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Eq.3.1.1
where k is formation permeability,
, [scf],
Langmuir volume, the maximum gas volume can be adsorbed,
(the ratio of investigation time with gas desorption to that without gas
desorption). The adsorption index depends on several parameters:| ,
and
/
ads ads noads
I t t =
Eq.3.4.1
where
= +
Eq.3.4.4
Where
=
(MSCF/day) Eq.3.5.1
A similar equation can be written in SI units:
7 2
(1/ 2)
8
7.6326*10 [ ( ) ( )] ( )
[ ]
6.95*10
i wf t i f
g
ads
kh m p m p C x
q
T ktI
|
t t
=
(S
Eq.3.5.2
28
4 Sensitivity analysis
To demonstrate the long term production behavior of MTFHW (Multi Transverse Fractured
Horizontal Well) in shale gas reservoirs, series of sensitivities were studied using the analytical
model described in previous chapter. Sensitivities are performed to permeability, fracture
spacing, adsorption and fracture half-length. The analytical simulations focused on horizontal
completions, as the majority of shale gas reservoirs are being developed using horizontal wells
with multiple fracture treatment stages. The base case model is designed to capture the typical
characteristics of a producing shale gas field. The list of reservoir, well and fluid properties used
for the base case model are presented in Table 4.1. The model inputs for this project represent
properties approximately similar to reported values for Haynesville shale (Bo Song,
Economides, 2011).
Table 4.1: Reservoir, well and fluid properties for base case model.
Properties
SI units Field units
, Viscosity 0.000019 Pa*sec 0.019 cp
, specific gravity
0.6 0.6
Pi, reservoir pressure,
62
MPa 9000 Psi
PL, Langmuir pressure,
10.3
MPa 1500 Psi
T, reservoir temperature 140 Celsius 284 F
| , porosity 5 % 5 %
k, permeability,
1.5E-19
0.152 D
, Adsorption density
100
kg/
0.1 g/cc
Total compressibility 3.2*
0.0002
h, pay zone thickness 60 m 196 ft
Well length 1000 m 3280 ft
Number of fractures 8 8
m(Pwf), pseudo pressure
9.6E+17
Pa/s 2.03*10^7
, initial water
saturation
30 % 30 %
Adsorption index 2.38 2.38
29
4.1 Duration of pseudolinear flow regime
4.1.1 Model equation
As stated in the previous chapter, considering the appropriate flow regime is important for
modeling production from shale gas reservoirs. In ultra-tight shale gas reservoirs the only flow
regime observed might be pseudolinear flow of the transient period. There are several reasons
for this and the most important are the effects of adsorbed gas and the low matrix
permeability.
The MTFHW in shale gas reservoirs may produce gas only within a small distance around
transverse fractures so that we will not even see the pressure interference between two
adjacent fractures and the linear flow regime may extend for many decades (Bo Song, 2010).
The focus of the analytical solution of this project will be based on investigation of pseudolinear
flow regime in shale gas reservoirs. The first step is to estimate the duration of the transient
flow regime in order to see the life cycle of reservoir for further sensitivity studies.
2
0.2666 ( / 2)
4
t s
epfl
c x
t
k
|
=
[SI units) Eq.4.1.1
This equation takes into account the spacing between the fractures (
were used as the average values, even though in reality the fluid properties
of gas changes as the pressure changes.
Using the Equation 4.1.1 with fracture spacing of 92 meters, the time of pressure interference
between two adjacent transverse fractures for the base case permeability 1.5E-19
(0.152d)
is approximately 1.1 years. But, the above equation does not incorporate the effect of adsorbed
gas, which may cause crucial delay of pressure interference. In order to incorporate the effect
of adsorbed gas, the adsorption index was defined. Considering the specific reservoir
properties, | =0.05;
i
p =9000 psi (62 MPa);
L
p =1500 psi (10.3MPa);
ads
= 0.1 g/cc (100 kg /
3
m ),
adsorption index was found to be 2.38 (Bo Song, 2010). Therefore, if gas desorption is taken
into account, the real time of interference should be 1.1 years multiplied by 2.38, which is
around 2.6 years. It means that during first 2.6 years of production each fracture will produce
independently with the reservoir fluid flowing mainly perpendicular to the fracture and only by
30
the end of that time the pressure interference between two adjacent transverse fractures will
occur.
4.1.2 Effect of the physical parameters
Three parameters have an important effect on interference time between two adjacent
transverse fractures: spacing of the fractures, permeability of shale and adsorbed gas. In the
following section the sensitivity of interference time to above mentioned parameters is
considered.
By knowing the fracture spacing, we can estimate the time of pressure interference between
two adjacent transverse fractures (Bo Song, 2010). On that purpose the analytical sensitivity
was performed. The variations of fracture spacing used in the sensitivity analysis are presented
in Table 4.1.2
Table 4.1.2: The impact of fracture spacing variation on duration of pseudolinear flow regime. Adsorption causes
substantial delay in pressure interference time.
Xs
(fracture spacing)
t_eplf
(end of linear flow)
t_eplf
(end of linear flow)
t_eplf
(end of linear flow)
m Days
Years (without
adsorption)
Years (with adsorption)
43 85 0.2 0.6
92 399 1.1 2.6
152 1088 3.0 7.1
244 2785 7.6 18.2
As can be seen from Table 4.1.2, the interference time drops from 2.6 years (including adsorbed
gas) to 0.6 years as the fracture spacing decreases from 92 meters to 43 meters. However, if we
increase the fracture spacing, the interference time increases. For example, if the spacing is
increased to 244 meters compared to base case 92 meters, then the end of the pseudolinear
flow will be extended to 18.2 years, meaning that during this time the fractures will produce
independently from each other and the pseudolinear flow will dominate. This shows that the
design of stimulation treatment affects the duration of flow regimes and controlling the
production throughout the well life in shale gas reservoirs.
Another important factor influencing the pressure interference time is the presence of
adsorbed gas. That is why the estimation of interference time should take gas desorption
impact into account. In the following part the effect of the time shift (due to adsorption) on the
duration of pseudolinear flow regime was investigated. The base case model was used for
variation of adsorption indexes presented in Table 4.1.3. The values for adsorption index were
31
used from Bo Song (2010) referring to the program that was made to calculate the time shift,
according to the specific properties:| ,
and
.
Table 4.1.3: The impact of adsorption index variation on pressure interference time.
Adsorption index t_eplf
(-) Years(with adsorption)
1.5 1.6
2.38 2.6
2.65 2.9
3.1 3.4
In the case of adsorption index of 1.5 (extremely low amount of adsorbed gas) the pressure
interference occurs after 1.6 years, however if that index is increased to 3.1 then the
interference time is shifting to 3.4 years.
Finally, the last but not least reason of extended transient period in shale gas reservoirs is the
ultra-low matrix permeability of shale. Different ranges of permeability represented in Table
4.1.4 were used to perform sensitivity investigation of the influence of permeability to the
pressure interference from two adjacent fractures.
Table 4.1.4: The impact of permeability variation on duration of pseudolinear flow regime for the cases with and
without adsorbed gas. The pressure interference occurs increasingly earlier with increasing permeability.
k t_eplf t_eplf
Years (without adsorption) Years (with adsorption)
1.5E-19 ( 0.152 d ) 1.1 2.6
1.9E-19 ( 0.19 d) 0.9 2.1
2.95E-19 (0.3d) 0.6 1.3
9.86E-19 (1d) 0.2 0.4
As long as the permeability increases the duration of pseudolinear flow regime is constantly
shortening. For the case of permeability 1.5E-19
(0.152d), typical permeability for shale
reservoirs, the duration of pseudolinear flow regime extends to 2.6 years. However, for the
case of 9.86E-19
(0.152d) the typical value for most of the shale gas reservoirs. In this specific case, the fracture
half-length extends for 100 meters. Based on reservoir, well and fluid properties presented in
Table 4.1 the analytical model for the case of single transverse fracture under constant pressure
was constructed and presented in Figure 4.2.1.
