
feet of the foot

is
lar is
(1)
A
farther
two slants are not the same of the perpendicular, then the slant away from the foot of the perpendicufrpm
are
distance
Let
to
AC
the
point
same
CB = BD. It is In the trianglesABC ABD, AB is a common side, and besidethis BC = BD hypothesis) and LABC = LABD (as right angles).Therefore these are congruent, and thus AC = AD. (2) Let and AE (Figure 59) be two slants drawn from the point to the line MN and such that their feet are-not same
and (by triangles AC A the
distance
AD (Figure 60) be two slants drawn and such that their feet C and D away from the foot B of the perpendicular required to prove that AC = AD.
and
line
a
the
MN
AB, i.e.
--distance
away
from
BE
> BC.
It is requiredto prove
the foot of
the perpendicular;for
that
instance,
let
AE
$.
\177igh\177
triangles
\1773
Mark
BD
= BC
and'draw
AD.' By part
(1),
AD
AC.
Com-
pare AE with AD. The angle ADE is exterior with respect to \177ABD and therefore it is greater than the right angie. Therefore the angle ADE is obtuse, and hence the angle AED must be acute (\36543). It follows that ZADE > ZAED, therefore AE > AD, and thus AE > AG.
53. The converse theorems. If some slantsand the perpendicular are drawn to a line from the same point outside
thisline, same
ular.
We
then:
(1)
if
two
slants
away slar\177ts
farther
are
from are
congruent,
the not
distance two
greater oneis
leave
(2) if
away
then their feet are the perpendicular; congruent, then the foot of the from the foot of the perpendicfoot
of the
of reductio
it to the readers to ad absurdurn).
prove thesetheorems (by
the
method
54. Congruence tests for r\177ght triangles. Since in right triangles the angles contained by the legs are always congruent as right angles, then right trianglesare congruent: (1) if the legs of one of them are congruent respectively to the legs
of the
other;
adjacent
respectively
(2) if a leg and the acute angle
congruent
the
to
a leg
and the
to it in one triangle are acute angle adjacentto it in
other
triangle.
These
cases of
two tests require no specialproof, since the general $AS- and ASA-t\177StS. Let us
triangles
they
are
particular
prove
the following
two tests which apply to right 55. Two tests requiring

Theorems.
only. are
special proofs.
congruent:
triangle
Two
right
triangles
(1) if the
are
hypotenuse and an acuteangleof one

to
other.
angleof the
(2)
gruent
congruent
respectively
the hypotenuse
and an acute
if
the
hypotenuse
to
and
the
a leg of
61)
It
respectively
hypotenuse
(Figure
ZA\177.
and a
be two
one triangle are conleg of the other.

right triangles
to prove
that AiB1 trianglesare

AB \177\337 Put
(1)
Let
ABC
and
and
A\177B\177Cx
such
ZA
is required
that these
congruent.
AABC
onto
ZkA\177BxCi
in
a way
hypotenuses coincide. By congruence of leg AC 'will go along A1C1. Then, if we
the
such that angles

assume
their congruent
A and
the
A\177,
the
that
point
44
Chapter 1. THESTRA_rGHT
6'1,
L_rNE
occupies a position 6'2 or 6'3 different from perpendiculars (B16'1and ]31C2, or ]316'1 and
we
will have
dropped
(\36524),
two
from
we
B1C3)
the same
conclude
point
that
B
B\177
to
the
line
A\1776 '\177.Since
this
is impossible
the point
6' will merge with 6'1.

BI B
B!
C
Figure
A,
C\177 C,
C3
C
Figure
A\177 A\177 A\177
C\177
61
62
and BC =
ent.
(2) Let
Put
(Figure 62),in
B\177Ci.
the
right
It
is required
AA1,B\177C\177
to prove
AABC
and
onto
legs BC coincide. By 6'A go along Then, if occupiesa position or two congruent slants and feet are not the same distance
B\177C\177 will C\177A\177. A\177B\177 (A\177B\177
it be given: AB = that the trianglesarecongruin a way such that their congruent congruence of right angles, the side we assume that the hypotenuse AB
triangles,
different or
A\177B\177
from
A\177B\177
A\177Bi, we will
and
have
A\177B\177,
AsB\177) whose
away
from
(\36553)
the
we
foot
conclude
of the
perpendicAB will
ular
B\177C\177.
Since
this
A\177Bi.
is impossible
that
be identified
EXERCISES
with
Prove
theorems:
96. Each
leg of a right
triangle
triangle
is smaller
than
the hypotenuse.
97.
98.
right
can
have at
At
most
two congruent
isosceles
cannot
most one axis of symmetry. slants to a given line can be drawn from
common vertex other.
axis of
a given point.
lateralsides
101.
-\"lying A A
99.'
Two
triangles fit one
with a inside the

is its
and congruent
100. The bisectorof an

triangle median
angle
symmetry.
from
is isosceles in
if two
of its
altitudes are congruent.

the
102.
105.'
a triangle
is equidistant
have
two
vertices
not
on
it.
A line
and a circle can
at
most
two common
points.
9. Segmentand angle blsectors

9
\1775
Segment
perpendicular the
and
angle
bisectors
the the perpendicular to a segsegment, and the bisector of an To see the resemblance better we
i.e.
56. The bisector, ment erectedat midpoint of angle very similar properties.
have
will
describe
the
properties
in a
Fig-
parallel fashion.
(1) If. a point

ure
(K,
(1) if a point K
(
, Figure
(OM)
63)
lies
on
midpoint ofa segment

then
dicular (MN) erected at

the
the
perpen(AB),
64) lies
of
the
on the bisector
(AOB),
the are
an
angle
from
point is the
away
same distance
sides
then
the
point
away
is the
from
same
end-
of the
distance
points
\177
the
of the segment
\177).
J_
(i.e.
=
KD
the
angle (i.e. the perpendiculars

and
KC
congruent).
OCK
Since OM
AB
bisects the angle,

and
they
Since MN
and
AO
right
triangles
OB, AK
AB,
and
distance
and KB are slants to their feet 'are the same

from
ODK
have
are congruent, as
the
common
O.
hypotenuse
KC
away
the
foot
of
the perpendicular.
KA = KB.
Therefore
the
and congruent
vertex
acute angles at
Therefore
KD.
M
c
A
A N
Figure
63
Figure
64
If a point (K,Figure
same
(2) The
converse
theorem.
63)
is
the
if an interior point of
angle
(2) The converse theorem.

(K,
an
distance
AB
ment
then
through
the endpoints of the

(i.e.
away
from
seg-
same distance away from its

if
Figure
64)
is
the
if KA
= KB),
passing
perpendicular to
its
the point lies

AB
on the
lars
of
sides (i.e. perpendicuITC and KD are congruent) then it lies on

the
the
bisector
midpoint.
this
angle.
46
Through

K,
draw
the
line
the
Through
line
O and K,
Then are
draw
MN _1_ AB. We get two right triangles KAO and KBO which
are
OM. which
we get
and
two right triangles OCK

ODK
congruent
as having Therefore
to
congru-
congruent
legs CK
have
as and
to
ent hypotenuses and the

mon
comit.
having the commonhypotenuse

and
leg
KO.
MN drawn through
perpendicular
K to be
the line
the
congruent
DK. Hencethey
ent
congru-
AB
bisects
therefore AOB.
angles
at the
line
vertex O, and
OM
the
drawn
pass through
K bisectsthe angie
verse)one
the
point
57'.Corollary.
can
From
the
two
proven
theorems
(direct and
conan-
also
derive
the
following
on
theorems:
If a point
perpendicular
is unequal
does
not
lie
If
distances
an
interior
point
of an
erected at the
the
midpoint of a segmentthen
gle does not lieon the ray bisecting it, then the point is unequal
away
distances'away
from
the sides
of
from the endpoints of this seg-
ment.
We
this angle.
leave
it
to
method
reductio
the readers ad absurdurn).
to prove these theorems(using
the
58. Geometric locus. The geometriclocusof points satisa certain condition is the curve (or the surface in the space) or, more generally, the set of points, which contains all the points satisfying this condition and contains no points which do not satisfy
fying
it.
For
instance,
As
the geometric
follows
from
a given
point C is the
it
circle of
locus of points at a
radius
given
distance
with
the
center
at the
point C.
of \36556, \36557: The geometric locus of points equidistant from two given points is the perpendicular to the segment connecting thesepoints,passing through the midpoint of the segment. The geometric locusof interior pointsofan angle equidistant from its sides is the bisector of this angle.
from
the theorems
of a theoremarethe negations of another theorem,then the
59. The inverse theorem. the

If
hypothesis
of
the
former
hypothesis theorem is
and the conclusion and the conclusion
latter one.
For
instance,
the
theorem
inverse
called inverse to: \"if the digit
to the
sum
9.
is
Segment and
divisible
ankle bisectors
by is
47
sum
is not
by 9, then the number is divisible divisible by 9, then the number
9\" is:
\"if
the
digit
not
divisible
by 9.\"
It is worth mentioning that the validity of a direct theorem does not guarantee the validity of the inverse one: for example, the inverse proposition \"if not every summand is divisible by a certain number then the sum is not divisible by this number\" is false while the direct proposition is true. The theorem described in \36557 (both for the segment and for the
angie)is
60.
inverse
to
the
(direct) between
Relationships
inverse\177
theorem the
of the relationship let usdenotethe hypothesis of the direct theorem by the letter A, and the conclusion by the letter' B, and express the
theorems
verse,
and
contrapositive.
described in \36556. theorems: direct, conFor better understanding
concisely
as:
(1) Direct
theorem:
if
is
true,
then
(2) Converse theorem: if/\177 is true, (3) Inverse theorem: if A is false, (4) Contrapositive theorem: if B is false, then A is false. Considering these propositions it is not hard to noticethat the first one is in the same relationship to the fourth as the second one to the third. Namely, the propositions (1) and (4) can be transformed into each other, and so can the propositions (2)and (3). Indeed, from the proposition: \"if A is true, then B is true\" it follows immediately that \"if B is false, then A is false\" (since if A were true, then by the first proposition B would have been true too); and vice versa,
from
A
true; then A is true; then B is false;

B is
is true,
the proposition: then B is
\"if
is false,
B
then
were
we
true\" (since if
been false as well). Quite similarly, proposition follows from the third
is false\" we derive: \"if false, then A would have can check that the second
A
one, and
vice versa.
four
Thus
there
prove
in
order
to
make
sure that
each
all'the
theorems
are
valid,
is no
only
need to prove
two
of them
separately,
but it
sufficesto
inverse.
of them:
direct and
converse, or directand
EXERCISES
10J.
Prove
dicular of the
segment; namely it is closer to that endpoint which lies on the same side of the bisector. 105.Prove as a direct theorem that any interior point of an angle which does not lie on the bisector is not equidistant. from the sides
as a direct theoremthat a pointnot lying bisector of a segmentis not equidistant from
on
the
the
perpenendpoints
48
of the
.Cl\177pter
1.
THB
STRAIGHT
LINE
angle.
two
106. Provethat
perpendiculars
to
the
sides of
at 107.
equal
distances
from
the
vertex
meet on
an angle erected the bisector.
Prove that if A and A', and B and B\177 are two pairs of points symmetric about somelineX\276, then the four points A, A \177, B \177, B lie on the same circle. 108. Find the geometric locus of vertices of isosceles triangles with
a given
base.
109. Find the with the given
geometric locusof the vertices A base BC and such that/B >/C.
of
triangles
ABC given
110. Find
intersecting
the geometriclocusofpointsequidistant infinite straight lines.

geometric
from
two
111.*Find the
112.
locus
of points
equidistant
converse,
from three given

and contraeach of them but B is false,
infinite straight lines,intersecting pairwise.

For
theorems
from
\36560:
direct,
inverse,
positive, compare in which of the following four cases is true: when (a) A is true and B is true, (b) A is true (c) A is false but B is true? and (d) A is false and B is false. 113. By definition, the negation of a proposition is true whenever the proposition is false, and false whenever the proposition is true. Statethe negation of the proposition: \"the digit sum of every multiple of 3 is divisible by 9.\" Is this proposition true? Is its negation
true?
11J.
Formulate
affirmatively
the
(a) in every quadrilateral, both diagonals ery quadrilateral, there is a diagonal that is a quadrilateral whose both diagonals lie
quadrilateral
propositions
that
has
a diagonal
propositions: it; (b) in evlies inside it; (c) there inside it; (d) there is a lying outside it. Which of these
negations
of the lie inside.
are true?
10
us to
Basic
construction
problems
Theorems
solve some construction problems. Note geometry one considers those constructions which 6 using only straightedge and compass.
61.Preliminary remarks. 62.

we
we
proved
that can
earlier
in be
allow
elementary performed
Problem b
1. and
To.
construct
three sides a,
6As
a triangle
triangle,
with the given

be allowed for
c (Figure
65).
which can
principle.
will
saving
time
see, the use of the drafting in the actual construction, is
unnecessary in
10.
Basic
construction
line
problems
mark
49 CB congruent to oneofthe
On any
given
MN,
the segment
two arcs centered at the pointsC and to b and to c. Connect the point A, where these arcs intersect, with B and with C. The r\177quired triangle is ABC.
sides,
say,
a.
Describe
of radii
congruent
Figure
65
Remark. For three segmentsto serve necessary that the greatest one is smaller
two
as
sides
than
of a triangle, the sum of the
it is
other
(\36548).
63.
given
Problem
angle
2.
ABC
To construct
and
an angle congruentto the

one of the
line
(Figure
MN,
and
66).
the
such that vertex is at
a point 0 given on the line

Q ,
sides is a given
A
Fiqure
M 66
Between the sides of the given angle, describe an arc EF of any radius centered at the vertex B, then keeping the same setting of the compass place its pin leg at the point O and describe an arc P(\177. Furthermore, describe an arc ab centered at the point P with the radius equal to the distance betweenthe points E and F. Finally draw a line through O and the point/\177 (the intersection of the two arcs). The angleROP iscongruent to the angle ABC because the triangles ROP and FBE are congruent as having congruent respective sides.
other words, to construct the draw its axis of symmetry.
64. Problem 3.
To bisecta bisectorof a
given
angle
(Figure
given
67),
angle
or in
or
to
50
Chapter
1.
THE
STRAIGHT
LINE
Between the sides of the angle, draw an arc DE of arbitrary radius centered at the vertexB. Then, setting the compass to an arbitrary radius, greater however than half the distance between D and E (seeRemark to Problem 1), describe two arcs centered at D and E so that they intersect at some point F. Drawing the line BF we obtain the bisector of the angle ABC. For th e proof, connect the point F with D and E by segments. We obtain two triangles BEF and BDF which are congruent since BF is theircommon side, and BD = BE and DE - EF by construction. The congruence of the triangles implies: ZABF =/CBF.
c
E
E A
: :
Figure
67
Figure
68
65. Problem
erect
4. From a
given'pointC on the line
AB,
to
this line (Figure 68). On both sides of the point C on the line AB, mark congruent segments CD and CE (of any length). Describetwo arcs centered at D and E of the sameradius (greater than CD) so that the arcs intersect at a point F. The line passing through the points C and F
a perpendicular\"to
will be the required perpendicular.

Indeed, have
as
the
same
it is evident from the construction,the distance from the points D and E; therefore
point F
it
will
will
lie
perpendicular to the segment AB passing through its midpoint (\36556). Since the midpoint is C, and there is only one line passing through C and F, then FC \361 DE. 66. Problem 5. From a given point A, to drop a perpendicular to a given line BC(Figure 69). Draw an arc of arbitrary radius (greater however than the distance from A to BC) with the center at A so that it intersects BC at somepointsD and E. With these points as centers, draw two arcs of the same arbitrary radius (greater however than \253DE) so '-that they intersect at some point F. The line AF is the required perpendicular.
on the
10. Basicconstruction problems
51
construction,
Indeed, asit is
\1774 and
e\276ident
from
the
each of
all
is equidistant
from D and
E,
the points
lie on midpoint
and
such
points its
the perpendicular to the segmentAB

(\36558).
passing
through
Figure 69
Figure 70
6. To draw the perpendicular to a given segits midpoint (Figure 70); in other words, to construct the axis of symmetry of the segmentAB. Draw two arcs of the same arbitrary radius (greaterthan \253AB), centered at A and B, so that they intersecteach other at some points C and D. The line CD is the required perpendicular.
67. Problem
AB
ment
through
Indeed, as it is evident C and D is equidistantfrom

symmetry
from
the
construction,
each
of,the
points
and
B, and
therefore must
lie on the
axis
of the
segment
AB.
Problem ?. To bisect a given s'traight segment (Figure 70). the same way as the previous problem. 68. Example of a more complex problem. Thebasicconstructions allow one to solve more complicated construction problems.As an illustration, consider the following problem. Problem. To construct a triangle with a given base b, an angle er at the ba.se, and the 'sum s of the other two sides (Figure 71). To work out a solution plan, suppose that the problem has been solved, i.e. that a triangle ABC has been found such that the baseAC = b, ZA = c\177 and AB + BC = s. Examine the obtained diagram. We know how to construct the side AC congruentto b and the angle A congruent to c\177. Therefore it remains on the other side of the angle to find a point B such that the sum AB + BC is congruent to s.
It
is solved
52
Continuing
Chapter
AB
1. THE
STRAIGHT LINE
past
the
problem
reduces
same distance away a point must lie on the perpendicular to passing through its midpoint. The point will be found at the intersection of this perpendicular with
B, mark the segment AD congruentto to finding on AD a point B which would from C and D. As we know (\36558), such
s.
be
Now
the
CD
AD.
Figure
71
the
and
of CD,
with
construct the perpendicular BE. Connect i.e. the point B, with C. The triangle of the problem sinceAC - b, ZA = a and AB BD = BC).
AD,
we if
Thus, here is the solutionof the problem: construct (Figure 71) angle A congruent to c\177. On its sides, mark the segments AC = b AD = s, and connect the point D with C. Through the midpoint
its
intersection
ABC
q-BC
is a
= s
solution
(because
Examiningthe construction notice that it is not always possible. Indeed, the sum s is too small compared to then the perpendicular EB may miss the segment (or intersect the continuation of AD past or past D). In this case the construction
b, AD A turns
out
impossible.
can
Moreover,
see
procedure,one
than
that
the
independently problem has

in
s = b, because there is no triangle which smaller or congruent to the third side. In the case a solution exists, it turns out to be
when
of the construction no solution if s < b or the sum of two sides is

unique,
i.e.
there
exists
only
infinitely
one triangle,
many
to
satisfying
the
requirements
of the
problem,
that
7Thereare
but they are all congruent solution of the problem
triangles satisfying the each other, and so it
requirements ofthe
is customary
to say
the
is unique.
10.
Basic
construction
problems
intersect
53
AD
problem, since the perpendicular BE can at most.
at one
point of a four draft
complex constructionproblem should

stages.
69. Remark. The
previous
example
shows
consist
that
of
the
solution following
we
the diagram of the required figure and, carefully to find those relationships betweenthe given and would allow one to reducethe problem to other, problems. This most important stage,whose aim
(1) Assuming that the problem has
been
solved,
can
it, try required data that previously solved is to work out a

examining following
plan of the solution,is called analysis. (2) Once a plan has been found, can be executed.
the
construction
it
(3) Next,to
theorems
that
problem.
the
of
any
the
the plan, one shows on the basis of known constructed figure does satisfy the requirements This stage is called synthesis.
validate
(4) Then we
given
ask
ourselves:
if the
the
data,
if a
solution is unique or
problem
there
has a solution for

are
several
ones,
are there
the contrary, requiresadditional examination. This solution called research. When a problemis very simple, and there is no doubt about possibility of the solution, then one usually omits the analysis and research stages, and provides only the constructionand the proof. This was what we did describingour solutionsof the first seven problems of this section; this is what we are going to do later on whenever the
any special cases when
construction
simplifies
or, on stage is
problems at hand will

EXERCISES
not
be
too
complex.
Construct:
115. The sum of two, three, 116. The differenceof two

117. 115. 1
or
angles.
more
given angles.
Two Divide
A
angles
whose sum
and differenceare given.

its
an angle
in
! 9.
line
and
such
that
into 4, 8, 16congruent parts. the exterior of a given angle passingthrough it would form congruent angleswith the
(a)
vertex
sides
of this
angle.
120.
(b)
triangle:
given
given
one
side and
two sides and the anglebetweenthem\177 both angles adjacentto it\177 (c) given two sides
54 and the
and
Ch\177p\177er
1.
THE
STRAIGHT
LINE
angle opposit\177
angle opposite
isosceles
to
the
can be two
solutions, or one,or none).

triangle:
the greater one of them; (d) given two fides to the smalleroneof them (in this case there
121.
(b)
An
(a)
given
its base
and another side;

its
given
its
base
and
a base
(a) given
angle; (c) given

both of
one
base
angle
and
of the
the opposite
side.
triangle:
122.
123.
right
its legs;(b)
of the
given
one
legs and
acute
one of
side.
the hypotenuse;(c)
given
legs and
the adjacent
angle.
isosceles triangle: (a) given the altitudeto the base and the congruent sides; (b) given the altitude to the base and the angle at the vertex; (c) given the base and the altitude to another
An
triangle, given an acute angleand the hypotenuse. 125. Through an interior point of an angle, constructa line that cuts off congruent segments on the sidesof the angle. 126.Through an exterior point of an angle, construct a line which would cut off congruent s\177gments on the sides of the angle.
12J.
A right
127. Find two
segments a
whose
sum
and difference
are given.
given
128.
(outside
Divide On
given
segment
into 4,
8, 16 congruentparts.
points
129.
a given
line,
find a
equidistant
point equidistant from two

from
th\177
the line).
three
130. Find a point triangle.
vertices
of a
given
the sides of a given angle, find a sides of the angle. 132.Find a point equidistant from the three sides of a given triangle. 133. On an infinite line AB, find a point C such that the rays CM and CN connecting C with two given points M and N situatedon the same side of AB would form congruent angles with the rays CA
line
131. On a given
intersecting
point
equidis. tant
from the
and
CB
respectively.
15J. Construct
the otherleg
135.
cases:
a right triangle, given

the
one
of its
legs and
the sum of
with
hypotenuse.
given
Construct
and
a triangle,
the
its
base,
one
of the
adjacent
to the base,
(1)
difference
of the
other two
angles
angles adjacent sides (considertwo

to the
when
the smaller
of the
two
base is
given; (2) when the greater one 136. Construct a right triangle,
ence
is given).
given.
one
of its
legs and the differ-
of the
other
two sides.
11. Psrsllel lines

137.
55
an angle A. and two points B and C situated one on one the angle and oneonthe other,find: (1) a point M equidistant from the sidesof the angleand such that MB = MC; (2) a point N equidistantfromthe sidesof the angle and such that NB = BC; (3) a point P such that each of the points B and C would be the same distance away from A and P. 138. Two towns are situated near'a straight railroad line.Findthe position for a railroad station so that it is equidistantfrom the towns. 139. Given a point A on one of the sides of an angle B. On the other sideof the angle, find a point C such that the sum CA + CB is congruent to a given segment.
Given
side of
11
70.
Parallel lines
Definitions.
the same
they are
ext.endedin both directions.

parallel
Two lines are called parallel if plane and do not intersect oneanother no matter
they
lie
in
how
far
two
lined are denoted by the symbol 1[. Thus, if are parallel, one writes ABtlCD. Existence of parallel lines is established by the following theorem. T!. Theorem. Two perpendiculars (AB and CD, Figure72) to the same line (MN) cannot intersect no matter how far they are extended.
writing,
In
lines
AB
and
CD
Figure
72
Indeed, 'then
if such perpendiculars could intersect at some two perpendiculars to the lineMN would be dropped
Thus
point
P,
from
this
point, which is impossible(\36524). same line are parallel to each other.
two
perpendiculars
to the
56
Chapter
1.
THE STRAIGHT
of two
LINE
lines
72. Names of angles

by a transversal.
formed
by
intersection
sected
them
by
third
line
by numerals)
corresponding
MN. Then 8 angles are formed (we labeled which carry pairwise the following names: angles: I and 5, 4 and 8, 2 and 6, 3 and 7;
and
Let
two
lines
AB
and
CD
(Figure 73)
be inter-
alternate (exterior);
angles: 3 and 5, 4 and 6 (interior);I
7,
2 and
8 7
same-side
(exterior).
angles: 4 and 5, 3 and 6 (interior);i

A
and
8,
2 and
Figure
73
73. Figure
out that:
Tests for parallel 74) are intersected
lines. When two lines (AB by a third line (MN), and
and
CD,
it
turns
(1) some correspondinganglesare congruent, or (2) some alternate angles are congruent, or
(3) the sum of

exterior
then
some same-side
parallel.
the
that
interior
or
same-side
these
angles is 2d\177 two lines are

for
Suppose, congruent.
We
example, are
corresponding
angles 2
and 6 are
Let
required
to show
that in this
case ABII
CD.
us
the contraxy, i.e. that the linesAB and CD axe not parallel. Then these linesintersect at some point P lying on the right of MN or at some point P' lying on the left of MN. If the intersection is at P, then a triangle is formed for which the angle 2 is exterior,and the angle6 interior not supplementary to it. Therefore the angle 2 has to
assume
be
greater
than
the
angle
(\36542)i
which
contradicts
the
hypothesis.
Thus the
lines AB and CD cannot intersect at any point P on the right of MN. If we assumethat the intersection isat thepoint then a triangle is formed for which the angle 4, congruent to the
1I.
Par\177lel lines
the angle 6 is exterior 6 has to be greater angle 2, which contradicts the
and
57 not supplementary to than the angle4, and hence hypothesis.Therefore intersect at a point on the left
lying
angle 2, is interior
it.
the
Then
the than
angle the
greater
lines
AB
and
CD
cannot
of MN
either. Thus the linescannot are parallel. Similarly, one can prove
intersect that
anywhere, AB]ICD
i.e.
they
L3 =
if Z1
= Z5,
or
L7,
etc.
/7
N
C Figure
Figure
74
75
Suppose now that
\1774+Z5
2d.
the lines AB and CD cannot angles4 and 6 (of which one would interior not supplementary to it) 74. Problem. Through a given point IVY (Figure 75), to construct a line parallel to a given line AB. A simple solution to this problemconsists ofthe following. Draw an arc CD of arbitrary radius centeredat the pointM. Next, draw the arc ME of the same radius centered at the point C. Then draw a small arc of the radius congruent to ME centered at the point C sothat it intersects the arc CD at some point F. The line MF will
then
be
since
the
sum
of angie
6 with the
Then we conclude that Z4 = Z6 angle 5 is also 2d. Butif Z4 = Z6, intersect, since if they did the have been exterior and the other could not be congruent.
parallel
to AB.
M
Figure
76
58
Chapter
1. THE
STRAIGHT LINE
To
2
thus
EMC
angles
draw the auxiliary line MC. The angles 1 and are congruent by construction (becausethe triangles and MCF are congruent by the SSS-test), and when alternate are congruent, the lines are parallel.
prove
this,
formed
For usea
practical
construction triangle
drafting
and
of parallel a straightedge
lines it is
also convenient to
as shown in
Figure 76.
Figure
77
Figure
78
cannot
75. The draw

the
parallel
two
point
postulate.
lines CEIIAB,
Through a given
parallel then
point\177
one
diffe\177,ent
to
the
same
line.
meet
Thus, if (Figure 77)

through
C can
be parallelto AB, i.e. CE \177 will

this
no
other
line CE \177passing
AB
when
extended.
proposition,
as a consequence of earlieraccepted axioms. therefore to accept it as a new assumption
It turns out impossible to prove
to derive it It becomes necessary (postulate, or axiom).

i.e.
M
/F
Figure 79
Figure 80
76. Corollary. (1) /f intersects one of these two
(Figure
parallel
77),
and
a third
line CE'
lines,
then
it intersects
different
the other
CE
as
CE'
well,
because
otherwise
there
would be
two
lines
and
passing through
the samepoint C and
parallel
to
AB,
which
is
impossible.
11.
third
P\177rgllel
l\177nes
59
lines
(2) If each of line c, then
two
they are
assume
Indeed,
if
we
a and b (Figure 78) is parallelto the parallel to each other. that the lines a and b intersect at some lines
same
point
parallelto c,
M, there
would be two
which
different
passing
through
this point
by
and
a
is
impossible.
77. Angles transversal.
formed
by intersection
of parallel lines
If
Theorem
(converse to
Theorem of \36573).
are
two by
parallel
lines
(AB and CD,
then:
(2)
Figure
angles
79)
intersected
any
line
(MN),
(1) correspondinganglesare congruent;

alternate
are
congruent;
2d;
(3) the sum

(4)
Let angles
of same-sideinteriorangles is
of same-side
for example
the
us a
sum
prove b are
exterior angles is 2d. that if AB ]CD,then the corresponding

are
and
congruent.
not
Assume the us
s\177y
Constructing ZMEB \177 = L2 we then obtain a line A\177B \177 distinct from AB and have therefore two lines passingthrough the point E and parallel to the sameline CD. Namely, AB CD by the hypothesis of the theorem,and A\177B \177CD due to the congruence of the corresponding angles MEB \177 and 2. Since this contradicts the
Z1
contrary, i.e. that theseangles
congruent
(let
> Z2).
parallel postulate,then our assumptionthat the angles i and 2 are not congruent must be rejected; we are left to accept that Z1 = Z2. Other conclusions of the theorem .Can be proved-the same w\177y.
A perpendicular to one of two parallel lines is perto the other one as well. Indeed, if AB CD (Figure 80) and ME \361 AB, then firstly ME, which intersects AB, will also intersect CD at some point F, and secondly the corresponding angles 1 and 2 will be congruent. But the anglei isright, and thus the angle 2 is also right, i.e. ME \361 CD. 78. Tests for non-parallel lines. From the two theorems: direct (\36573) and its converse (\36575), it follows that the inverse theorems also hold true, i.e.: If two lines are intersected by a third one in a way such that (1) corresponding angles are not congruent, or (2) alternate interior angles are not congruent, etc., then the two lines are not parallel; If two lines are not paralleland are intersected by a third one, then (1) corresponding anglesarenot congruent, (2) alternate interior angles are not congruent, etc. Among all these tests for non-parallel
Corollary.
pendicular
60
lines
(which
LINE
are easily
two
proved by reductio ad absurdurn),

same-side then
since
the
following
one
deserves
special attention:
interior the
if
2d,
If the sum of ure 81)differsfrom they would

would
enough will intersect,

be
two
lines
lines
these
(1 and 2, Figwhen extended far did not intersect, then

angles
parallel,
be
2d,
which
and then the contradicts the
sum of same-side interiorangles hypothesis.
Figure
81
This
intersect
proposition (supplemented by the statementthat the lines on that side of the transversal on which the sum of the samethan
side interior anglesis smaller
2d)
was
accepted
without
proof
by the famous
Greek
geometer
geometry,
Euclid
and given
was
B.C.) in his Elementsof tulate. Later the preference parallel postulate statedin
A
(who lived in the 3rd century is known as Euclid's posto a simpler formulation: the
\36575.
E Figure 82
F Figure
G 83
used later on:
Let us
point out two

perpendicular
more
tests
for non-parallelism
which will
be
-'-thesame line(EF) intersect same-side interioranglesi 2 differs

each and
(1)
(AB,
Figure
82) and
other,
a slant (CD)
because
to
of
the sum
from
2d.
i1.
Paralld 1ines
(2)
61
.(AB
Two
lines
and CD,
the
Figure 83) perpendicular
intersecting
lines
we
(FE
assume
and FG)
to
intersect as well. and thus

AB
to
two
line FD,
be
Indeed, if
being
contrary, one
perpendicular
i.e. that AB]]CD, then the of the parallel lines (CD), will
two
perpendicular
to
the
from
the
same
point F
to the sameline
other (AB),
perpendiculars
will
be dropped,
which
is impossibIe.
79. Angleswith respectively parallel sides. If the sides of one angle are respectively parallel to the of another angle, then such angles are either
Theorem. sides
congruent or add
up
to
2d.
Figure 84
sides of the angle2 and, besidethis,\177he directions of the respective sides, when counted away from the vertices (as indicated by arrows
Consider separately the following (1) Let the sides of the angle
three 1
cases
(Figure
84).
be
respectively
parallel
to the
on the
parallel
diagram),
happen the
to sides
be the of
2
Extending one of
to
same. the angle 2 until it

obtair\177
meets the non-
it side
of the
angle 1, we
(as
lines). angle respective
the
to each of the angles1 and
corresponding
Therefore
transversalintersecting (2) Let the sidesof sidesofthe angle2,but

away
from
parallel the
3 congruent angles formed by a L1 = L2.

angle
1 be
the
sides
respectively parallel to the have opposite directions

obtain
the
vertices.
Extending
both
Therefore
sides of the
1
angle4,
proved
\1771.
we
the
angle
2, which
vertical to it).
(3)
is congruent to the angle

Finally,
(as =
earlier)
and to
the angle4 (as

parallel
\1774
the
sides of
let the sides of the angie 1be respectively the angles 5 and 6, and one pair of respective
to
sides have
62
the
same
Extending
LINE
directions,
one
side
while the other pair, the opposite ones. of the angle 5'or the angle6, we obtain the
the
anBut
gle 2, congruent Z5(or Z6) + Z2 =

Thus
(as proved earlier) to

(by
angle
1.
2d the Therefore Z5(or Z6) + Z1angles
property
too.
of supplementary
angles).
2d
directions
the same or both opposite, and the angles add up to 2\177.

Remark.
sides turn out to becongruent when the of respective sides away from the vertices are either both
with parallel
when
neither
condition
is satisfied,
One
congruent
could
when
sides
say that
both
are
are acute
two angles with respectively parallel or both are obtuse.In some
cases however it is hard to determine a p\177ori if the angles are acute or obtuse, so comparing directions of their sides becomes necessary.
A
\234
Figure
85
80.
Angles
with
respectively
of
Theorem.If the sides one' angle pendicular to the sides of another either congruent or add up to 2d.
one, Let
perpendicular
are
then
sides.
perare
angles
respectively
such
by the number i (Figure 85)be one other be oneof the four angles 2, 3, 4, 5 formed by two intersecting lines, of which one is perpendicular to the sideAB and the other to the side BC. From the vertex of the angle 1, draw two auxiliary lines: BD _k BC and BE \361 BA. The angle 6 formed by these linesis congruent to the angle 1 for the following reason. The anglesDBC and EBA are congruent since both are right. Subtractingfrom eachof them the same angle EBC we obtain: Z1 =/_6. Now notice that the sides of the auxiliary angie6 are parallel to the intersecting lines which form --the angles 2, 3,4, 5 (because two perpendiculars to the same line are parallel, \36571). Therefore the latter angles are either congruent to the
the
angle
ABC
labeled
of
the
given
angles,
and the
i1.
P\177rallel
lines
63
the
angle 6 or 1 congruent
supplement it to 2d. Replacing the angle6 with to it, we obtain what was required to prove,
angle
EXERCISES
1\1770.
Divide
the
plane
by infinite of a
straight lines into five

angle
parts,
using
as few
1\1771.
lines as
In
possible.
given angie, construct an
congruent
the
interior
to it.
1\177;\177. Using an
a protractor, whose
angle
vertex
axes
straightedge, and does not fit the page

of symmetry
drafting triangle, measure

of the
diagram.
1J$. How many

How
does a
pair of parallel lineshave?

by
about
three
parallel
lines?
a transversal,
1\177. Two parallel lines are intersected of the eight angles thus formed is
and
72
\370 .
Find
the
measures
one of the
one
remaining sevenangles.
1\1775.
One
of the
interior
angles formed
What
by a transversalwith
angle
of
two
given parallel
The
with the
1\1776.
other of the two

angle than
lines is 4d/5.
parallel
does
its
bisector
parallel
make
lines
lines?
a transversal with
makes with
one of two
is
Find the angle. 1J7. Four out of eight angles formed by a transversalintersecting two given lines contain 60 \370each, and the rems;ining four contain 120 \370 each. Does this imply that the given lines are parallel? 1\177,$. At the endpoints of the base of a triangle, perpendiculars to the lateral sides are erected. Compute the angie at the. vertex of the triangle if these perpendiculars intersect at the angleof 120 \370. 1\177,9. Through a given point, construct a line making a given angle to a given line.
by 90 \370greater the other.
150. Prove that if the bisectorof oneof exterior angles of a parallel to the opposite side, the triangle is isosceles. 151. In a triangle, the intersection point of the bisectors of the angles adjacent to a base,a parallel to the base is drawn. Prove that the segmentof this line contained the lateral sides of the triangle is congruent to sum of the segments cut out on these sidesand adjacent to base. 152.' Bisect an angle whose vertex does not the page of the
the
triangle is
then
through
line
between
the
the
fit
diagram..
64
12
The
LINE
angle
The
sum
sum
of a polygon
of angles
81.
Let
Theorem.
ABC
(Figure
that
the
Extending
sum
of the
is 2d. 86) be any triangle; we are required to angles A, B and C is 2d, i.e.
of a triangle
180 \370.
prove
the side AC past C and drawing CE]]AB we find: (as corresponding anglesformed by a transversal intersecting parallel lines) and \177B = \177BCE (as alternate angles formed by a transversal intersecting parallel lines). Therefore /..A
= ZECD
ZA + ZB + ZC= ZECD + ZBCE
ZC
= 2d
= 180\370.
B
//\177 60
A
Figure 86
Figure 87
Corollaries.
ZA
(1) Any
exterior
angle
supplementary
of a
triangle is
to it
the sum of the interior anglesnot

+ Z\177).
(e.g.
congruentto ZBCD -
triangleare respectively to two remaining anglesare as well. (3) The sum of the two acute anglesof a triangle is congruent to one right angle,i.e. it is 90 !d i.e. 45 (4) Jn an isosceles right triangle, each acute is 2 , (5) In an equilateral triangle, each angleis , i.e. 60 . (6) If in a right triangle ABC (Figure 87) oneof acute angles (for instance, ZB) is 30 then the leg opposite to it is congruentto a of the hypotenuse. Indeed, noticing that the other acute
(2) If two
angles
angles of one of another, then the
congruent
congruent
right
\370.
angle
\370.
-\177d 3
\370
the
\370,
half
angle
in
such
a triangle
congruent
is 60\370,attach
to
ABD
angles
are
60
\370each.
hence
DC
= BC.
to the triangle ABC another triangle we obtain the triangle DBC, whose Such a triangle has to be equilateral(\36545), and But AC = \253DC, and therefore AC = \253BC. it.
Then
12. The a leg
angle sum of \177polyKon
65
YVe leave
oppositeto it is 30 .
82. ing n times.
it to the .reader to prove the converse proposition: If is congruentto a half of the hypotenuse, then the acute angle
\370
Theorem.
The
sum of
sides
is congruent
to two right
angles of a convexpolygon hav-
anglesrepeated n-
inside the polygon, an arbitrary pointO (Figure all the vertices. The convexpolygon is thus partitioned into as many triangles as it has sides, The sum of angles in each of them is 2d. Therefore the sum of angles of all the triangles is 2dn. Obviously, this quantity exceeds the sum of all angles of the polygon by the sum of all those angleswhich are situated around the point O. But the latter sum is 4d (\36527). Therefore the sum of angles
Taking,
it
nect
88),con-
with
i.e.n.
of the polygon is
2dn -
4d
2d(n
- 2) -i80
\370x
(n-
2).
Figure
88
Figure
89
Remarks. any vertex

The
(1) The
A
theorem can be alsoproved

of the
this
way.
From
(Figure
89)
polygon
is thus
partitioned
convex polygon, draw its diagonals. into triangles, the numberof which
Indeed,
is
two
less
than
the number of
sides of the polygon.
if we
from counting those two sides which form the angle A of the polygon, then the remaining sides correspondto one triangle each. Therefore the total number of such trianglesis n where n denotes the number of sides of the polygon. In each triangle, the sum of angles is 2d, and hence the sum of angles of all the triangles is 2d(nBut the latter sum is the sum of all angles of the polygon. (2) The same result holds true for any non-convex polygon. To prove this, one should first partition it into convex ones. Forthis, it suffices to extend all sides of the polygon in both directions. The
exclude
2,
2).
66
infinite straight
Chapter
1.
THE the
STRAIGHT plane
LINE
lines thus obtainedwill
divide
into convex
parts: convexpolygons and some infinite regions. The original nonconvex polygon will consist of someof theseconvex parts. 83. Theorem. If'at each vertex of a convexpolygon,we extend one of the sides of this angle, then the sumof the exterior angles thus formed is congruent to 4d (regardless of
the
number
of
sides
of the
polygon).
Each of such exteriorangles(Figure90) supplements to 2d one of the interior angles of the polygon. Therefore if to the sum of all interior angleswe add the sum of these exterior angles, the result will be 2dn (where n is the number of sides of the polygon). But the sum of the interiorangles, as we have seen, is 2dn - 4d. Therefore the sum of the exterior .angles is the difference:
2dn-
(2db
4d)
= 2dn
- 2dn q-
4d
4d =
360 \370.
Figure
90
EXERCISES
153.
Compute
the angle betweentwo

bisectors
medians
of an
equilateral angles
the
tri-
angle.
15J. Computethe anglebetween

triangle.
Consider two
base.
of acute
in a right
other
155. Given an angleofan isosceles triangle, cases: the given angle is (a)
156.
compute
two.
at the
vertex, or (b) at the
Compute
interior
angles
and exterior
tagon.
angles of an equiangularpenof
157.*
bisectors
Compute
into two
of a triangle which is divided by one isoscelestriangles.Findall solutions.
its
12.
them
The
angle
sum
of a
polygon
angles
67
the
158. Provethat if two

the
and
side opposite
to the
two
first
of
triangle side opposite to

in one
congruent.
axe congruent respectively to

first
angles
and
the
of
them
in another
triangle,
then such
trianglesare
Remark:
SAA-\177est.
This
proposition
is ca]led
sometimes the AAS-test,

opposite
or
one
159. Prove that if a leg and the acute angle right triangle are congruent respectively to
to
it in
a leg
gle opposite to it congruent.
in
another
right
triangle,
and the acute then such triangles
anare
160.
bisectQrs
Prove
that of
two
in a convex consecutive
polygon, one of the angles is congruent
these
161. 162.
anglesbetweenthe to the semisum of

one. the
two
angles.
Given Given
two angles
of a triangle,construct the third an acute angle of a right triangle, construct

given
other
acute
angle.
one
165. Construct a right triangle, angleopposite to it.
of its
legs and and a
the acute
to oneof
164.
Construct them.
a triangle,
given
tw\177
of
its
angles
side opposite
at
165. Construct the vertex.
an isosceles
triangle, given its baseand the angie

the
166. Construct an isosceles triangle:(a) given and the altitudedropped to oneof the lateral lateral side and the altitudedropped to it.
angle
sides;
(b)
at the base, given the
167.
169.
Construct
an
right
equilateral
angle
triangle,
(in
given its words,
168. Trisect a
other
construct
altitude. the angle of
x 90
Hint:
\370=
oo).
Construct
Diagonals
170.
containing
Construct
the
a polygon congruentto a given one. partition a convex polygon\177 into triangles. a quadrilateral, given three of its anglesand the sides
fourth
angle.
Hint:
Find the fourth

How
angle.
angles
171.*
17\177. five-point
many
acute
can a
convex polygon have?
Find
the
star
sum of
(e.g.
its
five
exterior Compare
the one angles (formed
vertex).
175.*
\36583
Following
to
angles at the five vertices of a shown in Figure 221), and the sum of by extending one of the sidesat each the results with those of \36582 and \36583. Remaxk (2) in \36582, extend the results of \3658.2 and
the
\"interior\"
non-convex
polygons.
68
Chapter
1. THE STRAIGHTLINE
13
84.
Parallelograms and trapezoids

The
whose opposite sides arepairwise parallel is called a parallelogram. Such a quadrilateral (ABe'D,Figure 91) is obtained, for instance, by intersecting any two parallel lines KL and MN with two other parallellinesRS and PQ. 85. Properties of sides and angles. TI\177eorem. In any parallelogram, opposite sides are congruent, oppositeanglesare congruent, and the sum of angles
parallelogram.
A quadrilateral
adjacent to one side is 2d

Drawing
(Figure
92).
triangles:
the
diagonal
BD we obtain two
by
ABD
and
BCD,
by
which are
transversal
the
congruent
the
ASA-test
because
BD
common side, /1 =
a
/4,
is their
and
intersecting
triangles
gruence of
The
Finally,
that
opposite
angles B
and D arealsocongruent
adjac, ent
are
(as alternate angles formed parallel lines). It follows from the conAB = CD, AD - BC, and/_A -/C.
/2
/3
since
they
are sums
of congruent
D,
angles.
the
add
up to
a transversalintersecting parallel
Corollary. the
2d since they
If one
angles
to one
same-side
lines.
side, e.g. the anglesA

interior
and
angles
formed by
then
of the
angles of a parallelogram is righi,

of
other
three
are also
congruence
right.
the
Remark.The can be this

rephrased
opposite
sides of
a parallelogram
by
way:
parallel
segments
cut out
parallel
lines
are
congruent. M
L
N
/N
Q
A
1\177
Q B
Figure
91
Figure 92
Figure 93
Corollary. ff two lines are parallel, then all points Of each of them are the samedistance away from the other line; in short parallel lines (AB and CD, Figure 93) are everywhere the same distance
apart.
--'
Indeed,
if from
any two
points M and
perpendiculars
MP
and NQ
to AB are dropped, then
N of the
line
CD,
the
these
perpen-
13.
Parallelograms
parallel
and trapezoids
(\36571),
69
the
dicularsare
a
follows that MN = NQ, i.e. the N are are the same distance away from the line AB.
parallelogram.
and
therefore
quadrilateral
points
MNQP
M
is
and
It
Remark.
Given to
a parallelogram
(ABCD,
Figure 91),
and
of bases. In this case,a ]inesegment (UV) connecting the parallel lines PQ and RS and perpendicular to them is called an altitude of the parallelogram. Thus, the corollary can be rephrased'this way: all altitudes between the same bases of a parallelogram are congruent
to
times
one someas a
refers
a pair
of its
parallel sides (e.g. AD
BC)
pair
each
other.
86. Two
Theorem.
tests for parallelograms.

