Managing Water Availability and Requirements in Pakistan: Challenges and Way Forward

Dr. Muhammad Sharif

Social Sciences Division Pakistan Agricultural Research Council Islamabad - September, 2013

Table of Contents
1. Introduction 2. Material and Method 3. Water Availability 3.1 Water Availability from IBIS 3.2 Water Availability from Rainfall 3.3 Groundwater Availability 3.4 Total Water Availability/Supply 4. Water Balance 5. Water Requirements/Demand for Water 5.1 Water Requirements/Water Demand for Agriculture Sector 5.2 Non-agricultural Water Requirements 5.3 Total Agricultural and non-agricultural water Requirements/ Demand for Water 6. Water Demand and Supply Gap 7. Threats to Water Availability and Quality 7.1 Ground Water Depletion 7.2 Climate Change and Environmental Hazards 8. Challenges to Effective Water Management 8.1 Governance Weaknesses 8.1.1 Regulator deficiencies 8.1.2 Institutional deficiencies 8.2 Supply Driven Policy Approach 8.3 Inter-sectoral Water Competition 8.4 Skills and Technologies 8.4.1 Minimizing misreporting data 8.4.2 Focusing groundwater storage 8.4.3 Minimizing field application losses 01 02 02 03 04 05 06 06 08 08 08 09

09 10 10 11 11 12 13 13 13 15 15 15 15 16

8.4.4 Focusing on water conservation techniques 8.4.5 Addressing the salient public health crisis 9. Filling the Gaps 10. Conclusions 11. Way Forward 11.1 Demand driven policy approach 11.2 Strategy for Improved Service Provision and Strengthen Enforcement Mechanisms for Water Use 11.3 Improve Communication and Data sharing Mechanisms 11.4 Promote Water Conservation Techniques 11.5 Strengthen Disaster Risk Management Strategies at the Local level

16 16 16 17 18 18 19

19 19 19

12.

Reference

20

Managing Water Availability and Requirements in Pakistan: Challenges and Way Forward
1. Introduction

Water experts expect that Pakistan will shift from water stressed nation to water scarce country by 2030 which implies that Pakistan is heading towards serious water crises. Because of overuse and misuse of water, Pakistan is facing declining water availability in term of per capita population not in term of volume of water, growing water pollution and overall environmental hazards. Declining water availability is mainly attributed to regulatory and institutional deficiencies, supply driven policy and strategy approach and lack of participation of public private and civil society in addressing and managing water availability and requirement problems in the country. Water is essential for sustenance of live in all forms such as livelihoods, health, food security, or general economic development and fresh water is a finite resource, progressively becoming more scarce due to persistent increases in its competing sectoral demands (GoP, 2005). Population growth, rapid urbanization and shifts in production and consumption patterns are major factors which are responsible for placing un-precedented stress on water resources in Pakistan (Daanish et. al., 2013). Water is mainly used for agricultural sector, domestic use, industrial use and environmental protection where the water scarcity and groundwater quality threaten the livelihood of Pakistani people. This requires the assessment of water availability, variability, water distributional procedures and water requirements for understanding the reasons of declining water availability in the country. Supply rather than demand driven Indus Basin Irrigation System in Pakistan creates inequitable water distribution and inefficient water use where regulatory and institutional inefficiencies create water dispute among the provinces and farmers as well as litigations among farmers. Therefore, it becomes imperative to address the nuances of both structural and managerial obstacles of distributional inequalities and inefficient water use for suggesting way forward in Pakistan. Following this introduction, this status paper is organized into eleven sections. The information on the material and method is given in section 2. The information on the status of water resources availability in the country is given in section three. The estimation of water balance is presented in section four. The information on water requirement/water demand is presented in section five. Section six is devoted to assessing the water supply and demand gaps. The information on addressing the threats to water availability and quality is given in section seven. Challenges to effective water management including institutional and legal aspects are narrated in section eight. The strategies for filling the water demand and supply gaps are discussed in section nine. Section ten is allocated to conclusions of understanding declining water availability in the country. Way forward for water resource sustaining water availability and requirements in the country in section eleven completes this status paper.

2.