Even though the early production starts with high flow rates, 504
, this production
rate drops quickly and most of the well life the production continues at almost constant low
rates, with just small drops towards the end of 10 years. This is due to low matrix permeability
of the shale, which on its turn does not allow the efficient drainage of the reservoir and only a
small area in the vicinity of the induced fracture can be efficiently drained. For this case the
cumulative production from single transverse fracture after 10 years is 23
( 819 MMScf).
For validation purposes the results is compared with the similar setup numerical model in
Chapter 5.
33
Figure 4.2.1 shows a significant increase in cumulative production for higher values of
permeability. Each time we increase permeability, the cumulative production is positively
affected. For instance, the increase of permeability to 1.87E-19
(1d) permeability
(purple line), the typical range for conventional gas reservoir, the cumulative production is
increased to 60 M
(2110 MMScf).
It becomes obvious that even small variability of reservoir permeability affects the production
profile in fractured wells and may have the major impact on cumulative production. In fact the
the modeled range of permeability variability is inherent to shale reservoirs due to different
depositional environments of each individual shale reservoir. For every specific shale gas case,
this reservoir property should be taken under serious consideration. Based on outcome of the
analysis the right fracture treatment design has to be chosen, in order to reach the cost
effective production and the efficient drainage of the reservoir.
Figure 4.2.1: Cumulative gas productions from single transverse fracture for different ranges of permeability. The increase
of permeability value has positive impact on outcome of cumulative production for the same fracture treatment design.
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
0 1000 2000 3000 4000
G
p
(
M
S
m
3
)
time( days)
Gas cumulative production vs time
k=1.5E-19 m^2
(0.00015md)
k=1.87E-19 m^2
( 0.00019 md)
k=2.98E-19 m^2
(0.0003md)
k=9.86E-19 m^2
(0.001md)
34
4.2.2 Effect of fracture half-length on cumulative production
We now focus on the impact of fracture half-length on the outcome of 10 years production
simulation in fractured horizontal wells. The aim is to determine to which extent that design
characteristic affects the production profile in ultra-tight shale reservoirs and, how the
improvement of fracture treatment design may have effect on cumulative production. Figure
4.2.2 shows the cumulative gas production profile for different ranges of fracture half-length.
For the base case the fracture half-length extends to 100 m. For this case the cumulative
production from single transverse fracture constitute 23 M
(374 MMScf), which is 65% decrease compared to the base case results. For
the final run, the fracture half-length is decreased to 15 m. In that case the cumulative
production after 10 years tremendously decreased to 3.5 M
(819 MMScf). In the next run we used adsorption index equal to 1 meaning that no adsorbed
gas is present in the model. In that case the entire gas in place is stored in matrix pores. In this
case, the cumulative production after 10 years becomes 36 M
(776 MMScf), which is 5% less than the cumulative production of the base case. Further
increase of adsorption index to 3.1 and 3.7, leads to cumulative productions 20 M
(717
MMScf) and 18 M
(0.1 d)
(typical permeability for shale gas) to 9.86E-19
. The fracture half-length in shale gas can be optimized with the use large
volume of low viscosity fluids to promote fracture complexity and place very low
concentrations of small proppant, which is completely different approach from that used in
conventional gas reservoirs. In fact, the right choice of fluid filtrate viscosity and the
optimization of the fracture half-length in unconventional reservoir may have incremental
effect on production profile and play one of the major roles in increase of the recovery factor.
0.15 D
15 m
3.7
1 D
100 m
1
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Permeability
Half-length
Adsorbtion
Cumulative gas production (Mm3)
38
Another fracture treatment property that may have significant influence on production in shale
gas reservoirs is fracture spacing. Although, this property is not incorporated in our analytical
model, but the effect of spacing has been included in calculations of the duration of
pseudolinear flow. As a result of sensitivity analysis, it was determined that, the design of
stimulation treatment might be a crucial factor effecting the duration of the well life in shale
gas reservoir. The fracture spacing influences the desorption process and thus, has effect on
cumulative production. The impact of desorption on cumulative production increases when the
fracture spacing is smaller. By reduction of the spacing between primary fractures and pumping
more fracture treatment stages will speed up the pressure interference time and thus will
contribute to effective drainage of the reservoir.
Among all of the investigated factors the most interesting and mostly less investigated one is
adsorbed gas. Experimental measurements have indicated that more than 50% of the total gas
in place in shale may exist as an adsorbed phase (Xiao-Chun Lu et al., 1995). Analytical
sensitivity determined that depending on depositional environment, the adsorbed gas might
have an impact on well performance. Furthermore, the adsorbed gas may have significant
effect on pressure transient behavior in shale gas reservoirs. For the same pressure
investigation depth, the corresponding investigation time with the existence of gas desorption
will be longer than that without gas desorption. Therefore, the estimation of interference time
should take gas desorption impact into account.
Even though, in the Tornado plot the impact of the adsorbed gas on well performance is less
noticeable, taking into account the fact that adsorbed gas might account for up to over 80% of
gas storage in some shale gas plays (Bo Song, 2010) it can moderately contribute to the
cumulative gas production from unconventional shale reservoirs. Although, it is extremely
difficult to desorb adsorbed gas due to ultra-tight permeability. The desorption can allow for
significantly larger quantities of gas to be produced. With depletion of conventional gas
reservoirs, the optimization of the desorption of adsorbed gas can contribute to global energy
supply.
To determine the impact of adsorbed gas in multi transverse fractures horizontal wells, the
further detailed numerical investigations are required. That is because, the analytical model is
simplified, it comprises only single phase production and does not incorporate some fracture,
reservoir and fluid properties which are playing crucial role in well performance. Additionally
the analytical model does not incorporate the natural fractures within the shale reservoir,
which is inherent factor to this kind of reservoirs and might influence significantly to the
production. On that way, it is important to construct numerical model and make sensitivity
39
analysis of production profile to adsorbed gas and the influence of desorption on cumulative
production. In the next section the numerical models for shale gas including the adsorption
factor will be presented. Initially, simplified single porosity models will be presented and later
on elaborated dual-porosity models including adsorbed gas will be considered. The main
objective of numerical sensitivity analysis will be the investigation of the effect of desorption on
cumulative production, for variations in fracture spacing on the example of Haynesville and
New Albany shale reservoirs.
40
5 Modeling of Shale Gas Reservoirs
This chapter focuses on modeling well performance in shale-gas reservoirs using numerical
simulations. The special attention is paid on contribution of adsorbed gas production for variety
of fracture stages on the example of two real shale gas cases: Haynesville shale and New Albany
shale. In case of Haynesville shale, the adsorbed gas is a minor factor, while in New Albany case
the adsorbed gas dominate and might constitute up to 70% of gas in place.
Section 5.1 presents the model setup: grid, well and hydraulic fracture properties. Section 5.2 is
focused on single-porosity model of various cases, and section 5.3 discusses the dual-porosity
model, on the example of Haynesville and New Albany shale cases, where adsorption and
natural fractures are included, which are typical characteristics of shale gas reservoirs. Finally,
section 5.4 considers some economic calculations followed by section 5.5 with the main
findings during numerical modeling.
5.1 Simulation Model Setup
5.1.1 Shale gas properties
The recovery in shale gas is determined by a number of factors, including the: permeability of
rock, artificial stimulation (hydraulic fracturing), reservoir pressure and drainage area of a well,
presence of a natural fracture system in the formation. In the following models all of the above
mentioned factors will be analyzed to some extent. On that way, the base case model is
designed to capture the typical characteristics of a producing shale gas field. The parameters in
Table 5.1 are chosen for the following model cases.
Table 5.1: Model parameters.