If
in
a convex
quadrilateral:
then this quadrilateral is

(1)
(1) opposite sides are congruent to eachother\177 or (2) two opposite sides are congruent and parallel,
a
parallelogram.
Let
ABCD
(Figure 92)
AB=CD
be a quadrilateral such
and
that
BG=AD.
is a
two
It is requiredto that ABIICD

and
prove
that
this
quadrilateral
parallelogram, i.e.
which side,
BClIAD.
Drawing
the
congruent
CD and BC = AD of the triangles that
by the
diagonal BD we obtain SSS-test sinceBD is their

by
triangles,
are
common
and
AB =
from the congruence = Z3 (in congruent triangles, congruent sides oppose congruent angles). This implies that ABIICD and BCllAD (if alternate angles are congruent,then the lines are
hypothesis.
It follows
Z1
= Z4
and Z2
parallel).
(2) Let ABeD and BG = AD.
It is
(Figure 92) be a quaArilateral

required
Such
that
B\275IIAD
to
prove
that
ABCD
is a
paralleloSAS-test
gram, i.e.
The
that
ABllCD.
triangles
ABD
because
BD
is their
and BCD are congruentby the common side, BC = AD (by hypothesis),

parallel that
and lines Z1 =
Z3 (as alternateanglesformedby intersecting a transversal).. The congruence ofthe triangles implies and therefore ABllCD.
Z2 --
by
Z4,
87. The diagonals and their

(1)
property.
allelogram, thenits
(2)
each
Theorem.
If
a quadrilateral
diagonals
(ABCD, Figure 94) is

bisect
a par-
each
other.
Vice versa,
other\177
in a quadrilateral,
this
if the diagonals bisect

parallelogram.
then
quadrilateral
is a
70
(1) The
Chapter1.
THE
STRAIGHT
LINE
because
and L3 = Z4 (as alternateangles).It follows from of the triangles that OA = OC and OD = OB.
B
triangles BOG and AOD are congruent BC = AD (as opposite sides ofa parallelogram),
by
the
ASA-test, Z1 = L2 congruence
the
Figure 94
(2) If
BOO enceof
(alternate
AO = OC and
congruent triangles
are the
angles
parallelogram
(by the secondtest).

symmetry. about
= OD, then the triangles AOD and SAS-test). It follows from the congruthat Z1 = Z2 and Z3 = Z4. Therefore BC[[AD are congru.ent) and BC = AD. Thus ABCD is a
BO (by
the
calledsymmetric
segment
Thusl
AA'.
88.Central
in order
Two a
points
A and
point
O, if
O is
A' (Figure 95) are the midpointof the line
about
another
and O
extension
the
by a
point.
Two
to construct the point symmetric to a given point given point O, one should connect the points A line,extend this line past the point O, and mark on the segment OA' congruent to OA. Then A' is the required
(or
figures
two
parts
the
of the
for
same figure)arecalled
point
symmetric
about
a given
versa.
symmetricto it
vice
point O, if
about
each
of one
figure, the
point
The itself
point
O is then
central (as opposed to the axialsymmetry we encountered in \36537). If each point of a figure is symmetric to some point of the same figure (about a certain center), then the figure is said to have a centerof symmetry. An example of such a figure is a circle; its center of symmetry is the center of the circle. Every figure be superimposed on the iflgure symmetric to it by rotating the figure through the angle 180 \370 about the center of symmetry. Indeed, any two symmetric points (say, A and A', Figure 95) exchange their positionsunder this rotation. Remarks. (1) Two figures symmetric about a pointcan be supersymmetry
called the center ofsymmetry. The
O belongs
to the
point other figure, and
is called
can
13.
Parallelograms
by
and trapezoids
a
71
the plane,
imposedtherefore
them off
the
motion
within
i.e. without lifting
symmetry differs from axial symmetry (\36537), where for superimposing the figures it was necessary to flip one of them over. (2) Just like axial symmetry, central symmetry is frequently found around us (see Figure 96, which indicatesthat eachofthe lettersN and S has a center of symmetry while E and W do not).
plane.
In this
regard central
NS
SN
Figure
95
Figure
96
agonals is
Furthermore, draw
89.
In
a parallelogram,
the
the intersection point

symmetry
=
of the di-
center
of
Indeed, the vertices A and C are point O of the diagonals(sinceAO

for the
symmetric
(Figure 94). about the intersection OD), and so are B and C:

the
a point
P on
the boundary of the

The
parallelogram,
extension
line
PO,
the
and let
ASA-test
and
Q be the_pointwhere
triangles =
of
line past
O meets the boundary.

for
=
AQO
and CPO
are
congruent by
and
z\1774
ZPOC (as vertical), AO points P Q are symmetric Remark. If a

parallelogram
OC.
Z3 (as alternate), ZQOA -Therefore QO = OP, i.e. the
about
is
the center
turned
O.
180 \370 about
the
around
intersection position
94),
and
diagonals, then eachvertex exchanges its with the opposite one (A with C, and B with D in Figure the new position of the parallelogram will coincide with the
point
of the
old
one.
Most parallelograms section we will find out
do not possessaxialsymmetry. which of them do..

properties.
In
the
next
a parallelogram is right
.
90.The rectangle and its

then
If
one
of the
angles of
(\36585).
the
other
three
parallelogram
Since
all' of
rectangles
whose
are
angles are
parallelograms,
right is calleda rectangle. they possess all properties of.
are also
right
72
parallelograms
the
Chapter1.
(for instance,
THE
STRAIGHT
LINE
and
intersection point of However rectangles have
their diagonals bisect eachother, the diagonals is the center of symmetry). their own special properties.
Figure
97
Figure
98
congruent.
The
(1) In
a rectangle (ABCD, Figure97), the

triangles
diagonalsare
--
right
have
respectively
ACD congruent
sides of a parallelogram). The congruence of the implies: AC = BD. (2) A rectangle has two axes of symmetry. Namely, each linepassingthrough the center of symmetry and parallel to two opposite sides of the rectangle is its axis of symmetry. The axes of symmetry of a rectangleare perpendicular to each other (Figure 98). 91. The rhombus and its properties.A parallelogram all of whose sides are congruent is called a rhornbus.Beside all the properties that parallelograms have, rhombi also have the following
CD as triangles
and ABD are congruent becausethey legs (AD is a commonleg, and AB
opposite
special
ones.
Figure 99
Figure-100
(1) Diagonals of a thombus(ABCD, Figure 99) are perpenand bisect the angles of the thombus. The triangles AOB and COB are congruent by the SSS-test be-cause BO is their common side, AB = BC (since all sides of a thombus are congruent), and AO - OC (since the diagonals of any
dicular
13.
Paralleiograms
and
trapezoids
73
parallelogram bisect each other).

implies
The
congruence
of
the
triangles
that
Zi=Z2,
i.e. BD_I_AC, and Z3=Z4,

by the diagonal ED. From the congruence and DOC, we concludethat the angle C
CA,
i.e.
of
the
angle
B is
bisected
the
triangles
by
bisected
BOC
diagonal
is
the
etc.
(2) Each
diagonal of a
thombusis its
the
axis
of
symmetry.
of
The diagonal BD bus ABCD because
(Figure 99) is an axisofsymmetry by rotating ABAD about BD
the
thom-
we can
pose it onto ABCD.

reasoning
and D, and besidethis AB
Indeed,
=
diagonal
BD
bisects
superimthe angles B
BC
and AD
= DC.
A
The same applies to the diagonal AC. 92. The square and its properties. square can be defined as a parallelogram allof sides are congruent and all of whose angles are right. can also say that a square is a rectangle all of sides are congruent, or a rhombus all of whose anglesare
whose One whose
right.
Therefore
square
?hombi.
possesses two
in
grams, rectangles
of symmetry
(Figure
(as
and
100):
positesides in ofthe opposite
a rectangle),
(as
properties of paralleloa square has four axes passing through the midpoints of opand two passing through the vertices
all the
For
instance,
angles
a rhombus).
Figure 101
93. A theorem
Theoram.
of
If ABC,
(DE
eachother
draw
tersections
the
angle
we
parallel
with
out
mentscut
(M\177V
based on properties parallelograms. on one side of an angle (e.g.onthesideBC Figure 101), we mark segments congruent to = EF =...), and through their endpoints, lines (DM, EN, FP, ... ) until their inthe other side of the angle, then the segon this side will be congruent to each other
of
=.\177WP
...).
74
Draw gles

the
auxiliary
DKE
and
ELF
lines D/f and DL parallelto AB. Thetrianare congruent by the ASA-test since DE = EF
z\177LEF
(by hypothesis),
responding From the
and \177KDE
and
z\177/f/\177D
\177LF/\177
(as
cor-
DK = and therefore MN =
Remark.
angles formed by a transversal intersecting parallel lines). congruence of the triangles, it follows that DK = EL. But MN and EL = (as opposite sides of parallelograms),
NP.
angle
NP
The
vertex
congruent
of
segments
fromthe
Then formed
the
B, i.e.
can be also marked starting like this: BD = DE= EF = ....
the congruent segments on the starting from the vertex, i.e.

The
other sideofthe BM = = NP
MN
angle
are
also
....
midpoint of one side(AB)
94. Corollary.
the
line of
(DE,
Figure
a triangle
102) passing and parallel to
through the
bisects
are
another side
third
side side
(BC). of the
angle B, two congruent segments BD = the division points D and A, two parallel lines DE and AC are drawn until their intersections with the side BC. Therefore,by the theorem, the segments cut out on this side are also congruent, i.e. BE \177- EC, and thus the point E bisectsBC. Remark. The segment connecting the midpoints of two sides of a triangle is called a midline of this triangle.
Indeed,
on \177 the
DA
marked
and through
Figure
lb2
95. The
midline theorem.
(DE,
midpoints of two sides of a triangle to the third side, and is congruent to a half To prove this, imagine that through the midpoint D of the side \177tB, we draw a line parallel to the side AC. Then by the result of \36594, this line bisects the side BC and thus coincides with the line DE connecting the midpoints of the sidesAB and BC. FurthermOre, drawing the line E\234]t\177tD , we find that the side
Theoram.Thelinesegment
Figure
of it.
is parallel
102)
connecting
the
13. ParalleJograms emd

AC
trapezoids
75
Therefore
is bisected
(as
at the point F.
opposite
AF
= FC
and beside
AF = DE
sides
of the
parallelogram
which sides BC,
ADEF).
has
this This
implies:DE =
sides parallel and the othertwo opposite a trapezoid. The parallel sides (AD and
96.The trapezoid.
quadrilateral
non-parallel Figure sides
zoid are calledits bases, and its lateral sides. If the lateral
the
non-parallel
two opposite is called 103) of a trape(AB and CD)
calledisosceles.
sides
are
congruent,
the trapezoid
is
Figure
103
Figure
104
midline of a trapezoid.The line segment connecting of the lateral sidesofa trapezoid is called its midline. Theorem. The midline (EF, Figure104) of a trapezoid is parallel to the bases and is congruent to their semisum. Through the points B and F, draw a line until its intersection with the extension of the side AD at some point G. We obtain two triangles: BCF and GDF, which-' are congruent by the ASAtest since CF = FD (by hypothesis), ZBFC = ZGFD (as vertical angles), and ZBCF = ZGDF(asalternate interior angles formed by a transversal intersecting parallellines).From the congruence of the triangles, it follows that BF = FG and BC = DG. We see now that in the triangle ABG, the line segment EF connectsthe midpoints of
97. The
the midpoints
two
sides.
Therefore
(\36595) AD
we
have:
and
E\234
AG
and
EF
= \253(AD+DG),
or in other words,EF EXERCISES
EF
= \253(AD +
BC).
174. Is a parallelogram
175.
considered
a trapezoid?
can
centers of symmetry 176. Can a polygon have two parallel 177. How many axes of symmetry
How many
a polygon
have? have?
axes
can
of symmetry?
a quadrilateral
76
Prove

theorems:
178.
parallelogram.
will
179.
to a
of the sides of a quadrilateralare the vertices of a Determine under what conditions this parallelogram be (a) a rectangle, (b) a rhombus, (c) a square. In a right triangle, the medianto the hypotenuse is congruent
Midpoints
half of it.
Conversely, then
Hint: Double 180.
the
median if
by
extending
it past
median
bisects,
181. In
the
triangle
is congruent is right.
and to
the hypotenuse. to a half of the sideit

altitude difference
a right triangle, the median hypotenuse make an angle congruent angles of the triangle.
the the
drawn-to of the
the
the
acute
at
182.In
at
/kABC,
the
bisector
drawn
of the
from/)
angle
and
meets
side
BC
the point D; the
at the point E; the

F.
line
line
parallel
to CA
meets AB
drawn
from
Z; and
parallel to BC
Prove
that
a
ZL4 =
meets
angle, another angle is constructedsuch that to the,sides of the given one and are the same distance away from them. Prove that the bisector of the constructed anglelieson the bisector of the given angle. 18.4. The line segment connecting any point on one base .of a trapezoidwith any point on the other base is bisectedby the midline of
18o \370. Inside

sides
given
its
are parallel
the trapezoid.
185. The segmentbetweenmidpointsofthe diagonalsof a trapezoid congruent to the semidifference of the bases. 186. Through the vertices of a triangle, the lines parallel to the opposite sides are drawn. Prove that the triangleformedby these lines consists of four triangles congruent to the given one, and that each of its sides is twicethe corresponding side of the given .triangle. ! 87.Inan isosceles triangle, the sum of the distances from each point of the base to the lateral sidesis constant, namely it is congruent to the altitude droppedto a lateral side. 188. How does this theorem change if points on the extension of the
is
base are taken instead?
189.In
interior
point,
an
equilateral
point
and
A A
to the is congruent
190.
parallelogram
---191. parallelogram other is a

rhombus.
triangle, the sum of the distances from an sides of this triangle doesnot dependon the to the altitude of the triangle. whose diagonals are congruent is a rectangle. whose diagonals are perpendicular to each
13.
Parallelograms
Any
\177nd
\177rapezoids
77
19\234. rhombus.
parallelogram
whose
angle is
bisected by the diagonalis a
point of the diagonalsof a rhombus, sides of the rhombus.Provethat the feet of these perpendiculars are vertices of a rectangle. 194.Bisectors ofthe angles of a rectangle cut out a square. 195. Let A', B', C t, and D' be the midpoints of the sides. CD,DA, AB, and BC of a square. Prove that the segments AA', CC', DD', and BB' cut out a square,whose sides are congruent to 2/5th of any
195.
From
the
intersection
dropped
perpendiculars
are
to the
of
the
segments.
ABCD. On its sides,congruent are marked. ThepointsA', B', connected consecutively by lines. Prove that A'B'C'D'
196. BB',
Given a square CC', and DD'
segments
AA',
C',
and
D' are
is a
square.
Find the geometric locus of:
197.
various
The
midpoints points
of
all
segments
two a
drawn from
given common
a given point to
lines. and congruent
of
a given
line.
parallel base
198. The pointsequidistantfrom 199. The vertices of triangleshaving altitudes.
Construction problems
200.'
distance
Draw
line
parallel
to a
given one and situated at
given
from
it.
201. Through a given point, draw a line such that its line segment, contained between two given lines, is bisected by the given point. 202. Through a given point, draw a line such that its line segment, containedbetweentwo given parallel lines, is congruent to a given
segment.
205.
to
a given
20J. to' a
of a given angle, place a segmentcongruent and perpendicular to oneofthe sides ofthe angle. Between the sides of a givenangle,placea segment congruent given segment and parallel to a given line intersecting the sides
Between
the
sides
segment
of the
angle.
given
205. Betweenthe sides ofa to a given segmentand that sidesof the angle.
such
angle,
place
a segment
it cuts
congruent
congruent segments on the

that to
206.In a
line
triangle,
draw
segment sum of the base.
segments cut out on the lateralsides and
contained
a line parallel to its base and such between the lateral sidesis congruent
adjacent
the the
to
the
78
14

Methods
of
To
construction
a given
and
symmetries
(AB, Figure 105)
into a number of congruent Fromthe endpoint draw

given A,
98. Problem.
Mark
divide
line segment parts (e.g. into
3).
a line
angle. on AC, segments of F B, and draw

arbitrary with
starting
length:
from
AD
=
\36593,
AC that forms with AB some the point .A, three congruent DE = EF. Connect the point
through
into
E and
congruent
to FB.
the points M and N
Then, by the
resultsof
three
D lines EN
segment
and
DM
parallel
the
AB
is divided by
parts.
F'
-,,
B E F
Figure
105
Figure
106
99. The method of parallel translation. A special construction problems, known as the method of translation, is based on properties of parallelograms. It can explained with an example.
of solving
method parallel
be
best
positesidesof
lines. At which
Problem.
Two a
towns canal
A whose
and B (Figure banks CD and

a
\177 +
106) are situatedon opE\234
are
parallel
straight
point should one build

AM
bridge
MM'
in order to make the path
+ MM
M'B
across the canal between the towns the
shortest possible?
To the
of
canal
facilitate
the
solution,
imagine
that
all points of
the side of
the
where
the
town
A is
lated\") the
same distance canal as far as to

the
EF.
In particular, the A ' on the perpendicular congruent to the bridge
makethe bank CD point is translated

A AA \177 to
situated are moved downward (\"transalong the linesperpendicular tothebanks

merge
with
bank
AA
to
the
new position
t is
the
banks,
and the
AA\177MtM
segment
is a
MM \177. Therefore
gram (\36586 (2)), and hence AM = A\177M( We conclude that --AM+ MM\177 + M\177B is congruent to AA \177 + A\177M \177 + M\177B. The Iatter sum will be the shortest when the brokenline A\177MtB is straight.
parallelothe sum
14.
Thus
Methods
the
of construction
should
and symmetries
79 on bank EF
of axial
where
bridge
the
bank
intersects
be-built at that point X with the straight line A'B.

of
100.The method can also be used solving

in
reflection.
Properties
construction
problems.
symmetry Sometimes the
required construction procedureiseasilydiscovered when one folds a part of the diagram alonga certain line (or, equivalently, reflects it in this line as in a mirror) so that this part occupies the symmetric positionon the other side of the line. Let us give an example. Problem. Two towns A and B (Figure. 107) are situated on the same side of a railroad CD which has the shape of a straight line. At which point on the railroad should one build a station M in order to make the sum AM + MB of the distances from the towns to the
station
and
the
smallest
possible?
A
Reflect
therefore
the point
segment
to
the
new
position
line CD. The

congruent
the
WM
A\177M =
AM.
MB.
to
A\177M
broken
line
at the
point X
is straight. Thus the stationshould be where the railroad line CD intersects the straight
WMB
We conclude that the sum AM + MB is The latter sum will be the smallest when
built
is symmetric
A' symmetric about the to AM about the line CD,
line
The same constructionsolves yet another problem: given the line CD, and the points A and B, find a point M such that ZAMC ZBMD.
A
A
Figure
107
Figure 108
101. Translation.
Figure 108)
is moved to a new position (A'B\177C \177) in a way such that all segments between thepointsofthe figure remain parallel to themselves (i.e. A'B'IIAB, B'C'IIBC, e\177o.). Then the new figure is called a translation of the original one, and the whole motion, too, is
Supposethat a
figure
(say,
a triangle
ABC,
80
called (Figure
translation. 76) along
LINE
Thus the sliding motion of a drafting triangle a straightedge (in the construction ofparallel lines described in \36574) is an example of translation. Note that by the results of \36586, if ABIIA'B \177 and AB - A\177B ' (Figure 108), then ABB\177A \177 is a parallelogram, and therefore AA\177HBB \177 and AA \177 = BB( Thus, if under translation of a figure, the new position A \177 of one point A is known, then in orderto translate all other points B, C, etc., it suf\177ces to construct the parallelograms AA\177B\177B, AA\177C\177C, etc. In other words, it suffices to constructline segments BB\177 CC\177 etc. parallel to the line segment AA \177,directed the same way as AA \177, and congruent to it. Vice versa, if we move a figure (e.g. /kABC) to a new position (/kA\177B\177C\177) by constructing the line segments AA \177,BB \177,CC \177,etc. which are congruent and parallel to each other,and are also directed the same way, then the new figure is a translation of the old one. Indeed, the quadrilaterals AA\177B\177B, AA\177C\177C, etc. are parallelograms, and therefore all the segments AB, BC, etc. are moved to their new positions/i\177B \177, B'C \177, etc. remaining par.alIel to themselves. Let us give one moreexample of a construction problem solved by the method of translation.
109), given segments congruentto its sides and necting the midpoints of two opposite sides.
B E
102.Problem.
To
construct
quadrilateral
to
ABCD
the
line
EF
(Figure con'
C'
Figure 109
To bring the
AD
given
lines
close
to each
other, translate
the sides
and
BC,
to themselves,
C\177l\177BCare
a way such that they remain parallel new positionsED\177 and EC \177. Then DAED \177 and parallelograms, and hence the segmentDD\177 is congruent
i.e.
move them in
to the
14.
Methods
o\234 construction
and
symmetries
81
and parallel to AE, and the segmentCC\177 congruent and parallel to BE. But AE = EB, and therefore DD \177 = CC \177 and DD\177I]CC \177. As a consequence, the triangles DD'\234 and CC\177F are congruent by the SAS-test (since DD' = CC\177,DF = FC, and /_D\177DF = ZC\177CF.). The congruence of the triangles implies that ZD\177FD = ZC\177FC, hence the broken line D\177FC \177 turns out to be straight, and therefore the figure ED\177FC \177 is a triangle. In this triangle, two sides are known (ED \177 = AD and EC \177 = BC), and the median EF to the third side is known too. The triangle EC\177D \177is easily recovered from these data. (Name]y, doubleEF by extending it past F and connect the obtainedendpointwith D \177and C( In the resulting parallelogram,
all sides and oneofthe diagonals

Having
C\177CF,
are
known.) the
recovered
\177hen
AED\177C \177,construct
entire
triangles
D\177DF
and
and
the
quadrilateral
ABCD.
EXERCISES
207. Construct a triangle, given: (a) its base, the altitude, and a lateral side; (b) its base, the altitude, and an angle at the base; (c) an angle, and two altitudes dropped to the sidesofthis angle; (d) a side, the sum of the other two sides, and the altitude dropped to one of these sides; (e) an angle at the base, the altitude, and the perimeter. 208. Construct a quadrilateral, given three of its sidesand both
diagonals.
209.
Construct
two
a parallelogram,
sides
given:
a diagonal;
(a)
non-congruent
and
the diagonals.
(b) one sideand both diagonals; (c) the diagonals and the angle between them; (d) a side, the altitude, and a diagonal. (Is this always possible?) 210. Construct a rectangle, given a diagonal and the anglebetween
211.
(b)
Construct
rhombus,
given:
(a) its
both
side and a diagonal;

diagonals;
distance between two parallel sides,and a diagonal; (d) an angle, and the diagonalpassingthrough its vertex; (e) a diagonal, and an angle oppositeto it; (f) a diagonal, and the angle it forms with one of the sides. 212.Construct a square, given its diagonal.
(c) the
82
213.
Chapter 1. THBSTRAIGHT
Construct
two
th\177
Ll\177NE
a trapezoid,
angle
given:
to it,
(a) its base, an

be
adjacent
and both
lateral sides (therecan
solutions,
difference
one, or
between
none);
(b)
(c)
the
four
sides
distance
(d) a base,its is this possible?);

(e) 21\177.'
(is this
the bases, a diagonal, and lateral sides; always possible?); from the other base, and both diagonals (when
both
bases
Construct
and
both
diagonals (when
given:
is this possible?).
a square, of a
(a) the
(b).
sum of a diagonaland a side;

difference
the
diagonal
and an
given given
altitude.
its its
agonals,
217.'
(a)
215.' Construct a 216.' Construct a

and
parallelogram, parallelogram,
diagonals side,
altitude. the sum of the diand an
the
angle
between
them.
one;
two
(b)
its
its
215.'
(a)
Construct a triangle,given: of its sides and the medianbisecting the third base, the altitude, and the median bisecting a Construct a right triangle, given:
hypotenuse
lateral
side.
and the
s\177m
of
the
legs;
of
search stageof the solutions.
(b) the
hypotenuse and the

an
difference
the
legs.
Perform
the rewith
219.
the
shortest
and
Hint: use the methodof reflection.

220.' suming
a point inside it, construct a triangle such that one of its vertices is the given the other two vertices lie on the sides of the angle.
Given
angle
and
perimeter
point
the ballB?
a quadrilateral ABeD whose sides.are given asdiagonal AC bisects the angleA. 221.' Given positions A and 'B of two billiard balls in a rectangular billiard table, in what direction should one shootthe ball A so that it reflects consecutively in the four sides of the billiard and then hits
Construct that the
Hint: use the methodof

225.'
and
222.
Construct
a trapezoid,
given
translation.
all of
its sides.
the
Construct midline.
a trapezoid,
given one of its angles, both diagonals,
224[.'
angles
Construct
adjacent
to the
a quadrilateral, given three of its unknown side.
sides
and
both
Chapter
THE
CIRCLE
i Circles
103.
Figure
and
chords
Preliminary remarks. Obviously, through a point (A, it is possible to draw as many circles as one wishes: their centers can be chosenarbitrarily. Through two points (A and B, Figure 111),it is alsopossible draw unlimited number of circles, but their centers cannot be arbitrary since the points equidistant from two points A and B must lie on the perpendicular bisector of the segment AB (i.e. on the perpendicular to the segment AB passing through its midpoint, \36556). Let us find out if it is possible to draw a circle through three
110),
to
points.
Figure
110
any draw
Fiqure 111
three a
104. Theorem. Through
points, circle,
same line, it.is is unique.
possibleto
not and
lying on the such a circle
83
84
Through
Chapter
2.
THB
lying
CIRCLE
perpendicular bisector MN the equidistantfrom the pointsB bisector PQ of the sideBC.

of
B, C (Figure 112),not on the throughthe vertices ofa ABC), circle if there exists a fourth point O, which is equidistant the points A, B, and C. Let us prove that a point exists and is unique. For this, take into account that any point equidistant the points A and B must lie on the
three points A,
same line, (in other words, it is possible to draw a
from such triangle only we from
side
C
AB
must
and
Therefore,
(\36556). Similarly, any point lie on the perpendicular if a point equidistant from
the three pointsA,

which
is possible
two
only when it
ofthese
are
lines.
perpendicular
must lieonboth MN and PQ, coincideswith the intersection point The lines MN and PQ do intersect (since they to the intersecting lines AB and BC, \36578). The
B,
and
C exists, it
intersection
we
point this
O will be
equidistant
from
A,
B,
and
C. Thus,
if
point for the center, and take the segment OA (or OB, for the radius, then the circlewill pass through the points A, B, and C. Since the lines MN and PQ can intersect only at one point,the center of such a circle is unique. The lengthof the radius is alsounambiguous, and th, erefore the circle in question is unique.
take
or OC)
' A
Fiqure
112
--
Remarks. (1) If the points B, and C (Figure 112) lay on the sameline, the perpendiculars MN and PQ would have been parallel,and therefore not intersect. Thus, through three points lying on the sameline,it isnotpossible to a circle. (2) Three or more points lying on the sameline are called
A, then could draw often
collinear.
i.
Circles
and chords
being
85
away from
of
A \177/$
Corollary. ThepointO, the same distance W, has to also lie on the perpendicular bisector AC. Thus: three perpendicular bisectorsof sides intersect at one point.
and
the
the
side
of
a triangle
ular to a chord, bisects the chordand each

subtended
105.
Theorem.
The
diameter
(AB,
Figure 113),
of
perpendictwo
the
arcs
by it.
along
Fold the diagram the diagram onto the

falls
the
diameter
AB
so that
left
the left part of

will
identified
right semicircle, and the perpendicular KC will merge with KD. It follows that the point C, which is the intersection of the semicircle and KC, will merge with D. Therefore KC with the
right
one. Then
the
semicircle
be
BC=BD, AC-AD.
Figure
113
Figure
114
106.
a chord arc subtended

(CD),
Converse
theorems.
perpendicular it
is
(1) The-diameter (AB),bisecting to this chord and bisects the

113).
by
(Figure
diameter (AB), bisectingan are(CBD), is perpendicular to the chord 'subtending the arc, and bisects it. Both propositions are easily proved by reductio ad absurdurn. 107. Theorem. The arcs (AC and BD, Figure 114) contained between parallel chords (AB and CD) are congruent. Fold the diagram along the diameter EF J_ AB. Then we can conclude onthe basis of the previous theorem that the point A merges with B, and the point C with D. Therefore the arc AC is identified with the arc BD, i.e. thesearcs are congruent. 108. Problems. (1) To bisect a given arc (AB, Figure 115). Connecting the ends of the arc by the chord AB,. drop the perpendicular to this chordfrom the center and extend it up to the
(2) The
86
intersection
point
the
with the
center
arc.
Chapter2. By the resultof

\365106,
THE
CIRCLE
the
arc
AB
is
bisected by
However,
this perpendicular.
if
perpendicular
to
the
chord
is unknown, then at its midpoint.
one should erect the
Figure
115
Figure
116
find the center of a given circle(Figure 116). Pick on the circle any three points A, B, and C, and draw two chords through them, for instance, AB and BC. Erect perpendiculars MN and PQ to these chordsat their midpoints. The required center, being equidistant from A, B, and C, has to lie on MN and PQ. Therefore it is located at the intersectionpoint O of these
(2) To
perpendiculars.
109.
Relationships
between
arcs
congruent
Theorems. In a
disk,or in
and
which
and chords.
disks:
themare
greater
(1)
if two
arcs
are congruent, then

equidistant
are
the chordssubtending
the center;
the semicircle,
subtended
congruent
from
than
not congruent, then

chord,
arc
(2) if two arcs,
the greaterof themis

greater of the two
smaller
are
by
the
and the
AB
chords
is
closer
to
the center.
is
that
(1) Let an
required
(Figure
to
prove
that
117) be congruent to the arc the chords AB and CD are congruent,
CD;it
and
the
perpendiculars
AOB
OE and
OF to the chords
the
dropped
from
the
center
coincides
are congruent
with
too.
about
Rotatethe sector
the
center
they
O so
will
that the radius OA

go
radius
OC. Then
congruent
CD, and sincethe arcs are the chord AB will coincide
the arc AB
will
along
coincide.
the arc Therefore
with
the
--OE
to a
will
merge
with
OF
(since the
given line is unique),i.e. AB
chord CD, and the perpendicular perpendicular from a given point = CD and OE = OF.
1. Circles
(2)
and
chords
87
than
Let the
and let
arc AB (Figure 118)be smaller both arcs be smaller than the semicirclel
is
the
arc
CD,
it is OF.
K
required to
prove that the chordAB
smaller
than
than
the
perpendicular OEis
the chord
perpendicular
CD, and that the
greater
Figure
117
Figure
118 to the
center
Mark on
draw gruent
the arc CD the

chord is the
arc
C/f
congruent
the
the to
auxiliary and
AB. The triangles COD and
C/f, which by same distance away

CO/f are
the resultof part (1)isconfrom
arc AB and
have
two
pairs
as the chord of respectively
congruent sides (since they tween these sidesare not

angle
radii),
congruent.
and the angles contained beIn this case (\36550), the greater
CD
(i.e. \177C(PD).isopposed and therefore C/;) > AB.
by the greaterside.Thus
> OF, result
> C/f,
draw eL .1_ C/f and take into of part (1), and thereforeit suiTices to compare OF with O\234. In the right triangle OF/VI (shaded in Figure 118),the hypotenuse (PAir is greater than the leg (PF. But OL> and hence 0\234 > OF, i.e. OE > OF. The theorem just proved for one disk remains true for congruent disksbecause such disks differ from one another only by their
prove
In orderto
that
(PE
account that
OE =
(PL
by
the
OM,
position.
110.
all
Converse
mutually
theorems.
exclusive
Since the previoustheorems address

cases of
possible
comparative sizeof two
arcs
same radius semicircle), and the

of
the
(assuming that the

or their
obtained conclusions about comparative size

distances
from
arcs
the
are
smaller
than
the
of
subtending
chords
center
to
exclusive too,
the conversepropositions have
hold
are mutually true as well.
Namely:
In a disk, or
(t)
in
congruen\177
disks:
subtend congruent
arcs;
congruent
chords
are equidistant
from the center and
88
Chapter
2.
THE
CIRCLE
and
(2) chords equidistant

subtend
from the center are congruent

chords
congruent
arcs;
(3) the greater one of tw}) non-congruent to the center and subtendsthe greater arc;
(4)
is closer
center\177
among
two
chords
are
one
which
These
is closer
propositions
to the center
easy
non-equidistant
to prove
subtends the greaterarc.

If
tO the
the
For
instance,
to prove
the first of
by reductio ad absurdurn. them we may argue this way.
chords subtendednon-congruent arcs, then due to the first direct theorem the chords would have been non-congruent, which contradicts the hypothesis. Therefore 'congruent chords must subtend congruent arcs. But when the arcs are congruent, then by the direct theorem, the subtendingchords are equidistant from the centhe given ter.
111. Theorem. A
diameter
with
is
the
the
greatest
ends
such that the

are
passing through the center

chord
Connectingthe centerO
AB
(Figure
119),
we
we
of all chords. of any chord AB not obtain a triangle AOB
is ,one sum
of its
sides, and the

conclude
other
that
two
sides
radii.
AB is smallerthan
of two
By the
triangle inequality (\36548)

the
of two
radii, while
is
radii.
Thus a
are
diameter is greaterthan
also greatest
a diameteris the
chord
the chord
sum
any
not
passing
through the
that diameters
center. But sincea diameter

the
a chord,
one can
say
of all
chords.
A B
Figure
119
Figure
120
EXERCISES
geometriclocusdescribed
by
225. A given segmentis moving, a way that one of its endpoints

the
remaining lies
parallel on
to itself,
in such
a given that
circle.
Find the slide
other
endpoint.
a way
226. A given segment is movingin such along the sidesofa right angle. Find
its endpoints
the
geometric
locus described
2. Relativepositions ofa lineand

by the
circle
89
midpoint of this_segment.
On
two points are taken the samedistance away C of this chord, and through these points, two perpendiculars to/IB are drawn up to their intersections with the circle. Prove that these perpendiculars are congruent. Hint: Fold the diagram along the diameter passing through C. 228. Two intersecting congruent chords of the same circle are divided by their intersection point into respectively congruent segments.
227.
chord
AB,
from
the
midpoint
AB are drawn. Provethat the segment of the chords CD and C\177D \177 is perpendicular 230. Prove
in the
taken
229.In a disk,
two
chords
CC
\177 and
DD
\177 perpendicular
to the
a diameter midpoints
MM
\177 joining
to AB.
that the shortest of all chords, passing through a point A interior of a given circle, isthe onewhich is perpendicular to the diameter drawn through A. 231.* Prove that the closest and the farthest points of a given circle from a given point lieon the secant passing through this point and the center.
Hint:
232.
233.
Apply
the
triangle
inequality.
parts. their
Divide a given
Construct
two
arc into 4, 8, 16,... congruent arcs of the same radius,given

another
sum
and
difference.
23J. Bisect
a given circleby
a
circle
centered
at a
given point.
is
235.
Through
point
inside
a disk,
draw
draw a chordwhich
bisected
by this
point.
a
236. Given a chordin

by
disk,
the
first
angles
this
makes a given is possible.)

one and
another chord which is bisected angle with it. (Findout for which
237. Construct a circle, centered at a given point, which cuts off a of a given length from a given line. 238. Construct a circle of a given radius, with the center lying on one sideof a given angle, and such that on the other sideofthe angle
chord
it cutsout a
2
chord
of
a given
length.
Relative
112.
positions
and
of a line
and a circle
found
line
a circle
from
the following mutual
positions:
the
can obviously be
only
in
one
of
(1)
radius
The
distance
of the
circle (Figure
center to the line is greaterthan the 120), i.e. the perpendicular OC dropped
90
Chapter
the
2. THE CIRCLE
the
to
line
from
the
center
0 is
outside
greater than the radius. Then

from
point
the circleand liestherefore of the line are even farther
C of
the line
is farther away
away
the
the
center than disk. Since all
from
O than
other points the point C (slants
the points of
are
and
then they all lie outsidethe disk, common points with the circle. (2) The distance from the center to the line is smaller than the radius (Figure 121). In this case the point C liesinside the disk: and therefore the line and the circle intersect.
grater
than
the
perpendicular),
hence
the
line
has no
line equals the radius Then any other point D of the line, being farther away from O than C, lies outside the disk. In thiscasethe line and the circle have therefore only one common point, namely the one which is the foot of the perpendicular dropped
The
(3) distance from (Figure122), i.e.the

point
the
C
center
is on
to the the circle.
from
the
center
to the
line.
has
Such a line, which

called
only
one
common
tangent
to the
circle, and
point with the circle,is the commonpoint is called the
tangency
point. A
Figure 121
Figure
122
sitionofa case,i.e.
way: its
to
that out of three possible casesof dispotangency takes place only in the third when the perpendicular to the line dropped from the center is a radius, and in this casethe tangency point is the endpoint of the radius lying on the circle. This can be also expressed in the following
113.
We
see therefore
and
line
a circle,
(1) if a line (AB) is endpoint (C) lying on the the circle, and vice versa:
perTendicular to the radius circle, then the lineis

to
(OC) tangent
at
to the tangency point is perpendicular to the 114. Problem. To construct a tangent to a given it is parallel to a given line AB (Figure 123).
(2) if a line is tangent
circle,
then
the
radius
line.
circle
drawn
such
that
2.
Relative
Drop
positions
of a line and a circle OC

from
91 the
to AB
theperpendicular
center,
and
through
the point
t\177FIIAB.
and
D, where the perpendicular intersects the circle, draw The required tangent is EF. Indeed,sinceOC _LAB
, we
endpoint
EF[lAB
have
t\177F
_l
OD,
and
a line
radiusat its
perpendicular
to a
lying
on
the
circle,
is a
tangent.
E
M
Figure
B
124
Figure 123
the
and
115.
tangency
Theorem.
point
line
If
be
a tangent
bisects
is parallel to a
arc subtended
the to a
by the chord.
(Figure
chord, then
124)
Let a
AB
tangent
circle at a point M
to the
be parallel to a chord CD; it is required The diameter ME passingthrough

AB
prove
that point
CM=MD. M is
tangency
per-
pendicular to
and
the
therefore CMD
perpendicular
(\365105), i.e.
to CD.
Thus the
diameterbisects
EXERCISES
arc
CM=MD.
239. Find the geometric locusof pointsfrom which the tangents to a given circle are congruent to a given segment. 2JO. Find the geometriclocusof centers of circles described by a given radius and tangent to a given line. \234J1. Two lines passing through a point M are tangent to a circle at the points A and B. The radius OB is extended past B by the
drawn
segmentBC = OB. that 2J2. Two lines passing at the points and B. Through
Prove through A the
ZAMC
a
= 3ZBMC. M
point
are tangent
arcs
AB,
a third
tangent is
and
E with MA of ADME, and
and MB respectively. Prove
a point C taken on the smaller of drawn up to its intersection points D

that O
to a circle
(1) is the
the
(2) the angle DOE

on
is
(where
perimeter center of the
circle) do not
depend
perimeter
the
position
of the
point C.
=
\253ZAOB.
Hint: The
congruent
to MA+MB;/DOE
92
Chapter
On
2.
THE
circle.
CIRCLB
2\177$.
a given
2JJ.
Construct Through
point closest to a given a circle which has a given radius and

line, find a
point.
is tangent
a given
to a
line at
radius
given line at a given

2J5.
a given
a
point, draw a circle tangent

point,
to
another given point.
2J6.
and
Through
given
draw
a circle
that has a given
is tangent
Construct them
to a given
a at
line.
to the
to
oneof
2J 8.
2J 7.
circle
tangent
sides of a given angle,and to

lines and
a given
point.
two lying find
through a 2J 9. On a
this
Construct a circle tangent

given given
point line,
between a point
given parallel the lines.

a given
passing
from
such that
to
the tangentsdrawn
segment.
point
to a
given circle are congruent
Relative
positions
Two
of two circles
circles
116. Definitions.
if
are
called
tangent
to each
other
common
one common point. Two circleswhich have two are said to intersect each other.., Two circles cannot have three common point\177 since if they did, there would exist two circles passing through the same three points,
they
have
only
points
which is impossible (\365104).