Material and Method

Literature on water availability, variability, water requirements, water sector plans, national policies and strategies on water sector was collected. End to end analysis was carried out to assess water availability and requirements from all sources in the first stage. Secondly, water budgets for surface water, ground and rainfall water were prepared and water balances were estimated. Thirdly, the basis of area of Indus Basin, evpotranspiration and water use efficiency in Pakistan, the water requirements/demand for water for the year 2012-13 was estimated. Fourthly, then water supply and demand gaps were computed. Fifthly, the challenges for the effective water management in Pakistan were also reviewed. Finally, the strategies for filling the gaps were also reviewed and recommendations to address those challenges were proposed. 3.

Water Availability

Pakistan is one of the most arid countries in the world and possesses the worlds largest contiguous canal irrigation system commonly known as Indus Basin Irrigation System (IBIS). The Indus River and its tributaries, Kabul, Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi and Sutlej Rivers, originate in the Karakoram, Hindukush and the Himalayan regions along the north and northeastern borders of Pakistan and the entire Basin covers an area of about 900,930 square kilometers out of which 528,156 square kilometers lie in Pakistan (Nadeem, 2010). There are number of rivers which join the river Indus from the west side, in which biggest rivers are Jhelum, Chenab and Kabul and others are Kunar, Pun, Kora. The Gomal, Kurram, Tai, Kohat Tank and several other small streams join the Indus River from the right side. The three main rivers which join Indus from eastern side are Ravi, Beas and Sutlej, besides three minor rivers are the Haro, Soan and Siran (Khan, 2008). The IBIS is the largest hydrological system and the main source of fresh water (Figure-1).

Source: Nadeem, (2010). Glacier melts, snow melt, rainfall and runoff supply river flows (Daanishet. al., 2013). IBIS comprises 3 large reservoirs (Tarbela, Mangla and Chashma), 16 Barrages and 2 headworks, 14 inter-river links and 45 main canals commands extending for about 60,800 km to serve over 140,000 farmer operated watercourses (GoP, 2010). IBIS commands 16.68 Million Hectares, out of 20 million hectares of agriculture land through its large scale canal irrigation systems, 65 percent of the average river inflows are diverted for agriculture and other economic uses (Haq et. al, 2008 & GOP, 2013). Upper Indus Basin has more than 5,000 glaciers which cover a total glaciated area of about 15,000 sq. km and these glaciers correspond to about 2,700 cubic km of stored volume of ice equivalent to about 14 years of average IBIS inflows. 3.1 Water Availability from IBIS

The rivers of the Basin are subject to extreme variations of flows, the normal summer discharge being 20 times the winter minimum with mean annual flow of the Indus River in Pakistan since 1937-06 is 155 MAF, (Nadeem, 2010). The IBIS is receiving an average annual river flow of 143.18 MAF from the western rivers the Indus including Kabul, Jhelum and Chenab since the Tarbela Dam was constructed in 1968 as measured at the rim station (GOP, 2002). There is variability in daily, seasonally and annually river flows of IBIS. The eastern rivers Ravi, Sutluj and Beas, and tributary contribute 8.40 MAF of water in an average year (GOP, 2002, and Ahmed et. al., 2008). The inflow from the Makran and Kharan basins is 3.8 MAF. Thus the total mean annual flow from all western, eastern rivers and Kharan and Makran basis is about 155.38 MAF. Allowing for the reduction in the contributions in the eastern rivers and the allowable uses by India on the western rivers (10 MAF) to the total long term surface water availability in the Indus Basin is effectively equal to the inflow of the western rivers i.e. 145.38 MAF (Table-1). The estimated the long term basin-wide surface water availability is approximately 194209 MAF of which 142 MAF is extracted in Pakistan (Daanishet. al., 2013). Table- 1: Water availability from IBIS during the year 2012-2013 S.No. IBIS Availability (MAF) Average annual flow of western rivers Indus 143.18 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
including Kabul, Jhelum and Chenab Average annual flow of Eastern rivers- Ravi, Sutlaj, and Beas & Tributary Makran and Kharan Basin flow Total Allowing for the reduction in the contribution from the eastern river and the allowable uses by India on the western rivers Water available from IBIS 8.40 3.8