Depth to reservoir 3500 m
Model size(L-W-H) 400-153-65 m
Reservoir pressure 620 bars
Porosity 5 %
Permeability 0.152 D
Water Saturation 0.3 -
Fracture
100 m
As it already discussed in previous chapters, shale gas reservoir have unique geological and
operational characteristics: tight rock matrix in nano-darcy range permeabilities, gas adsorbed
on matrix surface, natural fractures and induced hydraulic fractures. Thus, each of the listed
factors complicates the modeling of shale gas reservoirs.
41
The base case model has a matrix permeability of 0.152 d. The model is assumed to be
uniform in all its properties, so the horizontal and vertical permeabilities are both 0.152 d.
Typical shale gas reservoirs exhibit porosity of 4-8%, as it shown in studies of Barnett Shale
(Cipolla et al., 2009). Therefore, in the base case model, the average porosity of 5% was chosen
and it is uniform throughout the reservoir.
The initial reservoir pressure for the base case model was chosen to be 620 bars, based on the
study from Haynesville shale (Bo Song, 2011). However, it is difficult to relate this range to
typical shale gas reservoir, because shale gas reservoirs have significant differences from place
to place, as they can be shallow or deep, high-pressured or low-pressured, high-temperature or
low-temperature.
For the cases of two-phase modeling (gas-water), a uniform water saturation of 0.3 is assumed
throughout the reservoir, and gravity/capillary effects in the vertical direction are not included
to the initial water distribution. Two saturations zones were defined in the model, the first one
for matrix and the second zone for induced fracture. It should be noted, that in reality due to
low matrix permeability, the production from shale gas reservoirs is not so sensitive to
saturation and PVT curves, and it is not a big issue for the type of study that we conduct in this
work. The standard simple saturation curves for shale gas reservoirs were used for the
following single and dual porosity models. The reservoir gas PVT properties and saturation
tables are taken from a similar ultra-tight matrix modeling study (David H et al. 2002).
5.1.2 Grid, well and hydraulic fracture properties
For single-porosity system cases, the commercial black oil reservoir simulator Eclipse2011
(Schlumberger) was used to model the factors affecting the well performance in hydraulically
fractured horizontal well. The simulation model comprises the reservoir as a number of discrete
units in 3D and the modeling executed by the progression of fluid fronts through space and
time, in series of discrete steps (Schlumberger, 2005).
The synthetic reservoir model is a rectangular block, shown in Figure 5.1, with a length of 400
m, a width of 153 m and thickness of 50 m. The base case grid consists of 81 cells in x-direction
(length), 51 cells in y-direction (width) and 15 cells in z-direction (height). In fact the shale
reservoirs can extend for kilometers in length, but in this work, for simplicity purposes just 400
m long reservoir was modeled.
Simulations focused on horizontal completions with transverse fractures, as the majority of
shale gas reservoirs being developed using horizontal wells with multiple fracture treatment
stages. Transverse fracture means that the main or primary fracture representing the propped
42
fracture is connected to the wellbore in a perpendicular direction. The horizontal section of the
well is placed in the middle of z- direction at the edge of grid block (
(US price), 15% royalties and 4% discount rate. The single fracture
stimulation treatment is assumed to cost in average $100,000 (US price). According to rough
estimates, the single horizontal well with single transverse fracture for the base case reservoir
properties costs $1,750,000 (US price). Approximately 12.5 M
cell
in x-direction (in the middle of grid length) and the fracture half-lengths extends in y- direction
capturing 40 grid cells (100 meters). The porosity and permeability of the fracture is scaled
down proportionately to 0.5% and 500 mD respectively. As in previous cases, the simulations
were performed for single and two phase models for two permeability values, k=0.152d and
k=0.01d. The production was simulated for 10 years and the results of simulations are shown
in the following graphs (figures 5.2.3 and 5.2.4).
The simulations show that the induced fracture of 100 m half-length has positive effect on
production profile in ultra-tight matrix models. If without induced fracture the production from
tight matrix was not viable, in case with induced fracture of 100 m half-length the production
becomes more or less attractive. Of course, these models do not capture some important
characteristics of shale gas, like adsorbed gas and natural fractures, which in fact have
contribution on cumulative production from shale gas reservoirs.
Simulation scenario
Normalized
production
(2years)
Numeric
production
(2 years)
(-) Ksm^3
k=10 D 0.01 125
k=1 D 0.002 14
k=0.152 D 0.0002 2.5
k=0.01 D 0.00007 0.8
47
Figure 5.2.3: Cumulative gas production after 10 years of production simulation, for k=0.152 d and k=0.01 d. Single and
two phase models.
In the case of k=0.152 d the cumulative production for single-phase and two-phase models
reaches 8.6
and 4.2
compared to 8.6
and
in case of two-phase model the production deteriorated to 1.2
. The recovery
tremendously decreased to 3.5% and 2.5% respectively. This example shows that at the same
model setup one fold change of matrix permeability has 70% effect on cumulative production
of both simulation models. This caused by the lowered normalized gas production after 10
years; resp. 0.21 and 0.11 compared to 0.71 and 0.38 for one fold higher permeability models
(Table 5.2.2).
48
Figure 5.2.4: Cumulative gas production after 10 years.
Table 5.2.2: Production comparison between the various models; the results have
been normalized to the single-fracture model including adsorption.
Simulation scenario
Normalized
production
(10 years)
Numeric
production
(10 years)
(-) Msm^3
k=0.152 D 1-phase 0.71 8.5
k=0.152 D 2-phase 0.38 4.5
k=0.01 D 1-phase 0.21 2.5
k=0.01 D 2-phase 0.11 1.3
As a result, none of models can even reach the point of economic cut-off and cannot be
considered as economically viable. In most cases the production is not economically viable with
single fracture stimulation treatment and, in order to reach the cost effective production the
multi stage treatments should be applied.
5.2.3 Single porosity multi stage fracturing
In this approach the reservoir is fractured in multiple sections with a specific distance between
the fractures. The actual goal of this work is to determine how fracture spacing design has the
effect on production of adsorbed gas in shale gas reservoirs. But, before considering the case
with all the characteristics typical to shale gas reservoirs, it is useful to treat multi-frac cases
12% recovery
6% recovery
3.5% recovery
2.6% recovery
Economic cut-off
6.25 MSm^3
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
M
S
m
^
3
Production after 10 years from single transverse fracture
Cumulative gas production
k=0.152 microdarcy 1-phase
k=0.152 microdarcy 2-phase
k=0.01 microdarcy 1-phase
k=0.01 microdarcy 2-phase
49
with simplified single porosity system, to see how the matrix permeability effects the pressure
interference time between two adjacent fractures.
Thus, in order to alter the fracture spacing the number of fracture stages has to be changed. In
the following cases, two simulation models with different numbers of fracture stages were
treated. In the first case, the model with 2 hydraulic factures and 200 m spacing in between
was simulated. However, the second case comprises 6 fracture stages with fracture spacing of
66 m. Both cases were simulated for k=0.152 d and k=0.01 d. In these runs the distance
(spacing) between primary fractures is varied but the lateral length is kept the same for all the
cases (the distance in x-direction is always 400 meters). All simulations assume that the main
fracture is 100% effectively propped. The simulation results are presented on figures 5.2.5,
5.2.6 and 5.2.7. Table 5.2.3 shows the gas production after 10 years, both as a normalized and
the numeric gas volume.
Figure 5.2.5: Gas cumulative production after 10 years, for variation of fracture stages.
As it was supposed the case with 6 fractures and 66 m fractures spacing contributes more to
the cumulative gas production, than the case with 2 fractures and 200 m fracture spacing. In
the case of k=0.152 d, both fracture spacing variations have recovery overpassing the
economic cut-off point, with the highest recovery of 36% in the case of 6 fracture treatment
stages. However, the case of 2 fracture stages and 200 m fracture spacing just payouts the
production costs calculated as economic cut-off. For the models with k=0.152 d, the pressure
50
interference between two adjacent fractures, for the case of 6 fracture stages, is captured after
4 months of production. In the case of 2 fractures stages the interference time is delayed up to
2.2 years.