We
will
call
the centers
the line of centers the infinite of two circles.

two
line
passing
through
117. Theorem.If
point
(A)
circles
(Figure
125)
have
a common
one more common point symmetric respect to the lineof centers, hence
(A') (and
situated
outside
the
line of
centers, then they have to the first one with

such
circles
A
intersect).
Figure
125
--'
Indeed,
the
line of
centers contains
and
is therefore
an axis
of symmetry of eachof them. Thus
diameters of eachof the circles

the
point
3.
A'
Relative
symmetric
positions
to
circles.
ot' two circles

point
A
93
with side
the ..common
respect of it)
to
this
axis of
symmetry (and situatedonthe other
these
AA'
must
lie on
each of
two
The
axis of
symmetry
two
is the perpendicular bisector ofthe segment

points
A
connecting
symmetric
and
A'.
Thus
125)
we obtain:
of two interand is bisected
Corollary. The commonchord(AA', secting circles is perpendicular to the line

by
Figure
of
centers
it.
118.
Figures
Theorem.
126,
If
situated
two other.
circles
on
have a common point

line of centers,
point
127)
the
then
they
are
tangent
to
each
the othersideof line of centers, in which case they would have to coincide. The cannot have another common point on the line.of centers. Indeed, they would have two common points on the line of centers.The chord connecting these points would have been a common of the circles, and two circles with a common coincide.
the circles then common diameter diameter
The circles cannot have centers, becausethen they
another would
common also
have
a third
the line of common point on

outside
_A M
'
Figure
126
Figure 127
circles are ,situated outside one another (Figure and if one of them is situated inside the other (Figure 127). 119.
point.
line
Remark. The tangencyof'two circles is called
,external
if the internal
126),
Converse
centers.
A
theorem.
126, 127),
A, Figures
of
If two circles are tangent(at then the tangency point lies on the
The point
wise
cannot
lie
outside
the
circles
would
have one
the line of centers, becauseothermore common point, which contrahave
dicts
the
hypothesis
Two
of the
tangent
theorem.
circles
Corollary.
the same
tangent line at
94
their through
is
Chapter 2.
tan#ency point, the tangency perp6ndicular
THE
CIRCLE
also
because the line MN (Figures 126, 127) passing point A and perpendicular to the radius OA to the radius O'A.
positions
120. Various cases of relative

Denote
of
two
circles.
letter cases
radii of
_>
the
two
circles
by
the
letters
R and
R' (assuming
d. of
that R
R'),
and
the
distance
Examine relationships mutual position of the
between the centers by the between these quantities in various

are
circles.There
five
such
cases,
namely:
Figure 128
R \337
Figure
129
Figure
130
dl
R'
Figure
131
Figure 132
(1) The circleslie outside 128); in this case obviously

(2)
each d
other
without
tan#ency
(Figure
d
> R
+ R \177.
=
The
circles
the
circles
have an
tangency
intersect
R + the OO
R \177 since
point
(3)
difference
The
same
time d
to
\177 Congruent
of the
d is smaller than the sum, but greaterthan the other two sides, congruentto the radii R and R(
an
> R- R\177,since
external tangency (Figure129); then lies on the line of centers. (Figure 130); then d < R + R \177,and
in
at side
the
triangle
OAO
\177,the
(4) The circles have case d = R- R', because
internal the
centers.
--
tangency (Figure tangency point lies
131); in this on the line of

(Figure
(5)
One
circle
then obviously
lies inside the other without tangency d < R-R'. In the special casewhen d
132);
0, the
centers
3. Relative positionsot:two
of both Remark.
circles called the
95 concentric). converse
circles merge .(such circles\177re We let the reader to verify
theorems:
(1) If
d > R + R',
R q-
then
the
circles
lie outside
each other.
the
(2) If d = q-R', (3) If d < R

circles
then
R'
the at
and
are tangent externally. the same time d > R- R \177,then

circles
circles circles
easily
intersect.
(4) If
All
d = R-
R \177, then
the the
\177re
(5) If d \177 R
these
- R \177,then
internally. lie one inside the other.

are tangent
proved
Let
propositions
by contradiction.
a
Imaginethat all pointsof connected by segmentsto the

the
121. Rotation about a point. AABC (Figure 133),be tied rigidly

triangle,
point
plane
figure,
to
some and
point that
including
O,
for instance O of the plane. its vertices, are the whole figure
the
formed by
moving
these
segments, the
remaining
in the
plane of the triangle, is

arrow.
after
about
A\177B\177C
Let
some
time.
point O, say, in the direction shown by \177 be the new position occupied by the Since we also assume that
AABC doesnot
triangle ABC
change
its
shape,
a transformation
AB - A\177B \177,BC = B\177C \177,and CA = C\177A( Such of a figure in its plane is calleda rotation about \177 point, and the point O itself is calledthe center of Thus, in other words: a rotation about a centerO is a rigid motion of a plane figure such that the distance from each point to the center
we have: viously,
rotation.
etc.
remains unchanged: AO = A\177O, BO = B\177O, all points of the rotated figure describe the common center at the point O, whose radii the corresponding pointsfrom the center.
CO
C\177O,
Ob-
concentric are
arcs
with
the
distances
of
Figure
133
Notice
centric
arcs,
that central angles (Figure 133)corresponding to the condescribed in equal times by different points of a rotated
96
figure,
Chapter 2. THECIRCLE
are
congruent
to each
other:
ZAOA\177=ZBOB\177=ZCOC\177=...
and therefore ZAOB = ZA\177OB \177. Adding the of them, we find: ZAOA\177= BOB( Similarly
Indeed,the triangles AOB
and
A\177OB \177 are
congruent
by the
SSS-test,
\177 to
angle
BOA
each
ZBOB
The
Vice
one can
prove that
the
\177=
COG
\177, etc.
common
angle of
rotation of all the radiiis called
rota-
tion
angle
versa,
of the
in
figure.
order
(e.g.
a-given
the
rotation
rotation
\177,etc.,
AA\177B\177C\177
angie, directed
\177, ZBOB
BB
\177,CC
angles
angle.
ZAOA
the rotation of a planefigure about a given point O through it suffices to construct concentric arcs AA \177, the same way, and corresponding to the \177, ZCOC\177,..., congruent to the given rotation
to construct
of
AABC)
EXERCISES circleat a
251.
250.
Find
the
given
geometric
point.
loc\177s
of
centers.
of circles
of
tangent to
described
a given
by a
Find
the
geometric
tangent tangency).
locus
to
of
centers
circles
given radius and

252.
a given
circle
(consider two
is
cases: of
line
externaland internal
A secant
to two
congruent cirales,which
parallel
to the
of centers OO\177, meets the first circle at the points A and B, and the second one at the points A \177 and B( Prove that AA \177 = BB \177 = 00( 253.* Prove that the shortest segment joining two non-intersecting circles lies on the line of centers.
Hint:
254. draw
the
Apply
the
triangle,
inequality.
parallel to the lineof centers.
Prove that if through an intersectionpoint of two circles, we all secant segments without extendingthemto the exterior of disks, then the greatest of these secants will be the one which is
Construct
255.
to
given
circle
passing
through
to
a given
given
point and tangent

lines and
a given
circle at
lying
another given point.

tangent
256. Construct a circle

disk
two
parallel
to a
between
them.
257. Construct a circlethat has a given radius, is tangent to a given disk, and passes through a given point.. (Consider three cases: the given point lies(a) outside the disk, (b) on the circle, (c) inside the
disk.)
4.
Inscribed
and some
other angles
97
4
from
Inscribed
122.
and some other angles

angles.
Inscribed
the
same
point
of a
ABC
in each
B
of Figures 134-136is inscribed.
An angle formed by two chords drawn circle is calledinscribed. Thus the angle
\275
D
Figure
Figure
134
Figure 135
136
interior
to intercept an arc if it angle and connectsits sides. Thus ABC in Figure 135 intercepts the arcADC.
An
angle
is said
is
the
contained
in
the
of the
inscribed
angle
123. subtended arc.

Theorem. contains
An
This
inscribed
theorem
many
angle
should
measures
be understood
inscribedanglecontainsas angular degrees as it intercepts circular degrees. In the proof of the theorem,consider the three cases. (1) The center O (Figure 134) lieson a sideof inscribed angle ABC. Drawing the radius AO,-we obtain such that OA = OB (as radii), and hence = ZBAO. The angle AOC is exterior respect to this triangle, and is congruent therefore to sum of the angles ABO .and BAO, which is twicethe angle ABO. the angle ABO is congruent to a half of the central
following the /kAOB ZABO with the Thus angle
a half of the as follows: an a half of the arc
Butt the angle AOC is measured by the arc AC, i.e. it contains as many angular degrees, as the arc AC contains circular degrees. Therefore the inscribedangle ABCis measured by a half of the arc AC.
AOC.
interior of the inscribedangle ABC BD we partition the angleABC into two angles, of which (according to part (1)) oneis measured by a half of the arc AD, and the other by a half of the arc DC. Thus
center
(2) The
135).
lies
in the
(Figure
Drawing
the
diameter
the angle ABC is

congruent
measured
by
the
sum
\177AC. \177
\253
AD
+\253
DC,
which
is
to
\253 (AD
DC),
i.e. to
98
Chapter exterior
have
2.
THE
CIRCLE
(3) The centerO liesin the Drawing the diameter BD we

ZABC
of the
inscribed angle
ABC.
= ZABD
CBD
-/CBD.
measured
But the anglesABD
and
are
(according
which
(1))
by
halves
of
the
arcs AD
and CD. Thereforethe angle

-\253 CD,
to part
ABC
is measured
\253(AD
by the
difference \253 AD
\253AC.
is congruent
to
CD),
i.e. to
Figure
137
Figure 138
124. Corollaries.
(1)
All
inscribed
angles
intercepting
because
of
the
each one of
same arc are congruentto each other (Figure 137), of them measures a half of the samearc. If the measure such angles is denoted c\177, then one may say that the
Arab encloses the angle

(2)
disk segment
right
c\177.
Any
inscribed
angle
intercepting
a diameter is
half
(Figure
138),
because
such an
therefore contains
125. chord
90\370 .
angle measures a
of
the
semicircle,
and
by
(i.e.
of right
Theorem. The angle (ACD, and a tangent measures a

the
arc
assume
O, i.e.
180
\370.
Letus
that
it
Figure 140)formed a half of the intercepted arc, DC contained in the interior of the angle). first that the chord CD passes through the center is a diameter (Figure 139). Then the angleACD is
contains
\370 since
(\365113)
and
also contains 90
Thus
the
the
now
theorem
the
therefore 90 \370. But a half of the arc CmD arc CmD, being a semicircle, contains holds true in this special case. case when
Conside\177 through
general
the
center
the
diameter,
CE
(see Figure we have:
the chord CD doesnotpass 140, where/ACD is acute). Drawing
ZACD = ZACE-
ZDCE.
4. Inscribed
and
some
other
angles
a tangent
99
and a diameter, being inscribed, ACD
The angle
measures a half of the arc CDE. The measures a half of the arc DE. Therefore
by the
ACE, beingthe angleformedby

angle the
DCE, angle
is measured
difference \253CDE
one by
-\253
DE,
i.e.
by a
half of the arc CD.
Similarly
can
also
formed
a tangent
CnED. The only the difference, but
that an obtuse angle (BCD, Figure and a chord, measures a half of the arc distinction in ihe proof that this angle is not the sumof the right angle BCE and the inscribed
prove
140),
is
angle ECD.
D
Figure
139
Figure 140
the theorem anglebetweena and picka pointD the sum of ZBCD

previous
theorem as a degenerate caseof angles. Namely, consider the tangent and a chord, e.g. ZBCD in Figure 140, \177 on the intercepted arc. Then ZBCD becomes \177 and the inscribed angle D\177CD.The arc CnD intercepted by ZBCD also becomes-the sum of the corresponding arcs \177and D\177nD. Now let the point D\177move along the circle toward the point C. When D \177approaches C, the position of the secant ray CD \177approaches the position of the tangent CB. Then
Remark. One may
think
of this
about
inscribed
CD
measures of CD.'
D\177nD
and
ZBCD
\177 both
approach
zero,
and measures
of
and
ZD'CD
property
approach
of
Tkus the
of
the
inscribed
those of CnD and/BCD respectively. angle D'CD to measure a half
D'nD,
tangent
lies inside a disk, is measured by the (AC and DE), one of which is intercepted the other by the angle vertical to it.
into the property of the angle CBD between a to measure a half of the intercepted arc CnD. 126. Theorem. (1) An angle (ABC, Figure 141), whose vertex
transforms and
a chord
semisum
of
two
arcs
and
by
this
a\177gle,
(2)
'An
angle
(ABC,
Figure
142), whose
vertex lies outside
100
a disk,
the
Chapter
2.
THE
CIRCLE
by
and whose sides

of
E
semidifference
the
intersect the circle,is measured two intercepted arcs (AC and ED).
E B
Figure 141
Figure
142
AD (on each diagram),we obtain AABD for ABC in questionis exterior, when its vertex lies inside the disk, and interior, when it lies outside the disk. In the
Drawing
the
chord
which
first
the angle
therefore
case
ZABC
ZDAE.
\177
ZADC But
+ the
ZDAE, angles
inscribed,are
the
case ZABC =
first
ZADCmeasured
and in the second ADC and DAE, as
by
halves
of the
arcs AC
the
and DE.
sum
\253AC
Thus
in
case the to
\253(AC
angie ABC is measuredby

+
+\253
DE
congruent
DE),
and in the
\253(AC-
second case by
'
the
difference
2 AC-\253DE !
congruentto
DE)
EXERCISES
Computation
problems
of
255. Computethe degree measure

an arc congruentto \177th
\17759.
an
inscribed
angle intercepting
part
of the
circle.
into two disk segments by a chord dividing the proportion $: 7. Compute the angles enclosed by these segments. \17760. Two chords intersect at an angle 36\37015'30 '\177.Express in degrees: minutes, and seconds the two arcs intercepted by this angle and the anglevertical to it:if one of these arcs measures 2/3 of the other. \17761. The angle between two tangents dragon from the samepoint to s-circle is 25\37015: Compute the arcs contained between the tangency
A
disk
is partitioned
the circle in
points.
4. Inscribed
chord 265.
Express intersection
and
some
other
angIes
lol
262. Compute
divides
the angleformedby
circle of
the circles
in the the
Two
in
degrees
points.
the
a tangent .and a chord, if the proportion 3: 7. same radius intersect. at the angle 2d/3. smaller of the arcs containedbetween the
Remark:
The
angle
angle
between
A
between two intersecting arcs is defined as the the tangent lines to thesearcs drawn at the intersecis drawn the
tion point.
26J.
secant
tangent through
other,
through so that
one endpoint of a 'diameterand a they make the angle20\37030 \177.Comthe
pute
the
smaller
of the
arcs containedbetween
tangent
and
the
secant.
Find the geometric
locus of:
from a givenpoint A
265.
to
The
feet
of the
lines
passing
midpoints
perpendiculars dropped through another given point

of
B.
a point
given
266. The a disk.
chords
passing
through
given inside
angle
267.
the
Points
from
which
a given
circle is
seen at a
circle
(i.e.
angle
point is
between two tangents to the given congruent to the given'angle).
drawn
from
the
Prove theorems:
265.
the
If
two
circles
tangency
point
are tangent, cuts out on

through
then any
secant passing through

arcs
the
ci_rcles
opposed
of the
same
angular measure.
269. Prove that

secants
secants
if
the
tangency
are
are
drawn,
parallel.
then
the chords
point of two circles two connecting the endpointsof the

and
270. Two circles intersect at the points A and B, secant is drawn intersecting the circles at the points
through
A, a
C and
that the
for
measure
of
the
angle
CBD
chord
is constant,
AB
i.e. it is the same

and
D. Prove
all
such
secants.
271. In a disk centeredat by the segmentBC congruent
O, a
to
is
drawn
second
is
congruent
C and the centerO, a secant

intersection
the
radius.
Through
CD
point to
with
A\177'D A
the
is drawn, where circle. Prove that
D denotes the the angle
extended the point
the
angle
diameter
tripled.
272.
Through
drawn.
are
a point
The
of
a circle, the perpendicular
tangent and a chord to the radius OB meets
102
and the chord (orits respectively. Provethat the tangent 273.
same
AC extension)
Chapter
2.
THE
CIRCLE
at
the
points
C and
from
Let
point
\177PA
and
PB
be two
tangents
diameter.
P, and
one
let BC be a
to a circledrawn
Prove
the
that
CA and
two
are parallel.
27\177.
Through
diameter
in each
of the two intersection points of of the circlesis drawn. Prove that
circles,
the
line con-
necting the endpointsof these diameters passes through the other intersection point. 275. A diameter AB' and a chord AC form an angle of 30 \370. Through C, the tangent is drawn intersecting the extension ofAB at the point D. Prove that AACD is isosceles.
5
a
Construction problems.
127.
and
Problem.
To
construct
\337
a right
triangle given
its hypotenuse
a leg b
(Figure 143).
Figure
143
Figure 144
describe a semicirclewith AB and take the midpointfor the center of the semicircle and \253AB for the radius.) Then draw an arc of radius congruent to b centered at the point A (or B). Connect the intersection point C of the arc and the semicircle, with the endpoints of the diameterAB. The required triangle is ABC, since the angle C is right (\365124), a is the hypotenuse, and b is a leg.
AB
On a line MN, mark

diameter.
a and
as a
(For
this,
bisect
AB,
128.Problem.
144) --
To
erect
a perpendicular
to a
that
at Take
the
endpoint the
A without line AB
extending the ray
ray AB (Figure beyondthis point.

the
outside
any point O such

to
circle,
cen-
tered at
O and ofradius congruent
the
segment
OA, intersects
the
5. Construction problems
ray
103
C. Through this point C, draw the diameter its endpoint D with A. The line AD is the required perpendicular, because the angle A is right (as inscribed intercepting
AB
at
some
point
CD
and connect
a diameter).
given circle.
129.Problem.
given
Through
given
point\177
to
draw
\177 tangent
to
Consider two cases:
(1) The
draw
point
(C,
Figure
145) lies
the
radius
to this
point, and at
B
dicular
A
AB to
this radius (e.g. as explained

C
on the circle itself. Then its endpointC, erect the perpenin
the
previous
problem).
Figure
145
Figure 146
(2) The given point (A,

by
Figure
146)
lies
outside
the
given
the
circle
circle. Then, with AO as a
at which
this circle
are
diameter. Through the pointsB and B' intersects the given one, draw the lines/lB and
required
connecting A with
the disk bounded the centerO, construct
AB: These lines are the
tangents,
since
the angles
OBA
and
OB\177A
right
Corollary. point outside

ent
the
angles
with
146).
a diameter). to a circle from a disk bounded by it, are congruent and form congruthe line connecting this point with the center. This
(as inscribed
tangent
intercepting
Two
segments,
drawn
follows
(Figure
from the
Problem.
147).
congruence of the right

Given two circles, to Suppose that
triangles
OBA
and
OB\177A
130.
(Figure
construct a common tangent

points.
/lB other.
(1) Analysis. be a common

one
the problemhas beensolved.Let

B
tangent,
these
and
the
tangency
Obviously,
the
if we find
of
points,
the radii OA and O'B. These.radii, being perpendicular to the common tangent, are parallel to eachother. Therefore, if we draw through O' the line O'C parallel BA, then O\177C will be perpendicular to OC. Thus, if we draw a circle of radius OC centered
Draw
e.g. A, then
we can easily find
to
104
at O,
C\177hapter
2.
THE
CIRCLE
then O'C
of
A
will
be
tangent
\270A
the
this
auxiliary
difference
circle is
the
CA =
radii
of
point C. The radius of it is congruent to the given circles.

to it
at the
\270A
- \270'B, i.e.
Figure
147
Figure
148
Construction. Thus the requiredconstruction can be performed Describe the circle centeredat O of radius congruent to of the given radii. From6)', draw a tangent-O'C to this circle (as describedin the prsvious problem). Through the point C, draw the radiusOC and extend it beyond C up to the intersection pointA with the given circle. Finally, through the point A, draw the line AB parallel to CO(
as follows. the difference
Research. The the exterior ofthe tangentsto circles,

the
construction
is possible circle.
when
auxiliary
In this
case we
the center 6)' lies in obtain two common

two
each
parallel
to one
of the
tangents
from
point 6)' to called external.

the
the auxiliary circle.These two
common
tangents
are
commontangents.
When
For the point 6)' to be in the exterior of the auxiliary circle, the segment 6)0' has to be greater than the difference of the radii of the given circles. According to the results of \365120, this is true unless one of the given disks containsthe other. When one of the circles lies inside the other, obviously, no common tangent is possible. When the circleshave an internal tangency, the perpendicular to the line of centerserected at the tangency point is, evidently, the only common tangent of the circles. Otherwise, i.e. when neither of the diskscontainsthe other,there exist, as we have seen, two external
\"
the
greater nal
follows.
than common
two given circles. do not intersect, i.e. when the sum of the given radii, therealsoexist two tangents (Figure 148) which can be constructed
OO'
is
interas
(2)
Analysis.
Suppose that
the problemhas beensolved,
and
5.
Construction
problems
tangent.
105
Draw
let AB be such a common
the
the
tangency
points
common
tangent,
and B. These are parallel to

at
from
O r the
line O'CIIBA
O\177C
and extendthe radius

point
the radii OA and OrB to radii, being perpendicularto each other.. Thus, if we draw
OA
beyond
A to
its
intersection with
the auxiliary
to O'C.
by
Therefore
the
C, then OC circle described
will be perpendicular about the center O
The radius of the auxiliary
tangent to the line O\177C at the point C. circle is OA + AC = OA + OrB,i.e.it is congruent to the sum of the radii of the given circles. Construction. Thus the construction can be performed this way: draw the circle centered at O of radius congruentto the sum of the given radii. From the point Or, draw a line O'C tangent to the
the
radius
OC
will be
auxiliary circleat the pointC. Connect O, and throughthe intersection point
the A
tangency
point
C with
of OC
with the
circle, draw
other
the line
The
AB
tt
CO(
second
internal
common tangent
is parallelto the
tan-
gent
to the auxiliary circleand is constructed similarly. segment O(P \177is congruent to the sum of the given radii,the two given circles have an external tangency (\365120). In this case, the perpendiculax to the lineof centers erected at the tangency point is, evidently, the 0nly internal common tangent of the circles. Finally, when the two disks overlap, no internal tangents exist. 131. Problem. On a given segment AB, to construct a disk
from (P'
the
When
segmentenclosinga
Arab
given
angle
(Figure
149).
Suppose that the problemhas beensolved, and let disk segment enclosing the-given angle c\177, i.e. such that any angle ACB inscribed in it is congruent to c\177. Draw the auxiliary line AE tangent to the circle at the point A. Then the angle BAE formed by the tangent and the chord AB, is also congruent to the inscribed angle ACB, since both measure a half of the arc AnB. Now let us take into accountthat the centerO ofthe circle lies on the perpendicular bisector DO of the chord AB, and at the same time on the perpendicular(A(P) to the tangent (AE) erected at the
Analysis. be a
tangencypoint.This
Construction.
suggests
the
following
A
construction.
the
At the
congruent and
endpoint
to
\177.
of
segment
perpendiculari)0, AE. the intersection

Taking
an angle BAE
At
the
midpoint
AB, construct of AB erect the
at
the
point
point
A, erect the perpendicular to (P of these perpendiculars for the

A(P.
center,
Proof. sured
describe
Any
the circle
angle
of radius
inscribed
by
a half
of the
into the disk segmentArab is meaarc AnB, and the half of this arc is also the
106
measure
Chapter 2.
of ZBAE
is
THE
CIRCLE
\177.
Thus
Arab
the
is the
disk
required disk
Arab
segment.
the
Remark. On Figure149,
angle
such
\177,
segment
enclosing
constructed
disk
segment
can
axisAB. Thus, onecould
the line AB. Another be constructed symmetric to Arab about the

on the
say
upper side of
the
that
geometric
locus of
points, from
consists
which a given line segment AB is seen at a given angle the arcs of two disk segments, eachenclosing the given are symmetric to each other about the axis AB.
c\177,
of.
angle,
which
\177E
Figure
149
Figure
150
132. The method of geometricloci. Many construction probcan be successfully approached usingthe concept of geometric locus. This method, known already to Plato(4th century B.C.), can be described as follows. Suppose that a proposed problem consists ]n finding a point which has to satisfy certain conditions. Discard one of these conditions; then the problem becomes under-determined: it may admit infinitely many solutions,i.e. infinitely many points satisfying the remaining conditions. These points form a geometric locus. Construct this locus if possible. Then reinstall the previously discarded condition, but discard another one; the problem will again have infinitely many solutions which will form another geometric locus. Construct it if possible. A point satisfying all the conditions of the originalproblem belongs to bothgeometric loci, i.e. it must lie in their intersection. The construction will be possible or impossible depending on whether the lociintersect or not, and the problem will have as many solutions as there are intersection points. Let us illustrate this method by an example, which also shows that sometimes adding auxiliary lines to a diagram can be useful. -\" 133. Problem. To construct a triangle, given its base a, the angle at the vertex A, and the sum s of the lateral sides.
lems
5.
Construction
problems
be
107
the
to
Let ABC \177 (Figure.150)

the
required
=
If
triangle.
In order to
extend
diagram
the
given
sum of
lateral sides, let us

$. Connecting
we
add
past
we
BA
A and
obtain
mark on it the segmentB.\177

an
M with
to construct
trian\365le
(\177,
auxiliary
triangle
can
BM(\177.
manage
this
and
triangle, then we
Indeed,
easily
construct
the
required
(A(\177
note
\1774 can
hence
that the triangle C'AA\177 is isosceles be found as the intersection of \177.\177
= the
AA\177),
with
perpendic-
ular bisector
of
to
The constructionof the triangle\177M\177 reduces point M. Since the triangleCAA\177 is isosceles,
/_M\177A
finding
the
=
we
must
have
satisfy
Z\177/\177
\177/.-]\177A\177.
We
see
that
the
B,
point
and to
.\177
two
conditions:
(1) it
\177C
has distances from

is
(2) the
\253 ZA.
angle at which
Thus
the segment
struction
we
seen
of
how
\177
reduces
from A\177 is congruent to intersecting two
the
con-
geometric
know
to construct
tion
when
these loci
each of them. The problem has no soludo not intersect, and has one or two solutions
tangent
loci such that
depending on whetherthe lociare
to
each
On our diagram, we
satisfying
obtain
two
(congruent!)
other or intersect. triangles AB\177 and
\177VB\177
the
requirements
of the
finding
problem.
a line
than a point) conditions, we will obtain infinitely many lines satisfying the remaining conditions. It may happen that all such lines can be describedin termsofa certain curve (for instance, as all lines tangent to a certain circle). Discarding another condition and reinstailing the previously discarded one, we will obtain infinitely many lines again, which may define
satisfying
Sometimesa problem requires

several
conditions.
Discarding
(rather one of the
other. curve. Constructing, if possible, both curves we then determine the requiredline.Let us give an example. 134. Problem. To draw a secant of two given disks \177 and \177, so that the segments of the secant contained insidethe disks are congruent respectively to two given segments a and a\177. If we take into account only one of the requirements, for example, thst the part of the secant insidethe disk (9 is congruent to a, then we obtain infinitely many secants Which h\177ve to be equidistant from the center of the disk (sincecongruent chords are equidistant from the center). Therefore, if we construct \177nside \177 \177 chord congruent to a and then describe the circle concentric to \177 of radius congruent to the distance from the chord to the center, then all the secants in question will be tangent to this auxiliary circle. Similarly, taking into account only the second condition, we will see that the required secant must be tsngent to the second auxiliary c\177rcle concentric to
some
105
Ch\177p\177er
2.
THE
CIRCLE tangent
(9( Thus the two circles.
problem reducesto constructing
common
to
EXERCISES
Prove theorems
276.
mon ments
external tangency, prove that the comtangent passing through the tangency point, bisects the segof external common tangents bounded by the tangencypoints.
Given
two
circles
with
277.
To
two
circles
tangent
externally
at a
point A,
a common
exter-
BC is drawn (whereB and C are the tangency points). Prove that the angleBAC is right. Hint: Draw through A a commontangentand examine the triangles
nal tangent
ABD
and
ADC.
Construction
problems
points,
278. Given two

from
construct points
a line
a given
such that
dropped these 279. Construct a

tangent
the perpendiculars
to'this
line have
line
making
given lengths. angle with a given line and

that
to
From
a given
a
circle.
outside
280.
segment
281.
point
(How many solutions are there?) a disk, construct a secant such

segment.
its
inside
Construct Construct
given line and a

282.*
the disk is congruentto a given a circle that has a given radius,

given
and
is tangent tangent tangent
to a
to a to a
circle.
a circle
given circle at
283.
tangent to a
(two
given
line
and
given
point
solutions).
given
Construct
given line at
a circle tangent to a
given
circle
and
point
(two
solutions).
285. Construct a circle that has a given radius and cuts out chords of given lengthson the sides of a given angle. 285. Constructa disk tangent to two given disks, and to oneofthem at a given point. (Consider three cases: the required disk contains (1)bothgiven disks, (2) one of them, (3) none of them.) 286. Construct a circle tangent (externally or internally) to three
given
congruent
circles.
di\177ks
287.* Into each other
a given circle, inscribethree congruent and to the given circle. 288.* Through a given point inside a disk,draw the difference of its segmentsis congruent to a
tangent
to
chord
such
that
given
segment.
5. Construction
problems
concentric
this
109
circle passing a chord of the point
Hint: the and construct

Draw
in
circle
259.
that
Through
an
intersection
through the given point, given length. of two circles, draw a secant such
to
its
segment
inside the
given disks is congruent

hypotenuse
a given is the
Hint: Construct a right triangle whose between the centers of the given disks,
length. segment
and
one of
the legs is congruent
to a
half
of
the
given
length.
290. From a point outsidea disk,draw a secant ray such that its external and internal parts are congruent. Hint: Let O be the center of the disk,/\177 its radius, and A the given point. Construct /NAOB, where AB = R, OB = 2R. If C is the midpoint of the segment OB, then the line AC is the required one. 291. Construct a circle tangent to two given non-parallel lines (1) if the radius is given, (2) if instead6neof the tangency points is given. 292. On a given line,find a point from which a given segment is seen
at a
293.
and
given
angle.
Construct the altitude.
a triangle,
given its base, the angle at
the
vertex,
a triangle, given one of its anglesand two of its which is drawn from the vertex of the given angle. 295. Constructa tangent to the arc of a given sector suchthat the segment of the tangent between the extensions of the radii bounding the sector is congruent to a given segment.
29.4.
Construct
altitudes,
one of
Hint: Reduce and the

297.
a point
median
the
problem
to
given
the base.
previous
its
one.
the
296. Construct a
Given the
from
triangle,
the
base,
angie
at the
vertex;
find
bisecting
positions of two
segments
a and
b in the
angle
plane,
c\177, and
which the
triangle,
segment a is seenat
find
given
the
segment
b at
given
a given angiefl.
a point
298. In a
at
from which
its sides are seen

and the
the
the
same
angle.
given
299.* Construct a triangle, its angle at altitude and the median to the base. Hint: Double the median extendingit past endpoint with the vertices at the base, consider
drawn and
the vertex,
base,
the
connect
the
parallelogram
thus
formed.
given
300.* Construct a triangle, its base, and the angiebetweenthe the first given angle and the sideto 301. Construct a parallelogram,
given
base,
an angle
drawn this
adjacent
the and
to the
of
median which
from median
vertex is drawn. an angle.
its
diagonals
110
302.*
Construct
and 303. sides,
the
sum or
a triangle, given its base, its angle at the differenceof the othertwo sides.
the
vertex,
Construct and the

\177
a quadrilateral, given its angle between the two remaining

three
diagonals,
sides.
two
adjacent
$OJ.
through
line
Given
points the
A such
that the
dropped
from
A, B, and C, construct a line passing distance betweenthe perpendiculars tothis points B and C is congruentto a given seg-
ment.
Inscribed
and
circumscribed
vertices
polygons
polygon
135.Definitions. Ifall of a a circle, the polygon is circle,and the circle is circumscribed

151) lie on
If all
then called
(ABCDE,
Figure
called
inscribed
about
into the
polygon.
the
sides of a
called
polygon
(MNPQ, is
Figure
151)
circle,then the and the circle is
polygon
called
inscribed
into
circumscribed the polygon.
are tangent to a about the circle,
Figure
151
Figure 152
136. Theorems. (1) circumscribed, and such a

About
circle is
any
triangle,
unique.
a circle
can be
a circle is
(1)
(2)
Into
any
unique.
triangle,
A, B,
any
a circle
can be inscribed, and such

we a
Vertices
and C of any
three
have circle
seen in \365104, is unique.
such
points
triangle are non-collinear. As lie on a circle,and such
152),
-- (2) If a
then
circle
the
tangent
to
all
sides
center
must
be a
of a triangle.ABC exists (Figure point equidistant from these sides.
6.
Let
Inscribed
us
and circumscribed
that
from The
prove
such a
the
point
AB
equidistant
sides
geometric
11! exists. The geometric locusofpoints and AC is the bisector of the

polygons
AM
angle
sides
bisectors
This
.4
BA
(\36558).
locus
and
BC
is the
bisector
BN of the angle B.
of points
equidistant from the

two
will,
point
evidently,
will
it lies
point
a triangle,bisect two
of
in both geometricloci.Thus,in
of
intersect inside the triangle at be equidistant from all the sidesof the
order
These some pointO.

since
triangle,
its
angles,
say A and
dropped
into B, take the intersection

to
inscribe
the
a circle
the
bisectors
for the
the perpendiculars
sides of the triangle.The circle
OP, OQ, or OR,

since
center, and take for

from
will
radius
any
of
the
center
to the
be
tangent
to the
points P, Q,
sides at the
intersect
to
and
R,
at these
the
radii
at
their
endpoints
a
lying
point
points the on the

only
sides are perpendicular circle (\365113). Another

bisectors
such
an inscribed
circle cannot
exist, sincetwo
can
only at
can be dropped.
one point, and from
one perpendicular
to a line
Remark. We leave it to the reader to verify that the center of the circumscribed circle liesinsidethe triangle if and only if the triangle is scalene. For an obtuse triangle, the center lies outside it, and for a right triangle at the midpoint of the hypotenuse.The center of the inscribed circle always lies inside the triangle.
Corollary.
the
The
point
(Figure
152), being
the
sides
CA
and CB,
fore bisectors of the
three anglesof a triangleintersect at
must lie on the bisector of
equidistant
angle
from
C.
one
Therepoint.
Figure
153
112
Chapter'2.
THE CIRCLE
one
triangle and to
137.Exscribedcircles.
the
The
circles
tangent.to
side of
extensions
of
two
outside has three

the A,
triangle,
such
Figure
circles.
To
153) are construct
circles lie called exscribed. Each triangle them, draw bisectors of the
other
sides (such
O, i.e. the intersection point ofthe bisectors CO of the exterior angles not supplementary to A. The radius this circle is the perpendicular dropped from O to any of the
is
exterioranglesofthe triangle ABe, for the centers. Thus, the of the

center
and
take
their
intersection
points
circle
inscribed
into the
the
point
BO
angle
and
of
sides
of the triangle.
quadrilateral,
two
138.Inscribedquadrilaterals. (1)In a
the angles.
convex
inscribed
sum
of opposite
angles is congruent
to
right
opposite
it is
(2) Conversely,
angles
if a convex
congruent
quadrilateral has the sum of

two
to
right
angles\177
then
it
can
be circumscribed
by a circle.
(Figure that
(1)
Let
ABCD
to
154) be
an inscribed convex quadrilateral;

LA
required
prove
LB +
ZD = 2d and
LC
= 2d.
Since the sum of all the four angles of any convex quadrilateral is 4d (\36582), then it suffices to prove only one of the required equalities. Let us prove for example that LB + zSD = 2d. The angles B and D, as inscribed, are measured: the former by a half of the arc ADO,and the latterby a half of the arc ABC. There-
fore the sum \177B

which
\177D
is
measured +
by the ABC),
sum
i.e.
\253 ADC
+\253
ABC,
circle.
is congruent to Thus ZB + LD
\253(ADC
= 180\370=
a half of
the whole
2d.
(2) Let ABCD (Figure 154)be a convex quadrilateral such that LB + LD = 2d,and therefore ZA + LC = 2d. It is requiredto prove that a circle can be circumscribed about such a quadrilateral.
Through
any
three
vertices
possible).
of it,
say through A,
fourth
B,
and
C, draw
this circle.Indeed, ifit didn't, it outside it. In eithercase the are ABC, therefore
the and the
a circle
(which is always
semisum
of the
from
2d, which
arcs ADC and ABC. Thusthis sum would contradicts the hypothesis.
D must lie on would lie either inside the disk, or angie D would not measure a half of the sum LB + LD would not measure
The
vertex
differ
--Corollaries.
only ones which
can
(1)
Among
all
parallelograms,
rectangles
are the
be circumscribed
by a
circle.
6. Inscribed and circumscribed polygons
113 a circle
les.
(2)
A trapezoid
can be circumscribedby
only if
it is
isosce-
139. Circumscribed quadrilaterals. In a

quadrilateral,
circumscribed
the
(Figure
sums
155)
of opposite
be tO
sides are congruent. i.e.

that
the sides of it
AB
Let ABCD
are
tangent
+ CD
= BC
the
+ AD.
points
a circumscribed quadrilateral, a circle. It is required prove
to
Denote
two
tangency
by the
letters M,
and
tangents
drawn
have AM
= AQ, BM =
from the
BN,CN= CP,
+ + CD
same point to a circle

DP
N, P, and Q. Since
are
congruent,
we
= DQ.
Therefore
AM + MB + CP +PD =AQ
QD
+ BN
+ NC,
i.e.
AB
=AD
+ BC.
Figure
154
Figure
155
EXERCISES
305. Into
given.
a given circle,inscribe a triangle whose 306. About a given circle,circumscribe a triangle

307. Construct
angles
whose
are
given.
are
angles
a triangle,given
and
the
radius
of its
inscribed circle,
the
the
of
angleat the
$08.
vertex,
the
altitude.
given
its sidesand the angleopposite to one of them. $09. Into a given circle, inscribe a quadrilateral, sides, and both anglesnot adjacent to it.
Into a given
circle, inscribea triangle,
sum
of two
'one
given
of its
$10.
arc
Inscribe
a circle
into
a given
inscribe
rhombus.
a circle
311. Into a given

the
sector,
tangent
to the radii and
bounding
the sector.
114
312.* pairwise
Into tangent
an equilateral to each
triangle, inscribe three diskswhich other, and eachof them is tangent

assuming
are to
two
sides
of the
triangle.
of its
that it can be circumscribed sides and a diagonalare given. given its side and the radius of the in-
313. Constructa quadrilateral by a circle, and that three

31.\177.
Construct
a rhombus,
scribed
circle.
triangle given
the inscribedcircle.
315. Circumscribe an isosceles right 316. Construct an isosceles triangle,

Through
about its
a given
circle.
base
and the
two
radius of
parallel
317.*
chords
two
given
points
on a
about
circle, construct
an
with
a given
sum.
equilateral greatest
is
the
318.* On a circle circumscribed M is taken. Prove that the

congruent feet
of the
to
the
of
sum
of the
other two.
AABC, a point segments MA, MB, MC
319.* The
sides
of an
line).
Hint:
angles
of
dropped from a point of a circleto triangle lie on the same line (called Simsoh's , proof is based on properties of inscribed angles(\365123), and inscribed quadrilaterals (\365138).
perpendiculars
inscribed
Four
concurrency
We
points
that:
in a triangle
140.
intersect
have
seen.
three perpendicular bisectorsto the sides of a triangle at one point (which is the center of the circumscribed circle and is often called the circumcenter of the triangle); (2) the three bisectors of the angles of a triangle intersect at one point (which is the center of the inscribed circle, and often called
.(1) the
incenter
of the
triangle).
The following two theorems point out two more remarkable points in a triangle: (3) the intersection pointof the three altitudes, and (4) the intersection point of the threemedians. 141. Theorem. Three altitudes of a triangle intersect at
onepoint.
Through
(Figure 156), draw the line parthe triangle. Then we obtain an auxiliary triangle A'B'C \177 whose sides are perpendicular to the altitudes of the given triangle. Since C\177B = AC = BA' (as opposite sidesof parallelograms), then the point B is the midpoint of the sideA'C( Similarly,
each
vertex
of AABC
allel
to
the
opposite
side of
7.
Four
the
concurrency
midpoint
points
in a
triangle
altitudes
to
115
the
C is
at
BE, and
one
of A'B' and A of B'C t. Thus the CF of AABC.are perpendicular bisectors AA'B'C', and such perpendiculars, as we know from
AD, sides of
\365104,
intersect
point.
Remark. The point wherethe three altitudes of a triangle intersect is called its orthocenter. The reader may prove that the orthocenter of an acute triangleliesinside the triangle, of an obtuse triangle outside it, and for a right triangle coincides with the vertex
of the
C'
right
angie.
'F\"-
Figure
156
Figure 157
142. Theorem. The
th\177;ee
medians
of side.
a triangle
intersect
measured
at one
point\177 f\177rom
this
the
point
cuts
a third
two
part of each median

e.g.
corresponding
In AABC (Figure 157), take any intersecting at a point O, and prove
medians,
AE and
that
OD=
\177BD, and
OB
OE=
AE. and G and considerthe
Forthis, bisect
OA
and
at the
quadrilateral DEGF.
points F
Since the segment FG connects the midpoints of two sides of AABO,then FGltABand FG = \253AB. The segment DE, too, connects the midpoints of two sides of AABC, and hence DE lAB and DE = \253AB. From this we conclude that DE] FG and DE = FG, and therefore the quadrilateral DEGF is a parallelog\177ram (\36586). It follows that OF = OE and OD = OG, i.e.that OE -and OD = \253BD. If we consider now the third median and oneofthe medians AE or BD, then we similarly find that their intersection point cuts from each of them a third part measured from the foot. Therefore the
116
third same
median must point O.
intersect
the
Chapter2. CIRCLE medians AE and ND at very

THE the
Remarks. (1) It is known from physics that the intersection point of the mediansof a triangle is the center oi\177 mass (or centroid) of it, also calledbarycenter; it always lies inside the triangle. (2) Three (or more) linesintersecting at one point are called concurrent. Thus we can say that the orthocenter, barycenter, incenter and circumcenter of a triangleare concurrency points of its altitudes, medians, angle bisectors, and perpendicular bisectors ofits
sides
320.
respectively.
EXERCISES
from
Construct a given the endpointsof the base.

triangle,
its
base
and two
medians drawn
Construct a triangle, given its three medians. 322. Into a given circle, inscribe a triangle such that the extensions of its anglebisectors intersect the circle at three' give\177. points. Into a given circle, inscribe a triangle such that the extensions of its altitudes intersect the circle at three given points. 32\177.* Construct a triangle given its circumscribed circleand the three points on it at which the altitude, the angle bisector and the median, drawn from the same vertex, intersectthe circle. 325.*Prove that connecting the feet of the altitudes of a given triangle, we obtain another triangle for which the altitudes of the given
321.
triangle are anglebisectors.
the barycenter of a triangle lies on the line segment circumcenter and the orthocenter, and that it cutsa third part of this segment measured from the circumcenter. Remark:This segment is called Euler's line of the triangle.
Prove
326.*
that
connecting
the
327.* Provethat the same (called

for circle
every
triangle,
the
Euler's
circle,
following nine points lie on or the nine-point circle of
the
and
triangle):
three
three
midpoints
midpoints of the of the segments
connecting the orthocenterwith

the
sides, three feetofthe altitudes,

center
the
vertices
of the
line
triangle.
for
on Euler's
Remark:
triangle, exscribed
328.* Prove that

and
every
triangle,
of Euler's
circle lies
bisects
it.
Moreover, according
the nine-point circles.
circle is
to Feuerbach's theorem, for every tangent to the inscribed and all three
Chapter
SiMILARiTY
Mensuration
segments,we wereableto determine if they are congruent, and if they are not then which of them is greater (\3656). We have encountered this task when studying relationshipsbetweensidesand angles of
triangles
(\365\36544, (\365\36551-53, provide
143.The
problem
of
mensuration.
So far,
comparing
two
45),
the
triangle
inequality
(\365\36548-50),
and
some
other
topics
109-111,
an
doesnot
accurate
120). Yet such comparison of idea about their magnitudes. precisely

by
segments
of
Nowwe posethe problem of establishing length of segmentsand expressing lengths

M A\177 I
the concept
of numbers.
means
1'
C\177D
Figure 158
144.
such
common it
measure
of two
segments is a third segment

first
that
is contained
AB
in each
and
of the
a
two
a whole
times with no remainder. Thus, if
segment
AM
talk
contained 5 times in
measure
3 times
in CD,
of
then AM is a common
about two
number of (Figure 158) is

common
of
AB
any if
and
two the
measures
of two
of
eD. One can similarly arcs of the sameradius,

quantities segment
angles,
and
more
generally
Evidently,
same denomination. AM is a common measureof the

of the
seg-
117
118
ments
Chapter
3.
SIMILARITY
AB and
we
CD, then
smaller segments
dividing
AM
into
parts
that be
obtain
if
common have
measures a common
2, 3, 4, etc. of the same
congruent
segments.
say
Therefore,
they the
two
have
infinitely
many common
measures. Oneof themwill