155.38
10

6. Source: Hussain, (2007), Nadeem (2010) and Daanish et. al., (2013).

145.38

The data on daily and monthly flows of western and eastern rivers of IBIS showed variability which affect diversion of water to canal network for irrigation where water balance is computed taking the mean value of flows and canal diversion (GoP, 2002, GoP, 2004 and Hussain, 2007). The information on river flows and canal diversion of water is presented in Table-2 which is water budgeting. The mean annual flows from all basins to Indus basin are 155.38 MAF and the river 6

system losses are 10 MAF in an average year. About 105.30 MAF is diverted to canal network for irrigation per annum in an average year which leaves 30 MAF water which flows to the sea (GoP, 2002, GoP, 2004, Hussain, 2007 & Ahmed et. al., 2008). According to WSTF (2012), the average canal water deliveries in Pakistan are 103 MAF. According to GoP, (2013), the water diverted for irrigation purpose is 105 MAF, which seems to be reasonable figure and will use for water budgeting/water balancing and estimating the supply and demand of water for the year 2012-13. The canal conveyance losses are around 25 percent and 26.73 MAF water is lost in the canal system. Thus 78.57 MAF is available at the water courses head (Table-2). 23.49 MAF water is lost during the water courses and 55.08 MAF is available at the farm gate. The implies that out of 105.30 MAF meanly 57.69 MAF water was lost in the conveyance of canal, water courses and field channels which is not available for crops, however it helped to recharge the groundwater.
Table-2: Water budget of the Indus basin irrigation system (IBIS) based on average annual river flows and average annual canal diversion for the year 2012-13 Item MAF Average annual flow of western rivers Indus including Kabul, Jhelum and 143.18 Chenab Eastern rivers and Tributary inflows 8.40 Makran basin and Kharan basin 3.8 All basins inflow 155.38 Allowing for the reduction in the contribution from the eastern river and the 10 allowable uses by India on the western rivers A. Total average surface water available 145.38 B. System Losses (seepage, evaporation and spill during flow) 10 C. Water flows to sea 30 D. Water diverted to canal network for irrigation (A-B-C) 105.30 E. Canal losses 26.73 F. Canal supplies at water courses head (D-E) 78.57 G. Water courses losses 23.49 H. Canal supply at farm gate (F-G) 55.08 I. Field channel losses 10.53 J. Irrigation water at field level (H+I) 44.55 K. Field application losses 12.15 L. Irrigation water for crop consumptive use (J-K) 32.40 Source: GoP, (2002), GoP (2004), Hussain (2007), Ahmed et. al. (2008) and authors calculations,

3.2 Water Availability from Rainfall The annual rainfall in the Indus plain (on 21 Million Hectares and Peshawar valley) averages about 26 MAF, out of which only 6 MAF is used in the irrigated areas (Khan, 2008). There are two major sources of rainfall in Pakistan i.e. the Monsoons and the Western Disturbances where there is about 70 percent of the annual Monsoon rainfall from July to September (Ahmed et. al., 2008). They have further stated that the entire Indus plain receives an average seasonal rainfall of 212mm and 53mm (36 MAF) in the Kharif and Rabi seasons respectively during year 2006-2007. The rainfall varies as we move from the north and northeast to the south of Pakistan. Hussain, (2007) has stated that the contribution of rainfall is 29.98 MAF out of which 17.01 MAF is lost through runoff rainwater and the information is presented Table-3. This figure will be used for 7

water balancing and estimation of supply and demand for water for the year 2013. 3.3. Ground Water Availability

Although, the overall ground water potential (Non-confined and confined aquifers) in Pakistan is not exactly known, the estimated availability is approximately 55 MAF (GoP, 2002). About 40 MAF of pumped ground water is also used for irrigation and current use of water is 92 percent for agriculture, 3 percent for industries and 5 percent for domestic & infrastructure (GoP, 2010). The average ground water at farm gate availability for a period of 12-years (2000-01 to 2011-12) is 50.16 MAF which is pumped for use at farms
(GoP, 2013). This quantity of groundwater (50.16 MAF) is used for water budgeting (Table-3).