Figure 5.2.6: Cumulative gas production after 10 years, for different ranges of fracture stage and matrix permeability.
Table 5.2.3: Production comparison between the various models; the results have
been normalized to the single-fracture model including adsorption.
Simulation scenario
Normalized
production
(10 years)
Numeric
production
(10 years)
(-) Msm^3
k=0.152 d 6 fracs 1.26 15
k=0.152 d 2 fracs 0.66 7.8
k=0.01 d 6 fracs 0.55 6.5
k=0.01 d 2 fracs 0.21 2.5
The decrease of matrix permeability to k=0.01 d results in significant drop of cumulative
production. In the case of 6 fractures stages the production might be accepted as economically
viable, exceeding the economic cut-off for 3.5%. However, the case is different for the fracture
spacing of 200 m. In that case the recovery is 6% of gas in place, and is not even sufficient to
payout the well costs. One fold permeability decrease delays the pressure interference time up
to 2 years in the case of 6 fracture stages. In the case of 2 fractures stages the interference time
even cannot be captured after 10 years of production simulation.
36% recovery
16% recovery
19% recovery
6% recovery
Economic cut-off
6.25 MSm^3
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
M
S
m
^
3
After 10 years of production
Cumulative gas production
6 fracs 66m spacing
k=0.152 microdarcy
6 fracs 66m spacing
k=0.01 microdarcy
2 fracs 200m spacing
k=0.152 microdarcy
2 fracs 200m spacing
k=0.01 microdarcy
51
As a conclusion, it has to be noted that one fold change of matrix permeability has huge effect
on production profile and the duration of flow regimes in unconventional gas reservoirs.
Figure 5.2.7: Pressure distribution in the reservoir after 10 years of production. Upper picture corresponds to k=0.152d and
the bottom picture to k=0.01d. One fold decrease of matrix permeability significantly delays pressure interference time
between adjacent fractures.
5.3 Dual porosity system
Shale gas reservoirs present numerous challenges to analysis that conventional reservoirs
simply do not provide. The first of these challenges to be discussed is the dual porosity nature
of these reservoirs. Shale gas reservoirs almost always have two different storages, the rock
matrix and the natural fractures (Gale et al. 2007; Lewis, 2007). The natural fractures are
generally closed due to the pressure of the overburden rock (Gale et al. 2007; Lewis, 2007). In
order to model such reservoirs the dual/multi porosity option can be used together with the
coal bed methane option. Dual porosity system is usually standard practice to hydraulically
fracture shale gas reservoirs in order to achieve economically sustainable flow rates.
52
5.3.1 Dual porosity without adsorbed gas
As a first, the simplified dual porosity case without adsorption is considered. In a dual porosity
reservoir, fluids exist in two interconnected systems: the rock matrix, which usually provides
the bulk of the reservoir volume and the highly permeable rock fractures. To model such
systems, two simulation cells are associated with each block in the geometric grid, representing
the matrix and fracture volumes of the cell (Schlumberger, 2011).Unlike a dual porosity oil
reservoir model, in which the matrix has both an associated pressure and an oil saturation, only
the gas concentration in the shale is tracked. In the fracture system, however, the standard
flow equations are solved (Schlumberger, 2011). A matrix-fracture coupling transmissibility is
constructed automatically by Eclipse (Schlumberger) to simulate flow between the two
systems. The detailed description of dual porosity model features is presented in Appendix 12.
The rock compaction tables were used to model the collapse of pore channels due decrease of
fluid pressure. Two saturations zones were defined in the model, the first one for matrix and
natural fractures and the second zone for induced fracture. It is practical issue for dual porosity
modeling to define matrix and natural fracture as single saturation zone. It should be noted,
that in reality due to low matrix permeability the production from shale gas reservoirs is not so
sensible to saturation curves. As in the case of single porosity models the standard simple
saturation curves for shale gas reservoirs were used for the following dual porosity system.
The hydraulic fracture of 100 m half-length (assumed as propped fracture half-length) was
introduced as an induced zone of high permeability and porosity in y-direction of the grid. As it
already discussed in previous sections, host grid refinement option was used. The model grid
was refined in x-direction at the place where hydraulic fracture is induced.
Table 5.3.1: The dual porosity model setup.
Reservoir pressure, bar 620
Model size(L-W-D), meters 400-153-50
Depth to reservoir, meters 3500
Rock density, kg/
2650
Matrix 1-6 cells (in z-direction)
Porosity, % 5%
Permeability, D 0.152
Fracture 7-12 cells( in z-direction)
Porosity, % 0.05
Permeability, D 0.152
Induced fracture
Porosity, % 0.5
Permeability, mD 500
Fracture half-length
, m 100
53
For dual porosity modeling Eclipse300 compositional mode was used instead of Eclipse
100.More information about the differences between two simulators and the reason why it was
switched to compositional mode can be found in Appendix 13.
As a first, the base case model for dual porosity system was simulated. The model setup is
shown in Table 5.3.1. The production simulated for 10 years and the results of simulations are
shown on Figures 5.3.1 and 5.3.2.
Figure 5.3.1: Base case cumulative gas production after 10 years.
With dual porosity single fracture model the production after 10 years reaches the point of 11.6
MS
. In comparison to single fracture single-porosity model, this value is much higher due to
contribution of the gas stored in the natural fractures. The recovery with single fracture stage
reaches 18% of gas in place and exceeding the economic cut-off point for 8%. The reservoir
pressure after 10 years production simulation with constant BHP of 160 bars drops to 451 bars.
The pressure distribution in reservoir after 10 years of production is shown on Figure 5.3.3. As it
can be seen from pressure distribution profile, with the single fracture of 100 m half-length only
a small area in the vicinity of induced fracture is effectively drained. The reservoir pressure with
the distance from induced fracture is still high, which means that those zones are still
ineffectively drained. For more effective drainage of the reservoir, the introduction of multi-
stage fracturing might be necessary.
18% recovery
10% recovery
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
M
S
m
^
3
After 10 years of production
Cumulative gas production
Single-fracture
Economic cut-off
54
Figure 5.3.2: Base case gas cumulative production from single transverse fracture.
Figure 5.3.3: The pressure distribution in the reservoir after 10 years of production. Only the area in the vicinity of induced
fracture is effectively drained.
5.3.2 Dual porosity model with adsorbed gas, coal bed methane option.
One of the major characteristics of shale gas reservoirs is the presence of adsorbed gas. In
order to introduce the adsorbed gas factor into dual porosity system the available coal bed
methane option in Eclipse2011 should be treated. For that purpose, modified Warren and Root
model used to describe the physical processes in a typical shale gas project.
The Extended Langmuir isotherm, which is already discussed in previous chapter, is used to
describe the shale sorption for the different components. For each component two constant
55
parameters need to be input, the Langmuir volume (
). These
parameters are typical determined from experiments. In the following cases Langmuir volume
and Langmuir pressure parameters will be used typical for Haynesville and New Albany shale
reservoirs. More detailed information about CBM option is presented in Appendix 14.
5.3.3 Dual porosity model Haynesville case.
In the following simulations the parameters typical to Haynesville shale gas reservoir will be
treated. In reality Haynesville shale basin extends over 5.5 million acres. It is one of the largest
shale plays in US. It has the following properties: highly mature rock with less than 3% of total
organic carbon (TOC), system with very high pore pressure (the reservoir pressure reaches 620
bars), formation depth up to 3500m true vertical depth (TVD) with high temperature in average
around 140
, free gas in place dominates and constitutes up to 70-80% of gas in place, most
natural fractures are calcitized (Fan and Thompson, 2010). The synthetic reservoir model as
rectangular block, with a length of 400 m, a width of 150 m and thickness of 60 m was used for
modeling purposes of Haynesville shale. In the following cases the grid consists of 81 cells in x-
direction (length), 51 cells in y-direction (width) and 12 cells in z-direction (height).
