25

Loads
25.1 Dead Loads 25.2 Live Loads
Occupancy Loads Bridge Live Loads

25.3 Impact Loads 25.4 Snow Loads

Peter Gergely
Cornell University

Structures are designed to carry various loads and load combinations without collapse and with an adequate margin of safety. In addition, several serviceability conditions (deflections, cracking) must also be satisfied for most structures. The expected maximum values of most loads can be estimated only approximately, and building codes give only estimates of the minimum design loads, based on judgment. The design loads and load combinations rarely occur for most structures. The two main types of loads are dead loads and live loads. Dead loads include the weight of structural and most nonstructural components: beams, columns, walls, floor slabs, bridge decks, roofing, partitions, and ceiling and flooring materials. Live loads include occupancy loads (people, building contents, traffic, movable partitions) and snow. Wind forces, earthquake forces, water pressure, and blast are similar to live loads, but they are usually considered separately. The weights of movable materials in warehouses are usually considered as live loads. In addition to these loads, temperature effects can also be considered as loads. Most designers and building codes rely on the Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures [ASCE 7-93, 1993] or the Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges[AASHTO, 1989] for the design of buildings and bridges, respectively. Loads for special structures, such as liquid containers, towers, cranes, and power plants, are normally specified by trade or professional organizations. Loads are combined to produce the maximum member forces. However, codes allow reduction of combined loads if the probability of simultaneous occurrence of maximum effects is low. For example, a 0.75 factor may be applied for the combined dead load, live load, and wind or earthquake. These factors are different in the working stress design approach and in the strength (or the load and resistance factor) design approach.

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25.1 Dead Loads

Dead loads are made up almost entirely of the weights of all structural elements and permanent fixtures. Therefore, it is generally easy to calculate dead loads. However, in preliminary design the sizes of structural members (beams, columns, walls, and floor slabs) are not yet known and must be estimated. The unit weights of several common materials are listed in Table 25.1. Table 25.1 Unit Weight of Common Construction Materials
Aluminum Brick Lightweight concrete Normal-weight concrete Steel Timber Roofing Tile 6 in. hollow concrete block wall 165 lb/ft3 120 lb/ft3 90110 lb/ft3 150 lb/ft3 490 lb/ft3 3540 lb/ft3 510 lb/ft2 1015 lb/ft2 43 lb/ft2

The maximum forces in structures sometimes occur during constructionfor example, during the cantilever construction of bridges. It is important to consider the loads during various stages of construction.

25.2 Live Loads

There are many types of live loads: occupancy, weights in warehouses, traffic loads on bridges, construction or maintenance forces, automobiles in parking garages, and snow. These are much more variable than dead loads and require larger safety margins. (Wind and earthquake loads are considered separately as environmental loads.) These live loads are gravity loads and must be positioned (acting on all or part of the area) to cause maximum forces in the member being designed.

Occupancy Loads
The major type of live load in buildings is caused by occupants. The minimum specified occupancy loads depend on the use and the likelihood of congregation of many people. Typical values of distributed loads are shown in Table 25.2. In office buildings a 20 lb/ft2 uniform load is used to account for the weight of movable partitions. Table 25.2 Typical Occupancy Loads
Theaters with fixed seats Theaters with movable seats Corridors and lobbies Garages 60 lb/ft2 100 lb/ft2 100 lb/ft2 50 lb/ft2

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Restaurants Library reading rooms Offices Stadium bleachers Stairways

100 lb/ft2 60 lb/ft2 50 lb/ft2 100 lb/ft2 100 lb/ft2

In addition to the distributed loads, structures are also designed for concentrated loads to account for concentrations of people or furniture. Typical values are 2000 lb on office floors and on slabs in garages for passenger cars. These are assumed to be acting on a 2:5 ft2 area. Since it is unlikely that a very large area or most floors of a building will have the full occupancy loads, most codes allow a live load reduction factor for such cases. However, reduction is not allowed for garages and areas of public assembly. In the design of a structural member, if the influence area is more than 400 ft2 , the reduction factor is
15 0:25 + p A (25:1)

with a minimum value of 0.5 for one floor and 0.4 for columns receiving loads from multiple floors. For columns the influence area is four times the tributary area (thus equal to the area of all four adjoining panels), and for beams it is twice the tributary area.