Table-3: Average groundwater availability at Farm Gate, 2013 S.No. Years Groundwater (MAF) 1. 1999-2000 49.51 2. 2000-01 50.55 3. 2001-02 50.30 4. 2002-03 50.02 5. 2003-04 50.02 6. 2004-05 50.02 7. 2005-06 50.32 8. 2006-07 50.32 9. 2007-08 50.32 10. 2008-09 50.21 11. 2009-10 50.21 12. 2010-11 49.58 Average 1999-2000 to 2011-12 50.16 Source: GoP (2013). Agricultural Statistics of Pakistan (2011-12), Government of Pakistan, M/o National Food Security and Research, Economic Wing, (2013) Groundwater in the Indus Basin is now extensively used through private and public tubewells and pumped around 50.16 MFA during year 2011-12 (GOP, 2013). This made 102.55 MAF water available at the field level. Conveyance losses of groundwater on farmer's field channels are assumed to be about 10 percent primarily due to shorter channel lengths (Ahmed, 2001 and Hussain, 2007). Therefore, about 16.13 MAF is lost in the field channels for both surface and groundwater (Table-4). Table 4: Water budget for groundwater and rainfall for the year 2012-13 S.No. Item MAF 1. Extraction of Groundwater 1.1 Public, private and SCARP tubewells (2.57+39.98+8.5 MAF) 50.60 1.4 Groundwater filed channel losses (10%) 5.02 1.5 Total ground irrigation water at field level 45.14 1.6 Field application losses 11.29 1.7 Crop consumptive use 33.85 2. Contribution of Rainfall Contribution of Rainfall 2.1 29.98 2.1 Rainfall water runoff 17.01 2.2 Rainfall water available at field level 12.97 2.3 Field application losses 4.05 2.4 Crop consumptive uses of rainfall water (2.2-2.3) 8.92 8

Source: GoP, (2002), GoP (2004) and Hussain (2007) & authors calculations Thus, 90 MAF is available for meeting field gross irrigation requirement. The contribution of effective rainfall in the Indus Basin is estimated as 29.98 MAF with the rain runoff water of 17.01 MAF leaving 12.97 MAF available for irrigation requirement. Therefore, total surface, groundwater and rainfall water available for consumptive uses is 87.13 MAF, which fulfills the water requirement of 16.8 million hectares (mha) in the Indus Basin (Hussain, 2007). 3.4 Total Water Availability/Supply Surface water figures are estimated after the deducting conveyance losses and addition of losses saved due to completion of development projects (watercourse improvement, lining of distributaries & minors, rehabilitation/modernization existing irrigation system and construction of small dams to save hill torrents water (Gop, 2013). The estimated gross surface water supply (water diverted to canals) is 191 MAF during the year 201213. The surface water available at farm gate is 55.08 MAF and ground water is 50.16 MAF (GOP, 2013). The contribution of rainfall is 29.98 and 1.6 MAF respectively which adds to 140 MAF during the year 2013. The water available at field level is 104 MAF(Table-5). Table- 5: Total water availability from all sources, 2013 (MAF)
S.No. Sources Surface water available Water available at farm gate Water available at field level

1 2.

IBIS water diverted to canals 105.30 55.08 Out of IBIS water diverted to 3.8 2.85 canal (Makran & Kharan basin) 3. Water from Rainfall 29.98 29.98 4. Groundwater 50.16 50.16 5. Recyclable water from sewage 1.6 1.44 flow from cities 6. Total water availability 190.54 139.51 Source: GOP (2002), Hussain, (2007), Ahmed et. al. (2008), GoP (2013). 3. Water Balance