Single fracture models with adsorbed gas and with only free gas were treated to compare the
contribution of adsorbed gas after 10 years of production simulation. The parameters used for
the following models are shown in Table 5.3.2.
Table 5.3.2: Model setup
Reservoir pressure, bars 620
Model size(L-W-D), meters 400-153-50
Depth to reservoir, meters 3500
Rock density, kg/
2650
Matrix 1-6 cells (in z-direction)
Porosity, % 5%
Permeability, D 0.152
Fracture 7-12 cells( in z-direction)
Porosity, % 0.05
Permeability, D 0.152
Induced fracture
Porosity, % 0.5
Permeability, mD 500
Fracture half-length
, m 100
Adsorption parameters
Langmuir volume (
),
/kg 0.0015
Langmuir pressure (
), bar 103
Reservoir temperature,
140
56
The long term production simulations including adsorbed gas and without adsorbed gas factor
were performed in order to see the effect of that unique property to the production profiles. As
it can be seen from figures 5.3.4 and 5.3.5, in the case of single fracture treatment, there is
small contribution of adsorbed gas (1.2% extra gas) after first 2 years of production simulation
and, after 10 years of production simulation the contribution of adsorbed gas increases to extra
4.5% in comparison to the case with only free gas in place. It is clear that the desorbed gas
contribution is insignificant at early stage of well life, within the first 5 years of production (less
than 2%) and thus, not likely to materially impact production economics. At a later stages of
production, the reduced pressure in the reservoir allows gas desorption from the surface of the
shale to the fracture. Gas diffuses from the matrix of the shale towards the induced fracture
surface, thus providing additional gas supply to the production. But, still because the adsorbed
gas constitutes the minor amount of gas in Haynesville shale reservoir, its impact on production
profile is insignificant.
Figure 5.3.4: Cumulative gas production with adsorbed gas (solid line) and without adsorbed gas (dotted line). Undetectable
impact of desorbed gas at early stages of production. At a later stages of well life the contribution of desorbed gas is still
minor.
57
Figure 5.3.5: Cumulative gas production at early stages of well life and after 10 years of production simulation. The recovery
factors are related only for the cases with adsorbed gas.
Table 5.3.3: Production comparison between the various models; the results have been normalized to the
single-fracture model including adsorption.
Simulation
scenario
Normalized
production
(2 years)
Numeric
production
(2 years)
Normalized
production
( 10 years)
Numeric
production
(10 years)
(-) Msm^3 (-) Msm^3
Single-frac
No adsorption
0.98 4.75 0.96 11.35
Single-frac
Adsorption
1 4.81 1 11.85
The pressure distribution profiles, figure 5.3.6, depict the fact that with single transverse
fracture the pressure drop in reservoir is very small. Even though, the pressure wave extends all
over the reservoir, the drop is visibly higher in the vicinity of induced fracture. Which means,
that with single fracture it is only possible to effectively drain the area in the vicinity of induced
fracture. Meanwhile, the pressure at other parts of reservoir still high and the reservoir remains
ineffectively drained. However, the production from single fracture including adsorbed gas
factor after 10 years exceeds the economic cut-off point for 7.5% and can be considered as
economically viable. Table 5.3.3 shows the gas production after 2 and 10 years, both as a
normalized and the numeric gas volume. This example shows the fact that most of the time it is
1.2% extra
6.5% recovery
4.5% extra
16% recovery
Economic cut-off
8.5% recovery
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
M
S
m
^
3
After 2 years of production After 10years of production
Cumulative gas production
Without adsorbed gas
With adsorbed gas
Economic cut-off
58
economically unprofitable to exploit the ultra-low permeable reservoirs with only single
transverse fractures. Thus, currently the multiple transverse fracture treatment is the most
popular way to effectively drain tight matrix and to reach the cost effective production in shale
gas reservoirs.
Figure 5.3.6: Pressure distribution in the reservoir (in bars) after 10 years of production simulation for the case with
adsorbed gas (right picture) and without adsorption (left picture).
5.3.3.1 Comparison with analytical model results
In this section the base case analytical model presented in Chapter 4 was compared with the
similar case numerical model. It should be reminded once again that the data used for the base
case analytical model is also typical for Haynesville shale reservoir.
It has to be mentioned that the analytical model was constructed on the base of the rate
decline equation for pseudolinear flow regime in horizontal well with single transverse fracture,
and only considers the single porosity system. However, the numerical model was constructed
on the base of Warren and Root model, and considers the dual porosity system. Both models,
considers adsorbed gas factor. The analytical model incorporates the adsorbed gas using the
adsorption index term, discussed in Chapter 3. The numerical case models the adsorption gas
using the extended Langmuir isotherm, and defines the adsorption capacity as a function of the
pressure and the free gas phase composition. Both models consider the single phase gas
production after 10 years of production simulation. For comparison purposes the numerical
model for this case was changed from two-phase to single-phase. In the case of single phase
model it was assumed that the reservoir is fully saturated with gas and no other phase is
presented. As previously mentioned, for the numerical simulation purposes half symmetry
model was treated, which means that only 1/2 of the synthetic reservoir was modeled. Due to
this symmetry, numerically simulated well rates are regarded as 50% of the actual values.
59
Figure 5.3.7: Plot of cumulative gas production of analytical versus numerical models. Small discrepancy between the
models, which results in 0.3 M
2650
Matrix 1-6 cells (in z-direction)
Porosity, % 5%
Permeability, D 0.18
Fracture 7-12 cells( in z-direction)
Porosity, % 0.05
Permeability, D 0.18
Induced fracture
Porosity, % 0.5
Permeability, md 500
Fracture half-length
, m 100
Adsorption parameters
Langmuir volume (
),
/kg 0.0035
Langmuir pressure (
), bar 71
Reservoir temperature,
31
As it can be seen from Figure 5.3.15, for the single fracture case, the desorbed gas contributes
much more compared to previous case study, reaching the value of 27% additional recovery
compared to no adsorption case after 10 years of production simulation. One noticeable fact is
that due to low pressures the adsorbed gas starts to desorb almost immediately after the start
of production, reacting even for a small reservoir pressure drop. It means that there is very
small no contribution time of desorbed gas to production at early stages of well life in
68
comparison to 3 years time in the case of Haynesville shale. The figure 5.3.13 also depicts the
pressure drop in reservoir after 10 years of production simulation. The drop of reservoir
pressure with constant BHP is very small reaching 49 bars after 10 years of production. The
figure 5.3.14 shows the pressure distribution in the reservoir after 10 years of production
simulation. The red areas in the figure denote original reservoir pressure and dark blue
represent flowing bottomhole pressure. In this case the pressure wave just spreads in the
vicinity of the fracture and does not reach the rest part of the reservoir. Just a small area near
the fracture experiences high drop of pressure. That is why the production of gas just limited to
the reservoir area directly adjacent to the fracture network and most part of the reservoir
remains ineffectively drained.
For this case we get extremely low production rates at maximum possible drawdown. The
cumulative production with single fracture reaches 2.5 % out of the total gas in place calculated
by simulator. If in the case of Haynesville shale we could reach to some extend cost effective
production with single transverse fracture, here in the case of underpressured reservoir it
becomes impossible. The only way to exploit such underpressured reservoirs is by performing
the multi stage fracture treatment which will be considered in the following section.
Figure 5.3.13: Left scale: Cumulative gas production versus time for single-fracture case. The case with adsorption (red line)
and without adsorption (dotted red line). Right scale: Reservoir pressure change (in bars) versus time. The case with
adsorption (green line) and without adsorption (dotted green line).
69
Figure 5.3.14: The pressure distribution in the reservoir (in bars) after 10 years of production simulation for the case with
adsorbed gas (right picture) and without adsorption (left picture).
Figure 5.3.15: Cumulative gas production after 10 years. The recovery factor is related only for the case with adsorbed gas.
Table 5.3.9: Production comparison between the various models; the results have
been normalized to the single-fracture model including adsorption.