Bridge Live Loads

The design forces in a bridge depend on the magnitude and distribution of the vehicle load. It is not reasonable to assume that only heavy trucks will travel at close spacing, especially on a long bridge. For short bridges the actual position of the heaviest truck is important, whereas for long bridges a uniform load could be used in design. Design codes [AASHTO, 1989] specify standard loads for short and long bridges. Several standard trucks are specifiedfor example, the H20-44, which has a total weight of 20 tons (the 44 signifies the year of adoption). Of this weight, 8000 lb acts under the front axle and 32000 lb under the rear wheels. Other standard truck loads are H10-44, H15-44, HS15-44, and HS20-44, where the HS designation is for semitrailers, with the weight allocation of 10%, 40%, and 40% for the cab, front trailer, and rear trailer wheels, respectively. These concentrated loads must be placed on the bridge to produce maximum forces (shears and moments) in the member being designed. In addition to the individual truck loads, codes specify a uniform lane load combined with a single concentrated load. For an H10-44 loading the distributed load is 320 lb/ft and the concentrated load is 9000 lb; the respective numbers for HS20-44 are twice as large.

25.3 Impact Loads

Moving loads on bridges and crane girders can cause vibrations and increased stresses. Simple empirical impact formulas have been developed to account for this effect, although a large number

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of variables, such as surface roughness, speed, and span, influence the impact effect. In the AASHTO [1989] code the impact formula is
I= 50 L + 125 (25:2)

where L is in feet. The maximum value of the impact factor I is 0.3. For shorter bridges the impact effect can be high, especially when a heavy vehicle travels on the bridge at high speed. The loads created by elevators are often increased by 100% to account for impact. Likewise, impact factors have been recommended for various other types of machinery, ranging from 20 to 50%. Craneways have three factors25%, 20%, and 10% for forces in the vertical, lateral, and longitudinal directions, respectively.

25.4 Snow Loads

The expected maximum snow accumulation in various regions is given in codes, usually for a 50-year mean recurrence interval. Values reach 50 psf in many areas but can be twice as much or more in regions with heavy snowfalls. In some regionsfor example, in parts of the Rocky Mountainslocal climate and topography dictate the design snow load level. The weight of snow depends on its density and typically ranges from 0.5 psf to 0.7 psf for 1 in. of snow after some compaction. Fresh dry snow has a specific gravity of only 0.2. For flat roofs (outside Alaska) the snow load is
pf = 0:7Ce Ct Ipg (25:3)

Ce is the exposure factor (0.8 for windy, open areas, 0.9 for windy areas with some shelter, 1.0 if

wind does not remove snow, 1.1 with little wind, and 1.2 in a forested area). However, for large roofs (greater than 400 ft in one direction), Ce should not be less than unity [Lew et al., 1987]. Ct is the thermal factor (1.0 for heated structures, 1.1 just above freezing, 1.2 for unheated structures). I is the importance factor (ranges from 0.8 to 1.2 for various occupancies). pg is the ground snow load from maps. The flat-roof values are corrected for sloping roofs:
ps = Cs pf (25:4)

where Cs is the slope factor, which is given in a diagram in ASCE 7-93 [1993]. For warm roofs (Ct = 1:0) the slope factor is 1.0 for slopes less than about 30 and reduces linearly to zero as the slope increases to 70 . Thus roofs with slopes greater than 70 are assumed to have no snow load. Unbalanced snow load caused by a certain wind direction also must be considered.

Defining Terms
Dead load: Gravity loads produced by the weight of structural elements, permanent parts of

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structures such as partitions, and weight of permanent equipment. Impact factor: Accounts for the increase in stresses caused by moving load effects. Live load: Loads caused by occupancy and movable objects, including temporary loads. Serviceability: Limit on behavior in service, such as on deflections, vibrations, and cracking.