44.55 1 12.97 45 1.36 104.33

The estimation of water balance is based on GoP( 2002), GoP, (2004), Hussain, (2007), GoP, (2013) and Daanish et. al, (2013). The estimation of surface water balance is presented in Table-5&6. The total water flowed from the river Indus and its tributaries are 143.18 MAF annually (GOP, 2003). There are system losses which accounts to 9.72 MAF and water flows to sea accounts to 26.73 MAF which leaves 105.30 MAF which is diverted to canal network for irrigation (Table-6). The losses through the surface supplies were huge. Water losses were of two types, conveyance losses (60.75 MAF and loss to the sea 26.73 MAF after accounting for seawater intrusion. The conveyance losses included canal to watercourse head (26.73 MAF), losses for watercourse head to outlet (23.49 MAF) and losses for filed channel (10.53 MAF). The crop consumptive use is 32.40 MAF, outflow to sea water intrusion is 9.90 MAF and the losses were 92.37 MAF (Table-6). The total water available from surface, groundwater and rain is 226 MAF. Total agriculture consumptive uses are 87.13 MAF and total water losses are 135.13 MAF (Table-8). Total consumptive uses are fulfilling the water requirement of 16.8 million 9

hectares area of Indus basins irrigation system in the country. The contribution of groundwater is 50.16 MAF during 2011-12 (GoP, 2013). The water is also lost in the water courses which are assumed to be 10 percent due to short length of water courses (Ahmed, 2001 & Hussain, 2007). Therefore, 11.29 MAF water is lost in the water courses and 28.89 MAF groundwater is available for crop consumptive use (Table-9). The contribution of effective rainfall in the Indus basin is estimated as 29.97 MAF (Hussain, 2007). There is runoff rain water which accounts to 17.01 MAF and crop consumptive use is 12.96 MAF (Table-7). Table-6: Water Balance for IBIS, Water Inflows, Uses and Losses (+) during the year 2013 1. Water Inflows (+) MAF 1.1 Western rivers contribution 143.18 1.2 Eastern rivers contribution 8.40 1.3 Makran basin and Kharan basin 3.8 1.4 All basins 155.38 1.5 Reduction from the eastern river and the allowable uses 10 by India on the western rivers 1.6 Storage changes (+) 0/0 1.7 Total water inflow (1.4-1.5) 145.38 2. Water Losses and Uses (+) 2.1 Canal supplies at water course head (2.2+2.5+2.6) 78.57 2.2 Irrigation water at field level (2.3+2.7) 44.55 2.3 Irrigation water for crop consumptive use 32.40 2.4 Canal conveyance losses 26.73 2.5 Water courses conveyance losses 23.49 2.6 Filed channel conveyance losses 10.53 2.7 Field application losses 12.15 2.8 Canal withdrawal consumptive use + losses 105.30 3. Industrial and municipal uses 7.03 4. Required sea outflow to check sea intrusion 9.90 5. 49.33 Total water uses (2.3+3+4) 6. Conveyance losses, evaporation and other losses 67.26 7. Excess outflow toward sea 28.81 8. 92.37 Total water losses 145.4=49.33+96.07 Balance Surface Water available = water uses + water losses Source: GoP, (2002), GoP, (2004), Hussain (2007), Ahmed et. al. (2008) & GOP (2013)
Table-7: Ground and Rains Water Balance, 2012-13 Ground Water Balance MAF Rain Water Groundwater extraction 50.16 Contribution of rain Water course losses 5.02 Runoff Water at field outlet 45.14 Water at field outlet Field application losses 11.29 Field application losses Crop consumptive use Crop consumptive use 33.85 groundwater losses Rain water losses 16.31 Extraction=Uses+losses Water balance Water balance
50.16= 33.85+1631

MAF 29.97 17.01 12.96 4.05 8.92 21.06

Rainfall=Uses+losses 29.97=12.96+21.06

Table-8: Overall Water Balance of Surface, Groundwater and Rainfall 2013 10

Water sources Surface water Ground water Rain Total Balance

Total Water Losses Total Inflows/ Total Water Uses (MAF) extractions (MAF) (MAF) 145.38 49.33 96.07 50.16 33.85 16.31 29.98 8.91 21.05 225.52 92.09 133.43 Inflows=water uses+water losses 225.52 =92.09+133.43

4.