Finding
measure, one can
greatest.
the
common
exhaustion, quite similar to the method of consecutive division which is used in arithmeticfor finding the greatest common factor of two whole numbers.The method(also called the Euclidean
secutive
145. The greatest common measure. measure of two segments is done by
greatest
the
method
of con-
algorithm) is
based
on
the
following
general
facts.
Figure
159
Figure
160
(1)/y the smaller one of two segments (a and b, Figure 159) is contained in the greateronea whole number of times with no remainder, then the greatest common measure of the two segments is the smaller segment. Let a segment b be contained in a segment a exactly,say, 3 times. Since b is, of course, containedin itself once, then b is a commou measureof a and b. This common measure is the greatest sinceno segment greater than b can be contained in b a whole number of
times.
(2) If the smaller one of two segments (b in Figure 160) is contained in the greater one(a) a whole number of times with some remainder (r), then the greatest common measure of these segments (if it exists) must be the greatest common measure of thesmaller segment (b) and the remainder (r).'
Let,
We can
for
instance,
a=b+b+b+r.
it also
segment then
without remainder)into b
fits
derive from this (i) If there exists a

a
equality
segment
two
fitting
conclusions:
some
number
of times
and
some
number
of times
whole
number
is contained it
of times into in b exactly'5 times,
is contained
in a
exactly 5 q-
5 +
a. For instance,if some and in r exactly2 times, q- 2 = 17 times.
(i.e. into r, then
1.
Mensuration
!19
(ii) without into
Conversely, remainder,
r. For example, if some segmentis containe.d times, and in b exactly 5 times,then it is contained in that part of the segmenta which is congruent
if .there exists a segmentfitting into a and b, then it alsofits without

in
several
times, remainder
exactly
17
exactly
15 times
the remaining part of a, i.e. in

exactly.
to 3b.
Therefore
in
r,
it
is contained
and
17
- 15 -- 2 times
the their greatest
r, have
the
Thus
the
two pairs
of segments: a and b,
b and
same commonmeasures (if they exist), and common measuresalsohave to be the same. These two theorems shouldalsobe supplemented
Archimedes'
therefore
by
following
axiom:
However
short
long is the
smaller
smaller that
the
etc. times
always
is
the
one (b), subtracting
no remainder lef!, than the smallersegment

or
find
after
consecutively1,2,3, segment from the greater one, we will some m-th subtraction, either there is
there
greater segment (a),and
however
is
In
a remainder
other
which
it is
(b).
words,
is smaller always possible
ormb<a<
to find
su\177ciently
(m
large l )b.
A
whole number
m such that
E
eithermb- a,
C
t I
F I
D
I
Figure
161
146.
the
(Figure
The
161).
Euclidean
common
greatest
algorithm. Supposeit is required to find measure of two given segments AB and CD
Using
a compass,
exhaust the
times outcomes
greater segmentby
According either (1)
marking
on
it
the smaller
AB
one as many
times
as possible.
to Archimedes'
will occur: CD will fit into remainder, and then according to the ist theorem the required measure will be CD, or (2) there will be a remainder EB smaller than CD (as in Figure 161). According to the second theorem, the problem will then reduce to finding the greatest common measureof the two smaller segments, namely CD and the remainder EB. To find it, do as before, i.e. exhaust CD by marking on it EB as many times as possible.Again, one of two outcomes' will occur: either (1) EB will fit into CD several times
axiom, one of two

several
with no
with no remainder,and then the required measure will be EB, or (2) there will be a remainder FD smaller than EB (as in Figure 161). The problemis then reduced to finding the greatest common
measure of another pair of smaller

second
segments,
namely
\177B.
and
the
remainder
Continuing
lowing
this process further, we can encounteroneof the

will
fol-
two
cases:
be
(i) after
some exhaustionstep there
no remainder continue as desired,

the
left, or
indefinitely
(ii) the process of consecutive exhaustion will (assuming that we can marksegments as small possible, of course,only theoretically). In the former case, the last remainder will be measure of the given segments.One can similarly common measure of two arcs of the same radius,
which is
common.
greatest
greatest
find
the
angles, etc. In the latter case,the given segments cannot have any common measure. To seethis,let us assume that the given segments ,4B and CD have a common measure. This measure, as we have seen, must be contained a whole number of times not only in \1774B and CD, but also in the remainder EB, and thereforein the second remainder FD, and in the third, and in the fourth, and so on. Since these remaindersbecome smaller and smaller, each of them will contain the commonmeasure fewer times than the previous one. For instance,if \177B contains the common measure 100 times (in general times), then FD contains it fewer than 100 times, i.e. 99at most. The next remainder contains it fewer than 99 times,i.e. 98at most, and so on. Since the decreasing sequenceof positivewhole numbers: 100, 99, 98,... (in general m, n\177 - 1, zn - 2,... ) terminates (however large zn is), then the process of consecutive exhaustion must terminate as well, i.e. no remainder will be left. Thus, if the process of consecutive exhaustion never ends, then the given segments cannot
of two
have
common
measure.
Two sure,
and incommensurable segments. segments are called commensurable if they have a common meaand incommensurable if such a common measure doesnot exist. Existence of incommensurable segments cannot be discovered ex147.
Commensurable
perimentally. In.the process endless will always encounter a remainderso

of
consecutive
small
that
it
exhaustion we will slsps\177r to fit
the
previous
remainder
(compass) if there
instruments -determine
is
number of times: limitationsof our senses (vision) will not allow us to any remainder left. However,incommensurable
a whole
our
and
we
segments doexist,as
will
now
1.
Mensuration
121
148. Theorem. The .diagonal of a

rable
squareis
incommensu-
to
its
side.
Since the'diagonal divides the square intotwo isosceles right triangles, then this theorem can be rephrased this way: the hypotenuse of an isosceles right triangle is leg. Let us prove first the following property of such a triangle:if we mark on the hypotenuse AC (Figure 162) of AABC the segment AD congruent to the leg, and draw DE _L AC, then the right triangle DEC thus formed will be isosceles, and the part BE of the leg BC will be congruent to the part DC of the hypotenuse. To prove this, draw the line BD and consider anglesof the triangles DEC and BED. Since the triangle ABC is right and isosceles, then/1 = Z4, and therefore/1 = 45 \370. Therefore in the right triangle DEC we have /2 = 45 \370too, so that ADEC has two congruent angles,and hencetwo congruent sides DE and DC.
incommensurable to its
Figure
162
the
Furthermore, in the right angle B minus
to the right angleADE lessthe angle ADB. But/ADB = _/..ABD (since AB = AD), and hence /3 = /5. Then the triangleBED must be isosceles, and therefore BE = DE = DC. Having noted this, let us apply the Euclidean algorithmto the
segments
triangle BED, the angle3 is congruent to the angleABD,and the angle 5 is congruent
AB
and
AC.
'
Since AC > AB andAC < AB + BC, i.e. AC \177 2AB, then the leg AB fits the hypotenuseAC only once, and the remainder is DC. Now we have to use the remainder DC to exhaustAB, or equivalently, BC. But the segment BE is congruentto DC by
122
Chapter
need
3. further to
SIMILARITY mark exhausting
observation. Thereforewe EC. But EC is the hypotenuse of the

the above
to
DC' of
isosceles
reduces
Thereforethe Euclidean
of
right triangle by its
DEC.
the
algorithm
now
hypotenuse EC
turn,
an
isosceles
right
triangle
this
process isosceles this
will reduce right process
to exhausting
smaller Obviously, of
triangle by never ends,

\1774B
its leg, and so on, indefinitely. and therefore a common measure

not
the hypotenuseof a new,
leg DO. In its
the
segments
AC and
number
does
exist.
length
149.
Lengths
called
of segments.
obtained the
The
of
a segment
is ex-
pressed by a
by
comparing
this segment
other one,
yard,
with an-
unit
of length,
such as
e.g.
meter\177
centimeter,
or inch.
Suppose we need to measure a given segment a (Figure 163) using b, commensurable with a. If the greatest common measureof a and b is the unit b itself, then the length of a is expressed by a whole number. For instance, when b is contained in a three times, one says that the length of a is equal to 3 units (i.e. a = 3b). If the greatest commonmeasure of a and b is a part of b, then the length is expressed by a fraction. F6r example, if \254b is a common measure, and it is containedin a nine times, then one says that the length of a is equal to 9/4 units (i.e. a = \177b). Whole numbers and \313actions are called rational numbers.
a unit
Thus,
the
length
by
of a rational is
segment
number
is expressed
a .unit
fractionof
the
contained
commensurabIe with a unit of length telling us how many times some in the given segment.
I\177
Illill:lillE[El
L...,
a\"
\177,,\177r I
Figure
163
figure 164
150. Approximations.
ments was made by ancient Greeks. bers are, generally speaking, insufficient
The
discovery
of
incommensurable
that
segnumlengths
It
shows
rational
for no
expressing rational
segments. For instance, according to e-Xpress the length of the diagonalof a

for
\365148,
number
of can
square,
when
its side
is taken
the
unit
of length.
1. Mensuration
123
segment-a
indirectly: instead of the segment a, one measures other segments commensurable with the unit and such that they, differ from et by as little as onewishes.Namely, suppose we want to find commensurable segments that would differ from a by less than \177 b. Then divide the unit into 10 equal parts (Figure164) and repeat one such part as many times as neededto exhaust a. Suppose \177-\177b is \177ontained in a thirteen times with a remainder smaller than \1770 b. We obtain a
segment a \177commensurable
once
Measuring a
incommensurable
with
the
unit
b is
done
with
b'
and
smaller
than segments
a.
Adding
a
\177b
more,
we obtain
another segment
a\177also
the
commensurable
with
\177 are
b and
expressed
13/10 and 14/10. Thesenumbers are considered to the length of the segmenta, the first from below, the second from above. Sincethey both differ from a by 'less than \177th of the unit, one says that each of them expresses the length with the precision of up to \177 (or with the error smaller than \1770)' In general, to approximate the length of a segmenta with the 1 precision of up to \177th of a unit \177, one divides the unit into n equal 1th partofthe unit is contained parts and finds how many times the \177 in a. If it is contained ra times with a remainder smaller than 2b m and ra+l are said to approximate the then the rationalnumbers \177 n length of a with the precision of up to \177, the first from below, and the second from above. 151. Irrational numbers. The precise length of a segment incommensurable with the unit of length-is expressed by an irrational number.1 It can be represented by an infinite decimal fraction
by the fractions as approximations
greater than a.
The
lengths
of
a \177and
constructed as
from below
to
for
follows.
One
consecutively
computes
continues
approximations
this
the
length
of the
0.1,
then
up to
indefinitely,
one
obtains
\177The
each time improving the precision 10times.This way, decimal fractions first with one placeafter the decimal
of irrational
355
0.01, then up to 0.001, and
segment a
with the precision of up

process
first
definition
numbers,
usually
attributed
to a
Greek math-
ematician Eudoxus (408-
is found in Book 5 of \"Elements.\" Given a segment incommensurable with the unit of length, all segments commensur\177tble with the unit (and respectively all fractions m/n expressing their lengths) are partitioned into two disjoint groups: those which are smaller than the given segment, and those which are greater. According to Eudoxus, an irrational number/s such a partition (a cut, in the modern terminology) of' the set of all rational numbers. This somewhat abstract construction coincides with one of the modern definitions of irrational numbers proposed by R. Dedekind [2] in the late 19th
B.C.),
century.
Euclid's
124
Chapter3.
further
SIMILARITY
on
then with two, ther/with three,and more decimal places.

point,
with
more and
fraction.
be written, of course, on a pagesincethe number of decplaces is infinite. Nevertheless, an infinite decimal fraction is considered known when a rule which determines any finite number of its decimal signsis known. Thus, the length of a segment incommensurablewith the unit of length is expressed by an infinite decimal fraction whose finite parts expresslengths of segments commensurable with the unit and approx\177 imatin# the given segment with the errors that become consecutively smaller than 1/10th part of the unit, 1/100th, 1/1000th, and so on. 152. Remarks. (1)Thesame infinite decimal fraction can be obtained by using approximations to the irrational number from above rather than from below. Indeed, two approximations taken with the same precision, one from above, the other from below,differ only in the rightmost decimal place. When the precisionimproves,the rightmostplacemoves farther and farther to the right, thus leaving behind the same sequence of'decimal signs in both fractions. (2) The samemethod of decimal approximations applies to a segment commensurable with the unit of length. The result will be the rational number, expressing the length of the segment and representedas an (infinite) decimal fraction. It is not hard to show that the decimal fraction representing a rational number is repeating, contains a finite sequence of decimal signs which beginsto repeat again and again starting from some decimal place and going all the way to the right. Conversely,every repeating decimal fraction, as it is not hard to see, represents a rational number. Therefore the decimal fraction representingan irrational number (e.g. the length
It cannot
The
result
of
this
infinite
process
is an
infinite
decimal
imal
i.e.it
of any segment incommensurable with

For example,
the
unit)
is non-repeating.
the decimalfraction
x/\177=
1.4142...
is non-repeating,
tional.
(3)
since the
and
number
x/\177,
as
it
is well
known, is
irra-
Rational
infinite
irrational
fractions,
numbers.
numbers
repeating
Thus, decimal sent (positive)real

153.
and real
are called real numbers. and non-repeating, repre-
The
number
as points
line. The
on
real numbers
numbers
expressing
correspondence betweensegments lengths allows one to represent a straight line. Consider a ray OJ (Figure
their
1.
Mensuration
125
165) and markonit a pointB such that the segment OB is congruent to the unit of length. Every point C on the ray determines the segment OC whose length with respect to the. unit OB is expressed by a positive real number c. One says that the point C represents the number c on the number line. Conversely, given a positive real number, say v/\177, its finite decimal approximations 1.4, 1.41, 1.414, etc. are lengths of certain segments OD1, OD2, ODs, etc. commensurable with the unit. The infinite sequence of such segments approximates from below a certain segment OD. One says that the number (v\177 in this example) is represented by the point D on the
number
line.
In particular,
O the
Now
number 0.
we
the point
the
B representsthe number
1,
and
the
point
extend
the
to the center O to a point C onthe ray OA, is said to represent the negative real number -c, i.e. the opposite to that positive number which is representedby the symmetric point C. Thus, all real numbers: positive, zero, or 'negative, are represented by points on the number line. conversely, picking on any straight line any two pSints O and B to represent the numbers0 and 1 respectively, we establish a correspondence between all points of
point
C'
on the
ray OA to the wholestraight line. Then ray OA\177(Figure 165), symmetric with respect
the line and all

c'
AJ
real
numbers.
c A
c
-c
0
Figure
V\177'
165
to
154. Ratio of two segments. The ratio ofoneline segment is defined as the positive real number which expresses the length of the first segment when the second one is taken for the unit of length. For example, if two segments a and c are such that a = 2. lc, i.e. if the segment a, measured by the unit c, has the length
another
2.1,then 2.1isthe the

if of a
ratio
of
a to
c.
measured
If both segments a and c are the ratio of a toc can be obtained

length
by
by dividing
the same unit b, then the number expressing
the
lengths
\177b
a =
and
number expressing the lengthof c. Forinstance, and c turned out to be 7/2 and 5/3, we can write: = \177b. Taking , that then c for the unit, we find b = \177C, 3
by the
of a
126
Chapter
3.
SIMILARITY
and respectively
2
Therefore
\177
c=
of the
\177
\337
c.
by the unit
the ratio of c, is equal
a to c, i.e. the length to the quotient . \177:

segments
segment
-Zfi =
a measured
2.1.
2-\177
to the
The ratio of two

property
is usually
denoted
as a
of
the
ratio
described
above, the
c or a Due letters a and c in

.
measuring
these formulas corresponding
can also
segments
by the
A
be understoodas numbers same unit b.

proportion that
the
tios. For instance, if it isknown

the \177: \177
155.Proportions.
expresses the =
is equal to ratio a b of two be expressed as a proportion: a'

b
other
b
equality of two raa: b of two segments segments, then this fact can ratio
a \177 \337 b \177, or
b \177'
In
this case we will also say that the two pairs of segments: a and b, and a \177 and b \177, are proportional to each other. When such pairs of segments areproportional, i.e.a ' b = a \177' b \177,
then
a'
from the proportional
a \177= b' b\177,i.e. the pairs a and a \177,and original ones by transposing the mean
too.
bandb
\177(obtained b
terms
and
\177)are
Indeed,
their resulting
replacing
measured
numerical
lengths
the four segments with numbersthat express with the same unit, we seethat eachofthe
proportions:
a
\177 =
a \177
bW
b
\177
and
b \177
expresses
the
same
equality
between products of
the numbers:
a
EXERCISES
b \177:
a \177 x b.
329.
the
If the
measures
full
angle
of the
is taken for the unit of angular angles containing 1\370, 1', 1\".
measure,
a: b.
find
330.
Prove that if
a:
a' :
331. Provethat if a: a' = b:
b \177 =
b', then (a + a') : (b + c: c', then (a+b):
b') =
c = (a'+b'): c'.
2.
Similarity
of
triangles
127
332. Prove that if one sideof a triangle is a common measure of the other two sidesthen the triangle is isosceles. 333.Prove that the perimeter and midline of a trapezoid circum-
scribed
and the
335. ments: tween
about
circle
are
commensurable.
inscribed
33J. Prove
diameter of its circumscribed circle are commensurable. In a triangle, find the greatest commonmeasure of two one between the orthocenter and barycenter,the other the orthocenter and circumcenter.
common
that the perimeter of an
equilateral
hexagon
segbe-
336. Provethat the greatest tains every their common
measure
of two
segments con-
Hint: remainders 337. Supposethat

All
measure a whole number of in the Euclidean algorithm do.

given
times.
two
common
compass.
19 \370 , and
338. (a) (b) 339.
arcs how
measure
\177.
Show
on a given to construct
circle have the greatest the arc \177 using only a

arcs
Consider the example whereoneofthe given other 360 \370 . Find the greatest common measure of two segments: one 1001 units long, the other 1105 units long; one 11,111, the other 1, 111,111 units long.' Prove that the numbers V\177, v\177, v/\177 are irrational.
the
contains
of up to 0.0001. (finite or infinite) decimal fractions. 3J2.*Prove that a rational number ra/n is represented by.a finite or repeating decimal fraction. Conversely, prove that a finite or repeating decimal fraction represents a rationalnumber. 3J3. An acute angle of a parallelogram contains 60\370, and its obtuse angle is divided by the diagonalin the proportion 3: 1. Find the
3J 0.
Compute
V\177
with
the
precision
$j!.
Write
1/3,
1/5,
1/7,
1/17 as
ratio of the sides
of
the
parallelogram.
3JJ.* Prove that the base of an isosceles triangle, whose angle at the vertex contains 36\370 , is incommensurable to the lateral side. Hint: Draw the bisector from a vertex at the base, and compute angles of the two triangles thus formed.
Similarity
of triangles
In
156.Preliminary remarks.
counter figureswhich have
different
everyday
life,
we
often
en-
figures are usually
called different
similar. sizes,
tare printed
in
or
shape. Such Thus, the same photographic picschemes of a building, or maps

sizes,
but
the same
128
cisely the concept ofgeometric
ways
Chapter
3.
SIMILARITY
town, produced in different figures. Our conceptof length

of a
of
scales, of
provide
examples
of similar
segments
allows of figures
us to
similarity
define preand to describe

are
changing of the
sizes
of figures
changes
similarity
size of a figure transformations.
without changingits shape

figures
while preserving their shapes.Such

called
We begin our study of namely similartriangles.
similar
with
the simplest
case,
or
polygonssuchthat anglesofoneofthem are respectively congruent to the angles of another. Letus agree tocallhomologous those sides of such triangles or polygons which are adjacent to the congruent angles (in triangles, such sides are also opposite to the congruent angles). 158. Definition. Two triangles are called similar, if: (1)the angles of one are respectively congruent to the anglesof the other, and (2) the sides of one are proportional to the homologous sidesof the 'other. Existence of such triangles is established by the following
lemma.
157.Homologous sides.
We
will
need
to consider
triangles
159. Lemma.
(AC) of a given triangle (ABC), similar to the given one.
,4 line
(D\177,
Figure
166), cuts
parallel off
to
any side
a triangle
(DBE),
Ina
is required
triangle
ABC,
to prove
let the line DE be parallel to the side AC. It that the trianglesDBE and ABC are similar.
angles
We will have to prove that (1)their and (2) their homologous sidesare
(1)
are
respectively
congruent,
proportional.
to the
triangles are respectively congruent,beangle, and ZD = ZA and ZE = \177C as corresponding angles between parallel lines (DE and AC), and a transversal (AB or CB respectively). (2) Letus now prove that the sides of ADBE are proportional
The
angles
cause
ZB
is their
of these common
homologous
sides
of AABC,
i,e., that
BD
BA
BE
BC
DE
AC
'
consider the following two cases. (i) The sides AB and DB have a common measure. Divide the side AB into parts congruent to this common measure. Then DB will be divided into a whole number of such parts. Let the number of
For this,
--2An
auxiliary
which
theorem
follows
theorem introduced it is called a
in order
lemma.
to facilitatethe
proof
of another
2.
Similarity
of triangles
129
such parts be m in DB and n in AB. From the division points, draw the set of lines parallel to AC, and another set of lines parallel to BC. Then BE and BC will be divided into congruent parts (\36593), namely ra in BE and n in BC. Likewise, DE will be divided into ra congruent parts, and AC into n congruent parts, and moreover the parts of DE will be congruent to the parts of AC (as opposite sides
of
parallelograms).
It
becomes
obvious
now that
m
BD
BA
ra
n'
\337 BC
BE
BC
-- DE
ra DE
n' ' AC.
AC
Thus BD '
BA
BE
IN
Figure 166
/x, xNX.Xx.x,N\\
x,
'x
'Nx
..N.
x,
x, N\\
Figure
167
(ii)
The
ure 167).
side
and BE: BC with

AB
sides AB and DB do not have Approximate the values of each

the
common
measure
(Fig-
of the
the the
precision
of up
to 1/n.
through
For this, divide

division side
ratios BD:
BA
the
into
n congruent
congruent
draw the
set of lines parallelto AC. Then

parts.
with
parts, and
Suppose
a
points,
BC
\177th
will also
part
be
AB
divided into n
is contained
that
the
of
m times in DB
Figure
remainder
smaller
part
than is contained
\177th
Then, as it is seenfrom in BE also m timeswith
167,
the
\177th
of BC
a remainder parallel
smaller BC,
a
than
remainder
\177BC.Similarly,
drawing the setof lines

AC
is contained-in
DE also ra timeswith
the
to
we find that
of up
the
nl-th,
part
of
smaller
than
have
one such
part. Therefore,with
BD
BA
precision
to
we
m
n'
BE
BC
ra
n'
express
a
DE
AC
the
m
n
equality of
where we usethe symbol \"\177\" to numbers, which holdstrue within
approximate
precision.
required
130
Chapter
3. SIMILARITY
first n = 10, then 100, then 1000,and so on, we find approximate values of the ratios computed with the same but arbitrary decimal precision, are equal to each other. Therefore the values of these ratios are expressed by the same infinite decimal fraction, and hence BD : BA = BE: BC = \177DE : AC.
Taking
the
that
160. following
Remarks. (1) The three proportions:
proven equalitiescanbe written
as
the
BD
BA
BE
'BC'
BE
BC
we
DE
AC
obtain:
DE BD
AC
BA
Transposing the meanterms

BD
BA
BE
BC
DE
AC
BA'
BE
Thus,
BC' DE
AC.' BD
sides of the other.

(2)
if the sides of two triangles are proportional, then any two sides of one triangle is equal to the ratio of the
the
ratio
of
homologous
\177.
Similarity
of figures
is sometimes
indicated by the sign
161.
Three
similarity
two
tests
triangles,
for triangles.
Theorems. If in
to
(1)
two
two
angles
angles
of
of one triangle
the
are respectively congruent

to
other,
or
two
of the
ent, or
sides
(2) two sides of one triangle areproportional other, and the angles between these
triangle
sides
sides
are
congruto
(3) if three sides of one of the other,

(1)
are
proportional
three
then such trianglesare similar.

Let
ABC these
and
ZA = ZA',
prove
ZB -
ZB',
A\177B'C'
and
(Figure 168) be two

therefore
triangles
such
that
ZC
ZC:
to
It is
A'B',
required to
and
that
triangles
are similar. draw

which other and
Mark on AB the segment BD congruent DE AC. Then we obtain auxiliary ADBE, the Iemma, is similarto AABC. On the
according
to
congruent to AA'B'C' by
the (by
construction),ZB ZD = and ZA -ZA
ASA-test, hypotheses),
because
ZB'
hand, ADBE is BD = A'B' (by ZD = /A' (since

congruent
ZA').
AABC.
is--similar Therefore
to another AWB'C'
one, then the
Clearly, if one of two
secondoneis also
triangles
to
similar
it.
\177
2.
Similarity
(2)
ot' ABC
are
\177riangles
131
these
ZB = ZB
triangles
Let
and
A(B\177C
\177 (Figure
169) BC.
\177, and
A\177B \177 ' AB
B\177C \177 '
be two triangles It is required to
such that prove that
similar.
mark on AB the segmentBD congruent to A\177B \177, and draw DE[[AC. Then we obtain auxiliary ADBE similar to AABC. Let us prove that it is congruent to AA\177B\177C( From the similarity of ADBE and AABC, it follows that DB : AB = BE: BC. Comparing this proportion with the given one, we note that the first ratios of both proportions coincide (since DB = A\177B\177), and hence the remaining ratios of these proportionsare equal too. We see that B\177C \177: BC = BE: BC, i.e. that the segmentB\177C \177and BE have equal length when measured by the same unit BC, and hence B\177C \177 = BE. We conclude now that the trianglesDBE and are congruent by the SAS-test, because they have congruent angles /_B and ZB \177 between respectively congruent sides. But ADBE is similarto AABC,and therefore AA\177B\177C \177 is also similar to. AABC.
As before,
B
A'
A
C'
A
Figure
A'
C
169
C'
Figure 168
(3)
A\177B \177 :
Let
AB
triangles
ABC
=
are
and A'B'C'
BC
(Figure 1-69) be two

A\177C \177 :
triangles
B\177C \177 :
AC.
It is
required to
prove that
show
such
that
these
ADBE
similar.
Repeating and
Comparing
the
and
same construction
\177 are
as before, let us
From
that
AA\177B\177C
congruent.
the similarity
anglesDBE
AC.
ABC,
it follows
that
the
first ratios
ratios are
we conclude
A\177C \177 =
in both seriesarethe same, also equal to each other. From

that
B\177C \177 =
this
series
that DB of ratios with
: AB = BE: BC= DE: the given one, we notice

and
of the triall other
therefore
BE,
DE.
congruent
to AABC, then the second oneis alsosimilar to AABC. 162. Remarks (1) We would like to emphasize that applied in the proofs of the previousthree theorems Namely,' marking on a side of the greater triangle the
We see now by the SSS-test,
that the triangles DBE and A\177B\177C \177are and since the first one of them is similar
the
is
and from
A\177C \177 :
AC
= DE:
AC that
method
the
same.
segment
con-
132
gruent
Chapter 3. SIMILARJTY
to
the
homologous
side of
the
line
parallel
for
to another
and
the smaller triangle,and drawing side, we form an auxiliary triangle similar

we
to the
and
to
greater givenone. Then

triangles
apply
the
corresponding
congrutheorem
ence test
the
the
derive
from the
hypotheses of \177he
similarity
property
that the auxiliary triangle is congruent
the
smaller given one. Finally given triangles is made.
the conclusion about similarity
of
(2) The three similarity tests are sometimes called the AAAtest, the SAS:test, and SSS-test respectively. 163. Similarity tests for right triangles. Since every two right angles are congruent, the following theorems follow directly from the AAA-test and SAS-testof similarity for general triangles and thus do not requireseparate proofs:
Ifin
(1)
two'right
triangles,
an
acute
of one right
other, or
(2) then
angle of
one is congruent
to
an
acute
angle
of the
legs such
are proportional are similar.
to the legs of the other,
triangles
then such
Let
are
The following test doesrequire a separate proof. Theorem. If the hypotenuse and a leg of one righttriangle proportional to the hypotenuse and a leg of another one,
triangles
are
similar.
the angles B and B' are right, and required to prove that thesetriangles
c
ABC
and A'B'C'
be
two
triangles
(Figure = similar.
170)
A\177C \177'
such
AC.
that
It is
A\177B \177\337 AB
are
A'
A D Figure B
A
D' C'
170
Figure 171
We apply the method usedbefore.On the segment AB, mark = A'B \177and draw DE[]AC. Then we obtain the auxiliary triangle ADBE similar to AABC. Let us prove that it is congruent to AA'B'C'. From the similarity of the triangles DBE and ABC, it follows that DB : AB = DE : AC. Comparingwith the given proportion, we find that the first ratios in both proporBD
2. Similarity
of triangles
same,
133
the second
shows
tions
now
i.e. DE:
other one
are
the
AC
.and
therefore
AC,
ratios are equaltoo,

DE =
A\177C(
A\177C \177:
which
that
We
see
that in the right triangles DBE and A\177B\177C\177, the and one of the legs are respectivelycongruent. Thus are congruent, and since one of them is similar to/kABC,
hypotenuses
the
triangles
is also similar to it.

In
then
the
proportional to homologous altitudes,, i.e. which are dropped to the homologous sides.
164.
Theorem.
similar
triangles\177 homologous
to
sides are
altitudes
those
Indeed,
if
triangles
ABC
and
A\177B\177C\177 B\177WD
(Figure
\177are
171) also
are similar
then the right triangles BAD ZA -- ZAO, and therefore
and
similar, (since
BD
B\177D \177
AB
BC
B\177C \177
AC
A\177C \177 '.
A\177B \177
EXERCISES
Prove
3\177,5. $\177{6. $\177{7.
theorems:
A]t
equilateral
triangles
are similar.
if their
All Two
isosceles isosceles similar
right
the vertex are congruent.

$\177{8.
(a)
triangles are similar. triangles are similar if and homologous

(i.e.
thos\177
only
angles at
In
triangles,
medians
sides are proportional to:

medians
homologous
ogous sides),
respectively the
and (b) homologousbisectors(i.e.the

congruent
which
bisect
bisectors
homolof
angles).
and
$J9. Every segmentparallel tothebaseofa triangle other two sides is bisectedby the median drawn
connecting
350. The line drawn
through the
the intersection
midpoints point
zoid,passes
and
through A
through
of the of the
vertex. bases of a trapeother two sides,

from the
drawn
the right
intersection
point
of the
diagonals.
351.
triangle
is divided
potenuse
into two
a line triangles
triangles similarto it.

a triangle
right.
by the
altitude
to
the
hy-
$52.
similar
If
divides
are
into two similar trianglesthen these

the
$55. Given three lines passingthrough moves alongoneofthelines, then the
same
ratio
of the
point. If a point distances from this
point to
the
other
two
lines
remains
fixed.
134
$5\1774.
Chapter 3.
The
SIMILARITY
line
connecting
cuts
any
off a
triangle
feet
triangle
of
arethe
Hint:
are these
the feet of two altitudes of any triangle similar to it. Derivefrom this that altitudesof angle bisectors in'another triangle, whose vertices
altitudes. similar
is
355.* If a median of a trianglecuts off a triangle the ratio of the homologous sidesofthesetriangles Find
to it,
then
irrational.
this ratio.
Computation problems
356.Ina
the
trapezoid,
the
line
parallel
intersection
point
of the
of this
line inside
the trapezoid, if the
to the bases and passingthrough diagonals is drawn. Compute the length
bases
are
units
and
b units
long.
ABC with sides a, b, and c units long,a line MN side AC is drawn, cutting on the othertwo sides the segments AM = BN.- Find the length of MN. 358. Into a right triangle with .legsa and b units long, a square is inscribed in such a way that one of its angles is the right angleof the triangle, and the vertices of th\177 square lie on the sides of the triangle. parallel
357. In a triangle
to the
Find the perimeter of

359.
the
square. are
at a
tangents of the circles.
Two circles of radii R and r respectively point M. Computethe distance from
tangent
externally
to the
common external
Similarity of polygons
165.
Definition.
if
Two
angles
polygons
of one
arecalledsimilar, ent to the of

angles polygons
with the same number of sides of them are respectively congru-
the
are
polygon
proportional.
A'B'C\177D'E
other, and Thus, the

\177 (Figure
the
and
the homologous sides of these polygon ABODE is similarto

if LD
\177,
172),
ZA = ZA \177, ZB
ZC =
ZC \177, LD=
LE=
LE
\177
AB
A\177B \177 Existence
BC
B\177C \177
CD
C\177D \177
from
DE
D\177E \177 the
EA
E\177A \177'
of such
polygons
is seen
a similar
solution
of the
following
problem.
!66. Problem. Given cOhstruct anotherpolygon

side
polygon to
ABODE, the given

to
'and a
segment a,
its
one and
a (Figure
such that
173).
homologous
to the
side AB is congruent
3.
Similariiy
of polygons
135
Here is a simple way-to do this. On the side AB, mark AB' - a (if then the point B' 'lieson the extension of A\177). Then draw all diagonals from the vertex A, and construct B'C\177]IBC, C'D\177IICD and D\177E\177IIDE. Then we obtain the polygon AB\177C'D\177E \177 similar to
a
> AB,
the
polygon
ABCDE.
C
C'
B
D
B
C'
D'
B'
A'
E'
A
Figure
E'
173
Figure 172
Indeed,
firsfly,
the angles
angles \177 =
of one of them are congruent

is
to
the
an-
gles of
as corresponding
ZC \177 =
tively
the other: the angleA

ZC
common; parallel
between
and ZD
to
ZD,
congruent
each
since these angles consist of parts respecother. Secondly, from similarity of \177riangles,
AB'
,.\177AABC:
ZB \177 = ZB and lines and a
ZE' =
ZE
transversal;
we
have
the
following
proportions:
B'C'
from AAB'C'
from
AC'
A\177= B\177-'AC;
AC'
AAC'D'
\177
C'D'
=
AD'
- AD ;
AACD:
A\177-
C\177
from
AAD'E
AD'
\177 \177-'ZkADE: AD first
D'E'
DE
AE'
the first
Since
the
the third
first
ratio of the
and
row
coincides
with
ratio of
the secondrow,
ratio equal diagonals,
the
of the
third ratio of the second row coincides with third row, we concludethat all nine ratios are
involve
to each other. Discarding thoseof theratioswhich we can write:
the
AB'
'AB
We which
B' C'
-
C' D' D'E'

CD
AE'
BC
DE
AE
see
therefore
have
the
that in the same number
polygons ABCDE and

of vertices,
the anglesare respectively
AB'C'D'E',
136
Chapter
3.
SIMILARITY
Thus
polygons
congruent,
are similar.
and the homologous sidesare

as
proportional.
these
16]'. Remark.Fortriangles,
of their
we
have
seen in
\365161,
congruence
implies proportionaliCy of their sides,and conversely, proportionaliCy of the sides implies congruence of the angles. As a result, congruence of angles alone, or proportionaliCy of sides alone is a sufficient test of similarity of triangles. For polygons however, congruence of angles alone, or proportionaliCy of sides alone is insufficient to claimsimilarity.Forexample, a square and a rectangle have congruent angles,but non-proportional sides, and a square and a rhombushave proportional sides, but non-congruent angles.
angles
an number in the same

equal
168. Theorem. Similar

way.
polygons can be partitioned into

similar
of respectively
triangles
positioned
ABODE and AB'C'D'E \177 (Figure' diagonals into similartriangles which are' positioned in the same way. Obviously,this methodapplies to every convex polygon. Let us point out another way which also works for convex polygons. ,
For
instance,
similar
polygons
173)
are
divided
by the
connectit to all partitionedinto as

the say,
Insidethe
AAOE
polygon
ABODE
vertices.
many'triangles
(Figure
Then
as
the
172), take any point O and polygon ABODE will be sides.
(it
is shaded
the
on the Figure 172),and

polygon,
to O \177 with
congruent
it has
Pick one of
on
them,
the
homolo-
gous
and
side A'E
O'E'A
the
\177of
other
point
\177 respectively
polygon A'B'C'D'E( Then this polygon same number of triangles.Let us prove polygon are respectively similar to the Indeed, ZkAOEis similar toAA'O'E \177 by construction. similarity of the adjacenttrianglesAOB and A'O'B \177, we account that similarity of the polygons impliesthat
BA
Connect
intersection
construct the angles OtA\177t\177' the angles OAE and OEA. the remaining vertices of the will be partitioned into the that the triangles of the first triangles of the second one.
take
To prove into
/BAE
similarity
z\177B'A'E
\177, and
\177
B'A'
A'O\177E
AE
A\177E\"
and
of the
triangles
AOE and
\177 implies
that
XOAE =/O'A\177E \177, and
AO
\177
A'O' BA
AE
' A'E\"
It
follows
that
XBAO
= ZB'A'O',
and
AO
A\177O \177'
B\177A \177
3.
Similari\177y
o\234polygons
137
We
see that the triangles AOB and A\177O\177B \177have congruent contained between two proportional sides,and are therefore
In
angles
similar.
exactly
\177, then
AB'O'C
the same way, we then prove similarity of ACOD and AC'O'D \177, etc. Obviously,
in
of/XBOC
and
the
the
triangles are .positionedin their respective polygons In order to prove the theorem for non-convex to partition them in the sameway into convex
polygons,
similar same way. it suffices
ones,
by the
method
explained in
to
\36582
(see
Remark
(2)).
169. Theorem.
Perimeters
sides.
portional
of. similar polygons are and

A\177B\177C\177D\177E \177(Figure
proare
homologous
Indeed, if polygons ABCDE similar, then by definition
172)
AB
A\177B \177
BC
B\177G \177
CD
C\177D \177
DE
D\177E \177
EA
E\177A \177
where
is some
etc..
real number.
Adding + EA
This means that

we find
k(A\177B \177 + B\177C \177 +
AB
k(A\177B\177),
BC
k(B\177C\177),
up,
AB + BC + CD+ DE
and
C\177D \177 +
D\177E \177 +
E\177A\177),
hence
AB
A'B
\177 +
+ BC
B'C
+ CD +
C'D
\177 +
DE +
D'E
EA
=k.
\177 +
\177 +
E'A
\177
general property of proportions:given a row of equal ratios, the sum of the first terms of the ratios are to the sum ofthe second terms, as each of the first terms is to the corresponding
Remark.
This
is a
second
EXERCISES
term.
360.
Prove
Prove
that all
that
squares are similar.

rectangles
361.
equal
two
are similar if
are
and only if they

only if
have
ratios
of non-parallel
two
sides.
similar if and
362. Prove that
rhombi
they have
replaced
congruentangles.
363.
by
36\177.
How
does
the
previous
arbitrary
Prove
equilateral
that
result polygons?
change if the
only
rhombiare
if
two
kites are
similar if and
to
the
angles
of one
of them 'arerespectively congruent
the
angles
of the
other.
138
365.
agonals
Chapter3.
Prove
are
SIMILARITY
that
similar
two inscribed quadrilaterals with perpendicular diif and only if they have respectively congruent
angles.
366.* How does the previous result inscribed quadrilaterals form congruent
change,
angles, respectively
if
the
diagonals
of the
other are
than
d? if and
to the
367. Prove that two circumscribed only if the anglesof oneof them angles of the other.
quadrilaterals
are
similar
congruent
368. placed
369.
How by
does arbitrary
the
previous
polygons?
result
change if
quadrilaterals are retri-
Two quadrilaterals
angles
370.
are
each. Prove
How
does
are cut into two congruent equilateral that the quadrilaterals are similar. the previous result changeif the equilateral triangles
right
replaced
With
isosceles triangles?
Proportionality
theorems
The
Greek philosopherThalesof Miletus (624 B.C. - 547 B.C.) Theorem. The sides of an angle(ABC, Figure 174) intersected by a series of parallel lines (DD', EE\177,FF \177,...) are divided by them into proportional parts.
C
F
170.Thales'theorem.
following
result
was
known
to the
__N
M
\177
D'
Figure
E'
174
B'
F'
C'
175
Figure
It is
required to prove that
BD
\177D \177
DE
D\177E
EF
4.
or,
Proportionali\177y
equivalently,
\177heorems
139
that
BD
DE
B D'
D'E\"
DE
EF
D'E'
E'F\"
parallel
Draw the auxiliary lines DM, EN, the triangles BDD', DEM, EFN,
other,' since their anglesare respectively erty of paxallellinesintersected by
..., ...,
which
to are
BA.
We obtain
all
congruent a transversal).
similar to (due to the
It
each propfollows from the
similarity that
BD
BD'
Replacing
D'E
DE
DM
EF
EN
sequence of equal ratios the segments: DM with \177,..., (congruent to them as opposite sides of parallelograms), we obtain what was required to prove.
in this
with
\177,EN
E'F
171. Theorem. Two parallel lines (MAr 175) intersected by a series of lines(OA, OB, from the same point (O), are divided by these
portional
and
M'N', OC, lines
Figure
...), drawn into pro-
parts.
that
the
OBC
It is required to prove
line
the
segments
MN
are
M\177N(
proportional
to the
AB, BC, CD, segments A'B \177, B\177C \177, C'D',

(\365159)'
... of
...
\177and
of the
From
line
\177
the
similarity
derive:
of triangles BO
B'O
OAB
,.\177
OA'B
OB\177C \177, we
AB
BO
B'O
\337 B\177C:
BC
B\177C\"
A'B \177
and
conclude
that
AB '
A'B' = BC'
similarly.
The
proportionality
of
the other
172.
segments is proved
Problem.
or
three parts in
segments
To divide a line segment AB (Figure 176) into .the proportion m ' n ' p, .where. m, n, and p are given whole numbers.
making the
AC
given
it,
Issue a ray
staxting
an arbitrary
from
point
A, the
angle with AB, and markon segments congruent to the given
m, n, and p. Connect the endpointF ofthe segment p with through the endpointsC and H of the marked segments, draw the linesGDand HE parallel to FB. Then the segmentAB will be divided by the points D and E in the proportion m \337 n 'p. When m, n, and p denotegiven whole numbers, e.g. 2, 5, 3, then
segments
B, and
the construction is marked on AC are to units.
performed have
similarly, lengths
except
that
the
segments
2, 5,
and 3 in
the same arbitrary
140
The described construction applies, ments into any number of parts.
Chapter
3.
SIMILARITY
division
of course, to
a, i.e.
of
seg-
that a:
BD
segment to form a proportion

b
173. Problem.
=
Given
three
segments 177),
(Figure
c: x.
b, and c, find a fourth find a segment x such

the
and
On the sides of an arbitrary angie ABC, mark = a, BF = b, DE - c. Connect D and F, EG]]DF. The required segment is
m
segments
construct
P
A
c
D
\"D E
B
E c
\177a
C
Figure
x\1777'\177\"\177
'
176
Figure
177
174. A
property
of bisectors.
(BD,
Theorem.The bisector
(ABC) It
Figure
178)
of
any
angle
of a
triangle divides the opposite side into parts (AD arid DC) proportional to the adjacent sides. is required to prove that if ZABD = ZDBC, then
AD
AB
DG
BC'
Draw C'E
(\365170),
the extension of
we
parallel to BD up
the
to
the
intersection
side
AB.
Then,
from
this
that ACBE is isosceles.In this triangle,Z.E = ZABD and ZBCE = \177DBC (respectively as corresponding and as alternate angles formed by a transversal with parallel lines).But \177ABD = \177-DBC\177 by the hypothesis, hence z\177E = \177BCE, and therefore and BE are congruent as the sides opposite to congruent angles.
i.e.
will have the proportion the required proportion,
AD: DC = AB: BE. To it sufficesto show that BE
according
at a point E with to Thales' theorem

derive
=.
4.
Propor\177ionality
theorems
241
denote
. Example. AD by
Let AB=30, the letter x

x
BC=24,
andAC=36
proportion:
and
30
cm.
We
can
write
the
x
Le.
36-\177 \177
We
2\177 \177
36-\177
find therefore: 4x = 180- 5x,or 9x - 180, i.e. x = 20. Thus AD = 20 cm,and DC = 36- x =16 cm. 175. Theorem. The bisector (BD, Figure179)of an exterior angle (CBF) at t'he vertex of a triangle (ABC) intersects the extension of the base (AC) at a point(D) suchthatthe 'distances (DA and DC) from this point to the endpointsof the base are proportional to the lateral sides (AB and BC) of the
triangle.
D \177Figure
C 178
C
Figure
179
In other
then
words, it is requiredto prove DA AB
that
if ZCBD
= ZFBD,
DC
Drawing BA tively
BC'
CE[[BD,
we can
:BE.
as
Since
ZBEC
corresponding
write the proportion: DA: DC = = ZFBD and ZBCE = ZCBD(respecand as alternate angles formed by parallel
a transversal), and /FBD = /CBD by the hypothewe have ZBEC = ZBCE. Therefore BE = BC. Replacing, in the proportion we already have, the segment BC with the congruent segment BE, we obtain the required proportion: DA : DC = BA : BC. Remark. Thebisector of the exterior angle at the vertex of an isosceles triangle parallel to the base. This is an exceptional case in the formule\177tion of the theorem and in its proof.
lines
with
sis,
/kEBCis isosceles, i.e.
is
142
EXERCISES
Chapter
3.
SIMILARITY
371.
Prove that
if
proportional
segments
then
are
the
of an anglestarting from the vertex, endpoints are parallel.
lines
marked on the sides connecting their
trapezoid and parallelto its bases, diagonals into three parts.