References
AASHTO. 1989. Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges, 14th ed. The American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC. ASCE 7-93. 1993. Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures. American Society of Civil Engineers, New York. Lew, H. S., Simiu, E., and Ellingwood, B. 1987. Loads. In Building Structural Design Handbook, ed. R. N. White and C. G. Salmon, p. 9-43. John Wiley & Sons, New York.

Further Information
Uniform Building Code, International Conference of Building Officials, 5360 South Workman Mill Road, Whittier, CA 90601 ASCE Standard, ASCE 7-93, Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Other Structures, American Society of Civil Engineers, 345 East 47th Street, New York, NY 10017

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Reinhold, T. A., Sill, B. L. Wind Effects The Engineering Handbook. Ed. Richard C. Dorf Boca Raton: CRC Press LLC, 2000

1998 by CRC PRESS LLC

26
Wind Effects
26.1 Wind Climate 26.2 Local Wind Exposure 26.3 Mean Wind Speed Profile
Power Law Profile Logarithmic Profile

26.4 Turbulence 26.5 Pressure Coefficients and Load Factors

Timothy A. Reinhold
Clemson University

Ben L. Sill
Clemson University

Wind is one of the two primary sources of lateral forces on land-based buildings and structures; the other is earthquake ground motion. Winds completely engulf the structure and generate complex distributions of pressures and, hence, loads on all exterior surfaces. Most surfaces experience negative pressures or suctions which tend to pull the building apart. Most roofs also experience negative pressures which act to lift the roof off of the walls and to pull roofing membranes and sheathing from the supporting structure. If the exterior surface contains openings, either because they were designed that way or because a cladding element fails, the interior of the structure can become exposed to some fraction of the external pressure that would have occurred at the opening. Internal pressures can also develop as a result of normal air leakage through the building skin or cladding. Internal pressures tend to be fairly uniform throughout the interior of the building and can significantly increase the loads on the walls and roof. Wind effects on structures include the direct application of wind-induced forces, movement of the structure, and the flow of the wind around the structure, which may affect pedestrians or the function of the building. Normally, wind effects are grouped according to limit states and safety and serviceability considerations. The selection of structural systems based on their ability to resist wind-induced stresses with appropriate margins of safety is an example of a design for safety or an ultimate limit state. Limiting deflections caused by the wind loads to prevent cracking of walls or partitions and limiting the motion of the structure to prevent occupant discomfort are examples of serviceability limit state design. Following the large economic losses suffered in recent hurricanes, there have been increasing calls for protection of the building envelope against water penetration by protecting glazed openings from failure due to direct wind loads or impact loads from

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wind-borne debris and by reducing the penetration of wind-driven rain. The wind effects which should be considered in the design of a particular structure vary depending on the following factors: 1. The wind climate (the expected magnitude and frequency of wind events and consideration of the types of eventsthat is, hurricanes, thunderstorms, tornadoes, and extra-tropical storms). 2. The local wind exposure (siting of the building or structure, including the type of terrain and terrain features surrounding the structure and the influence of neighboring structures). 3. Pressure coefficients and load factors (coefficients that depend on the exterior shape of the building or structure and factors which relate wind loads to reference wind speeds). 4. Dynamic effects such as resonance response and aerodynamic instabilities, which can lead to failures or to significant increases in the dynamic response and loading (these dynamic effects are not covered by normal pressure coefficients and load factors; they depend on the shape of the building or structure and properties such as mass, stiffness, damping, and modes of vibration). Typically, tall, slender structures and long, suspended structures should be evaluated for these possible effects. These include long-span bridges, stacks, towers, buildings with height-to-width ratios greater than 5, and exposed long, flexible members of structures. Within the space available, it is possible to present only a brief description of the types of wind effects which should be considered in the design of buildings and structures. Consequently, rather than reproduce a set of codelike requirements, the focus of this chapter is on describing some basic relationships which will help the engineer compare different code approaches to estimating wind loads. There are many different codes available throughout the world which use significantly different types of reference wind speeds. Often, it is not clear whether the codes will produce similar estimates of design loads if applied to the same structure (indeed, they often do produce significantly different loads). It is not the intent of this chapter to promote a particular code. The goal is to provide the tools which will allow the engineer to compare code estimates of design loads by using a consistent set of reference wind speeds, regardless of whether the code calls for a mean hourly speed, a ten-minute speed, a one-minute sustained wind speed, a fastest mile wind speed, or a gust wind speed. In addition, the field of wind engineering remains highly empirical, which means that accurate estimates of wind loads and wind effects often require the conduct of a physical model study. The "For Further Information" section provides a list of references which can provide additional guidance on when a model study is warranted or desirable.