Water Requirements/Demand for Water

The demand for water/water requirements/water needs included both agricultural water requirements/needs and non-agricultural water requirements are needs such as domestic use, industrial use and environmental protection use. 4.1 Water Requirements/Water Demand for Agriculture Sector

About half of Pakistans population depends on irrigated agriculture for their livelihoods, and one-third lacks access to safe drinking water as irrigated agriculture is the backbone of the country where the agricultural production is directly related to the availability and effective use of water as a critical input for this sector. The economy of Pakistan is mainly depends on irrigated agriculture, which accounts directly for a quarter of the countrys GDP and directly or indirectly provides 60 percent of the population with their livelihoods (GOP, 2013). Ninety-seven percent of annual available surface water goes toward irrigation to support agriculture (Daanish et. al., 2013). They have further stated that because Pakistans transition to an urban and industrial economy is likely to continue, its competition with agriculture for water resources is likely to increase. Water demand for agriculture sector is estimated using the data of IBIS where Indus river basin area is 16.8 million ha or 168 billion M2, Crop Evapotranspiration (Et) is 625mm or 168 BM2 and irrigation efficiency is 40 percent. The net crop water requirement can be calculated as Et times Indus river basin area i.e. (0.625Mx168 BM2=105 BCM) or 85.19 MAF and divided by irrigation efficiency. The net water demand for agriculture sector is 85.19 MAF. The gross water demand for agriculture is calculated by net demand for agriculture divided by irrigation efficiency (net crop requirement/irrigation efficiency i.e. 85.19/0.40= 212.97 MAF. The gross water demand for agriculture is 212.97 MAF for the year 2013. 4.2 Non-agricultural Water Requirements Industrial and domestic water demand is a tiny proportion of the overall water demand situation in Pakistan, as evident in Table-9 and Figure 2, but given the numbers of people who depend on the domestic water sector and the spatially concentrated effects of industrial and domestic water demand, the political consequences of the present situation and future trends are likely to be out of proportion to the proportional volume of water involved for each sector in Pakistan (Daanish et. al., 2013). Load shedding greatly affects water pumping, and power shortages are directly related to water shortages in many cities. Without an integrated approach for water demand management, water shortages will continue to plague all sectors and have significant negative economic repercussions (Suttinon et. al., 2009). Table-9: Non-agricultural Water Needs (MAF) 11

Water uses

2000**

2013*

2025** 10.5 3.5 1.7 15.7

Water supply 4.5 7.4 and sanitation Industrial Use 2.2 1.47 Environmental 1.3 1.4 protection Total 8.0 10.27 * GOP, (2002) and ** Daanish et. al., (2013) Figure-2: Current Water Withdrawal by Sector
300.0 250.0 200.0 150.0 100.0 50.0 0.0 1973 Agriculture Industrial 1988 Municipal

Addl. Requirements 3.10 2.03 0.3 5.4

Current Water Withdrawl by Sector

1998

2008

Total Renewable Water (Km3/Y)

Source: Daanishet. al., (2013)

4.3 Total Agricultural and non-agricultural water Requirements/Demand for Water

Total demand for water included both agricultural and non-agricultural water needs where non-agricultural water needs included water requirement for domestic, industrial and environmental protection use. The estimated demand for water is 223.27 MAF during the year 2013 (Table-10). The demand for water is projected to rise to 274 MAF by 2025 (Daanish et. al., 2013). Table-10: Total Agricultural and Non Agricultural Water Needs (MAF) Water uses 20001 20042 20133 20254 Agricultural water 134 143.29 213 258.30 needs Non-agricultural water 8.0 9.3 10.27 15.7 needs Total water demand 142 152.59 223.27 274 1 GOP, (2002), 2 GOP (2005) and 3 authors calculation 4 Daanish et. al., (2013) 5. Water Demand and Supply Gap

The current estimated demand for water is 223.27 MAF where total availability is 191 MAF and water demand and supply gap is 32 MAF during the year 2013 (Table-11). The demand for water is projected to rise to 274 MAF by 2025 where total water availability by 2025 is not likely to change from the current 191 MAF (Daanish et. al., 2013) and the 12