congruent
372.
Construct
line
segment
connecting
such
lateral
that
it
is divided
sides of a given by the

the
373.
Construct
and
374{.
its ratio
Prove
given the angleat to one of the lateralsides.

a triangle,
the
the
vertex,
base,
that
bisector
sides
of a
triangle is
of the angle betweentwo smaller than the median drawn

sides
non-congruent
from
the
same
vertex.
375. In a
tangent
triangle
with
12,
15,
the
and
18 cra,
to both
smaller
sides and
with the center lying

center
a circle is drawn
on
the
greatest
side.
side.
Find the
segments into which

point
divides
the greatest
376. Througha given
9n
the
line
whose
part
inside
the
angle is
bisector of a given angle, draw a divided.by the point in the given

angle
proportion
m:
n.
the it
ratioof
377. Construct a triangle,given and the point on the basewhere 378. Into a given circle, inscribe
the
at the the
vertex, the
base,
meets
angle bisector.
a triangle,
given its
base and the
other
two
sides.
379.* Construct a triangle, given two of its sides and the bisector of the anglebetweenthem.\" Hint: Examine Figure 178, and construct/kCBE first. 380.*In AABC, the side AC = 6 cm, BC = 4 cm,and ZB = 2ZA.
Compute
381.
AB.
\365174.
A_
Hint: See Example in

Given
or
two points
such
C onthisline,
segments
given
A
one between
and
an infinite line, find a third point = ra: n, where m and n aregiven numbers. (If m \177 n there are two such points: B, the other outside the segment AB.)
and
B on
that
CA:
CB
382.* M
such
Given
two
points
that
The
MA
answer
and
Hint:
geometer 383.* Intoa ratioofthe
Apollonius given
median,
B, find the geometric locusof points have a given ratio m: n. is often called Apollonius' circle after the Greek of Perga (262 - 190 B.C.) circle, inscribe a triangle, given its base, and the bisecting the base, to one of the lateral sides.
A and
MB
5.
5
Homothe\177y
143
Homothety
thety,snda
176; Homothetic 180): a figure \177, a point

positive
figures. Supposewe
S, which
number
are
given
(see
Figure
k,
Take an arbitrary point A in the figure \337 and draw through it the ray SA drawn from the center S. Find on this ray the point A' such that the rstio SA \177: SA is equsl to k. Thus, if K < 1, e.g. /\177- 1/2, then the point A \177 lies between S and A (as in Figure 180), and if k > k 3/2, then the point A \177 lies beyond the segment $A. Take snother point B ofthe figure \177, and repest the same construction as we explsinedfor A, i.e. on the ray SB, find the point B \177 such thst SB \177: SB - k. Imagine now that, keeping the point $ and the numberk unchanged, we find for every point of the figure \337 the corresponding new point obtained by the sameconstruction. Then the geometric locus of al] such points is a new figure \177. The resulting figure \177' is called homothetic to the figure'\177 with respect to the center S and with the given coefficient k. The transformation of the figure \337 into \177 is ca]led a homothety,
coefficient (orhomothetycoefficient).
we will cs]] the center of homowhich we will cs]l the similarity
1,e.g.
or similarity
transformation,
with the center$ and
coefficient
k.
Figure 180
Figure
181
1]'7.
Figure 181)is a line segment parallel to the first one and 'such that the ratio of this to the one is equal to the homothety coeJ\177cient. Find points and B ' homothetic to the endpoints and B of the first segment with respect to given center S and with the given homothety coefficientk. Thepoints and B' lie on the
(A\177B'), segment j\177rst A \177 A the A \177 r\177ys
Theorem.
j\177gure
homothetic
to
a line
segment (AB,
SA
and
SB
B
respectively,
prove
snd
that they
$\177.\177:
SA and
k =
$B
\177 :
SB. =
Connect k.
A \177 with
\177 and
A\177B\177I[AB,
A\177B \177:
AB
Indeed,
AA\177SB\177.-\177
AASB
since
have the
common angle S, and their
144
sides these
Chapter
3.
SIMILARITY of
containing triangles,
Let
ZBAS =/B'A'S,
us
this angle are proportional. Fromthe similarity it follows that A'B': AB - SA\177: $A - k, and
and
that
hence
that
A\177B\177IIAB. \177 is
prove point
now that where
the segment A\177B

point
the
figure
homothetic
M on AB and draw the ray SM. Let intersects the line A\177B( The triangles M\177A\177S and MAS are similar because the angles of oneof them are congruent to the angles-of the other. Therefore SA\177 .: SM = SA \177: SA = k, i.e. M \177 is the point homothetic to M with respect to the center S and with the coefficient k. Thus, for any point on AB, the point homothetic to it lieson A\177B( Vice versa, picking any point
to AB.
M
\177 be
For this, pickany
the
this ray
M \177 on A\177B \177 and intersecting the ray SM \177 with AB, we similarly that M \177is homothetic to M. Thus the segment A\177B \177 is the homothetic to AB.
tively homothetic
181 by
find
figure
Remark. Notethat the segmentA\177B \177 with the endpoints respecto the endpointsof the segment AB, is not only parallel to AB, but also has the same direction (indicated in Figure
arrows).
Figure
182
Figure 183
Figure
is
and such that its sidesareparallel to the homologous sides of the first polygon, and the ratio' of the homologous sides
equal
17'8. Theorem. The figure homothetic to a polygon (ABCD, 182) is a polygon (A\177BtC\177D\177) similar to the first one, (k).
the
to
the
homothety
coejeficient
previous by
to a polygon ABCD is formed
Indeed, according to the

same
theorem, the
segments
figure homothetic parallel to its sides,
directedthe
tionality
way,
and
proportional
coefficient
k.
Therefore
to them with the proporthe figure is a polygon A\177B\177C\177D \177,
whose
angles
are
respectively
congruent
to the anglesof ABCD(as
5. angles
I-tomo\177he\177y with
\17745
parallel
respective
sides are proportional are similar.
to the sidesof ABCD.Thus
sides,
\36579),
and
whose
these
homologous
polygons
Remark. One can define similarity of arbitrary geometric figures as follows: two figures are called similarifoneofthem is congruent to a figure homothetic to the other. Thus,hom\177)thetic figures are similar in this sense. The theoremshows that our earlier definition of similar polygons (\365165) agrees with the general definition of similar
figures. at O,
179.
Figure
Theorem.
The
183),
j\177gure horaothetic
to the'radius
coeJ\177cient,
is
of
a circle the first
such
circle
(\270')
to a circle (centered that the ratio of its radius is equal to the horaothety
is
and
the center of
Let
the first circle.
\177ohose center
the
point
homothetic
to
$ be
arbitrary
\270'A' i.e.
radius
homothetic
\270\177A \177=
the center of homothety, and k the coefficient. Pick an OA of the given circle and construct the segment to it. Then \270\177A \177: OA = k by the result of \365177, k OA. When the radius \270A rotates about the center
O, the length of the segments O\177A \177 remains therefore constant, and the point O\177 homothetic to the fixed point O, remains fixed. Thus the point A ' describes the circle with the center\270\177 and the radius congruent to k times the radiusof the given circle.
A
Figure
184
180. Negative
a figure
construction \177,
point
of
homothety coefficients. Suppose we are given \177q, and a positive number /;. We can alter the
figure
the
Pick a point A $A, and extend

is repeated \337, the locus
figure
\177'-
(Figure
it beyond the point S.
homothetic to \337 in 184) of the figure (I>,

On
the
issue
following
from
the
extension
fashion. S'the ray of this ray,
mark the point A'
is
such that $A': $A - k. When this construction (keeping $ and k the same) for all points A of the figure of the corresponding points A' is a new figure \177: The also considered homothetic to the figure \337 with respect
146
Chapter
with
3. SIMILARITY coefficient equal
to the center $, but to -k.

We
the
negative
homothety
suggest
with
that
negative
the
reader
with
motheries
(1)
verifies the following

a
facts about ho-k
coefficients: negative
The figure
AB
homothetic
(Figure
coefficient
to a line
segment
congruent
184)
is a
to
k AB,
and having
line segment A'B' parallel to AB, the direction opposite to the direction
the
(2)
The
the
similarity
same
-1 is
(3)
as
the
transformation with central symmetry
Two
figures,
with
coej\177ficients
homothetic k and -k
each
(4)
other
On
about the
number the
\177enter
center $.
(\365163), the
center S and coefficient about the center $. to a given figure about a center $ and respectively, are centrally symmetric to
the
line
O,
the point
points
representing the
and -k are homotheticto

respect
representing
the numbers k number I with

equal
to
and
with
the homothety
This
coej\177ficients
to
k and-k
respectively.
l\177omothety.
required one, and then to similarity transformation. homothety method is particularly convenient when only one of the given quantities is a length, and all others are anglesor ratios, such as in the problems: to construct a triangle,given its angle, side, and the ratio of the other two sides, or given two angles and a cerrain segment (an altitude, median, angle bisector, etc.); to construct a square, given the sum or the'difference of its side and the diagonal. Let us solve, for example, the following problem. Problem 1. To construct a triangle ABC, given the angle C, the ratio of its sides AC : BC, and the altitude h, dropped from the vertez of this angle to the opposite side (Figure 185). Let AC: BC = m: n, where ra and n are two given segments or two given numbers. Construct the angle C, and on its sides, mark the segments CA' and CB \177, proportional to m and n. When ra and n are segments, we may take CA \177 = m and CB \177 = n. If m and n are whole numbers, then picking an arbitrary segment l, we may construct CA \177= ml and \177'B \177= nt. In both cases, we have CA\177 : CB \177 = m: n. The triangle A\177B'C is, evidently, similar to the required one.
similar
obtain The
181. The method of cessfully applied to solving is to constructfirst a figure

the
method
can
many
construction
problems.
be sucThe idea
to the
required
figure
by means
of a
To obtain
triangle
the
required
triangle,
construct
the
altitude
CD \177of
the
A'B'C
and denote it h(
Now pick an arbitrary homothety
5.
Homo\177hety
147
center
with
will
and construct
the triangle homothetic to the

coefficient equal to one.
the
triangle
resulting
A'B\177C
triangle
the homothety be the required

convenient
h/h: The
It is most to pick the construction especially the altitude CD' ofthe triangle congruent to h, and through
becomes draw
center
simple
mark
at the
point C. Then
line AB parallel
A\177B\177C,
(Figure 185). Extend on it the segment CD
its
endpoint
to
D the
A\177B:
The
triangle
the
ABC
is the
required one.
The position of required figure in problems of this kind remainsarbitrary. In other problems, it is required to construct a in a quite definite position with respect to points and lines. It can happen, that discardingoneofthese we obtain infinitely many solutions similar to the required Then the method of homothety becomes useful. Here are examples.
some figure given requirements, figure. some
'A
c
B
186
Figure 185
Figure
Into a given angle ABC, to inscribe a circle a given point M (Figure186). Discard temporarily the requirement for the circle to pass through the point M. The remaining condition is satisfied by infinitely many circles whose centers lie on the bisector BDofthe given angle. Construct one such circle, e.g. the onewith the center at some point o. Take on it the point m homothetic with respect to the center B to the point M, i.e. lying on the ray BM, and draw the radius mo. If we now construct MO]]rao, then the point O will be the center of
182.
Problem
2.
that
would
pass through
the
required
circle.
Indeed, draw the perpendiculars ON and on to the side AB. We obtain similar triangles:MBO,\177 mBo, and NBO ,\177 nBo. From their similarity, we have: MO: mo= BO : Bo and NO: no = BO : Bo, and thereforeMO: too=NO :no. But too=no, and
148
Chapter
the
3. SIMILARITY
radius OM
henceMO= NO, i.e. the centerO is

tangent
circle to
described
by the
the
side
AB.
Since its
angle, it is tangent to the sideBCas well. If instead of the point m on the auxiliary circle, the other intersection point m \177 of this circle with the ray BM is taken as homothetic to M, then another center 0 \177 of the required circle will be constructed.
bisector
about center lies on the
of the
Thus the problem admits

183. bus with
on
two
solutions.
Problem
a given
AB
the
base
AC and BC
(Figure187).
3. Into a given triangleABC,to inscribe a thomacute angle,in such a way that one of its sides lies of the triangle, and two vertices on the lateral sides
P 187
Figure
remainingconditions.
on the sideBC. Then
Discard
temporarily
the requirement for

there
Construct
one
are
infinitely
one
many
of them.
side
of the vertices to lie rhombi satisfying the For this, take on the
to such
AC
an
arbitrary
point
M and
base
construct the angle,congruent

that
the
given
some
one, with
point
its sides
at
to
is parallelto the
N.
the vertex at the point M, and

AB
one
of
and
the other
On
the side
AB, mark a segmentNP
intersects the base

congruent
MN,
and
construct
the rhombus
with the sidesMN

homothetic coefficient vertex
and A
NP.
Let
Q be
of the new rhombuscorresponding to the
ter of homothety, constructthe rhombus MNPQ, and choose the homothety

For
the fourth vertex of this rhombus. Taking

such Q
on the sideBCofthe triangle.
cento the thombus that the vertex turns out to lie

for
the
this,
extend
of the vertices of the requiredrhombus. Drawing lines parallel to the sidesofthe rhombusMNP(\177, required rhombus XYZU.
be
its
the
intersection
with
the
side
BC
at some
the ray AQ up to point X. This point will

through we
one
obtain
the
5.
HomoSbeVy
\17749
EXERCISES
Prove
$8,\177.
theorems:
If
the
radii
of two
circle\177
rotate the point.
remaining endpoints
parallel of such
then the linespassingthrough the lineof centers at a fixed

0\37085. Two
to each other, radii intersect
circles
respect
to a
on the plane are homotheticto each other with suitable center (eventwo centers, for one the homothety
intersection
coefficient is negative,and for the other positive). Hint: The centers of homothety are the fixed from the previous problem.
points
Find the geometric locus of:
circle.
0O87. circle
0O86.
Midpoints
of
all
chords
all chords
passing through passing through
a given point on a a given point on a

angle
Points in
dividing
a fixed
ratio
ra
:\177.
0O88.
Points
from
which
the distances
to the sidesof a given
have
a fixed
ratio.
Construction
0O$9.
problems
Through
such
have 0O90. ORe.
that
a
a point given in the interior of an angle, draw a line its segments between the point-andthe sidesofthe angle given ratio ra: \177.
About
a given
square, circumscribe
a trianglesimilar to.agiven
a point inside a trianglesuch that the three perpendiculars from this point to the sides ofthe triangle are in the given proportion \177: \177: p. 0O9\234. Construct a triangle, given the angle at the vertex, thealtitude, and the ratio in which its foot divides the base.
0O91.
Find
dropped
0O90O.
Construct
a triangle,
ference
0O9\177. and 0O95.
of the
Construct the
base and
an
the altitude.
triangle,
given
its angles,
and the sum or the
dif-
isosceles
sum
of the
base with
the altitude.
given the
angle at the vertex,
Construct
a triangle, circle.
given its
angles and the radiusof its cirits
cumscribed
0O96. Given
ZAOB
find a point M equidistant
and a point C in
from
interior.
On
the side
OR,
OA
and
C.
150
$97.
Chapter 3.
Construct
SIMILARITY
the angle
sides
a triangle, given the ratio of its altitude at the vertex,and the median drawn to one
given
to
the
base,
of its
lateral
$95. Into a disk segment, inscribe a square such that one of its sides lieson chord, and the opposite vertices on the arc. $99. Intoa triangle, inscribe a rectangle with the given ratio of the sidesra: n, so one of its sides lies on the base of the triangle, the opposite vertices on the lateral sides.
the given that and
Geometric
to
mean
The
a and c is defined
184. Definition.
be
geometric
mean
applies
between
to
two segments
b
a third
a,
segment
b,
b such
any
that a:
b:
c.
More generally,
same denomination. When
the same definition

=
quantities
of the
and
c are
relationship a:
positive numbers, the
b: c
can be
b
rewritten as
or b =
V\177-\177.
= ac,
185.
Theorem.
In
a right
triangle:
from
is the geometricmean between two segments into which the foot of the altitude dividesthe hypotenuse, and (2) each leg is the geometric mean between the hypotenuse and tl\177e segment of it which is adjacent to the leg. Let AD (Figure 188) be the altitude dropped from the vertex of the right angle A to the hypotenuse BC. It is required to prove the
following
(1) the altitudedropped
the
vertex
of the
right
angle
proportions:
(1) BD
A'-\177 =
AD BC D\177' (2) A'-\177
BD
AB and BC A'--\177 =
AC D---\177'
The and
first ADO.
proportion These
is derived triangles are
from similarity of the triangles BDA similar because

and
Z1 =
./._4
Z2
= Z3
as angles with perpendicularrespective sides(\36580). The and AD of ABDA form the first ratio of the required
sides
BD
proportion.
6. Geometric
The
mean
151
homologous
AD
BD : AD =
The
sides
: DC.
of AADC
are
AD
and
DC,
3 and
of the
therefore
triangles are right,
second
ABC and
and ZB is
proportion is derived from BDA. Thesetriangles are similar
similarity
because
both
their
the
common
acute
ogous sidesof
AB
AABC
The
form
first
ratio
are
of the
AB
ABDA
The sides BC and AB of required proportion. The homoland BD, and therefore BC: AB =
angle.
from
: BD.
last proportion
ilarity
of the
A
is derived in the samemanner triangles ABC and ADC.
the
sim-
D
Figure
C
189
Figure 188
186. Corollary. Let A (Figure 189) be any point on a circle, described about a diameter BC. Connecting this point by chords with the endpoints of the diameter we obtain a right triangle such that its hypotenuse is the diameter, and its legs are the chords. Applying the theoremto this triangle we arrive at the following conclusion: The perpendicular dropped from any point of a circle to its diameter is the geometric mean between the-segments into which the foot of the perpendicular divides the diameter, and the chord connecting this point with an endpoint of the diameter is the geometricmean between the diameter and the segment of it' adjacentto the chord. 187'. Problem. To construct the geometric mean between two segments
a and
c.
We give two
solutions.
(Figure
(1) On a
next
line
190),
mark
segments
AB =
as
to
each
other,
and describe
in
a semicircleon AC
convenient find
a and BC = c
the
diameter.
3In order to avoid mistakes
determining the
are homologous sidesin question

other
congruent
to
each
then
other,
take
it is
of one
triangle, then
which sides of to mark angles angles congruent
similar triangles opposite to the to them in the

to the
triangle,
to
and
sides BD and
AD
the
the
of/k]\177DA
the sides opposite to these are opposite to the angles
angles.For instance, the I and 3; these angles are

sides AD
AD
and DO. Thus
angles 4 and 2 of/kAD(;', which are opposite sides AD and DC correspond to BD and
respectively.
15\177
Chapter
3. AC
SIMILARITY up
the point B, erect the perpendicular section point D with the semicircle.
From
to
to the
inter-
The
and
perpendicular
BC.
BD is
the
requiredgeometric
mean
between
\1774B
Figure 190
Figure
191
(2)
From
the
segments a
From
the endpoint
and
of
a ray
(Figure
b.
On
the
with
greater
the
the intersection-point/3
The chord
allow
\1774D
endpoint
of the
smaller one,
is
the
required
obtain a remarkable relationship between the sides of any right triangle. This relationship was proved by the Creek geometer Pytha9oras of Samos (who lived from about 570 B.C.to about 475
one to
188.The Pythagorean Theorem.
erect the perpendicular up to and connect D with A. geometric mean between a and b.
semicircle,
The
of them,
191), mark the given describe a semicircle.
previous
theorems
B.C.) and is namedafter

Theorem.
with _\177f
him.
the
sides
the
same is
potenuse
of
unit, then equal to the

A
sum of the
of a right triangle are measured the square of the lengthof its hy-
squares of the
lengths
its
legs.
Figure 192
Let ABC (Figure 192)be a right --dropped to the hypotenuse from the
triangle,
and
AD
the altitude
vertex
of the
pose
that
the
sides
and
the segments
of the hypotenuse are measured
right angle. Sup-
6.
Geometric
mean by the
we
153
by the
a, b, c, c
proportions:
same unit, and their lengths are expressed \177and b( 4 Applying-the theorem of \365185,
a: c
numbers
the
obtain
= c: c\177and
c2
a:
b =
b: b\177,
or equivalently:
ac \177 =
and
ab\177 \177- b 2.
Adding
these
equalities,
\177 +
we find:
c 2+b
ac
But c/ + b \177 =
ab
\177 =
2,
or
a(c\177 +
b \177)=
c2
+ b2.
therefore a2 = b 2 + c 2. is often stated in short: the square of the hypotenuse equalsthe sum of the squaresof the legs. Example. Suppose that the legs measured with somelinear 'unit are expressed by the numbers 3 and 4. Then the hypotenuse is expressed in the same units by a number x such that
a, and
This theorem
x 2=32+42=9+16=25,
and hencex=x/\177=5.
with
the sides 3, 4, and 5 is sometimes known to ancient Egyptians. It is believed they were using this triangle to construct right angleson the land surfacein the following way. A circular rope marked by 12 knots spaced equally would be stretched around threepoles form a triangle with the sides of 3, 4, and_5 spacings. Thenthe angle between the sides equal to 3 and 4 would turn out to be right. \177 Yet another formulation of the Pythagorean theorem, namely the oneknown to Pythagoras himself, wiI1 be given in \365259. 189. Corollary. The squares of the legs have the same ratio as the segments of the hypotenuse adjacentto them. Indeed, from formulas in \365188 we find c 2: b\177= ac \177 : ab \177 = c': b\177.
Remaxk. The right

Egyptian
triangle
called
because
it was
to
Remarks.
(1)
The
three
c 2,
equalities ab \177 =
b 2,
ac \177 =
sponding
a2
= b2
+ c 2,
4It is customary to denote sides of triangles by the lowercase letters correto the uppercase letters which label the opposite vertices. SRight triangles whose sides are measured by whole numbers are called Pythagorean. One can prove that the legs x and y, and the hypotenuse z of such triangles are expressed by the formulas: x = 2ab, y = a 2 - b \177, z = a 2 + b \177, where a and b are arbitrary whole numbers such that a > b.
154
can
Chapter3.
be
SIMILARITY
supplemented
by two
more:
and
b\177+c
where
\177=a,
h 2=btc
\177,
denotes of the
the
length of
the altitude AD
seen,
four
(Figure
192).
The
first
third
two
of the
and
equaltries, as we
fourth,
have
is a
of
consequence
the
of the
so that only
five
equaltries
are
independent.
and
are
As a result,given two of the six numbers a, b, c, b \177,c' h, we can compute the remaining four. Forexample, suppose we given the segmehts of the hypotenuse b \177 = 5 and c\177 = 7. Then
a=b'+c\177=12,
c=
x/\177c\177 =
v/'i-\177
\337 7
\177
2V/\177,
often say: \"the square of a segment\" instead number expressing the length of the segment,\" or \"the product of segments\"instead of \"the product of numbers expressing the lengths of the segments.\" We will assume therefore that all segments have been'measured usingthe sameunit of length.
(2)
Later
on we will
of
\"the square
of the
opposite to an acute angle is equal to the sum of the squares of the two other sides minustwice the product of (any) one of these two sides and the segment of thissidebetween the vertex of the acute angle and the foot of the altitude drawn
to
190.
Theorem.
In
every
triangle\177
the
square
of
a side
this
side.
Let BC be the side of AABC (Figures 193 and 194), opposite to the acute angleA, and BD the altitude dropped to another side, e.g. AC, (or to its extension). It is required to prove that
BC 2 =
AB 2 +
the
AC \177- 2AC. AD,

by single
or, using the notationof
shown on Figures 193or 194, that

a 2
segments
lowercase letters
as
= b\177 + c2
_ 2bc\177.
From
the
right
triangle
BDC, we.have:
a \177=
h2
+
h 2
(,)
and
-Let us compute eachof the squares
(a') 2.
triangle BAD,
we
find:
h2 =
c 2-
(c')2. Onthe otherhand,
From the right

a'
b-c'
6.
Geometric mean
b
155
(Figure
same
(Figure193)or a' = c':expression
194).
In both
cases we
obtain the
for
(a')2:
\275,)2
(b
\177')\177=
\275'- b) \177= b \177-
2\177'
\275,)2.
Now
the
equality
(,) can
be rewritten as
- 2bc' +
c2
- (c')2
+ b2
(c')
c2
+ b2 -
2bc'.
c
Figure
193
Figure
194
side
191. Theorem.
opposite
In an obtuse
the
the squaresof the other of (any) one of these tension of this side the and the foot of the altitude
two two
to
obtuse
angle
sides
triangle, the squareof the is equal to the sum of

plus
twice
the
sides
and
between
the -vertex
to 194), to
drawn
segment of the this side.

opposite the
product on the ex-
obtuse angle
to the
Let AB be the sideofAABC angle C, and BD the altitude side, e.g. AC. It is required to
AB 2 =
(Figure dropped
obtuse
extension
of another
prove + BC
that
AC 2
2+
2AC. CD,
in Figure
or,
using
the
abbreviated
notation
shown
194, that
c
From
a2
+ b2 +
2ba\177.
the
right
triangles
=\177
ABD and
\27592
CBD, we find:
b)\177
\1772 =
n2 +
\275,)\177
+ +
(\177,
a2
- (a')2
(a') 2
+ 2ba'
2 =
a2
+ b2 +
2ba\177.
156
Chapter
3.
SIMILARITY
that
From the last theorems, we conclude, side of a is equal to, greater than, or smaller than the sum of squares of the other two sides, depending on whether the angle opposite to side is right, acute, or obtuse. Furthermore, this implies converse statement: an angle of a triangle turns to be right, acute or .obtuse, depending on the square of the opposite side is equal to, greater or smaller than the sum of the squares of the other sides. 193. Theorem. The sum of the squares of the diagonals of a parallelogram is to the sum of the squares of its
192. Corollary. the square of a
three triangle the this the out whether than, two equal
sides
(Figure
195).
' B
Es
Figure
D
195
F,
From
the vertices
perpendiculars
AB 2 +
triangles
ABD and ACD,we

BD 2 =
B and C of a parallelogram BE and CF to the base AD.

find: . AE,
ABCD,
drop
the
Then
from the
triangles
AD2 -
2AD
AC 2
= AD 2
+ CD
2+
2AD. DF.
The
and DCF are congruent, since they have and congruent acute angles, and hence AE = DF. Having noticed this, add the two equalities found earlier. The summands -2AD. AE and +2AD. cancel out, and we get:
right
ABE
congruent
hypotenuses
DF
BD 2+AC 2
We
AB 2 +
AD 2 +
AD 2 +
C'D 2
AB 2 +
BC 2 +
G'D 2 +
AD 2.
194. return to studying geometric means in a disk. Theorem. If through a point (M, 196), taken inside a disk, a chord (AB) and a diameter(CD)are then the product of the segments of the chord(AM. is equal to the product of the segments of the diameter (CM. -Drawing two auxiliary chords AC and BD, obtain two triangles AMC and DMB (shaded Figure 196) which are similar,
Figure drawn, MB) MD). we in
6. Geometric mean
since
157
.D are
their
angles
A. and
the
same
arc BC,
and the
congruent as inscribed intercepting ahgles B and D are congruent as inscribed

of
intercepting
the same
derive: AM:
arc AD. Fromsimilarity. MD = CM: MB,or equivalently

AM.
the
triangles
we
MB
= CM.
MD.
M
C
L K
Figure
196
Figure 197
195. \275orollaxies. (1) For all chords (AB, EF, KL, Figure 196) passing through the same point (M) inside a disk, the productof the segments of each chord is constant, i.e. it is the same for all such chords, since for each chord it is equal to the productofthe segments
ofthe
(2)
a
diameter.
'-
segments(AM and MB) of (M) given inside a disk, is the segment (EM or MF) of the chord (EF) perpendicular to the diameter (CD), at the given point, because the chordperpendicular to the diameter is bisected by it, and hence
The
geometric
chord
(AB),
passing
mean between the through a point
EM = MF = JAM.
MB.
secant (3//A),drawnthroughthe samepoint,andtheexterior

segment
(M) takenoutside a
of
196.
Theorem.
The
tangent
disk
(MC, Figure 197)from

the
a point
a
is
geometric
mean
between
the
auxiliary
secant
(shaded
(MB).
AC
in
Draw the MCA and MCB ZM is common

theft
chords
and
BC,
197).
Figure
and consider two triangles They are similar because
angle,
and
ZMCB
= ZBAC
since eachofthem
158
is
Chapter&
by a half of the arc BC. Taking the and the homologous sidesMC and
sides MB
and
SIMILARITY
measured
MA
and MC
obtain the proportion: MA: MC= MC: MB the tangent MC is the geometric mean between and MB of the secant.
in AMCA,
in AMCB,
conclude,
we
that
the
segments
MA
197), passing through
197.Corollaries. (1)
a
The
product
of
a secant
(MA, Figure
point
(M)
part of
drawn
the
secant
(MB)
is equal
and the exterior to the square of the tangent(MC)

outside
a disk,
from
the
same
point,
i.e.:
MA. MB =
(2)
MC2.
a the
(MA, MD, ME, Figure 197), drawn from outside a disk, the productof eachsecant and of it, is constant, i.e. the product is the same all such secants,because for each secant this product is equal to squareMC 2 of the tangent drawn from the point M. 198.Theorem. The product of the diagonals of an scribed quadrilateralis \177qual to the sum of the products
For
all
Secants
point (M) given exterior segment
for
the inof
its oppositesides.
This
proposition
Claudius
is
called
astronomer
Ptolemy
(85
Ptolemy's - 165
theorem after a Greek A.D.) who discovered it.

A
Figure
198
Figure 199
Let AC and BD be the diagonals

ABG'D (Figure
of to
an
inscribed that
quadrilateral
198). It is required
AC.
prove
BD =
AB. CD + BC. AD.
6.
Geometric
mean
congruent
159
to
Construct the angle BAE intersection point ofthe side The trianglesABE ADC
and
AE
of
this
angle
(shaded
since
ing
their
angles
and
C are
congruent (as inscribed intercept-
let E be the diagonal BD. in Figure 198) are similar,

ZDAC,
and
with the
the
same
congruent
and the anglesat the by construction. From the similarity,

arc AD),
common
we
vertex
are
find:
AB:AC=BE:CD,
i.e. AC.BE=AB.CD.
pair
Consider now
(shaded
another
of triangles,
namely/\177ABC and
Z\177AED
in Figure
199). They
(as supplementing to ZBAD the anglescongruent by construction), and the angles ACB and ADB are congruent as inscribed intercepting the same angle AB. We obtain:
DAE
are similar, sincetheir anglesBACand
are
congruent
BC:ED=AC:AD,
i.e.
we
AC.ED=BC.AD.
Summing the
AC(BE
two
equality,
find:
where
+ ED)
= AB. CD + BC.AD,
BE
+ ED
= BD. .
EXERCISES
Prove theorems:
divides a trapezoid into two similar triangles, then this diagonalis the geometric between the bases. 401.* If two disks are externally, then the segment of an external common between the tangency points is the geometric. mean the diameters of the disks. If a square is inscribed into a right triangle in a way that one side of the square lies the hypotenuse, then this side is the geometricmean the two remaining segments of ,the
diagonal mean tangent tangent between \1770\177. such on between
4{00. Ifa
hypotenuse.
and CD are perpendicular chords in a circleof radius +'BD 2 = 4R\177. 404. If two circles are concentric, then the sum of the squares of the distances from any point of one of them to the endpoints of any diameter of the other, is a fixed quantity.
\177,03.*
If
AB
R,
then
AC 2
Hint:
\177,05. ments)
See \365193.
If
two
intersect
segments
at
AB and
a point
CD (or the
extensions of both seg-
the
points
This
A, B,
is
Hint:
C, D
lie on the samecircle.

converse
E, such
that AE. EB =
to that of
\365195
CE. ED,
\365197).
then
the
theorem
(or
160
Chapter&
AABC,
SIMILARITY
4{06.* In every DB . DC.

Extend
the
bisector
bisector
to
AD satisfies
AD2
AB.
AC-
Hint: the scribed circle,

and
its intersection
prove
that
AABD
E with the is similar to AAEC.
circum-
triangle, the ratio of the sum of the squares of all sum of the squaresof all sides is equal to 5/4. 4{08. If an isosceles trapezoid has basesa and b, lateral sides c, and diagonals d, then ab + c2 = d \177. 4{09. The diameter AB of a circle is extended past B, and at a point C on this extensionCD _1_ AB is erected. If an arbitrary point M of this perpendicular isconnected with A, and the other intersection
4{07. In
\177
every
medians
to the
not dependon the choice of M. 4{10. '\177 Given a circle (9 and two points A and B. Through these points, several circles are drawn such that each of them intersects with or is tangent to the circle O. Prove that the chordsconnecting the intersection points of each of these circtes, as well as the tangents
quantity,
point of AM
with
the
circle
is denoted
A \177, then
AM.
AA
\177 is
a fixed
i.e. it does
at
the
points
Of rangehey
witch
the
circle
O, intersect
problem,
at onepoint lying on the extension 4{11. Using the resultofthe previous the circle passingthrough two given
(when extended)
a construction
of AB.
find
of
circle.
points
and tangent
to a given
Find the geomegric locusof:

4{/2.
Points
for
which
given
points
is a
the sum of the fixed quantity.
squaresof the distances to
two
Hint: See \365193.

4{/$.
from
Points
two
for which
given
the difference of
is a
the squaresof the distances
points
fLxedquantity.
Compugagion problems
4{/4{. from
Compute the
the
legs
vertex
of the
of a right triangle if the altitude dropped right angie divides the hypotenuse into two
right
segments
ra and
n.
triangle the
4{/5. Computethe legsofa equidistantfromthe legs 20 cra long.
if a
point
on the
hypotenuse
1S and
divides
hypotenuse
into
segments
4{16.
right
The
\177enters
of
three
triangle.
Compute
the
pairwise tangent smallest of the
circles are verticesof a
two
are
6 and
4 cm.
three radii if the other
7.
\177i\177onome\177ric
\234unc\177ions a
161 from
4(1 7.
From a
drawn.
point at a distance
Compute
a circle,
a tangent of
=
length
and
2a is
\177
the
radius
of the
angle
circle.
?,/?C
\177
$.
In
the triangle
the
ABe,
AC
and compute
\17719.
- 10 units.
Compute
Determine
if
the sides measureAB

the
15,
A is
altitude
dropped
from
acute, right, the vertex t3.
or obtuse,
the rsdius of a circle which is tangent to two smaller a triangle and whosecenterlieson the greatest side, if the sides are 10, 24 and 26 units long. ,{\1770. Through a point, which is 7 eraaway from the center of a circle of radius ll cm,a chord of length 18 era is drawn. Compute the segments into which the point divides the chord. \177/.Froma pointoutside a disk,a tangent a and a secant are drawn. Compute the length of the secant if the ratio of its part outside the disk to the part inside the disk is equal to m ' n. ,{\177. Compute the base of an isosceles trianglewith a lateral side 14 units and the medianto thisside11units.
sides of
Hint:
\1774\177.*
Apply
the
theorem
of \365193.
terms
\177$.* Express
Express
medians of a triangle in
altitudes
of its
sides.
triangle in terms of its sides. \1775.* Express bisectors of a triangle in terms of its sides. \1776.* A vertex of a triangle lies on the circle passing through the midpoints of the adjacent sides and the barycenter. Compute the median drawn from this vertex if the opposite side has length a. 4\17727.* In a triangle, the medians drawn to two sides of 6 and 8 era
of a
long are perpendicular. Compute

7
the_third
side.
Trigonometric
functions
acute
199. Trigonometric functions of acute angles. Let \177 be any angle (Figure 200). On oneof its sides, take an arbitrary point Air and drop the perpendicular MN from this point to the other side of the ang]e. Then we obtain a right triangle OMN. Take pairwise ratios of the sidesof this triangle, namely: MN: O_M, i.e. the ratio of the leg opposite to the angle \177, to
the
hypotenuse,
ON:
the
OM, i.e.
the ratio of the leg adjacent
to
the
angle
c\177,
to
hypotenuse,
the
MN: ON, leg adjacent
i.e. the ratio of the leg opposite totheangle to it,
a,
to
162
and
Chapter3.
the
SIMILARITY
ratios
reciprocal
to them:
OM
OM
ON\"
ON
MN'
MN'
on theposition on the side

of of
The
magnitude
of each
the
of these ratios
M
point
the
angle
the
on the point x M
side of the angle, nor is taken on.
dependsneither
of the point M we take another point M' on the same side of the angle (or a point M\" on the other side of it), and drop the perpendiculars .}W\177N ' (respectively M\"N\") to the opposite side',then the right triangles thus formed: /kOLI'N \177 and will be similar to the triangle OMN, because c\177 is their common acute angle. From the proportionaltry of homologous sidesofsimilar
Indeed,
if instead
triangles,
we
conclude:
MN
M'N'
ON'
M\"N\"
ON
ON'
\177
ON\"
M'N M\"N\"' '\" when Therefore, the ratios in question do not changetheir the point M changes its position on one or the other sideof the Obviously, they do not change when the angle is replaced by another angie congruent to' it, but of course, do change when the measure of the angie changes.
ON ON\" '
MN
values
angle.
cr
they
Figure
200
Thus,
respond
to acute
quite
angles of every
values
given measure,therecorof these ratios, and we

angle
definite
can
therefore
say that
only,
and
characterizes
each of these ratios is a functionofthe its magnitude.

trigonometric
following
of each
\177ngle
All the abo?e ratiosare called a. Out of the six ratios, the
functions
four
are
used
of the most often:
- the ratio of the legopposite to the called the sine ofthe angle \177 and is
angle
a,
denoted
to the hypotenuse sin a;
is
7.
T\177fonome\177r\177c
\234unc\177ons
163
the
ratio
called the
the
to it
is calledthe tangent ofthe angle \177 and is denoted tan \177; the ratio of the adjacent leg to the opposite leg (i.e. the ratio reciprocal to tan \177) is called the cotangent of the angle \177 and is
denoted
Since
of the leg.adjacentto the angle \177, to the hypotenuse is cosine of the angle\177 and is denoted cos c\177; ratio of the leg opposite to the angle c\177 to the leg adjacent
cot
each
\177.
of the
and
cosine
equal
of any
to
and since
leg, or
by
numbers
The
sine,
\177,
are
and
and cotangent can be expressed than 1, or equal to 1. remaining two ratios, namely the reciprocals of cosine and called respectively the secant and cosecant of the angle
it,
one of the legscan

then greater
legs is smaller than the hypotenuse, acute angle is a positive number smaller
be
the
sine
than
1,
greater,
or smaller
than the
other
the tangent
than
1, smaller
are
denoted Constructing
respectively angles
metricfunction.
(1)
200.
sec \177 and csc with given
\177.
values of a
trigono-
to
3/4.
the
the angleopposite tothisleg. construct such a triangle, take any small segment mark the segment AB (Figure 201) congruent to 4 segments. Then construct a semicircle on AB as a and draw an arc, of radius congruent to 3/4 of centered at the point B. Let C be the point of this arc with the semicircle. ConnectingC A an_d B we obtain a right triangle angle A will have the sine equal to 3/4.
To and such diameter, AB, intersection with whose
anglewhosesine is equal to construct a right triangle such that ratio of one of its legs to the hypotenuse is equal to 3/4, and take
Suppose
it is
required
to construct an
For
this,
one needs
Figure
201
(2)
segment
The problemis solved

congruent
Construct
an angle
the
x
same
satisfying
the
way
as the
equation: cos x = 0.7. previous one. Take the
to
10 arbitrary
be
ure
201),
and congruent
adjacent to
this leg will
units for the hypotenuse AB (Figto 7 such units for AC. Then the angle A
the
required
one.
164
(3)
Chapter 3. SIMILARITY
Construct
angle x such that tan x = 3/2. For this, one a right triangle such that one of its legs is 3/2 times greaterthan the other. Draw a right angle (Figure 202), and mark a segment AB of arbitrary length on oneof its sides, and the segment AC congruent to \177AB on the other. Connecting the points B and C, We obtain the angle B whose tangent is equal to 3/2.
an
needs
to construct
Figure
202
The
same construction
can be appliedwhen
required
the
cotangent
of the
angle x
adjacent
is given,but
to
the
angle
in this
case will be the one
the
leg AC.
of trigonometric functions. It is convenient of sine and cosineas the angle varies, assuming that the length of the hypotenuse remains fixed and equal to a unit of length,and only the legs vary. Taking the radius OA (Figure 203) equalto an arbitrary unit of length, describe a quarter-circle AM, and take any central angle AOB = 2. Dropping from B the perpendicular BC to the radius OA, we have:
201. Behavior
the
to
describe
behavior
sin a
BC --- BC
OB
--
length
of BC,
cos
Imagine
oc
--
\177
OB
--
--
oc
= length of OC.
now
that
direction
pointed
and finishing in the position OM. Then the angle a will increase from 0\370to 90 \370, passing through the values/A\270B,/AOB', etc. shown in Figure 203. In the process of rotation the length of the leg BC opposite totheangle a, will increase from 0 (for a = 0\370) to 1 (for a = 90\370), and the length of the leg OC adjacent to the angle 2, will decrease from 1 (for a = 0\370) to 0 (for a = 90\370). Thus, when the angle a increases from 0\370 to 90\370\177 its sine increases from 0 to 1, and its cosinedecreases from i to O.
the radius OB rotates about out by the arrow, starting from
the centerO
the
in
the
position
OA
T\177igo\177ome\177ric
\234unc\177;ior\177s
16\177
Let
us examine
now the
is the ratio of the oppositelegto the nient to assumethat the adjacent legremains a unit of length, and the opposite legvaries segment OA congruentto a unit of length
gent
behavior of the tangent.Since

adjacent fixed with
the
tan-
leg, and the
it is convecongruent to
angle.
Take the
(Figure
204) for
the fixed
leg of the AOB =
right
triangle
AOB,
and
start
changing
the acute angle
c\177.
By
definition,
tan
c\177 =
AB AB \177 = -OA 1
length
of
AB.
C\"
C'
A
Figure
A
204
Figure 203
Imagine
that B',
the point
B moves alongthe ray
AN
starting
from
and goingupward fartherandfarther,passingthrough B \177',etc. Then, as it is clear from Figure 204, both the angle c\177 and its tangent will increde. When the point B coincides with A, the angle c\177 = 0 \370, and the tangent is also equal to 0. When the point B moves higher and higher, the angle (\177 becomes closer and closer to 90\370 , and the value of the tangent becomes greaterand greater, exceeding any fixed number (i.e. grows indefinitely). In such cases one says that a function increases (or grows) to infinity (and expresses \"infinity\" by the symbol \177). Thus, when the angle increases from 0\370 to 90 \370, its tange\177 increases from 0 to \177. From the definition of the cotangent as the quantity reciprocal to the tangent (i.e. cot x = 1/tanx), it follows that when the tangent increases from 0 to oo, the cotangent decreases from oo to 0. 202. Trigonometric relationships in right triangles.We have defined trigonometric functions of acute angles as ratiosofsides of right triangles associated with these angles. Vice versa, one can use the values of trigonometric functions in order to expressmetric
the position A
the
positions
relationships
in
right
triangles.
166
Chapter
right
3. SIMILARITY
we find:
(1) Froma sin B = cosC, c/a

b
triangle cos
ABC B
(Figure
205),
b/a =
= sin
C, and
therefore
asinB
= acosC',
c = acosB
= asinC',
of
i.e.
with
leg
of a
the
sine
right triangle of the angle

same
is equal to the product of the hypotenuse opposite to the leg, or with the cosine
we
the angle
c/b
adjacent to it.
triangle,
(2) Fromthe
=
find:
b/c =
tanB
cot
B =
tan C, and therefore
= cot C and
b=ctanB=ccotC,
c=bcotB=btanC,
productof
former
the
i.e.
with
cotangent of the angle adjacentto it.