Simulation scenario Normalized production
( 10 years)
Numeric production
(10 years)
(-) Msm^3
Single-frac
No adsorption
0.038 0.45
Single-frac
Adsorption
0.05 0.64
2.7 % recovery
27% extra
8.7% recovery
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
M
S
m
^
3
After 10 years of production
Cumulative production
Single fracture No adsorption
Single fracture Adsorption
Economic cut-off
70
5.3.4.1 Multistage fracturing
As in the case of Haynesville shale, the variation of fracture numbers and fracture spacing is
used from the Table 5.3.8. The production was simulated for 10 years for all of the shown
mentioned cases and the results are depicted on the following graphs.
The simulations show that for the Case1 (2 fracture stages and 200m fracture spacing) the
desorption starts much earlier compared to Haynesville case, after first 3 months and the
contribution of adsorbed gas on production profile at early stages of well life is noticeable,
reaching 33% additional gas production in comparison to the same case without adsorbed gas.
If we look at reservoir pressure profile (Figure 5.3.17), we can see that in Case1 the reservoir
pressure drop is insignificant compared to the initial reservoir pressure after 10 years of
production. The figure 5.3.15 shows the pressure distribution in the reservoir after 10 years of
production simulation. The red areas in the figure denote original reservoir pressure and dark
blue represent flowing bottomhole pressure. As in the case with single fracture model, the
pressure waves just cover very small area in the vicinity of each fracture. In case of two
fractures stages the pressure interference between the fractures does occur after 10 years of
production, and is not expected soon due to very slow pressure drop in reservoir. It means that
gas during this time period will be produced just within a small distance around transverse
fractures and the linear flow regime will dominate in reservoir. During that regime each
fracture will produce gas independently from others which is not preferable as if the pressure
interference occurs then the fractures will produce in combination with each other, which on
its turn will accelerate the pressure drop in reservoir, thus increase the desorption of adsorbed
gas. Furthermore, if we make comparison between the case with adsorption and without, we
can easily detect that there is not such a big difference in pressure distribution in reservoir after
10 years simulation time, due to extremely low matrix permeability of reservoir and due to low
drawdown through the production.
Table 5.3.10: Pressure interference time for variation of fracture spacing.
Pressure interference after 10 years
Without adsorbed gas With adsorbed gas
Case 1 No interference No interference
Case 2 Close to interference No interference
Case 3 6 years 10 years
Case 4 3 years 7 years
Case 5 2 years 4 years
71
Figure 5.3.16: The graph of cumulative production versus time for different fracture stages and fracture spacings. Case1: 2
fractures, 200m spacing, with adsorption (red line) and without adsorption (dotted red line). Case2: 4 fractures, 100m
spacing, with adsorption (green line) and without adsorption (dotted green line). Case3: 6 fractures, 66m spacing, with
adsorption (blue line) and without adsorption (dotted blue line). Case4: 8 fractures, 50m spacing, with adsorption (light blue
line) and without adsorption (dotted light blue line). Case5: 10 fractures, 40m spacing, with adsorption (purple line) and
without adsorption (dotted purple line).
In the next Case2, the production simulated with 4 perforations clusters and 100m fracture
spacing. In that case we can see that the contribution of desorbed gas at early stages of well life
is higher in comparison to the Case1 and the impact of adsorbed gas to cumulative production
after 10 years is increased up to 35% additional gas production compared to the case without
adsorbed gas. For this case the pressure drop in reservoir is a bit lower compared to the Case1
reaching 47.8 bars after 10 years of production. It should be noticed that a small pressure drop
in the reservoir in comparison to the previous case initiated a significant increase in production
of adsorbed gas. Further, if we take a look at pressure distribution profiles, figure 5.3.19, we
see that the pressure in reservoir starts dropping proportionally, and the effectiveness of
reservoir drainage is much higher than in Case 1. But still the pressure waves between the
fractures are far away from interference. If we compare the last case with the similar one but
without adsorbed gas, we can see that after 10 years of production simulation the pressure
waves are almost reaching interaction and the interference is expected very soon. This example
shows that existence of adsorbed gas in large amounts has dramatic effect on flow regime of
the reservoir, by delaying the pressure interference time between adjacent fractures. The
pressure interference is desired in such unconventional reservoirs, due to very low
72
permeability. When the interference occurs the fractures start contributing to each others
production thus increasing the drainage area of reservoir.
Figure 5.3.17: The pressure change in reservoir versus time for different fracture stages and fracture spacings. Case1: 2
fractures, 200m spacing, with adsorption (red line) and without adsorption (dotted red line). Case2: 4 fractures, 100m
spacing, with adsorption (green line) and without adsorption (dotted green line). Case3: 6 fractures, 66m spacing, with
adsorption (blue line) and without adsorption (dotted blue line). Case4: 8 fractures, 50m spacing, with adsorption (light blue
line) and without adsorption (dotted light blue line). Case5: 10 fractures, 40m spacing, with adsorption (purple line) and
without adsorption (dotted purple line).
Table 5.3.11: Production comparison between the various models; the results have been normalized to the single-frac model
including adsorption.
Simulation scenario
Normalized
production
Adsorption
Numeric
production
Adsorption
Normalized
Production
No adsorption
Numeric
Production
No adsorption
(-) Msm^3 (-) Msm^3
2 fracs adsorption 0.1 1.29 0.07 0.9
4 fracs adsorption 0.21 2.535 0.16 1.875
6 fracs adsorption 0.31 3.76 0.23 2.76
8 fracs adsorption 0.4 4.8 0.3 3.5
10 fracs adsorption 0.5 5.95
0.35 4.1
73
Figure 5.3.18: Cumulative gas production after 10 years. The recovery factors are related only for the cases with adsorbed
gas.
In the following simulations the fracture spacing is further decreased to 66 m, 50 m, 40 m and
the number of fracture stages is increased to 6, 8, 10 respectively (Case3, Case4 and Case 5). In
all the cases the decrease of fracture spacing and increase of fracture treatment stages causes
the higher drop of reservoir pressure, thus much higher contribution of desorbed gas to
production especially at later stages of well life. The special attention should be paid to the case
with 10 fracture stages and fracture spacing of 40 m. In this case the contribution of adsorbed
gas is the highest, 45% additional gas compared to no adsorption case, after 10 years of
production simulation. The noticeable thing that the contribution of adsorbed gas starts with
early production. In all the cases with decrease of fracture spacing and increase of the number
of fracture treatment stages the pressure interference time is shortening (Table 5.3.10). The
minimal pressure interference time is achieved with densely placed fractures (Case5), where
after 4 years the fractures start to produce in combination with each other by increasing the
drainage area of the reservoir and thus decreasing the pressure in reservoir proportionally
which on its turn initiate the release of the adsorbed gas toward the induced fracture.
However, overall recoveries are low in all the cases compared to the Haynesville reservoir
models. In Case1, the recovery does not even reach economic cut-off point of 8.7%, and out of
economical interest. The Case2 hardly overpasses the payout recovery. Only Case3, Case5 and
Case5 exceed the cut-off recovery by 7%, 12% and 17 % respectively. As a result of
33% extra
5.6% rec
35% extra
11% rec
36% extra
16% rec
40% extra
21% rec
45% extra
26% rec
8.7% rec
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
M
S
m
^
3
After 10 years of production
Cumulative gas production
2 fracs No adsorption
4 fracs No adsorption
6 fracs No adsorption
8 fracs No adsorption
10 fracs No adsorption
Adsorption
Economic cut-off
74
multifracture simulations it becomes clear that only with densely spaced fracture treatment
design the production from this type of reservoir becomes cost effective.
Figure 5.3.19: Pressure distribution in the reservoir (in bars) after 10 years of production for the cases defined in Table
5.3.5. The left hand side figures correspond to the cases without adsorption. Right hand side figures correspond to the cases
including adsorption.