gap is 59 percent of the entire Indus River Systems current annual average flow in Pakistan. The data presented in Table-11 points to a widening gap between water supply and demand overtime in Pakistan where the demand for water is increasing rapidly while the opportunities for further development of water resources or maintaining their use to existing levels are diminishing (GoP, 2010). In future, while the water demand by all the sectors will increase due to socio-economic development and population increase, that by the agriculture sector will increase much faster due to higher demand for irrigation water to compensate for higher evapo-transpiration rates at elevated temperatures resulting from climate change (GoP, 2010). Table-11: Water Demand and Supply Gap (MAF) Items 20001 20042 20133 20254 Demand for water 142 152.59 223.27 274 Supply of water 134 136 191 191 Gap 8 17 32 83 1 2 3 4 GOP, (2002), GOP (2005) and authors calculation Daanish et. al., (2013) Water security problems in the country are often presented as an excess of demand over supply, but a deeper understanding of water scarcity must historically contextualize systems of supply and demand or water supply and demand are not exogenous variables (Daanish et. al., 2013). They have further stated that rather, the magnitude and nature of supply and demand in any given region have developed as a part of a regions history and geography where water supply and demand are important in considering water security, not just because of the necessity of respecting absolute ecological thresholds but also because effective policy changes must recognize their deeply social nature as well as the historical and political economic context through which water demand and supply are established gives us the means to reframe the water scarcity debate. 6. Threats to Water Availability and Quality

The groundwater depletion, deterioration of water quality and climate change alongwith environmental hazards are major threats to water availability and quality in the country. These threats are briefly described in the following sub-sections: 6.1 Groundwater Depletion

In the 60s, Salinity Control and Reclamation Projects (SCARP), motivated farming communities to install private tubewells for better control over and flexibility of water use for growing crops. One million of private tubewells and water and sanitation authoritys (WASA) tubewells are operational to pump groundwater for agriculture and domestic use respectively. For crops (40-50 percent) and industrial as well as domestic water requirements are met mainly from groundwater in the fresh groundwater areas (Shah, 2006). The excessive use of ground water is depleting /mining the aquifer, thereby falling water table in fresh groundwater areas in the country in general and Balochistan in particular and resultantly increased tubewell installation and operational cost due to decline in water table. The quality of groundwater is deteriorating due to salt water intrusions in fresh groundwater area and rampant discharge of untreated and toxic effluents from domestic and industry near and around cities and town. About 90 percent of untreated and highly toxic domestic and industrial water is dumping into opened drains and filtrating into aquifer and resultantly Pakistan highest in the World in mortality rate 13

of which 60 percents death occurs due to water borne diseases. The indiscriminate pumping and heavy use of fertilizer and pesticides are contaminating the aquifer, where both the government and donors have failed to reengineer their capacity and funding to deal with groundwater depletion (WWF, 2007).

6.2

Climate Change and Environmental Hazards

Climate change can have major impacts on water resources, affecting both ground and surface water supply for domestic and industrial uses, irrigation, hydropower generation, navigation, in-stream ecosystems and water-based recreation where changes in the total amount of precipitation and in its frequency and intensity directly affect the magnitude and timing of runoff and the intensity of floods and drought (Nadeem, 2010). The floods during 2010, 2012 and 2013 are caused due to climate change which increases monsoon rainfall in the northwest of the country. The flood of 2010 had damaged 1.8 million homes and affected 21 million people in Pakistan. Christensen et. al., (2007) forecasted an increase overall monsoonal rainfall, an increase mining of water banks due to deglaciation and increase area affected by flooding in Pakistan. 7. Challenges to Affective Water Management

The United Nation (UN) currently estimated an annual per capita water availability of 1090 cubic meters for the year 2012-13. The Food Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO) defines water stress as availability between 500 and 1000 cubic meter per capita per year and water scarcity as less than 500 cubic meters per year per capita (http://www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/data). According to these definitions, Pakistan falls in the category of water stressed nation because stresses are considered high if the total renewable water resources (TRWR) value is above 25 percent where Pakistans water pressure amounts to a staggering 74 percent as compared with India at 34 percent and Afghanistan at 31 percent and Pakistan is expected to become water scarce less than 500 cubic meters per capita per year by 2035 and Pakistan will become water scarce country by 2035 (Daanish et. al., 2013). The major factors responsible for moving Pakistan from water stress to water scarce nation will be rapid population growth, inefficient water supply management, distributional inequalities and affects of climate change in Pakistan. Population growth has been high, averaging an annual rate of just over 2.5 percent. The average annual population growth rate from 1961 to 2011 in Pakistan was 2.61 percent where this growth rate was only 1.81 percent from 2001 to 2011 which suggests that population is growing at a declining rate (Daanish et. al., 2013). They have further stated that most writing on the countrys water scarcity and water policy in general begins with the sobering fact that the per capita availability of water in Pakistan has decreased from 5,260 cubic meters in 1951 to roughly 1,040 in 2010 a decline of more than 400 percent (Table-12). Table- 12: Per Capita Water Availability 2013 (MAF) S.No. Years Population(Million) Water availability per capita per year (cubic meters) 14