26.1 Wind Climate

The wind climate encompasses the range of wind events which may occur in a geographical region and the expected frequency and intensity of the event. Types of events include extra-tropical cyclones, thunderstorms, downbursts, microbursts, tornadoes, and hurricanes. Each type of storm

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has potentially different wind characteristics of importance to buildings and structures, as well as separate occurrence rate and intensity relationships. For most engineering purposes, downbursts, microbursts, and tornadoes are not considered in the establishment of design winds and loads. Thunderstorm winds are frequently buried in the historical data records and, thus, are partially built into the design winds estimated from historical data. Recent work has been conducted to extract thunderstorm winds from the historical data at selected stations. This analysis suggests that it will be important in the future to treat thunderstorms as a separate population of wind events in much the same way that current analysis considers hurricane and tornado events as separate populations for statistical analysis. The current approach to estimating design winds in hurricane-prone regions is to conduct Monte Carlo simulations of the events using statistical information on historical tendencies of hurricanes in the area. The probabilities of experiencing hurricane winds in coastal areas are then developed from the statistics produced from the simulation of thousands of years of storms. These occurrence probabilities are then combined with probabilities for nonhurricane events to estimate design winds for various return periods ranging from 10 to 100 years. This type of analysis has been used to produce design wind speed maps for the continental U.S., and the latest edition of ASCE-7 Minimum Design Loads for Buildings and Structures contains the most recent map which is generally adopted by model building codes in the U.S. This type of systematic analysis of hurricane and nonhurricane winds has not been conducted for the Hawaiian Islands or most of the rest of the world. Consequently, in hurricane-prone regions, the designer should endeavor to determine the source of the estimates for design wind speeds and the basis for the estimates. In some instances, it will be necessary to contract with a group experienced in hurricane simulations in order to produce reasonable estimates of design wind speeds. In areas where hurricanes are not expectedwhich normally includes areas 100 miles inland from a hurricane coastlinea series of annual extreme wind speeds can be used to estimate the design wind speed for a specific return period using the following equation [Simiu, 1985], where it is assumed that the extreme wind climate follows a Type I extreme value distribution:
UN = Uavg + 0:78N (ln N 0:577) (26:1)

where UN is the design wind speed for a return period of N years, Uavg is the average of the annual extreme wind speeds, and N is the standard deviation of the annual extreme wind speeds. It should be noted that the number of years of record greatly affects the reliability of the design wind speed estimate [Simiu, 1985]. Note also that an averaging time has not been specified in this discussion. The emphasis is placed on the wind speeds being extreme annual values which must all correspond to the same averaging time, regardless of whether it is a mean hourly, ten-minute mean, or shorter-duration averaging time. These maximum speeds must also correspond to a consistent set of terrain conditions and a consistent elevation. The U.S. codes currently use a fastest mile wind speed at a height of 10 m in open terrain as the reference design wind speed and reference conditions. This type of measurement has a variable averaging time since it corresponds to the time required for one mile of wind to pass a location. Thus, any calculation of a fastest mile wind speed requires