75
5.4 Economics
Rough economic calculations were done for worst and best cases of Haynesville and New
Albany reservoirs. The design assumes $425k/1000m (US price) for drilling the vertical segment
and $720k/1000m (US price) for the horizontal segment. Also the gas price is assumed to be
$0.15/
(US price), 15% royalties and 4% discount rate. The single fracture stimulation
treatment is assumed to cost in average $100,000 (US price).In the case of Haynesville shale the
vertical depth to the reservoir is 3500 m and then the well extends for 400m. However, in New
Albany case the vertical depth to the reservoir is 730 m and the horizontal section extends for
400m. According to rough estimates the single horizontal well with single transverse fracture in
the case of Haynesville shale after 10 years of production just payouts the costs without any
additional income. However, if the number of fracture stages increased to 10, $3.500.000 profit
can be reached after 10 years of production.
The situation is different for New Albany shale case. Here, the single fracture production even
does not payout the expenses. In the case of production with 10 fracture stages just $250.000
profit can be reached, which is also out of economic interest. In the case of New Albany Shale,
in order to reach sustainable production, more fracture stages has to be treated.
Table 5.3.12: The economic calculations for the worst and the best production cases of
Haynesville and New Albany shale reservoirs.
Haynesville case
Drilling and production costs $ 1.775.000
Net income
Single- fracture Worst case Just payouts
the costs, no
profit
10 fractures Best case $ 3.500.000
New Albany case
Drilling and production costs $600.000
Net income
Single- fracture Worst case Does not
payout the
costs
10 fractures Best case $ 250.000
76
5.5 Summary
In the first part of this chapter the numerical simulations were run for a single-porosity system
models. That system excludes the adsorbed gas factor and natural fractures. The simulations
ignoring the stimulation treatment proved that production is almost impossible without any
stimulation in such ultra-tight reservoirs. The single fracture model changed the situation to the
positive side, acquiring the recoveries of 3.5% and 2.6% for k=0.152 d and k=0.01 d
respectively. However, even these recoveries are not cost effective, less than the economic cut-
off production of 6.25 MS
gas production in the case of numerical model, after 10 years production simulation.
The extra gas production in the case of numerical model is anticipated due to dual porosity
character of the model. The extra gas supply in numerical model may be due to contribution of
the gas stored in the natural fractures. However, that excess in production is much less than
expected and might be related to inaccuracy of the analytical model or because of cementation
of the natural fractures due to high pressure nature of Haynesville shale. Additionally, the
analytical model was constructed using constant pressure terminal equation, assuming
constant reservoir pressure and BHP throughout the production, which of course affects the
production rates.
Single fracture models show substantially higher production in the case of Haynesville shale
despite of low contribution of desorbed gas throughout the well life. The main reason is
relatively high drawdown throughout the production, which leads to a large decrease of the
reservoir pressure and efficient drainage of the reservoir. However, in this case there is almost
no contribution of adsorbed gas at early stages of well life, and the miserable contribution at
77
the end of well life. In fact the pressure drop in the reservoir that is sufficient for production of
free gas is absolutely insufficient for production of adsorbed gas. However, in the case of New
Albany shale the total production is significantly lower but the contribution of desorbed gas is
noticeable, even at early stages of well life. From one side the low pressure nature of the
reservoir does not allow production at high drawdown, but from another side, because of low
pressure, even the small decrease of reservoir pressure initiates high amounts of adsorbed gas
to be desorbed.
In case of Haynesville shale substantial production can be reached even with long fracture
spacing at high drawdown, but mostly free gas in place will be produced. The pressure
interference time between the fractures is quite short, even for high spacing cases.
Consequently the duration of linear flow is short, and most of the well life the fractures
produce in combination with each other. But, in order to reach efficient drainage of the
reservoir, the desorption of available adsorbed gas in place, the fracture treatment stages
should be increased and the fracture should be densely placed.
According to performed simulations, if the fracture spacing decreased up to 40 meters, the
point of 9% extra gas production at the end of the 10 years can be reached.
In the case of New Albany shale is impossible to launch the production at high drawdown due
to low pressure nature of the reservoir. With production at maximum possible initial
drawdown, it is difficult to reach sufficient pressure drop in reservoir. However, even small
drop at early stages of well life effecting the production of adsorbed gas in place. In the case
with two transverse fractures the contribution of adsorbed gas is noticeable throughout the
well life, reaching 11% extra gas production compared to no adsorption case, at the end of 10
years. However, the production is not cost effective with small number of fracture treatment
stages. The pressure interference time is delayed and even cannot be captured after 10 years of
production in the case with small number of fracture stages (Table 5.3.10). In that case of
underpressured reservoir, it seems to be necessary requirement to densely place the fractures
by increasing the number of fracture treatment stages, in order to accelerate the pressure
interference time and to reach sufficient drop of the reservoir pressure, which is indispensible
in order to release the adsorbed gas. If the preferable drop of reservoir pressure could be
reached the desorbed gas will definitely contribute to production as it constitutes quite high
percentage of gas in place. The outcome of all the simulations performed in this chapter is
presented in Table 5.3.13.
78
Table 5.3.13: The outcome of all the simulations.
Simulation scenario Cumulative production Recovery(%)
Single porosity MSm^3
Single fracture
k=0.152 D 1-phase 8.5
12
k=0.152 D 2-phase 4.5 6
k=0.01 D 1-phase 2.5
3.5
k=0.01 D 2-phase 1.3 2.6
2 fractures
k=0.152 D 2-phase
7.8
19
k=0.01 D 2-phase
2.5
6
6 fractures
k=0.152 D 2-phase
15
36
k=0.01 D 2-phase
6.5
16
Dual porosity
Haynesville case
Single-frac
No adsorption
k=0.152 D 2-phase 11.35 19
Single-frac
Adsorption
k=0.152 D 2-phase 11.85
6.5
2 fracs no adsorption k=0.152 D 2-phase 20.9 35
2 fracs adsorption k=0.152 D 2-phase 21.6 29.5
4 fracs no adsorption k=0.152 D 2-phase 29.6 49
4 fracs adsorption k=0.152 D 2-phase 31.3 42
6 fracs no adsorption k=0.152 D 2-phase 34.5 57
6 fracs adsorption k=0.152 D 2-phase 36.6 50
8 fracs no adsorption k=0.152 D 2-phase 35 58
8 fracs adsorption k=0.152 D 2-phase 38 52
10 fracs no adsorption k=0.152 D 2-phase 36 59.5
10 fracs adsorption k=0.152 D 2-phase 39.2 53.5
New Albany case
Single-frac
No adsorption
k=0.18 D 2-phase 0.45 4.5
Single-frac
Adsorption
k=0.18 D 2-phase 0.62 2.6
2 fracs no adsorption k=0.18 D 2-phase 0.9 9.5
2 fracs adsorption k=0.18 D 2-phase 1.29 5.6
4 fracs no adsorption k=0.18 D 2-phase 1.875 19.5
4 fracs adsorption k=0.18 D 2-phase 2.535 11
6 fracs no adsorption k=0.18 D 2-phase 2.76 29
6 fracs adsorption k=0.18 D 2-phase 3.76 16
8 fracs no adsorption k=0.18 D 2-phase 3.5 37
8 fracs adsorption k=0.18 D 2-phase 4.8 21
10 fracs no adsorption k=0.18 D 2-phase 4.1 43
10 fracs adsorption k=0.18 D 2-phase 5.95 26
79
6 Conclusion and recommendations
6.1 Conclusions
Chapter 4 introduces the analytical model to demonstrate the long term production behavior of
Multi Transverse Fractured Horizontal Well in shale gas reservoirs. The main findings are as
follows.
Primary fracture spacing has significant influence on production in tight matrix reservoirs. The
design of stimulation is one of the crucial factors affecting the duration of the well life in shale
gas reservoir. Moreover, fracture spacing influences the desorption process and thus, has an
effect on cumulative production. The impact of desorption on cumulative production increases
when the fracture spacing is smaller. The reduction of the spacing between primary fractures
and pumping more fracture treatment stages will speed up the pressure interference time and
thus will contribute to effective drainage of the reservoir.