Notice
leg of a right triangle is equal to the the tangent of the angle opposite to the
other
leg
leg,
or with
the
any
that
/B
= 90 \370-/C.
It
follows
therefore
that
for
angle
c\177
cos
c\177 =
sin(90 =
\370-
a),
sin
cot(90
\177 =
cos(90 - a)
we
\370
- a),
tan(90
\370
c\177)
cot
c\177,
\370
= tana.
have
According to the
Using
Pythagorean
theorem,
a 2 = b2
+ c2.
this
we
arrive
at the
following fundamental
the
of
sine
the
same
and cosine functions: angle add up
the squares of the sineand cosine to one:

= 1
identity
relating
sin
sider
\177 a
\177-cos
2 a
for any angle

functions.
gle
equal
=
Besides,
203. Some specialvaluesoftrigonometric Conthe right triangle ABC (Figure 206) that its acute anB = 45 Then the other acute angle of this triangle is also to 45 i.e. the right triangle is isosceles: b = c. Therefore
such \370. \370,
b/c =
sin
c/b = 1. Thus
\370 --
i.e.
1/V.
45
cos
45
\370=
--
tan 45\370=
a of an
-\177x/\177,
cot
45 \370= 1.
__
6According
with
to
\365148,
the
b.
hypotenuse
Since
isosceles right
conclude
triangle
is incom\177/\177 is
mensurable
irrational.
its
leg
a/b
we
that
the number
7'.
Trigonometric
Consider
functions
the
\17767
now B
right
triangle ABC
to
acute
to this
(Figure 207)suchthat its

of 1 2
that
\36581,
angle
= 30 \370. According
the
of
result
the
the
leg
opposite
angle is congruentto a half sin 30\370=
hypotenuse.
Thus
cos 60 \370= -.
Now it follows from
the
Pythagorean
theorem
=
we
Finally, sincetanB =
tan
b' c= (1/2)a'
(v/-\177/2)a,
have:
30 \370= cot
60 \370=
tan
60 \370= cot 30 \370=
x/-\177.
C
b
b
b
B
Figure
c
205
b
Figure
206
Figure
207
204.
of
Trigonometric
functions
trigonometric
functions of obtuse angles. of acute angles can be successfully
Definitions
gener-
angles using the conceptof the number line and negative numbers, discussed in \365153. Consider an arbitrary central angle BOA = c\177 (see Figure 208, where the angle c\177is shown obtuse) formed by a radius OB with the fixed radius OA. To define cos c\177,we first extend the radius OA to the infinite straight line, and identify the latter with the numberline by taking the center O and the point A to represent the numbers 0 and I respectively.Then we drop the perpendicular from the endpoint of the radius B to the line OA. On the number line OA, the foot of this perpendicular represents a real number which is taken for the definition of the cosine of the angle c\177. To define sine, we rotate the number line OA counter-clockwise through the angle of 90\370, and
alized
to arbitrary
168
Chapter perpendicular
the
3.
SIMILARITY
to OA.
thus obtain another number line, OP, foot of the perpendiculardropped from
The
point the
B to
representsthe third line

number
number
sin
\177.
Translating
line
on and
the line OP OP we obtain a

Then
AQ
tangent
\177.
intersection
point
of the
extended line OB marks

sec
c\177, and
to the
circle at the point A.

the
c\177,
,the
number
line
AQ the value of tan as the reciprocals of
Finally, sin
q, csc
tan
cot
c\177, are
defined
cos \177,
c\177respectively.
Q I
A
-I
tan
\177
Figure
208
Some ure
and
208.
tan
properties of trigonometric functions are obvious from FigFor example, when the angle \177 is obtuse, the values cos \177
\177
are
negative,
and
sin
\177),
c\177 positive.
Moreover:
sinq
= sin(180
\370
cos\177
- cos(180 \370- cot(180

\370
\177),
tan 205.
c\177 =
- tan(180
\370
\177),
cot
c\177 =
\177).
cosines. The notionofthe cosine function for arbitrary angles allows one to unify the results of \365190 and \365191 and express the square of one sideof a triangle in terms of the opposite angle and the othertwo sides, in a single formula known as the law
The
law of
of cosines.
Theorem.
triangle
two
sides
The square of one (ABC) is equal to the (a and b) minus twice
side:with
sides
the
cosine
c
of
2 =
side (c, Figure 209) of sum of the squaresofthe other the product of the latter the angle (C) opposite to the former
every two
a2
+ b2 -
2abcosC.
7. Trifonometric
In.deed,
functions
169
C is acute or obtuse, we
c 2=a where
according-to.the
result
have
of
\365190
or
\365191, when
the angle
respectively:
CD,
2+b 2-2a.
CD, or c2=a 2+b2'+2a.

the
(,)
CD is
the distance from
vertex
opposite
C to
the perpendicular
According
BD
droppedfromthe vertexB to the side. definition of the numbercosC is positive and negative ZC is obtuse), CD cos and CD = -b cosC the second. Substituting
(which when b in
when
C
to the ZC is acute, in the first case, this value of CD
into the in corresponding formula both cases:c =

when
equation \177
a2
b%,)_,
we cos obtain the same resulting 2ab C as required. Finally,
the angle C is right, we ha'\177e cos C = cos 90 \370- 0. Therefore the law of cosines turns in this case into the equality c2 = a \177+ b 2, which holds true due to the Pythagoreantheorem. Thus the law of cosines holds true for any triangle.
Figure 209
Figure 210
EXERCISES
428. Computethe values

120
\370 ,
of
\370 .
the
sine
and cosine
of the angles 90 \370 ,
135
\370 ,
150
\370 ,
and
180
429. For which of the angles 0\370, 90 \370, and 180 \370are the values of the functions tan and cot defined? 430. Compute the values of the tangentand cotangentof 120 \370, 135 \370,
and
150
\370 .
431. 432.
Prove
that
sin(c\177
+ 90
\370)
cos
c\177, cos(c\177 (a)
+ 90
\370)
sin
(\177.
Construct
(c)tanc\177
the angles
=
sides
a such that:
=-7.
triangle,
15
\370 .
cosa
= 2/a,
(b) sins
=
the
-1/4,
angles
5/2,-(d)cotc\177
of a
433. Compute two

adjacent
if the
third sideis a, and
to it are
45\370and
170
\177{$\177{. Is
Chapter
the
3.
SIMILARITY
right,
triangle
obtuse?
Compute
\177{$5. Compute
/B = 120 o.
Compute
with the sides 3, 7, and 8 cm acute, the angle opposite to the middle side. the side AB of/kABC if AC = 7, BC
the
or
= 5,
and
\177$6.*
sine
and cosine
of: (a) 15 \370, (b)
22\37030\177.
\177$7.*
Compute
cos
18 \370.
Hint:
The
bisector
drawn to
the
with
original
the
angle 36\370 at
one.
a lateral sideof an isosceles triangle vertex cuts off a triangle similar to the
of
\17738.* Prove
intersecting
chord and the segment ofit intersectionpoint is a

constant
that 'if from the endpointsof a diameter chords are drawn, then the sum of the
from
a circle:
products
two of each
the quantity.
endpoint
of the
diameter to
through
the
op-
\17739. Prove
that
a side
2RsinA.
\1770.
posite
angle and
the
the
a of a triangIeis expressed the radius R of the circumscribed

of sines: in every opposite angles.
the
circle
as a
Derive
law
tionalto
,/\177
triangle, sides are propor-
sines
of the
1.*
Two
right
hypotenuse angles
Hin\177:
h. through
Apply
triangles lie on the oppositesidesof their common Express the distance between the vertices of the right h and the sines of acute anglesof the triangles. Ptolemy's theorem.
the
\1772. Prove
the addition law for

sin(e
+/\177)
sine
function:
Hint:
gruent
Apply
the
given
result
segment
of
\1773.*On a
circles the
are drawn:
geometric locus of points of such circles.
the second(i.e. other
through A and M, and M

than
cos fi + cos a sin fl. the previous problem. AB, a point M is chosen, and two
sin a
and
con-
B.
Find
M)
intersection
8
the
Applications
206.
of algebra to
geometry
is
golden ratio. One says that a segment is divided in and mean ratio if the greater part the geometric mean between the smaller part and the whole segment. In other words, the ratio of the wholesegment the greater part must be equal to the ratio of the greaterpart to the smaller one. 7 We will
The
extreme
to
solve herethe following
construction under
problem:
section,
?This ratio
golden
is
known
many
names, such
mean,
and
also the
as: the golden divine proportion.
ratio, golden
8. Applications of algebra \177o \177eometry

Problem.
171
a segment in the extreme and mean ratio. will be solved if we find one of the two required p\177rts, e.g. the greater one. Let. us assume first that the problem in question is not about the construction ofthispart, but only about the computation of its length. Then the problem can be solved algebraically. Namely, if a denotesthe length of the whole segment, and x the lengthof the greater required part, then the length of the other part isa - x, and the requirement of the problem is expressed
To divide
The problem
by
the
equation:
x 2-a(a-x),
Solving
orx \177'+ax-a2-0.
we find
this
quadratic
equation
two solutions:
xl =
We
2+
second
+a2'
solution
x2
+
simplify
a\177
discard
the
as negative, and
v\177a
the
first
one:
a ---v/'\177 \177
a,
Thus the problemhas a unique
a segmentwhose
length
is given
problem
given
will
be
solved.
Thus
If we manage to construct formula, then our original the problem reduces to constructinga
solution.
by this
formula.
Fi9ure 211
In fact it is moreconvenient it had beforethe simplification.
to
construct
this
the
formula
expression
in the
form
Considering
we notice that it represents the length of the triangle' whoselegsare a/2 and a. Constructing
hypotenuse
of a
right
such a
triangle and
172
then
Chapter3.
subtracting
SIMILARITY
a/2
from
Therefore
Bisect
the construction
its hypotenuse, we find can be executed as follows.
the
segment
xl.
the given segment AB = a (Figure 211)at the point C. the endpoint B, erect the perpendicular and mark on it the segment BD = BC. Connecting A and D we obtain a right triangle ABD whose legs axe AB = a and BD = a/2. Therefore its hypotenuse AD = \177/a 2 + (a/2) 2. To subtract a/2 from it, describe an arc BE of radius BD = a/2 centered at the point D. Then the remainingsegment AE of the hypotenuse will be equal to x\177. Marking on AB the segment AC = AE, we obtain a point C, which divides the segmentAB in the extreme and mean ratio.
From
207. The algebraic method ofsolving construction probWe have solved the previous problem by way of applying algebra to geometry.Thisisa general method which can be described as follows. Firsfly one determines which line segment is required in order to solve the problem, denotes known segments by a, b, c, ...,and the required segment by x, and expresses relationships betweenthese
lems.
quantities
in
the
form
the
of an
equation,
a\177gebraic
equation,
using
requirements
of
the problem
gebra, one thus

found, how formula, segment
and known
i.e.
theorems.
Next,
applying
the methods
of al-
solves
and
then studies
the solution formula
determines
for which
data the
solution exists,and
many i.e.
Solutions describes
of a whose Thus the

structing it.
axe. Finally, one constructs the solution a construction by straightedge and compass length is expressed by this formula.
there
method-
algebraic
of
solving
geometric
construction
problems, generally speaking,consists of four steps: (i) deriving an equation, (ii) solving it, (iii) studying the solution formula, (iv) con-
Then one denotestheir lengths by several letters x,y,z,..., and seeks a systemof as many equations as there are unknowns. 208. Construction of elementary formulas.Suppose that solving a construction problem by the algebraic method we arrive at a solution formula which expresses a required length x through given lengths a, b, c,... using only the arithmetic operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division, and the operation of extracting square roots. We will show here, how to construct such a
formula
Sometimes a
problem
reduces
to
finding
several
line segments.
by
straightedge
and
compass.
First, one of the given segments, e.g.a, can be taken for the unit Of length. We may assume therefore that all segments are represented by numbers. Respectively, the task of constructing the formulas
8.
Applications
of
algebra
to geometry
173
expressing the requiredsegment through given segments is reduced to the problem of constructing the required number x expressed through the given numbers a = 1,b,c, by means of the four arithmetic operations and by extracting square roots. Thus it suffices to show how to obtain the result of these five elementary operations with given numbers, using straightedge and compass. (1) Addition and subtraction of numbers represented by given segments can be easily done by marking the segments on the number
...
line
theorem
(using
compass).
(2) Figure
Multiplication
by
intersecting
and division can be doneon thebasisof sides of an angle by parallellines,as shown
Thales'
in
212.
Namely,
the proportions
x
equivalent
(3)
x
and\276=
are
to x
To
extract
to construct
213.
the geometric meanbetween
= bc and x = b/c respectively. the square root x of a given

b and
number
b, it
suffices
i as
shown in Figure
Figure
212
Figure
213
Thus,
operations constructed
edge
any algebraic
with by
and
straightedge
square
expressions involving only arithmetic roots of given numbers can be

and
compass.
\365213,
Remark. Conversely, as we will see in and compass one can constructonly those which can be obtained from given numbersby
using
straight-
algebraic
a
expressions succession
finite
of
arithmetic
operations and extractionof square roots.
EXERCISES
JJJ.
Construct
the
angle
\1770 d.
174
4{4{ 5.
Chapter Construct an isosceles to the base cuts off

2
3.
SIMILARITY
angle
triangle such that the bisector ofan

a triangle
b,
adjacent
similar construct
to it. a fourth
(a) x
4{4{6. Given three segments a, and c, suchthat x: c = a : b 2. 4{4{ 7. Construct segments expressed
by (b)
segment x
the
formulas:
- abc/de,
x----
v/a 2 q-bc an
the base a and the altitudeh of pute the side x ofthe square inscribed into
4{4{8. Given
acute
the
triangle, comtriangle, i.e. such
that one sideofthe
square
lies
on the
on
tance
base, and
the oppositevertices
the
lateral common
sides
of the
tangent
triangle.
is drawn
4{4{9. A
d
between
the
centers,
to two disks which have the and the radii R and r. Compute
the
disthe
position
of the
them.
intersection
point of this tangent with

to
Iine
of
centers,
between
when the
point lies: (i)
one
side
of both
centers, or (ii)
then
\17750. Prove
triangle
Ii I-I\361nt: 4{
that if two is isosceles.

the
medians in a triangleare congruent,
the
Use
51.
In the
this
from
this point through the center.

H\361m::
algebraic me\177od and \365193. exterior of a givendisk,find a point point to the disk is equal to a half of the
the
such that secant
drawn
the tangent from
Apply
algebraic
given
method.
outside
4{52. Through a that is by 4{53.Inscribe a

divided 4{
point
a given
disk, construct
a secant
the
circle
into
in a
a given
given ratio.
sector.
circle
54{.*
Construct
derive
a triangle
from
given its
similarity
altitudes.
of triangles
Hint: First ha, hc axe inversely

hb,
proportional
to the
that the altitudes respective sides a, b, c, i.e.
that
ha'
hb
.\177
,\177c- a
'
\177'
c'
Coordinates
points
of a planecan
209. Cartesian coordinates. We of a straight line with real numbers.

similarly
saw
in
\365153
how
to
identify
It turns
out that
points
be
way
construct
identified
of
bers. One coordinates.8 To

important
with ordered pairs of real numdoing this is to introduce Cartesian a Cartesian coordinate system on
from Cartesius, the Latinized name of Ren\177 philosopher who introduced into geometry
SThe term
l\177escartes
Cartesian
originates
French
(1696
- 1650), the
algebra.
the systematicuse of
9.
Coordinates
175
the plane, pick a.point.O (Figure 214) and two perpendicular lines passing through it. Then pick a unit of length, and mark segments OA and OB of unit length on the first and second line respectively. ThepointO is called the origin of the coordinate system, and the infinite straight lines OA and OB the 1st and the 2nd coordinate
axes
by
respectively.
Next, choosing
identify the
and
the
point
of the coordinate axes with the numberline to represent the number 0 on eachof them, A (respectively B) to representthe number i on the
each origin
1st (respectively
the 2nd) axis.

P
N'
-3
-2
-1
-I
Figure 214
associate the 1st
Now, given a coordinatesystem,to any point P on the plane, we an ordered pair (x, y) of real numbers calledrespectively and the 2rid coordinate of P. Namely, we draw through P two lines PN and PM, parallel to th\177 Coordinate axes OA and OB respectively. The intersectionpoint M (respectively N) of the line OM (respectively ON) with the 1st (respectively the 2nd) coordinate axis represents on this axis a real number, which we take for x (respectively y). For instance, the point P'in Figure214 has the coordinates x'- -3, and y = 2. Vice versa, the point P can be recovered from its coordinates (x, y) unambiguously. Namely, mark on the 1stand 2nd coordinate axes the points representing the numbers x and y respectively, and erect perpendiculars to the axes from these points. Obviously, P is the intersection point of theseperpendiculars. Therefore we have established a correspondence betweenpoints of the planeand ordered pairs of their coordinates. Clearly, the coordinates in this construction can be arbitrary real numbers, and we will write P(x, y) for a point P whose 1st and 2nd coordinates are given by the numbersx and y respectively (e.g. P(-3, 2) is the point denoted'Pwhich has the coordinates x = -3 and y = 2).
176
210.
Chapter3.
The
SIMILARITY
coordinate
To
distance
the
y\177)
formula.
of the
Cartesian
Problem.
points
compute
length
given
segment between two

coordinates
P(x,
y) and
P' (x',
with
(Figure
Ii iL
b sin
Figure 215
Figure
216
The
axes
and
PP'
lines PQ and P'Q, parallel to the and 2nd coordinate respectively, are perpen'dicular (since the coordinate axes are), therefore intersect at some point Q. Suppose that the segment is not parallel to eitherofthe coordinate axes.Then PP' is the
1st
hypotenuse
theorem,
we find
of the right triangle PQP'. Applying the distance betweenP(x,y) and
the
Pythagorean
P'(x',y'):
special case when the segmentPP' is parallel to one of the coordinate axes, the right triangle PQP' degenerates into this segment, but it is easy to check that the above distance formula remains true (because in this caseeither x = x', or y = y').
In the
coordinates
B,
211. The method of coordinates. One can successfully use to solve geometric problems.Hereis an example. Problem. To re-prove the law of cosines using coordinates. \337 In AABC, let a, b, and c be the sides opposite to the vertices A, and C respectively. It is required to prove that
c2 =
a 2 + b2
- 2abcosC. that the origin
Picka is the
vertex axis
Cartesian
coordinate
contains
axis lies
on the samesideof the
(Figure 216), the side CB, and

C
system in such a way the positive ray of the
1st coordinate
2nd
the positive ray

line
of
the
coordinate
CB
as the
vertex A.
Then the
9. Coordinates
vertices
(by
177
C,
construction),
B,
and
A have
and
c
(bcosC,
and cosine).The
computed
distance
using
the
coordinate
coordinates respectively: (0,0), (a,0) bsinC) (by the definition of sine between the vertices A and B can be distance formula of \365210 with (x, y) =
(bcosC,
bsinC) and (x',y')=

C)
\177
(a,0),i.e.
b2 cos
(bcosC-a)2+(bsin first
\177 C-2abcos
C+a2+b
to
2 sin
cos2C
\177' C.
The
sin
\177 C
--
and the last 1. We obtain
summends here add up therefore c\177- a \177 + b \177 equations. y)
b \177, since
2ab cos
C as required.
212. Geometric lociand their The geometric loall points, whosecoordinates (x, satisfy a certain equation, is said to be described this equation, and is called the solution locus of it. faxniliar geometric loci can be described in coordinates as solution lociof equations. We discuss here the equations of straight linesand circles.
cus of
by Many suitable
Problem.
coordinates
To
find
the
geometric
c\177x
satisfy
the equation
+ fly
locus of points P(x, y) = % where \177, t\177, and
whose
? are
given numbers.
y=px+q:\177\177
X=r
Figure
X=O
217
When
c\177=
fi =
the
0, the
left
hand
side
0,
let
and
therefore
plane
geometric
locus
of the
In this
of the equation is equal to in question contains all points

7
-Y:
when
us assume
7 = 0, and contains no points when that at least oneofthe coefficients c\177, fi
0.
So,
is
non-zero.
case we claimthat the points whose coordinates (x, y) satisfy the equation c\177x + fly = ? form a straightline.Toseethis,we divide the equation by fi, assuming that fi \177 0, and obtain a new equation y = px + q, where p = -\177/fi, and q = 7/fl. Of course,multiplication or division of an equation by a non-zero number doesnot changethe locus ofpointswhose coordinates satisfy the equation. Thus we need
178
to
Chapter3.
that
SIMILARITY
show
the locus
of solutions of the new
equation
is a
straight
line.
Consider first the casewhen q = 0. Points satisfying the equation px are exactly the points with coordinates(x,y) of the form (x, px). The locus of suchpointscontainsexactly onepointfor each value of x and includes: the originO (Figure 217) whose coordinates are (x,y) = (0,0); the point P with coordinates (x,y) = (1,p); all points homothetic to P with respect to the center O and with arbitrary homothety coe\177cients x (positive or negative). Thus the locus is a straight line passing through the origin (and non-parallel
y
to the
but
2nd
coordinate
axis). we
When
instead
Moreover,
\177
0,
note
that
the locus
does not containthe origin,
the point (3 with coordinates(x,y) = (x,px) of the line y = px is replaced by the new point (x, px + q), obtained from the old one by translation in the direction of the segment Thus the solutions to the equation y = px + q form the line parallel to the line y = px and passing
contains
each
(0,q).
point
OQ.
through the point (\177(0,

Finally,
\177
q).
when
fi =
and
obtain
the solutionslocusis the the solutions (x, y) = (r, y)
a new
0, but \177 \177 equation x =
coordinateaxis
Since any
through line
and
passing
the equation by. When r = 0, 2nd coordinate axis, and when r \177 0, form a straight line parallel to the 2nd through the point (r, 0).
0,
we
can
divide
=
r,
where
-//\177.
the
origin,
the plane where at

points
is the least one of the coefficientsc\177,fi

To find an
P\177(x \177, y\177)
the plane is parallel to one of the linespassing we conclude that, vice versa, any straight line on solution locusto an equation of the form \177x+\177y = ?,
on is
non-zero.
Problem.
two
equation of the straightlinepassingthrough

P\177(x \177,y'\177) with \234iven coordinates.
point
and
Let
P(x,y)
P\177
(Figure 218) be
P\177(
third
on
the
line
passing
through
and
Then
is homothetic
the
to P\" with respect to
center positive
P'
(and
with
an arbitrary
yields
homothety coefficientwhich
can be or negative). The corresponding homothety of right triangles(shadedon Figure218) the following proportion:
x
- x\177
y\177
This
equation
makes
P'P\177'
the
segment
is
not
sense whenever x \177 \177 x \177and y\"\177 y'\177 (i.e. when parallel to any coordinate axis), and canbe
9.
Coordinates
179
rewritten
in the
form
\177x
+ fly
= \"/with
1
\177'
x'
and
y'
\177
or= x\"-x
When
y =
/\177-
y,_y,, y\,") the

and
f=
x\"=\177r
y\"-y\"
x \177 = x\" (or

coordinate
y\177 =
the 1st)
axis,
has
line is parallel to the 2nd(respectively an equation x = x\177(respectively
X\"
X'
Figure
218
Figure 219
Problem.
and
To
find
an
equation
of the
Y0)
circle of a given radius R

219).
whose
centered
at
a given
point C(x0,
coordinate
(Figure
The
circle
consists of all
Using x0)
equal to R.
points P(x, y)
distance
distance
to
C is
the 2 +
formula,
we obtain
the
equation %/(x-
(y-
yo) 2 =
R or, equivalently,
y0)
(x
- x0) 2 +
We of
(y saw
2 =
R e.
that
ties expressible
by constructed
213. Constructibility. in terms
in
\365206
geometric
quanti-
given
ones
mulas, i.e. arithmetic operations can be by straightedge usingthe methodofcoordinates,

that
of elementary forand extraction of square roots, and compass. Now we can show,
by means
the
converse
proposition
holds
true:
given
metic operations and extraction

of
Every geometric quantity which can be constructed from ones by means of straightedge and compass, can be expressed in terms of the given quantities using only arithsquare
that
roots.
a
The starting point is the observation strkightedge and compass is a finite succession
construction
by
of the
following
ele-
mentary
constructions:
180
(i)
Chapter3.
drawing
drawing
SIMILARITY
a new
(ii)
(iii) (iv)
drawing constructing
parallellines;
(v)
points; a new circle, given its center and the radius; a circle, given one of its points and the center; a new point by intersecting two given nonline through two given
a new
constructing
point
by intersecting
by
a givenline with
two'
given
circle;
(vi) constructing concentric circles.

We
a new point
plane
points\"
intersecting
given
non-
can
that
equip
\"given and
the
assume real
numbers,
\"given
Thus
(vi)
it
give
suffices
rise have
given equations
numbers
to show that the elementaryconstructions (i) to points which have coordinates expressible through by elementary formulas, or to lines and circleswhose
coefficients
with a Cartesian coordinate system and are points whose coordinates are given radii\" are segments whose lengths are given.
:-
expressible
the
by
elementary
formulas.
(i) As
we have
equation
seen in '\365212,
by
line
passing
coordinatesof thesepoints
of the centerand
(iii)
points has an
whos\177 coefficients
means
through are expressed
two given through the
o\234 arithmetic
operations.
tion
(it) Similarly,
whose
the circle with given

are
the
coefficients
arithmetic
center and radiushas an equaexpressions of the coordinates

between two given as the square root of
radius.
According
involving
to
only from
\365210,
the
distance
points
pression
(iv)
parallel
with
is expressedthrough conclusion follows

To find the lines, whose
equations
to
equations express
their
coordinates arithmetic (it).
an ex-
operations.
Thus
the required
the
of the
one(e.g.
substitute
x (1+ 3y)/2 - 0.5+1.5y from the first equation), the expression into the otherequation (i.e. write 6(0.5 + 1.5y) +5y - 7, or 8y -- 4), find the value of the other coordinate from the resulting equation (y = 4/8 = 0.5),and then compute the value of the former coordinate (x + 1.5 x 0.5 - 1.25). This procedure involves only arithmetic operations with the given coefficients. /
coordinates of the intersection pointof two nonequations have given coefficients(e.g. the lines 2x - 3y = i and 6x + 5y - 7), we can use one express one of the coordinates through the other
0.5
(v) To find
equations
intersection
points
of a
line and
a circlewith
= R s,
the
given
and (x
- x0) +
(y
- y0?
9. Coordinates
we
181
the coordinates through the otherfrom the first px + q, if \177 \177 0), and substitute the result into the secondequation. Theresulting equation (x - xo) 2. d- (px d-qyo) 2 = R 2 is easily transformed (by squaring explicitly the expressionin parentheses and reducing similar terms) to the form
can
express
one of
equation
(say, y --
Ax
2 +
Bx
+ C
= 0,
where
\177, \177,
A,
B,
and
C are
if,
x0,
Y0, and
arithmetic
arithmetic expressions of R. As it is well-known from

the
the given numbers

algebra,
solutions
of this
equation are expressedthrough

operations
coefficients
using only
and.square
roots,
and C, namely (if A -7 ! 0):

A, B,
-B
4- \177/B \177- 4AC 2A
Thus the coordinatex of an intersection point, and therefore the other coordinate y = px + q as well, are obtained from the given numbers using only successions of elementary formulas. (vi) Consider equations of two circles with given centers and radii:
Thecoordinates (x,
both
y)
of
intersection
points
equations.
in
Squaring
this
explicitly
of the circles must satisfy the parenthesis we rewrite the
equations
way:
replace the second equationin of the secondand the first equation. The
We can
this
System
by the
difference
result
has the
form
(,)
2(xl -- x2)xdwhere ? is an
circles both arithmetic
2(yl
-- Y2)Y ---- %
expression
are be
non-concentric, zero,
of given numbers. the differences xl- x2 and
and hence the equation (,) describes a straight line. The problem (vi) of intersecting two non-concentric circles with given centers and radii is reduced therefore to the problem (v) of intersecting a line and a circlewhose equations have given coefficients. Thus
!/1-y2)
Since the
cannot
two
coordinates of intersection pointsof two given non-concentric are also obtained by successions ofelementaryoperations with
numbers.'
circles
given
182
Chapter
3. SIMILAP\177TY
Remark. As we know,
two
circles
can
points
line
(\365t04),
and
such
points
in
must lie
of the
have at most two common on a line perpendicular to the

to
of centers
(\365117).Our
result shows how

terms
express
an equation
of this
circles.
line (namely (,))
radii
and the
centers of the
EXERCISES
J55.
Prove
that
the
C(10,-4) is isosceles.it J56. Prove'that the C(3,- 1) right.

Is triangle is
triangle
with the
acute,
with
vertices A(2,-3), B(6,4), and

or obtuse?
vertices
right
the
A(-3,
1), B(4,
2), and
of
J57.
Find coordinates
coordinates of the of its endpoints.

average
midpoint of a segment in
of
terms
J 58. Provethat eachcoordinate
the
barycenter
of a
arithmetic J 59. The

coordinates
triangle is the
of of
the
corresponding
coordinates
of the
vertices.
diagonals
a square
ABCD
intersect
at the origin. Find
C, and D,,if the coordinates of A are given. the sumofthe squares ofdistances from the vertices of a given square to a line passing through its center is constant. J61. Computethe distance between the incenter and barycenter of a right trianglewith legs 9 and 12 cm. J 62. Provethat for any rectangle ABCD and any point ?, we have
of
B,
J 60.
Prove that
?A
-F
?C
2=
PB
-F
?D
2.
J63. Can a triangle be equilateral, if distances from its vertices to two given perpendicular lines are expressed by whole numbers? J6J. Using the methodof coordinates, re-prove the result of \365193: the sum of the squaresofthe sidesofa parallelogram is equal to the sum of the squaresof its diagonals. J65. Prove that the geometric locus of points P(x, y) described by the equation x 2 -F y2 = 6x q- 8y is a circle, and find its center and
radius.
that the geometric locusof points given points have a ratio m n,

given \337
J66.
Using
the
method
of coordinates,
from
re-prove Apollonius'
which
theorem
to two
the
distances
not
equal
to 1,
is a circle.
J 67.* the
three
Prove
that lines,
if three each
passing
pairwise intersecting circles are given, then through the intersection points of two
of
the
circles,
are concurrent.
Chapter
REGULAR
POLYGONS
AND
CIRCUMFERENCE
i
generally, if
Regular
polygons
214.
Definitions.
congruent
sidesare
all
and
broken
A polygon (\36531) of its interior line (not necessarily

all
of
the
its
sides
broken
are congruent,
line
sideof
in since of
are
congruent.
Figure some the
220
of the
line.
congruent congruent The five-point

has
and all of its angleson the same For example, the brokenline sides and-angles, but it is not regular angles are situated on the opposite sides star in Figure 221 is an example of a
is called regular if all of its angles are congruent.More closed) is called regular,
Figure
220
Figure
221
Figure 222
closed regular broken line, since
all
of
its
5 sides
are congruent as
183
184
all of
Chapter
4.
CIRCUMFERENCE
its 5 interior anglesare. But we do not consider it a polygon, because it has self-intersections. An example of a regular polygon is the pentagonshown in Figure 222. Forthcoming theorems show that construction of regular polygons is closely related to division of circles into congruent parts. 215. Theorem. if a circle is divided into a certainnumber
(greater than2) of congruent parts,

(1)
then:
connecting we
every
two
consecutive
polygon\177
division
into
points
the
by
chords\177
obtain
a regular
inscribed
cir-
cle;
(2) drawing tangents

and
with
extending
the
each
at
tangents
of them up to the the nearest division
to the circleat allthe
intersectionpoints
points\177
division
points
we
obtain
circumscribed about the circle. Let the circle (Figure 223) be divided at the points A, B, C, etc. into several congruent parts, and through these points the chords AB, BC, etc. are drawn, and the tangents MBN, NCP, etc. Then the inscribed polygon ABCDEF is regular, because all its sidesare congruent (as chords subtending congruent arcs), and all of its angles are congruent (as inscribed angles, intercepting congruent arcs).
a regular
polygon
A'
N S
B'
C P
D
F'
E'
D'
224
Figure 223
Figure
regularity of the circumscribedpolygon triangles AMB, BNC, etc. The bases AB, BC, etc. of these triangles are congruent,and the anglesadjacent to thebases are also congruent because each of them has the same measure (since an angle formed by a tangentand a chord measures a half of the arc contained insidethe .angle).Thus all these triangles are --isosceles and congruent to eachother,and hence MN = NP - ..., and LM = LN --' .., i.e. the polygon MNPQR$ is regular.
In
order
to
prove
MNPQRS,
consider
the
1. Regular
polygons
If
185
from the center O (Figure 224), we drop to etc. perpendicu]ars and extend them up to the intersections with the circle at the points A//, /V, etc., then these points bisect all the arcs and chords, and therefore divide the circle into congruent parts. Therefore, if through the points etc. we draw tangents to the circle up to their mutual intersection as explained earlier, then we obtain another circumscribed regular polygon A\177C'D'E\177F', whose sides are parallel to the sides of the inscribed Each pair of vertices: A and A ', \177 and \177, etc., lie on the same ray with the center, namely on the bisector of the angle
Remark. the
216.
chords
AB,
BC,
one.
A//ON and other such

217.
angles.
Theorem.
possible
If a
polygon is regular,
it by
circle
then;
a circle;
it.
(1)it is to circumscribe (2) it is possible to inscribe a
into
Figure 225
-' (1) Draw a circlethrough any three consecutive vertices A, B, and C (Figure225)of a regular polygon ABCDE and prove that it will pass through the next vertex D. For this, drop from the center O the perpendicular OKtothechord BC and connect O with A and D. Rotate the quadrilateral ABKO in space about the sideOK so that it falls onto the quadrilateral DCKO. Then the line KB will fall onto KC (due to equality of the right anglesat thepointK), and B will merge with C (since the chord BC is bisected at K). Then the side BA will fail onto CD (due to equality of the anglesB and C), and finally, the point A will merge with D (since BA = CD). This implies that OA will merge with OD, and therefore the points A and D are equidistant from the center. Thus the point D lieson the circle passing through A, B, and C. Similarly, this circle, which passes through B, C, and D, will pass through the next vertex E, etc; henceit passes through all vertices of the polygon.
186
Chapter 4. CIRCUMFERENCE
from part (1) that sides of a regularpolygon can be as congruent chords of the same circle.But such chords are equidistant from the center, and thereforethe perpendiculars OB/;,ON, from O to the sides of the polygon, are congruent to each other. Thus the circle described by the radius \270_\177f from the center (P is inscribed into the polygon ABODE.
follows
(2)It
considered
etc.,dropped
218.
Corollaries.
'(1)
Any
regular
polygon
line
(ABCDE,
extending
226) is convex, its sides.
i.e. it lieson onesideof each
Figure any of
Figure
226
the
for instance, the side BC and notethat it divides circle into two arcs. Sinceall vertices of the polygon lie on this circle,they must all lie on one of these arcs (because otherwise the broken line BAEDC would intersect the segment in contradiction to our definition of a polygon). Thus the whole regular polygon lies in the disk segment (BAEDC in Figure 226) enclosed between this arc and the lineBC,and hence on one side of
Indeed,
extend,
circumscribed
this line.
(2)
As
it
is clear
from the
proof of the theorem,the

are
inscribed
and
circumscribed 219.
circumscribed
circles Definitions.
circle
on
of a
of
each
regular polygon
concentric.
polygon. It lies
perpendicular
The common center of the inscribed and a .regular polygon is calledthe centerofthis
angie
bisector
it
of
tl\177e
polygon in
bisector to its sides.Therefore,

suffices bisectors
perpendicular
order
and on each to locate the
bisectors, or
angle
center of a regular polygon,

two
to intersect of its
two of its sides, or one of
angle
those
bisectors
radius
with
one of
polygon,
those perpendiculars.
The of the circle circumscribed about a regular polygon is called the radiusofthe and the radius of the inscribed circle its apothem. The between two radii drawn to the endpoints
angie
of any
side
is called
a central
angle of the regular polygon.
There
1.
Regular
polygons
such
187
as there
are as many
(as central
Since
angles
are sides,
and they
all
are
'congruent
the
angles corresponding to congruent arcs). sum of all the centralanglesis 4d for

where
360\370), then
each
of them
360\370/6
the regular
--
is 4din (or 360\370/n),

polygon. \370, of
n denotes
the number
60
a regular
of sidesaresimilar, their radii or apotheras.

To
220.
Theorem.
the central angle of a regular hexagonis octagon (i.e. 8-gon) 360\370/8 -- 45 \370, etc. Regular polygons with the same number and their sides have the same ratio as
Thus,
of sides of
prove
the
A\177B'C\177D'E'F congruent
\177 (Figure
and
their
because Since
they AB
have
= BC
= CD
regular n-gons ABCDEF and to show that their anglesare sides are proportional. The angles are congruent the same measure, namely 2d(n- 2)/n (see\36582).
similarity
of
227),
it sufiSces
and
A\177B \177 =
B\177C \177 =
C\177D
' =
it is
obvious that
AB
A\177B \177
BC
B\177C \177
CD
C\177D t are
\"',
i.e. that
the sides of such polygons

E D
proportional. E'
D'
F'
A'
A
M'
B'
Figure
227
Let O
and 0' (Figure 227)

OA
be
the
centers
O\177A'B
polygons,
apothems.
and
OtA
\177 be
their
radii,
of the and OM and

\177 are
given regular OM \177be their

since
The
follows
triangles
from
OAB and
similarity
similar, to
the
angles of
other. It
one of them are respectively

the
congruent
the
angles
of the
that
AB
A\177B \177
OA
O\177A\177
OM
O\177M \177'
Corollary.
Since
as
same
ratio
their
homologous
the perimeters sides
of similar polygons have the

(\365169),
then
perimeters
of reg-
ular n-gons have the
same ratio as their
radii
or
apothems.
188
Chapter
and
4. CIRCUMFERENCE
Example. Let a the same of sides, scribed about the same the circumscribed (Figure227), find the
number polygon we O/V\1772
be the sides of regular polygons with respectively inscribed into and circumof is
circle
radius
R.
Then
/r/.
From
the
the apothem of right triangle 2403//
apothem
_
03//
Since
R2
polygons
_ (a/2)2
are apothems:
and
_--/\1772
a\177/4.
scribed
their sides
similar,
we can
inscribed polygon: and circumwrite the proportion between

of the
the inscribed
Thus regular
inscribed
we obtain polygon
regular
through
a formula expressing the sideof the circumscribed the side and the radiusofthe corresponding
polygon.
regular polygons. In the circumscribed draw through any vertex C the diameter CN (Figure 228). It divides the circle and the polygon into two parts. Imaginethat oneof t\177hese parts (say, the left one) is rotated in spaceabout the diameter sothat it fails onto the other (i.e. right) part. Then one semicircle will merge with the other semicircle, the arc CB with the arc WD (due to the congruence of these arcs),the arc B24 with the arc DE (for the same reason), etc.,and therefore the chord BC will merge with the chord WD, the chord AB with the chord Dt\177, etc. Thus the diameter of the circumscribedcircledrawn through any vertex of a regular polygonis an axisofsymmetry of this polygon. As a consequence of this, eachpairofthe vertices such as B and D, A and E, etc., lieon the same perpendicular to the diameter CN and at the samedistance from it.
221.
circle
of a
Symmetries of regular polygon,
diameter MN (Figure229)of the circumscribed' to any side CD of the regularpolygon. This diameter also divides the circle and the polygon into two parts. Rotating one of them in space about the diameter until it falIs onto the other part, we find out that one part of the polygon will mergewith the other part. We conclude that a diameterof the circumscribed circle perpendicular to any side of a regular polygon is an axis of symmetry of this polygon. Consequently, each pair of vertices such as B and E, A and \234, etc., lie on the same perpendicular to the diameter MN and at the same distance from it.
Draw
also the
is
circle,
which
perpendicular
--
If
the
number
of sides
of the regularpolygon
vertex
is
even,
then
the di-
ameter drawn through any
of the
polygon
also passes
through
1. Regular
the
polygons
189
vertex, and the diameter perpendicular to any side of is also perpendicular to the opposite sideof it. If the number of sides is odd, then the diameterpassing .through any vertex is perpendicular to the opposite side, and conversely, the diameter perpendicular to any side of such a regular polygon passes through the opposite vertex. For example, the regularhexagonhas 6 axesof symmetry: 3 axes passing through the vertices, and 3 axes perpendicular to the sides; the regular pentagon has 5 symmetry axes, each one passing through a vertex and perpendicular to the opposite side.
opposite the
polygon
c
-\177D
c
E
C
N N
Figure 228
Figure 229
Figure 230
Any center
regular of
polygon
with
symmetry
which
an even number of sides also has coincides with the center of the polygon
230). Indeed, any straight line/(L, connecting two points boundary of the polygon and passing through its center \270 is bisected by it (as it is seen from th_e congruence of the triangles OBK and \270EL shaded in Figure 230).
(Figure
on
the
Finally, we can identify it about its centerthrough
a the
regular
angle
instance (see
\270,
Figure
230),
we
make
the
side AB
To
222.
regular
Problem.
hexagon, the
(c)
go into BC, the sideBCintoCD,etc. inscribe into a given circle: (1) a square, (2) a regular triangle, and to express their sides
circle.
regular
rotating
with itself by rotating in any direction. For the hexagon 60 \370clockwise about
n-gon 4d/n
through
radius
of the
We will denote an circle of radius R.
the side of a
two
n-gon
inscribed
into
and BD are drawn, and their endpoints axe connected consecutively by chords.Theresulting quadrilateral ABCD is an inscribed square (because its anglesare 90 \370each, and its diagonals are perpendiculax). Fromthe right triangle A\270B we find, using the Pythagorean
(1) On
Figure
231,
mutually
perpendicular
diameters
AC
190
theorem,
Chapter4.
that
CIRCUMFEP\177NCE
a\177
AB 2
= AO \177+
OB 2
= 2R 2,
i.e.
a4
--
X/\177R
----
R'
1.4142...
(2) On
Figure 232, a
the
chord
corresponding
60\370, i.e.
isosceles
to
central
AO]\177
angle of
each
triangle
60
Thus
\370.
Therefore
the
triangle
AB
a regular hexagon, is shown. In the of the angles A and B is (180 is equiangular, and hence equilateral.
i.e. a6
on it
to
a central
angle
of
= AO,
= R.
In particular obtain ent parts consecutively each 1 long.

we by radius
a simple
way of
marking
dividing a circleinto6congruthe endpoints of 6 chords,

B
D Figure 231
\"
Figure
232
Figure
233
(3) To inscribe a regu]ar triangle, parts (Figure233), and then connect
triangle ABC obtained thermore, the diameter right triangle BAD. From
thus draw
every is equilateral,
the
a circle into 6 congruent other division point. The and hence regular. FurBD and connect A and D to obtain a Pythagorean theorem, we find:
divide
223. Problem. To inscribe into a given and to express its side alo through the radius Let us first prove the following important
circle
a regular
decagon
R.
the
10-gon. Let AB (Figure234)

angle
be
\370,
a side
A\270B
contains
36
and
the isosceles triangle A\270B measures the angle A by the line AC. Then
vertex
contains
36
\370,
and
therefore
property of the regular of the regular 10-gon. Then each of the angles A and B of (180 \370- 36\370)/2 = 72\370. Bisect each of the angles formed at the AAC\270 is isosceles (as having
1. Regularpolygons
two
191
congruent angles),. i.e. AC = CO, and AABC is also isosceles (since LB = 72 \370, and ZAWB = 180 \370-72 \370-36 \37072\370), i.e. AB = AC = GO. By the propertyof the anglebisector (\365184) we have the proportion: AO : AB = CO: CB. Replacing AO and AB with the congruent segments BO and GO,we obtain:
BO : CO
CO: CB. at the point C in the
In other
treme
words,
the
radius
BO
is divided
and mean ratio (\365206), and CO is the greater part of it. Thus, the side of a regular decagoninscribedinto a circle is congruent to the greater part of the radius divided in the extreme and mean ratio. In particular (see\365206), the side a\1770 can be found from the quadratic
ex-
equation:
&Rx-
R2=0,
i.e.
(ZlO
--
L\177:
2
solved: as
0.6180...
divide
Now the constructionproblem is easily OA) in the extremeand meanratio
explained
a radius in \365206, set
(e.g.
the
compass to the step congruent
to
the
greater
part
of the
mark
and
with
this
step
connect
the
l0 points around the consecutive division points