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iteration. The averaging time for the fastest mile wind speed is calculated by:
t = 3600=UFM (26:2)

where t is given in seconds and UFM is the fastest mile wind speed expressed in miles per hour. Other countries use similar terrain conditions and usually specify a 10 m elevation, but use a wide variety of averaging times ranging from mean hourly (Canada) to peak gust (Australia), which is normally assumed to correspond to a two- to three-second averaging time. The following section provides relationships for converting maximum wind speeds from one averaging time, terrain exposure, and elevation to maximum wind speeds for a different averaging time, terrain, and elevation. These equations provide a means for converting a design wind speed in an unfamiliar code to one that can be used in a code with which the designer is more familiar, if the reference conditions for the two codes are different.

26.2 Local Wind Exposure

As wind moves over the surface of the earth, the roughness of trees, buildings, and other features reduces the wind speed and creates the atmospheric boundary layer. The greatest reduction occurs close to the ground, with reduced effects at greater heights. There is, in fact, a heightknown as the gradient heightat which the wind is not affected by the surface characteristics. For engineering purposes, the gradient height is generally assumed to be between 300 and 600 m, depending on the terrain. Surface roughness also affects the air flow by creating turbulent eddies (or gusts) which can have a significant effect on buildings. The gusty nature of wind is random and is analyzed using statistical approaches.

26.3 Mean Wind Speed Profile

No single analytical expression perfectly describes the mean wind speed variation with height in the atmospheric boundary layer. The two used most often are the power law profile and the logarithmic profile. The logarithmic profile is the most widely accepted, although both can give adequate descriptions of the wind speed. Each is described below, and sufficient information is given to (a) allow transfer from one profile to the other, (b) effectively convert maximum speeds in one terrain to those in another, and (c) convert from one averaging time to another.

Power Law Profile

Taking z as the elevation, U as the wind speed (with the bar indicating a mean hourly value), and g as conditions at the gradient height, this profile is written as:

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U (z ) Ug

z zg

(26:3)

Table 26.1 provides estimates for the gradient height and power law exponent for different terrains. Table 26.1 Parameters Used in Mean Velocity Profile Relations
Terrain p

Coastal Open Suburbs Dense suburbs City center 0.1 0.14 0.22 0.26 0.33

zg (m)
230 275 375 400 500

z0 (m)
0.005 0.07 0.3 1 2.5 0.83 1 1.15 1.33 1.46

6.5 6 5.25 4.85 4

Logarithmic Profile
This expression for the variation of mean wind speed with height utilizes an aerodynamic roughness length, z0 , and a shear velocity, u , which is a measure of the surface drag:
u ln U (z ) = k z z0 (26:4)

Here, k is von Karman's constant and is usually taken as 0.4. For rough surfaces, such as dense suburban and urban conditions, a displacement height, d, should be included in Eq. (26.4) by replacing z with z d . For z values substantially greater than d, the correction is negligible. Writing the log law at two heights for two different terrain roughnesses (one of which is open country) and taking the ratio gives
U (z1 ) U (z2 )open =p ln(z1 =z0 ) ln(z2 =z0 )open (26:5)

where p is the ratio of the shear velocities for the two different terrain conditions. Table 26.1 gives a summary of the parameters needed to use the profiles.

26.4 Turbulence
The wind speed can be divided into two partsa mean or time-averaged part, U , and a fluctuating or time varying part, u0 . The long-term properties of the fluctuating part can be described by the variance or standard deviation, u . The maximum wind speed for any averaging time, t, can be obtained by adjusting the hourly (3600 s) average as

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Ut (z ) = U 3600 (z ) + C (t)u (z )

(26:6)

where the coefficient C (t) is given in Table 26.2. The values of C (t) for extra-tropical winds were obtained by Simiu [1981], while the values of C (t) for hurricane winds reflect recent research which suggests that hurricane winds contain larger fluctuations than extra-tropical strong winds [Krayer, 1992]. Table 26.2 Gust Factors for Use in Calculating Maximum Wind Speeds from Mean Speeds
Conditions Hurricane winds Extra-tropical winds Time (s)
C (t ) C (t )