As a result of further analytical computations, it becomes obvious that the reservoir
permeability is one of the main factors that controls the production profile in fractured wells
and may have the major impact on cumulative production in ultra-tight gas reservoirs. The
variation of permeability from 1.5E-19
= =
Eq.8-3
Where k is the reservoir permeability, - the viscosity, p - the pressure, z - the compressibility
factor, T - the temperature, M- molecular weight, R-gas constant.
Combining all above expressed equations and making an assumption of homogeneous rock
with constant gas composition and temperature we get the next mathematical expression of
diffusivity equation. (Lee and Wattenbarger, 1996; Lewis, 2007)
1
( ) ( )
k p p p
r
r r z r t z
|
c c c
=
c c c
Eq.8-4
The right hand side of the above equation can be expanded (Lee and Wattenbarger, 1996)
1
( ) ( ) ( ( ))
p p p p p z p
t z z t t z z t p p p z
| |
| | |
|
c c c c c c
= + = +
c c c c c c
Eq.8-5
Involving the expressions of isothermal formation and gas compressibility and substituting
them in equation 8-5 for compressibility part, yields equation 8-8:
86
1
( )
f
c
p
|
|
c
=
c
Eq.8-6
( / )
g
z p z
c
p p
c
=
c
Eq.8-7
( ) ( )
f g
p p p
c c
t z z t
| |
c c
= +
c c
Eq.8-8
Where c is the compressibility. Placing back the equation 8-8 into diffusivity equation we get
the radial diffusivity equation for a single-phase compressible real gas in a homogeneous,
horizontal medium.
( )
1
( )
f g
t
c c
c p p p p p p
r
r r z r k z t k z t
|
|
+
c c c c
= =
c c c c
Eq.8-9
In order to solve that equation, the fluid has to be treated as slightly compressible. To do this,
the changes in gas viscosity and compressibility must be taken into account. On that way two
new variables have to be introduced: the pseudopressure (m(p)) and the pseudotime (ta) (Lee
and Wattenbarger, 1996; Lewis, 2007).
( ) 2
b
p
p
p
m p dp
z
=
}
Eq.8-10
0
( )
t
a t i
t
dt
t c
c
=
}
Eq.8-11
Finally, involving all of the above expressions into diffusivity equation we get:
1 ( ) ( )
( )
a
m p m p
r
r r r k t
| c c c
=
c c c
Eq.8-12
The above equation can be solved by setting the initial and boundary conditions (Lee and
Wattenbarger, (1996); Lewis, (2007)).
87
Dimensionless variables
The diffusivity equation presented earlier can be solved in dimensional space. But that
procedure is quite time consuming. That is why more simplified solution can be reached by
involving dimensionless expressions. The dimensionless variables are used to define the
important groups that control the equation by using simplified expressions. On that purpose
the following dimensionless equations are introduced:
(dimensionless time),
=
Eq.8-14
The next expressions are also dimensionless, and governed by variables that are influential to
time and radius (Lewis, 2007).
2
d
t w
kt
t
c r |
=
Eq.8-15
d
w
r
r
r
=
Eq.8-16
Combining all the dimensionless variables, the diffusivity equation can be re-written in
dimensionless form as:
1
( )
d d
d
d d d d
p p
r
r r r t
c c c
=
c c c
Eq.8-17
88
Dimensionless time and dimensionless pressure are equations that allow the diffusivity
equation to be solved more easily. The next re-arrangement of dimensionless pressure and
dimensionless time is defined by Lewis, (2007). The following two equations compose the main
parts of the constant pressure flow rate equation from horizontal well single transverse
fracture, which have been discussed in Chapter 3.
[ ( ) ( )
1422
i wf
wd
kh m p m p
p
Tq
=
Eq.8-19
2
0.00634
( )
d
gi ti w
kt
t
c r |
=
Eq.8-20
89
9 Appendix- Flow calculations in numerical simulator
Reservoir Simulation is a form of numerical modeling which is used to capture the physical
properties. The process involves dividing the reservoir into a number of discrete units in three
dimensions and modeling the progression of fluid fronts through space and time in a number of
steps. The equation solved for each cell and each time step is a combination of Darcys Law and
the material balance equation.
k
q P
= V
Eq.9-1
( * ) M Q
t
|
c
V = +
c
Eq.9-2
Where:
M V = Mass Flux (In-Out)
( * )
t
|
c
c
= Accumulation
Q= Injection/Production
Combination of above equations gives simulator flow equation including the gravity term.
| |
( * ) ( )
Q
P z
t
|
|
c
V V V = +
c
Eq.9-3
A fully implicit method was used to calculate the changes in pressure and saturation over time.
The properties of the state of the property are taking into consideration at both the current
time and the next time step. The equations used by Eclipse (Schlumberger 2011) are explained
briefly in this appendix.
As it already mentioned the starting equation is the mass balance equation solved for pressure
and saturation implicitly. The solution vector is referred as X, the residual vector as R and the
Jacobian J ( van Zelm, 2010). Here X is defined as:
90
o
w
g
P
X S
S
(
(
=
(
(
Eq.9-4
where solution for oil pressure
) and gas (
). As we are
modeling only gas-water, the primary parameter is out of use. The residual vector looks like:
o
w
g
R
R R
R
(
(
=
(
(
Eq.9-5
Each of these residuals is presented separately, by the following equation:
( , ) ( , )
t
fl t t t t
dM
R F P S Q P S
dt
= + +
Eq.9-6
Where:
= non-linear residual, for each cell and each fluid
dM = mass, per unit surface density, accumulated during time step dt
F = net flow rate into neighboring grid blocks
Q = net flow rate into wells during the time step
By taking the derivative of the R to X the Jacobian can be calculated. The main goal of the
numerical method is to approach R = 0, by taking small enough time steps throughout the
simulation. In order to solve the mass balance implicitly, the following equations for a gas-
water system are used (Eq. 9-7 and Eq. 9-8).
t dt t
dM M M
+
=
Eq.9-7
*
w
w
g
g
S
B
M PV
S
B
(
(
(
=
(
(
(
Eq.9-8
91
Where:
M = mass or volume of cell
t = time
dt = time change (time step)
PV = cell pore volume
(
(
(
(
(
(
( =
(
(
(
(
(
(
Eq.9-9
For the system used in this thesis, the equation will simply be reduced to:
0 0 0
0 0 *
0 0
oni
rw
ni ni wni
w w
gni
rg
g g
dP
k
F T dP
B
dP
k
B
(
(
(
(
(
(
( =
(
(
(
(
(
(
Eq.9-10
Where:
) and
vapor OGR (
) has to be varied (Schlumberger, 2005). Then, the fluid properties are can be
represented by a set of tables of PVT properties as functions of pressure.
0
( )
g
s
B
B
f p
R
(
(
(
=
(
(
Eq.12-1
The required input to black-oil simulator is therefore a table of physical properties versus
pressure. For example, a table of oil viscosity at different pressures.
The Eclipse300 Compositional Simulator tracks each component of the oil and gas in the
reservoir. The reservoir fluid is treated as a number of flowing pseudo components. Once the
fluid flows have been calculated each pseudo component must be flashed to equilibrium
conditions. Then a cubic equation of state (EoS) must be solved for each pseudo component.
Both calculations are performed at each time step in every grid cell. The flow calculations take
less than 50% of the computational time of a compositional simulation, and flash calculations
together with EoS solution take up the rest of the time (Schlumberger, 2005). This method is
used to model fluids near the critical point where changes in the pressure and temperature can
result in very different fluid behavior.
97
Using Eclipse300, one component
)
Eq.12-2
Furthermore, more variables are needed in compositional simulation.
, 1,....
w
i c
p
z
z i n =
Eq.12-3
As in Eclipse100 the oil pressure is used, the water molar density instead of