B
circle one after another, by chords.
radius,
Figure
234
Figure 235
Remarks. (1) In orderto inscribe pentagon, one divides the circle into
utively
into
a given
10 congruent
circle a regular parts and consec-
connects
every
other
can
point
be
by chords.
1 similarly by dividing and connecting the division points
a circle
skipping \177In
(2) The 5-pointstar

into
constructed
10
congruent at
parts
three some
a time
(Figure 235).
national
countries,
this problem is of
importance.--
A.G.
192
Chapter
4.
CIRCUMFERBNCE
(3) The equality

2
\177
1
\1775
5
gives
15
15
know
way to inscribe a regular 15-gon, since we already divide a circleinto 5 and 3 congruent parts. 224. Problem. To double the number of sides of an inscribed
a
simple
how to
regular
.This
polygon.
inscribed
into
the
the
side
formulation of two distinct problems:given an regular n-gon, (1) to construct a regular2n-goninscribed same circle; (2) to compute the side of the 2n-gonthrough of the n-gon and the radiusof the circle.
is a
concise
into
236) be a side of a regularn-goninscribed center O. Draw OC _J_ AB and connect A with C. The arc AB is bisected at the point C, and thereforethe chord AC is a side of a regular 2n-gon inscribedinto the samecircle.
Let
(1)
AB
(Figure
a circle
with the
Figure
236
(2) In AAOC, the angle O is acute(since the arc ACB is smaller than a semicircle, and hencethe arc AC is smaller than a quarter-
circle). Therefore the

a\177n
theorem
of
\365190 applies:
AC 2
= OA 2
+ OC AOD,
- 20C. OD=
2R
- 2//.
OD.
From the right

OD =
Thus
triangle
we find:
x/'OA2
- ATD2
\276/R
- (an/2). 2
--
V/R
\370: -
a2\177/4.
a\177n
--- 2R 2
_ 2R\177R2
4 a\177n
1.
Regular
polygons
is
193
from compute
The side a2n

Example.
obtained
the squareroot.
Let
_R
this doubling
formula by extracting
for
us
simplicity
1 (and
the side of a regular12-gon, taking therefore a6 = 1). We have:
a2\1772=2-2
Since
\177=2-2
=2-V\177,
i.e.a\1772=
-x/-\177.
the
sides
radius R we
for the
side of
of regular n-gons are proportional to their radii, then a regular 12-gon inscribed into a circle of an arbitrary
the
obtain
formula:
al2 =
-RV/2-
x/\177
R.
0.517...
225. Which
straightedge
regular polygons can
compass? Applying the methods describedin the previous problems, we can, using only straightedge and compass, divide a circle into a number of congruent parts (and hence construct the corresponding regular polygons) shown in the table:
and
be constructed
by
3,
4,
5,
3.2,
4.2,
5.2,
3.2.2,
4.2.2, 5.2.2, 15 \337 2 \337 2,
...
... ...
...
generally generally generally
3 '
2n;
2n;
5.2
n;
15,
15.2,
generally
3.5
\337 2 n.
using
A German straightedge
mathematician C. F. Gauss (1777-1855). proved and compass, it is possible to divide a circle
that
into
a prime numberof congruent parts, which is expressed by the formula 22\177 + 1. For instance, it is possible to divide a circle into 17 congruent parts, or 257 congruent parts, since 17 and 257 are prime numbersof the form 22\177 + i (17 = 222 + 1; 257 ---- 223 + 1). A proof of Gauss' theorem requires methods which go beyond
only such elementary
mathematics.
that into
It is also proved divide a circle only

which
using such
straightedge
a composite
and compass one can number of congruent parts
contains
no
other
22=
1, in
the first
numbers
Whole
factors except: (1) prime factorsof the form power; (2) the factor2, in any power. Fn - 22= + 1 are called Fermat numbers afFrench
who conjectured (erroneously) that all such numbers are prime. At present only the first five Fermat numbers are known to be prime:
ter the
remarkable
mathematician
P.
Fermat
(1601-1665)
Fo=3,
F\177=5,
F2=17,
Fa=257,
F4=65537.
194
EXERCISES 4{68.
the
Cl\177ap\177er
4.
CIRCUMFERENCE
Find a formula
of radius/\177
Find
for
the
side
circle
for: (a)
for the
about
4{69. a formula hexagon 4{70.Let AB, BC,

circumscribed polygon
and
CD
an of a regular n-gon inscribedinto n = 24, (b) n = 8, (c) n = 16. sides of a regulartriangleand regular a circle of a given radius. be three bonsecutive sides of a regular
O. Prove that if the sides AB and CD are extended up to their intersection point E, then the quadrilateral OAEC can be circumscribed by a circle. J71. Prove that: (a) every circumscribed equiangular polygon is regular; (b) every inscribed equilateral polygon is regular. J 72.Give an example of.' (a) a circumscribed equilateral quadrilateral which is not regular; (b) an inscribed equiangular quadrilateral
with
the
center
which
is
not
regular.
Prove that: (a) every circumscribed equilateral pentagon is regular; (b) every inscribedequiangular pentagon is regular. 4{74{.* For which n does thereexist:(a) a circumscribed equilateral n-gon which is not regular; (b) an inscribed equiangular n-gon which is not regular? 4{ 75. Prove that two diagonals of a regularpentagonnot issuing from the same vertex divide each other in the extreme and mean ratio.
J75.
4{76.*
Prove
Prove of
1/AC + 1/AD.
477.* diagonals 4{
that if
that
ABC'Dt\177FG
is
a regular
7-gon,
then 1/AB
the
a regular
difference between 9-gon is congruent
the greatest and smallest to its side.

a w\177y that
78.
Cut
off the
corners of
a squarein such
the
resulting
octagon is
On
regular.
\370, \370, \370, \370, \370, \370.
479. a given side, construct a regular decagon. 4{80.Construct the ang!es: 18 30 72 75 3 24 4 81. Inscribe into a square a regular'triangle so one of its vertices is placed: (a) at a of the square; (b) at the midpoint of oneof its sides.
that vertex
trianglesuchthat its sideis 483. a regular n-gon circumscribed

perpendicular Given
4{82.
Into
given
equilateral
triangle,
structa
(a)
regular
2n-gon
circumscribed
angle
-484{.* Divide a given

three
congruent
another equilateral of the given one. about a given circle, conabout the same circle. to 1/7th of the full angle into:
inscribe
to
a side
congruent
parts; (b) five
congruent
parts.
2.
Limits
195
Limits
A
of a straight line can be unit, because straight lines canbe superimposed onto each other. This is how we define which segmentsto consider congruent, which lengths equal, or unequal, what is the sum of segments, which segment is 2, 3, 4, ...times greaterthan the other, etc. Similarly, we can compare arcs of the same radius, because circles of the same radius can besuperimposed. However no part of a circle (or another curve)can be superimposed onto a straight segment, which makes it impossibleto decide thisway which curvilinear segment should be assigned the same length as a given straight segment, and hence which curvilinear segment should be considered 2,3,4, ... times longerthan the straight one. Thus we encounter the needto define what we mean by circumference as the length of a circle, when we compare it (or a part of it) to a straight
segment
another
226. Length of a curve. compared to segment, taken
for a
segment.
For
this,
we need
to introduce a
In
concept of
importance
to
all
of
mathematics,
namely the
concept of limit.
questions
one often encounters a sequence of numbers according to a certain pattern. Forinstance,

1,
227.Limit ofa sequence.
of algebra
following the
or geometry
one
another series:
natural
2,
3, 4, 5,
...,
extended
arithmetic geometric
or
progressions
indefinitely:
a, a+d,
a+2d, a+3d,
aq,
...,
or infinite
a,
are examples of
sequences.
infinite
aq 2,
aq 3,
...
numerical
sequences
of numbers,
such a sequence, one can point out a rule by which its are formed. Thus, in an arithmeticalprogression, each term differs from the previous one by the samenumber; in a geometric progression each two consecutive terms have the same ratio.
For each
terms
Many sequences are formed according to a more complex pattern. approximating \177/\177 from below with the precision of up to: first 1/10, then 1/100, then 1/1000, and continuingsuch approximation \337 indefinite]y, we obtain the infinite numerical sequence:
Thus,
1.4, 1.41, 1.414,1.4142, ...
196
Chapter
4.
CIRCUMFERENCE
we do not give a simple rule that would determine each next term from the previousones,it is possible to define each term of the sequence. For example, toobtain the4th term, one needs to represent v/\177 with the precision of 0.0001, to obtain the 5-th term, with the precision of 0.00001, and so on.
Although
still
Supposethat the terms
of
an
infinite
numerical
an\177
sequence
al, a2,
approach
a3,
as
...,
the
...
a certain
This meansthe following: howeversmalla positive
number
number
there
exists q we
index n a certain
increases indefinitely. number A such that
in
would
the
given differ
sequence from
starting
from
pick, it is possible to find a term' which all terms of the sequence

We value
briefly
express difference an
increases.
For
A by less than q in the absolutevalue. this property by swing that the absolute - A tends to 0) (or that the terms a\177 tend In this casethe number A is called the limit
consider
will of the
to
A) as n
of a given
numericalsequence.
example,
the
sequence:
0.9,
where
0.99, 0.999,
from the
to
...,
adding
each
term
is obtained
previous one by
the
digit
0.01,
tendto 1.
the
9 on
the right. It
Namely,
is
easy
the
first
term
by 0.001, and continuing this sequence far enough, it to find a term, starting from which all the following terms will differ from 1. by no more than a quantity, picked beforehand, as small as one wishes. Thus we can say that the infinite sequence in
third is possible
see that the terms of this sequence differs from I by 0.1,the second by
question has the limit

Another the
1.
example
of g
sequence
of consecutive
numerical sequence which has a approximations (say, from below)

computed
limit
is
to
the
length
this
of a
then
segment (\365151),
up
with
the
precision
is the infinite decimal fractionrepresenting the length of the segment. Indeed, the infinite decimal fractionis enclosed between two finite decimal approximations: one from above the other from below. As it was noted in \365152, the difference between the approximations tends to 0 as the precision improves. Therefore the difference between the infinite fraction and the approximate values must also tend to 0 as the precision improves. Thus the infinite dec-. -imal fraction is the limit of eachof the two sequences of its finite
sequence
to 1/10,
to
1/100,
then up
to 1/1000, and so on. The
of: first
limit
up
of
decimal approximations (one from
above
the
other
from'below).
2. Limits
197
to
It is
instance,
easy
see
that
the
natural
any limit since its terms increase indefinitely approach any number.
not every infinite series 1, 2, 3,4, 5,...,
sequence has a limit;

obviously,
for
does
not
have do not
and
therefore
limit.
228. Theorem.
we
Any
infinite
sequence
has
at
most
one
This theorem is
suppose that
are
easily
proved
by
reductio
ad absurdurn.
Indeed,
given
a sequence
a3,
A \337.\337,
ai
which
\177a2,
an,
\337.\337,
has
two
distinct
limits
and
B.
Then, of the
since A is
a limit of
- A to 0
the givensequence, the absolute tend t.o 0 as n increases. Since
value B
difference
also
a\177
must as n
is also
the absolute of the increases. Thereforethe

value
a limit of the
difference
absolute
an
value
- B must
of the
given sequence,
tend
difference
(anfor
large must become smaller than picked beforehand as small as one wishes. But this equal to the differenceB- A, and therefore it is a certain number different from 0.' This number does not depend at all on the indexn, and hence does not tend to 0 when n increases. Thus our assumption that there exist two limits of the numerical sequence
n sufficiently
B) also tend to 0, i.e.

A)-
(an -
any number difference is
leads
to
a contradiction.
229. The limit of an i\177ncreasing sequence. Consider a sequence al, a2, a3, ..., an, ..., such that each term of it is greater than the previous one (i.e. a\177+l \177 an), and at the same time all terms of which are smaller than a certain number M (i.e. an \177 M for all values of the indexn). In this casethe sequence has a limit. 230. Proof. Let
al, a2, a3, ...,

be a
an,
...,
term
(*)
of
numerical sequence such that

\177
each
such
it
is greater
than
the previous one (an+l

greater
an),
sequencethereisnoone is no term than 10.

sequence
and
than
that
greater
a given
number
among terms of this M, say, there

the
Take
the number
9 and checkif in
take
are terms greater than 9. Suppose that not. Then 8 and checkif in the sequence (,) there are terms greater than 8. Suppose there are. Then write down the number 8, divide the interval from 8 to 9 into 10 equal parts, and test consecutively the numbers 8.1, 8.2,... 8.9, i.e. check if in the sequence (,)
(,) there the number
198
there
are\"
terms
greater
question greater
for 8.2, than 8.6,
than 8.1, and if yes, then decide the etc. Suppose that the sequence (..)contains but contains no terms greater than 8.7. Then
same terms
write
down
the number
8.6, divide the
interval
from
8.6
to
8.7 into
10
equal parts, and test consecutively the numbers 8.61, 8.62,... 8.69. Suppose that the sequence (,) contains terms greater than 8.64, but contains no terms greater than 8.65. Then write down the number 8.64, and proceed by dividing the interval from 8.64 to 8.65 into 10 equal parts,etc. Continuing this process indefinitely we arrive at an infinite decimalfraction: 8.64..., i.e.at a certain real number. Denote this number by c\177, and denote its finite decimal approximations with n decimal places, from below and from above, by an and a n
respectively.
As
it is
known
(\177151),
and
From
our
construction
of the
be
real number
of such
\177
c\177,
it
\177
follows
but
that
contains
the seterms
quence greater
(.) contains no terms greaterthan

than an.
a n
'Let ak
one
terms:
!
OZn
ak
\177
oz n.
Since
than
a\177+2,
an,
an
the sequence (,) is increasingand containsno terms greater we find that all of the following terms of the sequence: ak+l, \177 i.e. if m > k, then ..., are also contained between an and an,
\177
\177
am
crn.
number a is also contained between an and an, we conclude that for all m > k the absolute value of the difference am - \177 does not exceed the difference c\177 f n - C\177n = 1/10 n. Thus, for any value of n one can find the number k such that for all ra \177_k we
Since
the real
have
[am -- a
Since
the
fraction
1/10 n tends
to
is
< i0n. 0 as n
limit
indefinitely
increases,
it
follows
that
the real
number cr
the
of the
sequence (,).
EXER C!SES
485.
an
Express
precisely
what
one
means
by saying
number
that terms an
A
of
infinit\177 numerical
sequence tend
to a
as
n increases tends
indefinitely.
486. Show that the sequence: 1, 1/2,1/3,
...,
l/n,
...
to 0.
3. Circumferencea\177nd
tends
arc
length
199
-487. Show to 0.
that the sequence: 1, -1/2,
1/3,-1/4, ...,
_+_l/n,
...
-488. Show that the natural series1, 2,3, a limit.
...,
n,
...
does
not have
not
-489.
Show
that
the
infinite
sequence
1,
-1, 1, -t,
...
does
have
a limit.
-490. Formulate the rule describing which of two given infinite decimal fractions representsa greater number. -49/. Which of the decimal fractions representsa greater number: (a) 0.099999 or 0.1000007 (b) 0.099999... or 0.100000... ? -4 92.* Prove that if an infinite numerical sequence tendsto a certain limit, then the sequence is bounded, i.e. all terms of the sequence liein a certain segment of the number line.
tends to
-49-4. tends
-493.Prove that a a certain limit.

Show to
decreasing
numerical
sequence
bounded
below
that 0 provided
an
infinite geometric that the absolute
progression a, aq, aq2, ..., value of q is smallerthan 1.

then
ant crawled 1 m first, then 1/2 m more, then 1/8 m more, etc. What is the total distance
-495.
An
1/4
ra more,
crawled. -496.*Compute the sum of an infinite geometric progression a, aq, aq2, ..., provided that the absolute value of q is smaller than 1. Hint: Firstprove that the sum a + aq + aq2 +... + aq '\177of a finite geometric progression is equal to a(1 - qn+l)/(1 - q).
the ant 3
Circumference
and
The
ar: length
of limit gives us an opportunity
of
231.
to
Two
lemmas.
concept
define
precisely
what
we mean
by' the length
a circle.
Let us
first prove two

Lemma shorter
lemmas.
1. than
firstone.
The line\"
.4 convex any other
broken line (ABCD, Figure 237) is broken line (AEFGD) enclosing the
broken line\"
expressions should
\"enclosing
and
\"enclosed broken
broken
be
understood
in the
following sense. Let two
in Figure 237)have the sameendpoints A and such a way that one broken line (ABCD) lies inside the polygon bounded by the other broken line together with the segmentAD connecting the endpoints A and D. Then the outer broken line is referred to as enclosing, and the inner one as enclosed.
lines D
(like those shown and be situated in
200
We convex,
Chapter
intend is
4. CIRCUMFERENCE
to
prove than
shorter
that the enclosed broken line ABCD,if any enclosing broken line (no matterconvex
it is
or
not),
i.e.
that
AB +
BC + CD < AE
the
+ EF convex
+ FG
broken
+ GD.
line
the
Extend the sidesof Figure 237. Then, shorter any broken

than following
enclosed into
as shown in
taking
account
line
connecting
that a straight segment is its endpoints, we can write
inequalities:
AB
+ BH
< AE
BH
+ EH;
FG +
BC + CK< + HF + CD < CK+ KD.

Add
GK;
all these inequalities and then subtract from both parts the auxiliary segments BH and CK. Then,replacing the sums EH+HF and CK+KD respectively wi'th the segments EF and CD, we obtain
the required
inequality.
Figure
237
Figure 238
Remark. If the enclosed broken line were not convex (Figure 238), we would not be able to apply our argument. The enclosed line in this case can, indeed, turn out to be longer than the enclosing one. Lemma 2. The perimeter of a convex polygon (ABCD) is
smallerthan the perimeter of

enclosing
any
other
polygon
(MNPQRL)
It is
AB + Extending
the first one (Figure239).

to
required
prove
that
<
BC + CD + DA
LM
+ MN
of
+ NP + PQ + QR
enclosed lemma
+ RL.
one of the sides AD both directions, and applying the
the
previous
convex to the
polygon in
broken lines
3. Circumference
and
arc
length
201
ABCD and ATMNPQRSD, obtain the inequality:
connecting the points A

+ NP + PQ + QR
ST
and
D,
we
AB + BC < AT
we
+ TM
+ MN
the
+ RS
+ SD.
On the other hand, since line $LT, can write:

TA
Add
segment
is shorter
than the
broken
+ AD and
+ DS <
TL + LS.
the
two
inequalities
and
DS
from
both
parts.
L$ + RS respectively required inequality.

N
with the segments LM and

P
subtract the auxiliary segmentsAT Then, replacing the sums TL + TM and

LR,
we
obtain
the
Figure
239
Figure 240
232. Definition of circumference. Inscribe into a given circle 240) a regular polygon, e.g. a hexagon, and mark on any Iine MAr (Figure 241) the segmentOP1congruent to the perimeter of this polygon? Now doublethe number of sides of the inscribed polygon, i.e. replacethe hexagonwith the regular 12-gon, find its perimeter and mark it on the sameline MN from the same point O. We obtain another segment OP2, greater than OP1 Sinceeach sideofthe hexagon is now replaced with a broken line (consisting of two sides of'the 12-gon), which is longer than the straight line. Now double the number of sides of the 12-gon,. i.e. take the regular 24\177gon (not shown in Figure 240), find its perimeter, and markit on the line MAr from the same point O. We then obtain the segment OP3, which will be greaterthan OP2 (for the same reason that OP2
(Figure
is greater than
\177'One
OPt).
may
choose
a unit of
length
and
think
of MN
as e\177 number
line.
202
now
Chapter
4.
CIRCUMFERENCE
Imagine that this process of doubling the number of sidesof regular and marking their perimeters on a line is continued Then we obtain an infinite sequence of perimeters OP1, OP2,OP3,..., increases. However this increasing sequence is bounded,since of all inscribed convex polygons are smaller, accordingto 2, than the perimeter of any circumscribed (as enclosing the inscribed ones). Therefore our increasing sequence of of inscribed regular polygons has a certain limit This limit (shown in Figure 241 as the segment
polygons indefinitely. which perimeters Lemma polygon perimeters (\365229).
ferenceof a circleas
polygon
OP) is is
doubled
taken
for
the
circumference.
the
limit
to
which
Thus, we define the perimeter
the circumof a regular
inscribed indefinitely.
into
the
circle tends
as the number of' its vertices
I o
Pj
P2P3P
Figure
241
Remark. It is possibleto that this limit doesnot depend
prove
(although
we
omit
on
the it
regular is possible
polygon
the proof) the doubling
procedure beginswith.
Moreover,
if the
inscribed
polygons
are
not
regular,
to prove that still their perimeters
even tend
to
same limit as the perimeters of the regular ones,if only decrease indefinitely (and therefore the number of their sides indefinitely increases), no matter how this is achieved: by the doubling procedure we were using for regular polygons, or by any other rule. Thus, for any circle there exists a unique limit to which perimeters of inscribed polygons tend when all their sidesdecrease indefinitely, and this limit is taken for the circumference.
the
very
their
sides
Similarly,
the arc
which
as the limitto
length
the
of
any
perimeter
the
arc
and broken
connecting line
its decrease
endpoints indefinitely
AB (Figure 242) is defined broken line, inscribed into the A and B, tends when the sides of (e.g. by following the doubling
arc
of a
procedure).
length,
(1)
because congruent
233.'Properties
we
of
arc
length.
From
the
deftnit'ion of
arc
conclude:
Congruent arcs (and congruent circles) have equal the regular polygons inscribed into them,
to
arc can be
sum
length, chosen
each
other.
to
(2) The
arc length of the sum of arcsis equal
the
of their
Circumference and
arc
a\177c
length
203
lengths.
Indeed, if s
inscribed
inscribed-into the one into s',

arc
is the sumof
s can
two
arcs
s'
be chosen
the other into. s\". Then the limit to which the a broken line inscribedinto s tends,as the sides of it indefinitely decrease, will be equal to the sum of the limits to which the perimeters of the brokenlinesinscribed into s' and s\" tend.
perimeter
and s\", then the broken line consisting. of two broken lines:
of such
Figure
242
Figure
243
the
markingthe perimeters on a quence, which tends to arc the arc is greater than
the length
of any arc (ACB, Figure242)is greater than AB connecting its endpoints, and more generally, than the perimeter of any convex broken line inscribed into the arc and connecting its endpoints. Indeed,by doubling the number of sides of the brokenline and
(3) The arc length length of the chord
number
line
we
length,
and
obtain an infinite seis increasing. Therefore
particular,
than
the
first
any Of the terms of the sequence (in one of. them, which is 'the length of the
chord).
(4) The arc length is smaller than the perimeter of any broken line circumscribedabout the arc and .connecting its endpoints. Indeed, the length L of the arc ACB (Figure 242)is the limit of the perimeters of regular broken linesACB,ADCEB, etc.inscribed into the arc and obtained by the methodof doubling.Eachofthese broken lines is convex and is enclosed by any circumscribed broken line AC'D'B connecting the endpoints of the arc. Thus,by Lemma 1, the perimeters of the inscribed brokenlines are smaller than the perimeter P of the circumscribed broken line, and therefore their limit L cannot exceed the perimeterP as well, i.e. L _\177P. In fact the same inequality will remain true if we replace the broken lineAC'D'B with a shorter broken line still enclosing the disk segmentACB. It is shown in Figure 243 how to construct such a shorterbroken line by cutting the corner near one of the vertices (i.e.replacing the part
204
Chapter
consecutive the
4.
CIRCUMFERENCE
by the shorter broken in fact strictly smaller
ACB betweentwo
tangency arc
points
line AMNB).
than
Therefore
length ratio
L is
the
perimeter
P of
the circumscribed
\177.
broken line, i.e. L \177 P.

circumference
circles.
R,
the diameter is the same for all Indeed, consider two circles:oneof r. Denote the circumference of first circle Inscribeinto eachof a regular n-gon and
number radius the them
234.
The
number
The
of the
to
the
other
of radius
C,
and the
polygons
second c.
the
denote Pn
and Pn
with
respective
perimeters.
Due to
similarity of regul\177ar
the
same number
of sides, we have (see \365220):

2R
Pn._
Pn.
2r
the
(,)
When the numbern of sidesdoubles indefinitely, tend to the circumference C of the first circle, Pn to the circumference c of the second.Therefore
implies:
\337 C
perimeters
P\177
and
the
the
perimeters
equality
(.)
'
c
2R
2r
This ratio of circumferenceto diameter, the same for all circles, is denoted by the Greekletter \177. 3 Thus we can write the following
formula
for
circumference:
C =
2R.\177, or
C=
2\177rR.
It
is known
be expressed
that the number \177ris irrational precisely by a fraction. However
and
one
ther\177
o\177re
cannot
can
find
rational
approximations
of
simple
The
in the
following
approximation
for
of
many
\177,
found
by
Archimedes
3rd century B.C., is sufficient

22
\177 \177
practical
purposes:
31
\177
3.142857142857...
It
is slightly
greater than
Ptolemy
\177r,
but
by
no more
astronomer
jabra,\"
(in
about
150
A.D.),
than 0.002. The Greek and the author of \"Althe Chinese
al-Khwarizmi
\177r\177
proximation
3The
in
3.1416
of Baghdad (in with the error

became
about 800 A.D.) found of less than 0.0001.A
ap-
notation
comes
\177r, which
1737,
from the
first
letter
standard soon after it was adopted by L. Euler in the Greek word \177rep\177qSepeta meaning circle.
3.
Circumference
Zu
and arc
Chongzhi
length
(430-501)
205
discovered
mathematician
fraction:
that
the following
355
\177r\177
113
\177
3.1415929...,
approximates
235. imations
0.0000005.
4
\177r from
above
with
the remarkable
precision of up to
A to
method of the number

Let
derived
in
\365224.
equal to 1.
semi-perimeter,
computation of ,r. To compute approx,r, one can use the doubling formula we For simplicity, take the radius R of a regularn-gon an denote the side of the n-gon, and q\177 = nan/2 its which tends thereforeto \177ras the number of sides is
According
doubled indefinitely.
to
the
doubling
formula,
a\177n
2-
2V/1-
4 a\177n
We
can begin the computation with a6 = 1 (i.e. q6 doubling formula yields (see \365224):
a\1772
3).
Then
the
2-
\177 =
we
0.26794919...
consecutively
Using the doubling
formula
then
compute:
Suppose that we stop the doubling perimeter q96/2= 48a96 for an

the
at_the
96-gon,
and
take its
\177r.
semi-
approximate
value
of
Performing
computation,
we find:
\177'\177
q96
3.1410319...
In order to judge the precision of this approximation, let us also compute the semi-perimeter Q96 of the 96-goncircumscribed about the circle of the unit radius. Applying the formula for the sideof circumscribed regular polygons found in \365220, and setting R = i we
get:
a96
q96
a\177s/4,
b96 =
4In
V/1 _
i.e.
Q96
= 48b9a
- V/1_
a\177a14
decimal
found
ruined
an Englishman W. Shanks published his computation of \177r with 707 places. It held the record until 1945, when the first 2000 places were using computers, and it turned out that Shanks had made a mistake which his results starting with the 528th decimal place.
1883,
206
Substituting
numerical
values
Q96
of a96
=
and q96 we
find:
3.1427.146...
regcircum-
A semicircle ular 96-gon,

scribed
is greater than the semi-perimeter of the inscribed but smaller than the semi-perimeter of the
96-gon:
3.143.
regular
\177
q96
\177
7r \177 Q96.
Thlls
we can
conclude that
3.141 \177 w
In
particular,
we find the
decimal approximation
to
\177
from
below
true
to two
decimal places:
3.14.
Moreprecise
methodof
so on.
]For
approximations
of
\177r can q19\177
be
and
found
by using
and
the same
Q384, and
doubling
for
computing
Q19\177, q384
instance,
to
obtain
vr \177
the approximation
3.141592... precision regular
are
from below
to 6 decimal places, i.e. with the suiTices to compute semi-perimeters of scribed polygonswith 6144sides(which by 10 doublings).
true
of up inscribed
obtained
to 0.000001, it and circumfrom
hexagons
\177 occurs:
236. Radian. In
some
problems,
the
number
inverse to
= 0.3183098...
Problem.
length
Determine the .numberof degrees in an

\177o
arc
=
whose
arc
is equal
the
radius.
R
circumferenceof a circleof radius that the arc length of one degreeis equal to 2\177R/360 Therefore an arc of n degrees has the arc length
The
formula
2wR for
means
\177R/180.
7\177Rn
180
When
the
arc length
\177rn/180,
equationi =
n \370=
An
is equal to the radius,

from
i.e
s =
R, we
obtain the
which
we find:
\177
-180
\370 -\177
180
\370.
0.3183098
57.295764
\370 -\177 57\37017\17745 \177.
arc
whose
measuring
arc length
Radians
'u\177nits
are often
for
the
stance,
is equal to the radius is called a radian. used (instead of circularand angular degrees) as arcs and corresponding central angles. For incontains
full
angle
360 \370or
2\177r
radians.
3. Circumference
EXERCISES
and arc length
.J
207
J97. by the J98.

12 \370 .
\177 99.
the length of the arcs of the unit radius subtended chords: (a) vf\177 units long; (b) v/\177 units long. Compute the radian measure of the anglescontaining:60 \370, 45
Compute
Express
Express
\370,
in radians
in
the sum of
the are a/4,
500. n-gon.
radians
exterior
the interioranglesof an n-gon. and interior angles of a regular

in the
501.
measure
How
many is:
degrees
contained /97
angle whose radian

sin
502. Compute the valuesof the trigonometric functions tan a, and cot a for the angles a = \177rt6, \177rt4, \177r/3,
5\177r/6,
\177rradians.
a, cos
a,
\177r/2, 2\177r13, 3\177rI4,
503.*
Prove
denotes
50\177. ing
that sina < the radian measure

that
Prove to
two
the radii.
arcs
a < tan a for 0 < a < \177r/2, where a of the angle. in two circles, the ratio of centralanglescorrespondof the same arc lengthis equal to the inverse ratio of
lines
505.
120
Two
tangent
at
the endpoints
\370are
drawn,
and
a circle
these
circle
tangent
is
equal
lines and the arc. Provethat to the arc length of the given
are
of a given are containing is inscribed into the figure bounded

arc.
by
the circumference ofthis
506.
to
In a circle, the aresubtended

the
of the circle.
Prove
twice
subtended
by a
by a chord of lenggh a is congruent chord of length b. Computethe radius
'507.
that
the
side
an of
number of sidesincreases indefinitely. 508. On the diameter of a given semicircle, insidethe disk segment boundedby the diameter and the semicircle, two congruent semicirclestangent to each other are constructed. Into the part ofthe plane bounded by the three semicircles, a disk is inscribed.Provethat the ratioofthe diameter of this disk to the diameter of the constructed
\177egular
n-gon
tends
to
0 as
the
semicircles is
equal
to
2:3.
of semi-circumference equilateral
509. How small will the error be if instead take the sum of the sideof an inscribed
we and the
triangle.
side of an inscribedsquare?
510.
radius
Estimate
the
length
of the
Earth's
the
equator, taking the Earth's

equator.
to
be
6400
kin.
Earth's
511. Estimate
the lengthof 1\370of
208
A
512.
stretched
round
rope,
around
surface.
surface?
Can a
cat squeezeitselfbetweenthe ropeand

now that the sameropeis stretched up at onepoint as high as possible
the around
which is 1 m longer than the the equator at a constantheight
Earth's
above
equator,
is
the
the
Earth's
Earth's
515.\177Suppose tor and pulled
the
equa-
above
the Earth's
surface. Can an elephantpassunder
rope?
Chapter
AREAS
1
quantity
Areas of polygons
237.
farmer
The
concept
of
area.
We all
called
area,
from a pieceof land depends not somuch on the shape of the piece, but only on the size of land surface that the farmer cultivates.Likewise, to determine the amount of paint needed to paint a surface, it suffices to know the overall sizeof the
expects
from everyday
have some idea about the life. For example,the harvest
to collect
surfacerather
Main
than
the
exact
shape
of it.
the its
We will establish here moreprecisely metric figures,and developmethods for

238.
concept computation.
We
of area
assume
of geothat
assumptions
for
about-areas.
is
will
the
numbers, and is well-defined that the areasof figures possess (1) Congruent figures have
area of
a geometricfigure
expressed by every polygon. We further the following properties:

a quantity, areas.
positive assume
equal
Thus,
Figures
The
sometimescalledequivalent. areas, congruent figures are equivalent figures are not

always
according
equivalent.
of equal area are this property of converse can be false:

to
congruent.
(2)
Figure
\177rf a
given then the
244), to
figure is partitioned into several the number expressing the area of
parts (M, N, P,
the wholefigure
parts.
is
This
equal
property
sum of Of areas
the numbers ezpressing the areasof the is called additivity. It implies, that the
area
polygon is greater than the area of any other polygon enclosed by it. Indeed, the differencebetweenthe areasof the enclosing and enclosed polygons is positive since it representsthe areaof a figure (namely of the remaining part of the enclosing polygon, which can
of any 209
210
always
Chapter
be
5. AREAS
partitioned
into
several
polygons).
unit
set to 1.
unit
(3) The square, whose side is a unit of area, i.e. the number expressing
Of
of the
length, is taken for the area of such a square is
course,
which
squares
of
length.
When
the unit of
(centimeter,
size
foot,
to have
is
said
inch, etc.), the area of
the unit square of the corresponding

1 square
have unit areas depends on the length is taken to be,say, i meter

meter
(respectively
is
square
as
centimeter, square foot, squareinch, etc.), which 1 m 2 (respectively cra2, ft2?in2, etc.)
abbreviated
Figure
244
Figure
245
Mensuration Of areas. Area of somesimple figures can by counting the number of times the unit square fits into the figure. For example, let the figure in question be drawn on grid paper (Figure245) made of unit squares, and suppose that the boundary of the given figure is a closed brokenline whose sides coincide with the edges of the grid. Then the whole number of unit square s lying inside the figure gives the exact measure of the area. In general, measuring axeas is done not by direct counting of unit squaresor their parts fitting into the measured figure, but indirectly, by means of measuring certain linear sizes of the figure, as it will be
239.
be
measured
explained
soon.
240. Base and altitude. Let us agree tocallone of the sides of a triangle or parallelogram the base ofthesefigures, and a perpendicular dropped to this side from the vertex of the triangle, or from any point of the opposite side of the parallelogram, the altitude. In a rectangle, the side perpendicular to the base can be taken
for
the
altitude. and
In a trapezoid, both parallel sidesare called bases, perpendicular between them, an altitude. -The base and the altitude of a rectangleare called sions.
a common
its
dimen-
1.
Areas of poiyEons
241.
dimensions.
21
area
\177
its
the
Theorem.
brief
The
of a rectangle
is the productof
following
This
formulation
number
expressing
to the product of the numbers base and the altitudeof the rectangle
is equal
should be understood-in the the area of a rectanglein certain

expressing
w\177y:
square
units
the
length
of the
in' the
corresponding
units.
linear
In the proofofthis three cases can occur: (i) The lengths of the base the altitude (measured by the same unit) are expressed whole numbers. Let a given rectangle (Figure 246) the base equal to b linear units, and the altitudeto such units. Divide the base and the altitude respectively b and h congruent parts,' and draw through the points two series of lines parallel respectively to the and the base. Mutual intersections of these lines partition rectangle into quadrilaterals. In fact each of these quadrilaterals (e.g.K) is to the unit square. (Indeed, since the sidesof K parallel to the sides of the rectangle, then all anglesof K right; and the lengths of the sides of K are to the distances between the parallel lines, i.e. to same linear unit.) Thus the rectangle is partitionedinto squares of area each, and it remains to the number of these squares. Obviously, the seriesof lines
theorem, and by have h into division altitude the congruent are are equal the unit find parallel
strips
base divides the rectangle into as many rectangular are linear units in the altitude,i.e.intoh congruent strips. Likewise, the series of lines parallel to the altitude divides each of the strips into as many unit squares as there are linear units in the base; into b such squares.- Therefore the total number of
to
the
as there
squaresis
i.e.
i.e.
h.
Thus
the area
it is
of a rectangle -of
bh,
equal to
the product
the
base
the
and
altitude
the altitude.
(measured
(ii) The length of the base and same unit) are expressed by fractions.'
Suppose,
by the
for example,
that in a given
rectangle:
base altitude -
3-2 2
4- 5
3
7
linear
units,
23
5
35
of
the
same
linear
units.
we
Bringing the fractionsto a common

base
=\177-6;
denominator,
obtain:
altitude
46 - 10
212
Let
Chapter 5.
us
AREAS
linear unit for a new unit of length. contains 35 suchunits, and the altitude 46. Thus, by the result of case (i), the area of the rectangle is equal to 35x 46 square units corresponding to the new unit of length. But
Then
take
the
\177th
part
of the
we
can
say
that
the base
this
square
unit
is
equivalent
corresponding
the rectangle,expressed in the
to the originalunit
to the
of original
y\1770th
part
length. square
of the Therefore
square unit the area of
units,
is equal
to
100 35X46
10 46 10 35
(1)
only
x 4
(\177)
\177
'
(iii) The base and the altitude are incommensurable with the unit
(or
of
one
of these
length,
and
dimensions) therefore are ex-
pressed by
irrational
numbers.
D'
b
Figure
B'
B\"
246
Figure
247
For all practical purposesit suffices the area computedwith any desired
to
use
approximate
values
of
possible however to show that in this case too, the precise value of the area of the rectangle is equal to the product of its dimensions. Indeed, let the lengths of the base AB and the altitude AD of a rectangle AB\177'D (Figure 247) be expressed by real numbers c\177 and \177. Let us find the approximate vatues of c\177and/\177 with the precision of up to 1/n. Forthis, mark on the base AB the \1 177th part of the linear unit as many times as possible. Suppose, that marking m such parts, we obtain a segmentAB' < AB (or AB \177 = AB), and marking ra + 1 such parts, we obtain a segment AB \177'> AB. Then the fractions m and m+l will be the approximations of c\177 respectively from below n and from above, with the required precision. Furthermore, suppose \177h 1;hat by marking on AD the \177t part of the unit p and p + 1 times, we obtain the segments respectively AD \177 < AD (or AD \177 = AD) and
precision.
It is
1. Areas
o\234polygons
213
to
AD\" > AD, and thus find the approximations \177 </\177 < P+\177 length 1\177 of the altitude. Construct two auxiliary rectangles and AB\177CWD'\177. The dimensions of each of them
rational
the
\177 by
numbers.
Therefore,
by case
are expressed (it): the area of is

AB\177C\177D \177 \177 is
AB'C'D
equal Since have:
to \177 ABCD
P-, and
the area
AB\177C\177D
of
AB\"C\177D
equal
encloses
\177 and
is
enclosed'
to ra+l X p+l by AB\177C\"D \177, we
area
of AB'C\177D '<
areaof ABCD <

of ABCD
area
of
AB\"C\"D\",
i.e. This
inequality
m --
p --
< area
<
m+l
x p+l
true for any value of n, i.e. with whatever to approximate \177 and 1\177. Let us first take n = 10, then n ----' 100, then n = 1000, etc. We will obtain the fractions m n and n p- which provide better and better decimal approximations of the ra+l p+l numbers a and/\177 from below, and the fractions \177- and which providebetter and better approximations of the numbers from above. It is not hard to see that their products become better and better approximations, from below and from above, of the same infinite decimal fraction. \177 The latter decimal fraction represents the real numbercalled the product of the real numbers c\177and/\177. Thus, we conclude that the area of ABCD is equal to
holds
precision
we choose
242.
248)
E
Theorem. equal
is
The area to the product
of a parallelogram
E
of the base and the altitude.