1 4 3

3 3.62 2.86

10 3.06 2.32

30 2.23 1.73

60 1.75 1.28

600 0.43 0.36

3600 0 0

To convert maximum wind speeds between open terrain conditions for any averaging time and elevation and another set of conditions (i.e., variations in terrain, averaging time, or elevation), the following combination of the above expressions can be used:
p Ut1 (z1 ) ln(z1 =z0 ) + 0:4 C (t1 ) =p Ut2 (z2 )open ln(z2 =z0 )open + 0:98C (t2 )open (26:7)

The examples in Table 26.3 serve to illustrate the use of this expression. The first line indicates the example case, the second through fifth rows describe the open terrain wind characteristics, the sixth through thirteenth rows describe the second terrain wind characteristics, and the last row gives the ratio of maximum speeds for the stated conditions and averaging times. Table 26.3 Example Conversions of Maximum Speeds for Different Conditions
Example A B C D E Iteration #1 open 10 90 40b 1.58 suburb 10 90c 40b 1.58 E Iteration #2 F G

Terrain 2 z (m) u (mph)a t (s) C(t) Terrain 1 z (m) u (mph)a t (s) C(t)

open 10 60 1.28 coast 10 3 2.86

open 10 3600 0 suburb 10 3600 0

open 10 60 1.28 open 100 60 1.58

open 10 3600 0 open 10 90 40b 1.58

open 10 3 2.86 suburb 10 90 40 1.58

open 10 90 40 1.58 open 10 3 2.58

79 46 1.49

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p
Ut1 (z1 )=Ut2 (z2 )
a b

6.5 0.82 1.39

5.25 1.15 0.81

6 1 1.42

6 1 1.31

5.25 1.15 0.88

0.86

5.25 1.15 0.56

6 1 1.19

Wind speed in fastest mile. Averaging time calculated from 3600=UFM . c Initial guess of fastest mile speed for the first iteration selected as open country value. In the second iteration, the 79 mph value was calculated from 90 mph multiplied by the velocity ratio of 0.88.

26.5 Pressure Coefficients and Load Factors

Pressure coefficients and load factors, such as terrain exposure factors and gust factors, are available in building codes. These factors must be consistent with the type of reference wind used in the code. Local cladding pressures in modern codes are significantly higher than those found in earlier codes because of the improved understanding of fluctuating loads on structures. Except in areas of positive mean pressures (the windward wall), there is no direct correlation between the local pressure and the occurrence of gusts in the approaching wind.

Defining Terms
Atmospheric boundary layer: The lower part of the atmosphere where the wind flow is affected by the earth's surface. Cladding: Parts of the exterior building surface which keep out the weather but are generally not considered part of the structural system, although they do transfer loads to the structural system. Extra-tropical cyclones: Large-scale low-pressure systems which control most of the severe weather conditions and extreme winds in temperate regions.

References
Simiu, E. 1981. Modern developments in wind engineering: Part 1. J. Eng. Struct.3:233241. Simiu, E. and Scanlan, R. H. 1985. Wind Effects on Structures, 2nd ed. John Wiley & Sons, New York. Krayer, W. R. and Marshall, R. D. 1992. Gust factors applied to hurricane winds. Bull. AMS 73.

Further Information
Information on types of physical model studies commonly performed can be obtained from Wind Tunnel Modeling for Civil Engineering Applications, Cambridge University Press, 1982, and ASCE Manual and Reports on Engineering Practice No. 67, Wind Tunnel Model Studies of Buildings and Structures, American Society of Civil Engineers, New York, 1987. In addition to the references by Simiu listed above, a good general book on wind engineering is The Designer's Guide to Wind Loading of Building Structures by Cook (Butterworths, 1985). General articles, including a number of conference proceedings, are published in the Journal of Industrial Aerodynamics and Wind Engineering.

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