C
(ABCD,
Figure
D
Figure
248
\177Indeed,
the
difference
ra+lp+l
T\177 \177
rap
1\177 n
mp+ra+p+l-rap
1l2
1
(_\177+p+l)
AB'+AD\"
tends to
zero as n increasesindefinitely.
214
Chapter
AD,
5. AREAS
On the base construct extendsthe sideBCof shown in Figure248),

the that
the
rectangle
parallelogram,
and
AE\234D, whose side EF prove (in both cases
area
of ABCD
area of
AEFD.
Namely,
combining
with triangles
the
the
parallelogram
triangle AEB
the rectangle
DFC, and
AECD. The
test,
since
equivalent,
to
AE = DF, AB = and therefore the
be
equivalent
and
hence
the
considered as the base, and

equal
DC, and ZEAB =/_FDC), are parallelogram and the rectangle as well. But the area of AEFD is to bh, area of ABCD is equalto as well, where b can be
they have equal bh
with the triangle AEB, and we obtain the same trapezoid D\234C are congruent (by the SAS-
as
the
altitude
of the
(ABC,
parallelogram.
is
243. Theorem.The areaof a triangle Figure 249) to half the product of the base andthe altitude.
B
b
249
b
Figure 250
Figure
Drawing
ABDC
of
BD[[AC
area,
whose
by
the
base
and the
triangles,
congruent
altitude. But the parallelogram consists of two one of which is AABC. Thus
and CDI[AB, we obtain the parallelogram the previous theorem, is equal to the product
areaoflkABC= -2
bh
Remark. ABC
to
triangle,
Figure 250 shows how to rearrangepartsof a triangle form the rectangle AKLC with the samebase b as and the altitude h/2 congruentto a half of the altitude \275oro]_lar\361es.
the
of con-
the triangle.
--
244.
(1) Triangles
with
congruent
bases
and
gruent altitudes
are equivalent.
1. Areasof
For
polygons
215
if we will move the vertex B ofthe triangle ABC 251) along the line parallelto the base AC, leaving the base unchanged, then the areaof the triangle will remain constant.
example, (Figure
(2) The area of a right triangleis equal legs, becauseoneofthe legscan be taken
the
to
half
the product
of its
for
for the
base, the
other
altitude. B
Figure
251
Figure
252
nals.Indeed, ABCD
if
(3) The
area of a thombus
(Figure Therefore
is
equal
to half
252) is
the product of its diagoa thombus, then its diagonals
are
perpendicular.
area of
Z\177ABC
I\177AC
. OB,
area
of
Z\177ADC
\177AC .
of
B
+
C
B
Figure
253
Figure
254
245. Theorem.
product Drawing we
The area of a
and
trapezoid
of
the
in
altitude
the
the semi-sum of the bases. ABCD (Figure 253) the diagonalAC,
trapezoidis equalto the

as the sum of areasof
the
can
consider ACD
the and
triangles
area of the trapezoid BAC. Therefore
are\177ofABCD=
1\177
AD . h +
\177 \177 BC.
h =
\177 \177(AD
+ BC).
n.
216
Chapter 246.
5.
AREAS
trape-
Corollary.
zoid
semi-sum of the bases. Therefore

area
ABCD,
then
If 3//N (Figure 254) is the midline ofthe (as it is known from \3659?) it is congruent
to the
of
ABCD
= MN.
to
h,
of the
i.e. the area of a trapezoid is equal

the
the
product
midline
with
altitude.
This
can also
Remark. partition the
one can and add

EXERCISES
247.
be seen directly from Figure 254. In order to find the area of an arbitrary polygon, it into triangles, compute the area of each triangle,
results.
Prove
51\177.
theorems:
In
a parallelogram,
adjacent
to 515.
two two
sides
are
the distances from any point of a diagonal inversely proportional to these sides.
each is a
convex
quadrilateraT triangles,
equivalent
of whose diagonals parallelogram.

four
sides to
divides it into
diagonals, of the
the
I,
516. In a trapezoid partitioned into the trianglesadjacent tothe lateral 517. The area of a trapezoidis equal
triangles
are the
by the
equivalent. product
of one
lateral sides
midpoint
and
the
perpendicular,
dropped
to this
side
from
of the
A The
other lateral
with
side. and 20 craisright. from intersection of the lines conparallelogram with the midpoint of
12, 15,
of the
518.
triangle
the
altitudes
obtained
necting each the nextsideis formerone. nal BD,

this
519.
parallelogram
vertex equivalent
of
a given
tO
1/5th
given parallelogram.
520. \177If the medians of one triangle are t\177aken for the sides of another, then the area of the latter triangle is equal to 3/4 of the area of the
521.x Ina
the
quadrilateral
ABCD,
through
the
line
parallel
to the
diagonal AC
line
intersects
bisects the
the side AD at a point E. area of the quadrilateral.
midpoint of the diagois drawn. Suppose that

Prove
that
the
line
CE
Compu!:a!:ion problems
522.
connected
In
square
to
with-the other
each
side a,' midpoints and to the opposite
of adjacent sides are vertex. Compute

the
area
of the
triangle
thus formed.
1. Areas off
5\177'3. in
polygons
217
Two
equilateral a way
triangles
are inscribed
into a circleof radiusR

by
such
that
each of
with the
sides of the other triangle into 3 congruent parts. Compute the area of the common part ofthesetriangles. 5\177J. Compute the area of a right triangle, if the bisector of an acute angle divides the opposite leginto segments of lengths 4 and 5. 5\177'5. Compute the area of a trapezoid with angles 60 \370 and 90 \370, given: (a) both bases, (b) one base and the lateral sideperpendicular to the bases, (c) one base and the otherlateral side. 5\177'6. Given the bases and the altitude of a trapezoid, compute the altitude of the triangle formed by the extensions of the lateral sides
the sidesis divided
the
intersections
up to the pointof their

5\1777.* Compute diagonals,
5\177'8. \177
intersection.
the area
the
of an isosceles trapezoid with
perpendicular
if the
Compute
midline is
ratio
given.
area
another
triangle
whose
of the area of a triangle to the sides are congruent to the medians
of
of
the
former
5\1779.
triangle.
Into
of unit area, another triangle, formed by the triangle, is inscribed.Intothe second triangle, a third triangle, formed by the midlines ofthe second one,isinscribed. Into the third triangle, a fourth one is inscribedin the same fashion, and so on indefinitely. Find the limit of the sum of the areas of these
midlines a triangle of the first triangles.
Hint:
First
compute the problems

a vertex
sum of the areasafter
finitely
many
steps.
Construction
50\3700.
Through
of a
triangle, draw two

a
lines
which
divide
the
area in
531.
a given proportionra: \177: p. Bisect the area of a triangle by

a point the
line
passing
through
a given
point on its side.
point
equal
552.
555.
Find with
inside
vertices
divide
a triangle such that the linesconnecting the the area of the triangle (a) into three
parts;
Divide
(b) in a given
a
proportion ra:
into
parallelogram
three
in
equivalent
a given
parts by lines
proportion
drawn
from
one
of its
vertices.
a the point
55J. Divide the areaofa parallelogram

by a
Hint:
line passingthrough Divide a midline of
given
point. the in the given given one.
parallelogram with
proportion,
and connectthe division
218
2
Chapter 5.
Several
AREAS
formulas
The
for
area
areas
of triangles
polygon is
polygon
of
equal to the productof the semi-perimeter the

and
248.
Theorem.
of any
circumscribed
the radius.
Connecting the centerO (Figure 255) with all vertices of the circumscribed polygon, we partitionit into triangles, in which sides of the polygon can be taken for the bases, and radii for the altitudes. If r denotes the radius, then
area
of/\177AOB-
AB.
\177
r,
+
area of ABOCBC
\177BC.r,etc.
q-
i.e.
where
area of ABCDE \177the
(AB
+ CD
+ DE
EF)
\337 r
- qr,
letter
B
q denotes
the semi-perimeter
of the polygon.
A
Figure
255
Figure 256
product of the semi-perimeter and the apothem,because any regular polygon can be considered as circumscribed about a circle the radius of which is the apothem of the polygon. (2) The area $ of any triangle is equal to the product of its semiperimeter q and the radius r of the inscribed circle:
Corollaries.'
(1) The areaofa
regular
polygon
is
equal
to the
$- qr.
249.
lengths
Problem.
To
compute
the
area $
of a triangle, given
256) dropped
the
a, b,
ha Then
and c of
the
its sides.
\177lt\177tude
side a.
Let
denote
of
AABC
1
(Figure
to its
$ =
\177ah\177.
2.
Several
formulas
compute
for areas
the
of triangles
ha,
219
the relation
(\365190)'
In orderto
altitude
b2
we use
_
= a2
+ c2
2ac
\177,
and
determine
from
it
C! _--
a2 +
c2
2a
find:
b2
From the
right. triangleADB,we
c2
ha
--
2a
2a
\177/4a2c
2 _
(a
\177 +
cS _
b\177)2
'
Transform
(2\177)\177
the expression
_
(\1772
under the squarerootsign:

=
(2\177o
\177
\177)\177
\1772
\177
b\177)(2\177_
a \177_
\177
b\177)
[(a 2
q-c s
c) 2
\177 +
q- 2ac)b)(a
b2][b
2 -,(a
2 q-
c 2-
2ac)]
\177+ \177).
[(a
(\177
q-
- b2][b \177(a + o-
- c)2]
a
\177)(\177+
\177)(b
Therefore
Let q = (a + b
+ c)/2
b
denote
=
the semi-perimeter of the + c)
triangle. Then
a + cand
similarly
(a + b
2b
2q-
2b =
2(q- b),
a+b-c=2(q-c),
b+c-a=2(q-a).
Thus
S -i.e.
\177v/2q
\337 2(q
- a). - a)(q
2(q - b)- 2(q -
c),
$
The Alexandria
last
expression
who any
lived
- b)(q - c). is known as I-Ieron's formula after Heron of in the 1st century A.D.
=
x/q(q
2Since
the
factors
side of a triangle is smaller than the under the square root sign are positive.
sum
of the
other
two
sides,
220
Chapter
5.
the
AREAS
side
Example. given by the
The area of an equilateral trianglewith formula

2 2 $=\177.3.; a a
a is
2 a_V\177a2 4
'
250. The law
of sines. 3
area
uct
them. the
Theorem. of
The any
two
of its
of a triangle is equal to half the prodsides and the sine of the anglebetween
can
Indeed,
as ha
sin
the altitude ha (Figure 257)of AABC C', and therefore the area S of the
be
triangleis
expressed
given
by
formula
S ----\177ab
The
sin
C.
following
corollary is
Sides
the anglesopposite to them:

a
Corollary.
called the law of sines.

are proportional
of
a triangle
to the sines of
sin A
Indeed,
- sin B
-- sinC;'
sin C
from
the
theorem,
we compute c
- 2S/ab,
and
find
the
ratio
abc
sin C
2S'
for
It
follows
that
the
ratio
A
is the
same
all
three
sides
of the
C
triangle.
Figure
257
Figure
258
The following theorem provides anotherproofof the

3See also Exercises in
Section
law
of sines.
7 of Chapter
3.
2. Several
formulas for areas of triangles

Any
of
221
of the
Let AABC, central
Theorem.
sine
side
of a
circumscribed circle.
O
the
opposite
triangle is equal to the product angle and the diameter of the
ZC
AO AD
of the circlecircumscribed about bisector of the side AB. The angles AOD congruent to each other and to (because they are all measured by a half of the arc ADB). Since = OB = R (where by _R we denote the radius of the circle), then = DB = R sin C, i.e.
(Figure
and
OD
258) the
be the center perpendicular and BOD are
c=
AB
2R sin
C.
of a
Corollaries. (1) The ratio of any of the oppositeangle, is equal to the circle:
side
diameter
c
triangle to the sine of the circumscribed
--
sinA
sinB
- -sinC
the
2R.
(2) Comparing two expressions for a simpleformula expressing the area S
ratio
of a
a, b,c
c/sin C, we obtain triangle through its sides
and
the
radius
R of
the circumscribed
circle:
S=
EXERCISES
abc
4R
Prove
theorems:
555. The
area of any
sine two
quadrilateral of
is equal.
to half
to
the product of its
diagonalsand the 556. If the axeas of

and
the
angle
between
adjacent
triangles,
formed
by the
intersection
respectively,
then the
q
557.
The area
can
area of the wholetrapezoid isequal to (a+b) 2. S of a trianglewith the sides a, b, c and the semibe
of the
diagonals, are equal toa2
them. the bases of a trapezoid

and
b2
perimeter
expressed
as
S ----(q -- a)ra
where 538.
=
of
(q
--
b)rb
----
(q
-- C)rc,
rs, rb,
b,
sidesa,
and rc are radii

c respectively.
the
exscribed
circles
tangent
to the
and
Prove that
inscribed
the radii re, rb,

of a
rc,
one
circle
triangle
and r of the three satisfy: 1/re + 1/r\177 +
exscribed and
1/rc
= 1/r.
222
539.
have
Ch\177p\177er
$.
AI\177EAS
The medians
adjacent
of which two
to congruent isosceles. 54{0. line dividing equal areas congruent

A and 54{
of a given triangledivide it into six triangles, out to one side of the given triangle turned out inscribed circles. Prove that the given triangle is
a given
triangle
perimeters,
passes
into two figures which have through the incenter.
1.
In a
interior
point.
point
convex equilateral polygon, the sum of distances from an to the sides or their extensions does notdepend onthe
polygon, the sum of distances from an intesides or their extensions is a quantity independent of the position of the point in the polygon. 54{3.* The sum of the squaresof the distances from a point on a circle to the verticesof an inscribed equilateral triangle is a quantity independent of the position ofthe point on the circle.
5\177{2.* In
an equiangular
rior
point
to the
Computation
problems
hexagon 12-ton
54{4{. Compute the areaofa regular 54{5. Compute the areaofa regular
side
with of radius
the
side a. R.
a
54{6. A disk inscribed into an isosceles trapezoid touches at a point dividing it into segments ra and \177. Compute of the trapezoid.
lateral
the
area
54{7.Expressthe terms of sides

two third
radius
of
the
circumscribed
of
the
triangle
and the
circle of a triangle in altitude dropped to the

tangent
by
side.
54{8.
Three circles of
each
other. Compute lines of centers.
radii 6, 7, and 8 cm are pairwise the area of the triangleformed
to three
the
54{ 9. Expressthe common chord of two intersecting of their radii and the lineof centers.
circles in terms
of its
through
550.
Express exscribed
the
radius
circles,
of the
through of
inscribed circle of a triangle,and each the sides of the triangle.

the
551. Express
the
Ii\177 the
the
radius
circumscribed
circle of
triangle
a triangle
an
sides. lengths then
552.
rn\177tic
sequence,
a, b, c ac =
of the sides of a
6_\177r, circles
form
arith-
where
_\177 and
are
the radii
of the
circumscribed and inscribed
respectively.
3.
Areas
of similar
\177 figures
223
Areas
of similar
Areas
figures
of
proportional to the squaresof homologous sides.

(i)
251.
If
Theorem.
similar
t\177angles
or polygons
are
ABC lengths
and
then their and a \177 are
areas are
homologous
(Figure 259) are two similar triangles, equal to respectively ah/2 and a\177h\177/2, where a of the homologous sides BC and B\177C \177, and h and
A'B'C' altitudes
h \177 are
the
AD and
to the homologous sides: h: h' right triangles ADB and A\177D\177B
\177,
The altitudes are proportional a: a\177(since from similarity

we
of the
a\177).
have
h:
h'
area
- c: c
\177 --
a:
Therefore
of ABC
ofA\177B\177C \177
ah
a\177h \177
a
a
\177
a
a \177
a 2
area
A
a \177 U
A'
A'
B
E'
a Figure
C 259
E Figure
260
(ii) If ABCDE and A'B'C'D'E' (Figure polygons, then it is possible,as we have seen
260)
them into respectively similar triangles positioned Let these triangles be: AOB and A'O'B', BOC and B'O'C', etc. Accordingto the result of part (i), we have the following proportions:
are two similar in \365168, to partition in the same way.
area of AOB
areaof A'O'B'
But from
area
of
B'O'C
\177 =
; etc.
the similarity of the polygons,
we
have:
A\177B\177
B\177G\177
...,
and hence
A\177B\177
B--7---\177 \177
224
Chapter
5. AREAS
Therefore
area of AOB
area
areaof BOC
area
of
A'O'B'
of
B\177O\177C \177
'\"
we
of
From properties of
area of
area
proportions (seeRemark in
\365169),
conclude:
AOB
A\177O\177B
AOB + area of BOC +

\177 +
...
...
area
of
AtO\177B
area
of
B\177O\177C \177 +
area of
t'
'i.e.
area of
area
ABCDE
AB 2
(A\177Bt)2
of
A\177B'C\177D\177E\177
'
Corollary.
sides are
radii,
or
Areas of regular polygons with the same proportional to the squaresof theirsides, or squares squares of their apothems.
To
number
of
of
their
252.Problem.
by
divide
lines
parallel
to one
of its
sides.
B
a given
triangle
P
into m equivalent parts
C Figure 261
for example, that it is required to divide ,\177ABC three equivalent parts by segments parallel AC. that the required segments are DE and FG. The triangles FBG, and ABC are similar. Therefore
Suppose,
into
(Figure Suppose
261)
to
DBE,
areaof DBE - BE and area

2 area
of FBG
of
ABC
BC 2
area of
ABC
BG 2
BC2'
2
\177'
But
area
of DBE
areaof ABC 3
Therefore
--
and area of FBG

area
of
ABC
BE
2
--
1
\177
BC 2
&rid
2
\365.
BC 2
BC--- \177 =
3.
Areas
of similar
find:
figures
225
From this, we
BE=\177BC.BCandBG=\1772\365BC'BC,
i.e.
BE
is the
geometric mean between

mean
BC
-\177BC.
and
Therefore
\253BC, and
the
BG is
the geometric
construction
between
can be
From
done as follows.
and
BC
and
Describe
required
Divide
BC
into
3 congruent
parts at the points M
the diameter.
semicircle on BC as erect the perpendiculars MP and NQ. The chords BP and BQ will be the geometric means needed: the first one between the diameter BC and its third part BM, the second one betweenBC and BE, i.e. between BC and -\177BC. It remains to mark these chords on BC starting from the 3 point B to obtain the required points E and G. Onecan similarly divide the triangle into any number of equivaN.
the
the
points
and N,
lent parts.
EXERCISES
Computation
problems
553.
A line
parallel to
the base of a triangle

from
divides
its
area
in the
proportion 4 ' 5 Counting

55\177. counting
it divide the lateralsides?

Each
the
vertex.
In what
proportion does
median
from
with
of a vertex.
vertices
triangle
the
the
-triangle
original
Compute the. ratio at the division points,

of
is divided in the proportion 3' I of the area of the
to the area of
the
triangle.
555.*
Among
\177ectangles
a fixed
area, find
the one with the minimal
perimeter.
Construction problems
allelto
557.
Hint:
556.
Divide one
a parallelogram of
into
three
equivalent parts
extreme
by linesparratio
the
diagonals.
Divide the
Apply
area of a triangle in the

base.
and
mean
by
a line parallelto the
the algebraic
a triangle
method. equivalent parts

by
by
555. \177'Divide
dicular
into three
lines
perpen-
to the
base.
a line
559. Bisectthe areaofa trapezoid
parallel
to the
bases.
226
560.
Chapter5.
On
AREAS
a given
base, construct a
rectangle
to
equivalent
to
a given
one.
561. Construct
a squareequivalent
2/3
56H. Transforma given square into an given sum (or difference) of two adjacent 565. Given two triangles, constructa third and equivalent to the second.
given one. equivalent rectangle with

of the
sides.
one,
similar
to the
first,
Hint:
565.
56J.
Transform Apply
a the
given algebraic
triangle into method.
an equivalent
of
equilateral one.
area a 2.
Into a
given disk, inscribe a rectangle

triangle,
a given
566. Into a given
inscribe
a rectangle
of a given' area
$.
Areas of disks
253.
and sectors
unlimited
Lemma.
Under
doubling
polygon,
of the
side
number of
in-
sides of an inscribed
definitely.
perimeter.
regu\177lar
its
decreases
p its
the
the
Let n be \177he
ratio
polygon,
number Then
of sides the
length
of an inscribed of one of its
p/n.
the
Under
unlimited
regular polygon, and sidesis expressed doubling of the numberof sidesof

by
n of this ratio will increase indefinitely, p will also increase, though not iridefinitely (since the perimeter of any convex inscribed polygon remains smaller than the perimeter P of any fixed circumscribed polygon). A ratio, whose. numerator remains bounded, and denominator increases indefinitely, tends to zero. Therefore the side of the inscribedregularpolygon indefinitely decreases as n indefinitely increases. 254. Corollary. Let AB (Figure 262) be a side of an inscribed regular polygon, OA the radius: and OC the apothem. 'From/kAOC
denominator and
the numerator
we
find:
OA-OC
Since
( AC,
i.e. OA-OC (
have
\177AB.
number of times,then the sameis true
the side of the regular polygon, as we creases indefinitely when the number of sides
for
just
proved,
de-
is doubled the difference
an unlimited
OA
- OC.
Therefore, scribed
regular --
under
unlimited polygon,
doubling the
of the
number of sides of the in-
length
of the
apothem tends to the radius.

$,
255.
The
R,
inscribe
area of a disk. Into a disk,whose radius we.denote any regular polygon. Let the areaofthis polygon be
4.
Areas
of disks
q,
and sectors
and
22?
r. We
S\177qr.
semi-perimeter
apothem
have seen in
\365248
that
Imagine
now that the number of sides of this polygon is doubled Then the semi-perimeter q and the apothemr (and hence the area $) will increase. The semi-perimeter will tend to the limit C/2 equal to the semi-circumference of the circle,and the apothemr will tend to the limit equal to the radius /\177. It follows that the area of the polygon will tend to the limit equal to \253 C \337/\177.
indefinitely.
Figure
262
Figure 263
Definition.
inscribed
into
is
doubled
Let
that
us
The limit, to which the area of a regularpolygon disk tends as the numberof sidesof the polygon indefinitely, is taken for the area of the disk. denote by A the area of the disk. We conclude therefore,
a given
1
of
i.e. the area

Since
circumference andthe radius.

C
disk
is
equal
to the
product of the
semi-
2\177R,
then
A =
i.e.
\1772\177R.
\177R
2,
the area of a disk of radius R the radius multiplied by the ratio
is
equal
to
the
square
of
the diameter. their radi'ior
of the
circumference
to the
to
Corollary.
Areas
of
disks
are
proportional
squares of
diameters.
228 Indeed,
Chapter if A
5. radii
AREAS R and
and A'
=
denote areas of two

and
disks 2.
of
R'
respectively, then A
A
=/\177'
A'
R 2
\177r(R')
Therefore
\177rR \177'
4R 2
(2R)
\177'
JI
The area of a sectoris equal to arc length and the radius. Let the arc Arab (Figure 263) of a sectorAOB containn\370. Obviously, the area of the sector, whose arc contains 1 \370 , is equal to 1/360th part of the area of the disk, i.e. it is equal to \177rR=/360. Therefore the area $ of the sector,whose arc contains n \370, is equal to
256.
Area
of a
sector.
half
the
product
of its
II
\177R2n
$=--=
1 \177rRn
360
2 180
the
-R.
length
The fraction
(\365236).
\177Rn/180
expresses
arc
of the
arc Arab
If
s denotes
the arc
length, then
1 Remark.In orderto
an
find
the
area
of the
disk segment,
bounded by
to
arc
Arab
(Figure the
subtract the latter from the former one. 257. Problem. To compute.the area of the disk ference is equal to 2 cm. First, we find the radius R from the equation
2\177rR
separately
263) and the chordAB, it sut\177ces area of the sector A\270B and AA\270B,
compute
and
then
circum-
to
whose
2 cra,
i.e.R =
1 - = 0.3183...
Then
we
find
the
area of
\177R
the disk:
=
2 =
vt.
- = 0.3183... cm
the square
equivalent
2.
258.
Problem.
To construct
to
a given
disk.
This is
cannot
with
be solved by means of straightedgeand compass. the side x is equivalent to the diskof radiusR, then
x 2-\177rR
the famous problemof squaring the
circle.
In
fact
square
it
Ifa
2,
i.e.
4. Areas of disks\177nd
us assume for side z = v/\177 could
Let
\365213,
sectors
229
simplicity that R =
be
1. If
the
square
with
the
constructed,
would
then,
been
the
number
v/\177
have
by meansof arithmetic operations and square roots. However, in 1882 a German mathematicianFerdinandLindemann proved that \177 is transcendental. By definition, this means that it is not a solution of any polynomial equation with integer coefficients. In particular, this implies that it cannot be obtained from integers by arithmetic
according to the expressible through
resultsof
integers
operations
and
extractions
of roots.
For the same reason, the problem ofconstructing a segment whose length would be equal to the circumference of a given circle, also cannot be solved by means of straightedge and compass.
EXERCISES
567. In a disk with the center disk is constructed on the line
\270,
a chord
\270A as
AB is drawn, and another a diameter. Prove that the
areasof
disks
two
disk
segments
cut
off by
have
the
ratio
4: 1.
disk
the chord AB from the

a given
two
568. Constructa equivalent to bounded two concentric circles). 569. Divide a disk into 2, 3, etc.
by
ring
parts
(i.e. the figure

by
equivalent
concentric
circles.
an inscribed intothe disk:

regular hexagon.
.57!. to
570. Compute
the area of the disk

(a)
segment
cut triangle,
off by (b)
a side
square,
a of
(c)
equilateral
_
Compute the
area of
Compute
the ratio of the areaof a sector intercepting the disk inscribedinto this sector.
the
a 60 \370arc
gent congruentcircles of radius
572.
area
of
\177he
figure R
bounded and
by three
circles.
120
situated
in the
pairwise tanexterior of the
573. The
common
chord
of
two the
disks subtends ratio
the arcs of 60\370and
of the areas of these disks. the chordof the outerboundary circle tangent to the inner boundary circle has length a. 575. Prove that if the diameter of a semicircle is divided into two arbitrary segments, and another semicircle is described on each of the segments as the diameter, then the figure bounded by the three semicircles is equivalent to the disk whose diameter is congruent to the perpendicular to the diameter ofthe original semicircle erected
\370respectively. Compute
Compute area
57J.
the
of a
ring if
at the
division point.
230
5
Chapter 5.
The
AREAS
Pythagorean
theorem
revisited
constructed
legs of a constructed
259. Theorem. The areas of squares right triangle add up to the area
on its
on
of
the
the
square
hypotenuse.
yet
This proposition is
another
form
of the
Pythagorean
theo-
of
rem, which we proved in \365188: the square of the number measuring the length of the .hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares of the numbers measuringthe'legs. Indeed, the square of the number measuring the length of a segment is the number measuring the area
the
square
constructed
many
on this
ways
Let
There are
other
to
Euclid's proof. and BDEA, AFGC, and the It is

and hypotenuse.
ABe BCKtt
required
two
squares
add
up to
E
the area of the third one.
segment. prove the Pythagorean theorem. (Figure 264) be a right triangle, squares constructed on its legs to prove that the areasofthe first
G B
H
Figure
M
264
Figure
265
BCKH is divided into two rectangle BLMH is equivalent to the square BDEA, and the rectangle LCKM is equivalent to the square AFGC. For this, consider two triangles shaded in Figure 264. These triangles are congruent, since AABH is obtained from ADBC by clockwise rotationabout the point B through the angle
Draw AM
_L
BC.
Then
the square
rectangles.
Let
us prove
that the
5. The Pythagorean
of 90 \370.
of
\177heorem
revisited
231
the
square
rotating obtain
hand,
square BDEA. Likewise,/kABHhas the baseBH,and congruent to BL (since ALIIBH). Therefore /kABH to a half of the rectangleBLMH. Thus the rectangle equivalent to the square BDEA. Similarly, connecting
and
A
(since
this way the segment BD, which is a we obtain another side BA of this square, and the segment BC, which is a sideof the square we BH. Thus/kABH and/kDBC are equivalent. On the other /kDBC has the base DB, and the altitude congruent to BA ACIIDB ). Therefore /kDBC is equivalent to a half of the
Indeed,
rotating
side
BDEA,
BCKH,
the is
altitude
equivalent
BLMH
G
with
is B,
with
K,
and
LCKM square
the plies
BDEA
A square,
rectangle that
the
considering/kGCB and/kACK, we prove that is equivalent to the square AFGC. This imBCKH is equivalent to the sumof the squares shown in Figure
and
tiling
whose
AFGC.
proof,
side
265, is based on tiling the
is congruent
to the
right
triangle,
by the
square constructed
sum of the legsof a given on the hypotenuse and by
four
copies of the given triangle, and then re-tiling it by the squares constructed on the legsand by the same four triangles. One more proof,basedon similarity, will be explained shortly. 260. Generalized Pythagorean theorem. Thefollowing generalization of the Pythagorean theorem is found in the 6th book of Euclid's \"Elements.\"
266) are constructed on the polygon constructed
the sumof the

In
Theorem. If three similar polygons (P,Q, R, Figure the sides of a right then on the hypotenuse is equivalent to
and tviangle\177 polygons
constructed
on
the
legs.
\177'
the polygonsare squares, thisproposition theorem as stated in \365259. Due to the theorem of \365251, the generalization follows from this special case. Indeed,the areasofsimilar polygons are proportional to the squares of homologoussides,and therefore
the
special
the
case when
turns
into
Pythagorean
area
of P
area of
b2
area of R
c2
a
Then, by
properties of proportions,
areaof P +
a2
Since
area ,
of
area
of R
c2
+ b2
that
a 2 + b2
= c2, it
area
follows
ofP
area ofQ
= area of R.
232
Moreover, than
Chapter
5.
AREAS
the same reasoning applies to similar figures more general polygons. However, Euclid gives another proofof the generalized Pythagorean theorem, which does not rely on this special case. Let us explain such a proofhere. In particular, we will obtain one
more proofof the P. ythagorean
theorem
itself.
Figure
266
,Figure
267
First,
theorem,
suppose constructed
us notice that to prove the generalized Pythagorean to prove it for polygonsof oneshapeonly. Indeed, that the areas of two polygons R and R' of different shapes on some segment (e.g. the hypotenuse)have a certain
let
it suffices
ratio
k. Then
the areas of polygons similarto them

constructed
(e.g.
and
P',
or Q
times
and
Q\177)
and
on another
times
shorter,
will be
ra 2
smaller
segment which is, say, ra for both shapes. Therefore
they will have the sameratiok. Thus,if the areas of P\177, Q\177 and PJ satisfy the property that the first two add up to the third one, then the same holds true for the areas of P, Q and P\177 which are/\177 times
greater.
Now the
to the
triangle
idea is to take polygons

triangle
similar
right
itself,
and'
to construct
the
not to a square, but them not outside the
but
inside
it. 4
Namely, drop
the altitude of
the
right
triangle
to its
The altitude divides

gether
triangle
into
two triangles
hypotenusel similar to it. Tothat
with
the constructed
original on
triangles
triangle, we the sides of

of
thus have three similar right
areas add
up to the third one.

outside
it, and such
two
of the
c_i!cles are
4The
Corollary. ;f
described
a right
on
its
legs,
this
triangle (Figure 267) two semiand another semicircle is described

illustr\177.tes this
collage
on the
cover of
book
idea.
5. The
Pythagorean theoremrevisited
so by
233
on
figure
the
hypotenuse bounded
that
the
it contains semicircles is
area
the triangle, then the geometric equivalent to the triangle:

=
area ofA +
orb
area of
C.
Indeed, after addingtobothsides ofthisequality the areas (unshaded in Figure 267) of the disk segmentsboundedby the greatest of the semicircles and by the legsofthe triangle, it is required to prove that the areasofthe half-disks constructed on the legs add up to the area ofthe half-disk constructed on the hypotenuse. This equality follows
from
the
generalized
Pythagorean
and
theorem.
B are
known as Hippocrates' lunes after a Greek mathematician Hippocrates of Chios who studied them in the 5th century B.C. in connection with the p\177oblem of squaring the circle. When the triangle is isosceles, then the lunes are congruent and each is equivalent to a half of the triangle. EXERCISES
Remark. The figures A
Miscellaneous
problems
hypotenuse radii
576. The altitudedropped to the

-triangle into smaller triang]eswhose 6 and 8 cm. Compute the radius
divides of the
a given
inscribed
right circles are
of the
inscribed circle of
the given
triangle.
577.
circumscribed
Compute
the and
sides inscribed
of a right circle.
triangl e given the

if the
radii of its
575.
Compute
the area of a right

hypotenuse
triangle
droppedto the
meanratio.
of
length
c divides
foot of the altitude it in the extreme and
bisectors
quadrilateral bounded by the four rectangle with the sidesa and b cm. 550.' Cut a given rectangle into four right triangles so that they can be reassembled into two smaller rectangles similar to the given one. 551. Thediagonals divide a qua. drilateral into four triangles of which three have the areas 10, 20, and 30 cm2, and the areaofthe fourth one is greater. Compute the area of the quadrilateral. 552. A circle of the radius congruent to the altitudeof a given isoscele's triangle is rolling along the base. Show that the arc length cut out on the circle by the lateral sides of the triangle remains constant. 555. A circle is divided into four arbitrary arcs, and the midpoints of the arcs are connected pairwise by straight 'segments. Prove that two of the segments are perpendicular.
Compute
579.
the
area
of the
of the
angles
of a
234
58\177.
Chapter5.
the length of a common tangentof two 2r which intersectat the right angle. Prove that in a triangle, the altitudes ha, hb, hc,
Compute
Prove
AREAS
circles
of radii
r and
585.
and
the radius
of the inscribedcircle satisfy
586.
inscribed
that and
in
a right
circumscribed
legs.
the
the relation: 1/ha + 1/hb + 1/hc = 1/r. triangle, .the sum of the diameters ofthe circles is congruent to the sum of the
587.*
inscribed
Prove
that and of
in
a scalene
triangle,
circle
circumscribed
is congruent
to
the sum of the diameters of to the sumof the

the
a
segments
the
altitudes
from the
sides
'\370rthocenter
vertices.
fixed
588.* Find the of the distances
geometric locusof allpointswith

from
difference
the
of a
given angle.
side of a square is the hypotenuse of a right triangle situated exterior of the square.Provethat thebisector ofthe right angle of the triangle passes through the centerofthe square, and compute the distance between the center and the vertexof the right angle of the triangle, given the sumof its legs.
589.* A
in the
590.*
gents
From
each
of
the
two,given
points of
the that
to a
congruent circles are inscribed.Prove parallel to the given line.

591.*
given circle
are drawn, and in
a given line,bbth
angles their line
tan-
two
thus formed, of centers is
Three congruent circles intersect at one point.Prove that the lines, each passing through the centerofoneof the circles and the second intersection point of the other two circles, are concurrent. three
592.* Given a triangle ABC, find such that the triangles ABM and 593.* On a givencircle, find two
the
geometric
locus
of points
ACM points,
are
equivalent.
the triangleABC. locus of the points of intersectionof two chords AC and BD of a given circle, where'AB is a fixed chord of this circle, and CD is any chord of a fixed length. 595.* Construct a triangle,given its altitude, bisector and median
is the
59\177.*
given
diameter
CD
and
such that
A and B, symmetric about a given point E on the diameter
ortho center of
Find
the
geometric
drawn
from
the
same
vertex. incenter,
bisectors
'596.*
Construct a triangle,given its circumcenter, intersection point of the extension of oneof the
circumscribed
and the
with
the
circle.
Bibliography
Classicalworks quoted:
[1]
Euclid.
troduction (Books
Thirteen Books of the Elements. Translated with inand commentary by T. L. Heath.Secondedition,vol. 1 I-II), vol. 2 (Books III-IX), vol. 3 (Books X-XIII): Dover,
The
New York,
[2] I\177.
1956.
Dedekind.
Irrational
Essays on the Theory of Numbers, Numbers, II:The Nature and Meaning
I:Continuity of Numbers.
and
Trans-
lated by W. W. Editions
[3]
Bernan. Dover,
New
York,
1963.
of Kiselev's
P.
Geometry the translationis based on:
A.
Kiselev.
Par[
Institutions.
Dumnov's
Elementary Geometry, for SecondaryEducational I: Planimetry. Part II. Stereomerry. First edition:
Moscow,
Bookstore,
1892.
by
Electronic
Moscow,
[4]
copy made available

l\177ussia.
courtesy
of
l\177ussian
State
Library,
A.
P. Kiselev.
Institutions.
1914.
Twenty
version
Elementary Geometry, for .Secondary Educational third edition: Dumnov's Bookstore, Moscow,
available
Electronic
from
\"Internet
Biblioteka\"
Grades
at
9.
http://ilib.mccme.ru/
[5]
P. Kiselev, N. A. Rybkin. Geometry. Planimetry, Drofa, Moscow,1995.

A. A.P.
7-
[6]
1998.
Kiselev.
Elementary
Geometry. Prosveshchenie,
Moscow,1980,
L.
[7]
P. Kiselev. Atanasyan and burg, 1999.

A.
Geometry. Planimetry, 7-9. Edited by V. F. Butusov. Special'naya Literatura, St.

Stereometry.
S.
Peters-
[8] A. P. Kiselev.Geometry. by N. A. Glagolev for
Planimetry. the
Textbook.
Edited
2004.
edition
of 1938.
PhysMatLit, Moscow,
235
236
Some
Bibliography
other
textbooks
by A.
P. Kiselev:
Arithmetics
[9]
A.
P.
Kiselev.
A Systematic
Course
Voronezh,
of
is available from \"Internet [10] A. P. Kiselev. Elementary (in Russian).
edition: Kiselev, Electronic version of the 24th

Schools. First
1884
for Secondary (in Russian).
edition Biblioteka\"
(Dumnov's Bookstore, at http://ilib.mccme.ru/ volumes. First
1912)
Algebra.
In 2
edition, 1888
from:
Some ideas
York,
for
additional
exercises Geometry.
were Charles
borrowed
[11] F. Durell.Plane'and
1909.
Solid
E. Merrill
Holt
Co., New
and
L. J. Adams. Plane Geometryfor pany, New York, 1958.
Colleges. Henry
In: A.
Drofa,
Com-
[13] N. A. P\177ybkin,
bkin.
Problems
in
Geometry.
P. Kiselev, N. A.
Moscow,
Ry-
Geometry.
Planimetry.
Grades 7-9.
1995
(in
Russian).
[14] M. I. Skanavi (editor) Collected Mathematics CollegeApplicants. Fifth'edition: Vysshaya

(in Russian).
Problems for
Shkola,
Technical
1988
Moscow,
sian). [16]V. B. Lidsky

Moscow,
[15] I. F. Sharygin.
Geometry.
Grades
7-9. Drofa,
Moscow, 1999(in Rus-
1967
et al. Problems (in Russian). A.
in Elementary
Geometry. Nauka, Mathe-
[17] N. B. Vassiliev,
matical
A. Egorov. Nauka,
Olympiads.
Moscow,
Problems from the All-Union 1988 (in Russian).

of
Recommended for further study

[18]
elementary
geometry:
\"Librairie
J. Hadamard.
Letons
de
G\177om\177trie
El\177mentaire, plan,
Armand
dans
Colin,\" Paris. Vol. 1: G\177om\177trie L'espace, 1901 (in French).
1898,
vol. 2:
G\177om\177trie
[19] H. S. M. Coxeter, S.L. Greitzer. matical Association of America,
Geometry
Revisited.
The
MatheNew
1967.
[20] R. Hartshorne.
York,
Geometry: Euclid and Beyond. Springer-Verlag, elementary

A.
2000.
Recommended
mathematics
Birkh\177iuser,
textbooks:
Boston,
I21]I. M. Gelfand,
-[22] I.
Shen.
Algebra.
1993. Boston,
M. Gelfand, M. Saul.Trigonometry.
Birkh\177iuser,
2001.
Index
AAA-test,
132
broken line, 22
AAS-test,
67
15 acute triangle, 24 addition law, 170

acute angle,
additivity,
center, 4, 186
center
Cartesiancoordinates,174
of
homothety,
143
95
209
center of
angles, 56 altitude, 25, 210

alternate
altitude
center
center 69
central
mass, 116
rotation,
of
of
parallelogram,
analysis,
53
24
70 central angle, 12, 186

of symmetry,
symmetry,
70
angle, 9 angle of polygon,

angular
apothem,
centroid,
116
chord, 4
Apollonius' circle,142
186
degree, 13
circle,4
circular
degree,
13_
circumcenter,
from
114
110
approximation
above, 123
below,
approximation from
arc, 4
circumference, 195,202
circumscribed,
123
circumscribed
polygon,
Archimedes' axiom,119
arc length, 202
110
closed broken line, 23
area,209
of
of
collinear points, 84
com\177ensurable,
120
,.area
disk,
sector,
227
228
area of
disk segment,228
progression,
3
common
commutativky,
measure,
3
117
area
compass,
arithmetic
associativity,
195
concentric,
95
ASA-test, 30
axiom,
concurrent,116
congruent,
conclusion, 21
1
20
symmetry,
axis of
barycenter,
28
consecutive
contrapositive
exhaustion,
theorem,
118
47
construction, 48, 53
116
parallelogram,
base, 210
converse
69 75 24
convex
theorem,
polygon,
21
24
base of
base of
convex,23
coordinate,
triangle, 25
trapezoid,
basesof
bisector, bounded
175
174
11, 25
polygon,
boundary of
coordinatesystem,
corollary,
coordinate axis, 175 199

237
21
sequence,
238
Index geometric solid,1

geometry,
corresponding angles,56
cosecant, 163
cosine,
163
golden
mean,
}70
cotangent,
163
golden ratio,
definition,
20
goldensection, 170
170
diagonal, 24
greatest
half-line,
common
measure,
118
diameter,4
dimensions,
210
Heroh's formula, 219 21
direct
theorem,
hexagon, 24
disk, 5
disksegment,5 distanceformula,
divine
drafting
Hippocrates'lunes,
homologous.
176
233
altitudes,
medians,
homologous bisectors, 133

homologous
133
proportion,
triangle,
170
17
133
143
doubling formula, 193

elementary
homologous
homothety,
sides, 128
143
homothetic figures,
179
homothety
construction,
Elements, 60
coefficient, 143
enclosean angle,98
equiangular,
hypotenuse, 25
hypothesis,21
30
incenter,
30
equiangular
equivalent,
triangle,
209
114
equilateral, 24
error,
\177ncommensurable,
120
infinite decimal
infinite
fraction, 123
line,
123
straight
Euclid, 60
infinity,
algorithm,
165
Euclid's postulate,60
Euclidean
inscribed angie, 97
inscribed
118
inscribedcircle, 110
polygon,
Euler's
circle, 116
110
Euler's line, 116

exterior,
exscribed circle, 112

10
intercepted
arc, 97
34 tangents, 93
interior, 10
\177nterior
angle, common tangency,
exterior
external
angle,
tangency,
external common tangents, 104'

93
34
\177nternal \177nternal
104
\177ntersecting circles,
92
123
extreme
Fermat
and mean
numbers,
ratio, 170
116
16
reverse theorem, 46
\177rrational
number, 24
193
\177sosceles,
Feuerbach's
theorem,
figure, 1
foot
\177sosceles trapezoid,
75
of
perpendicular,
kite, 29
foot of
full
slant, 16
12
angle,
lateral sides,25,75
law
function,
162
of
cosines,
168
law of
geometric figure, 1 -geometriclocus,46

geometric
leg,25
lemma,
sines, 170,220
128
mean,
150
limit,
196
geometric
progression, 195
line, 1,
Index
line
239
centers,
of
92
quadrilateral, 24 radian, 206

75
74
mean terms,
126
median, 25
midline
radius,4, 186
of
trapezoid,
ratio,125
rational
midline of
midline
triangle, 74
number,
122
theorem,
ray, 3
minute,
13
real number,
reductio
rectangle, 71
ad
124
37
natural series, 195
absurdurn,
negation,48
negative
reflection, 79
146
116
homothety,
circle,
regular brokenline, 183

regular
negative real
nine-point
number, 125
decimal,
polygon,
183
repeating
decimal fraction,
72
124
non-repeating
numerical
124
research,53
rhombus,
number line, 124

sequence,
195
right
right
angle,
triangle,
15
24
oblique
line, 16
ring,
rotation
229
angie,
obtuse angle, 15
rotation, 95
96
obtusetriangle,25
octagon, 187
origin,
175
SAA-test, 115
67
orthocenter,
same-side angles, 56
SAS-test,30, 132
parallel lines,
parallelogram,
55
68
scalene,
24
parallel postulate,58
pentagon,
secant,
4, 163
second, 13
24
sector, 5
perimeter,
perpendicular
24
bisector,
perpendicular, 16
83
segment,3 semiperimeter, 24
side
of angle,
of
9
24
127,
perpendicular
lines, 16
6
side of broken line, 23

rode
plane, 1
polygon,
plane geometry,
planimetry;
similar, 127
similar figures,
similar
similarity
145
point, 1
polygons,
coefficient,
134
143
polygon, 24
similar triangles, 128

similarity
similarity
postulate,20 precision,123
product,
of figures,
transformation,
128
128,
213
143
proof
by contradiction,
126
37
Simsoh's line,
proportion, 126
proportional,
sine, 162
slant,
114
10
16
protractor,
14
smaller 152
angle,
Ptolemy's
Pythagorean
theorem, 158
theorem,
solid geometry, 6
square,
solution locus, 177

73
Pythagorean
triangle,
153
240
square
Ind\177
unit,
210
squaring
stereomerry,
SSS-test,31,132
6
the circle, 228

12
straight
angle,
straight line, 2
straight segment,2
straightedge, 48
subtend,
sum of
angles, 11
arcs,
sum of
sum
supplementary,
of segments,
15
summand, 3
surface,
symmetric
points, 27, 70
point,
synthesis,53
tangency
90
tangent,
90, 163
\337
tangent circles,92 tend, 196

Thales'
theorem,
138
theorem,
20
transcendental, 229 translation, 79 transversal, 56
trapezoid,75 triangle,24
triangle
inequality,
38
trigonometric
function,
162
unbounded straight line, 2

undefinable
notions,
22
unit
of length,
angle,
122
9
vertex of
vertex
vertex
of broken
of
line, 23
24
polygon,
vertical
angles, 18

Geometry Book 1 Planimetry

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Geometry Book 1 Planimetry

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Published by Sumizdat

University of California, BerkeleyCataloging-in-Publication Data

Chast 1, Planimetriia. English

adapted from Russian by Alexander [El Cerrito,Calif.]:Sumizdat,

Library of Congress Control Number:

reserved. Copies or derivative of it may not be produced without

Alexander Givental (givental@math.berkeley. in connection with reviews or scholarly Credits

whole work or permission from for brief excerpts

The University on the front c\275.\177'\177e\177art

Perpendicular lines . ................... Mathematicalpropositions ................

\177triangles tests in triangles

.... ' ............. ......................

.................. and symmetry ............ for triangles .............. ............... ...............

Basic Parallel The

construction lines angle

Relative Inscribed Construction

formulas of disks Pythagorean

polygons ..................... for areas of triangles .........

Those reading these lines are

to be judged standards of the

then I cast a spell

at the University math majors --

cial Russian town Mathematics and

got replaced in this

the secret of such Kiselev himself formulated

Elementary geometry occupies a singular

vii ing geometry

Another one is the

whose role reachesfar

mathematics for nurturing

of current presentation of elementary

high-school geomeis gently advanced by

[3, 4, 5, 7, 8] when was not the goal, and I occurred.

most reliable ally

and compass were

ing has long

present edition are producedwith

toolbox. The craft of blueprim draftadvance of computers. Consequently, all

I believethat the bookyou are chance to share in the \"custody.\"

in your hands gives everyone is my Magic Wand, and

- 4(75 B. C. 4(70 - 4(10B.C.

Carl Friedrich Gauss

the surfaceis separated

First concepts of geometryas well as introduced as idealizations of the corresponding

The idea of the plane is conveyed

lines coincidein all their

one line coincide with

a way that other, then the

we through the sametwo

same reason, two

points of this line liein this

unbounded straight line.

one calls mark(Figure

and non-congruent segments. can be laid one onto'the other

AB onto the segment CD point C aligning the ray

the segment the point A at the

this, the points B and are congruent. Otherwise

part of the otheris considered

D merge,then the segments they are not congruent, and

the ray CD. If, as a result

To mark on a line a segment uses the compass,a drafting

segment, one familiar to the

The sum of several given segments(A/\177, a segment which is obtained as follows. On

point M and starting fromit