1. 1951 34 5260 2. 1972 63 3933 3. 1982 86 2864 4. 1992 168 1038 5. 2013 184 1000 6. 2025 221 800 Source: Ahmed et. al. (2008), GoP (2013) & Daanish et. al., (2013) Figures 3 show the relationships between water availability and population. Pakistan is currently the sixth most populous country in the world, and its population is expected to increase from 180 million in 2012 to 230 million in 2025 (World Population Datasheet, 2012). In terms of volume, Pakistan is well endowed with water resources where in terms of per capita availability, the water supply picture may seem worrying and more than the absolute volume, however, is the temporal, spatial, and social distribution of water, which ought to be of greater concern in the country (Daanish et al., 2013).

The assumption that population growth will outstrip the capacity to produce enough food for everyone is not the source of a pending national crisis and the issue lies in the politics of distribution, allocation, and accessnot in aggregate supply and demand (Harvey, 1974). The slowdown in agricultural production in the first decade of the 2000s, however, is worrying (GOP, 2009). Nevertheless, the main question is not how to increase the supply (or decrease the demand) of water but how to share water more equally. The status of Pakistan as a water stress country has been explained in term of supply and demand but water crises haunting the country is rooted in unsustainable practices (structural constraints to water sector) and gross mismanagement (managerial challenges to water sector. Urgent efforts are required to address the governance weaknesses and institutional in-efficiencies for sustainable water availability and requirements in the country.

15

7.1

Governance Weaknesses

Poor governance may be one of the biggest factors preventing effective water management where its regulatory and institutional deficiencies are increasing tension among water stakeholders, who are failing to communicate and cooperate with each other to overcome weak policies and enforcement mechanisms of the water sector in the country (Daanish et. al., 2013).

7.1.1

Regulatory Deficiencies

The Canal and Drainage Act 1873 mandates a fix time rotational irrigational schedule (barawandi), which temporally provides equal water rights at the head and the tail. Increasing water losses along the water course is not accounted for in the barawandi and resultantly tail end farmers get water less than their shares and large farmers get proportionally higher water allocation which contradicts equity principle. According to the Act, all water resources are the property of the government and water rights is linked with land ownership rather than water uses as a proxy of water use i.e. supply rather demand driven water allocation rights. These untitled water rights creates water dispute among the provinces and farmers in the country. Water distributional issues caused litigations due to no existence of fixed entitlements of water for provinces and farmers. The current stagnating water rates (abiana) lead to increase losses that failed to provide adequate funding for operational, maintenance and management of irrigation system in Pakistan. There is also lack of well established groundwater ownership and rights. The untreated and toxic effluents from domestic and industries near and around cities and towns creates polluted groundwater supplies. 7.1.2 Institutional Deficiencies Institutional deficiencies deal with quite complex and disconnected, structure of institutions governing water at the Federal, provincial and local level with disorder accountability and data sources (Fig. 4). Currently, subject water management falls under the M/o NFS&R and each province has its own authorities that govern irrigation, water development, and supply and sanitation. Indus River System Authority (IRSA) collects data on water use and circulates it after every ten days to the water courses in the fields of provincial irrigation departments and back to the irrigation departments and IRSA and procedure of data collection and sharing are a source of mistrust and controversy between the provinces due to mis-reporting of data from manual gauge readers at IBIS. The area development authorities or Water Supply and Sanitation Authorities (WASA) are responsible to supply water and sanitation in the provinces. These authorities are disconnect between their remit and power and their lack of accountability, however, are constant (Dannish at el, 2013). Service delivery of the area development authorities / WASA is both unreliable and corrupt and local governments ability to raise funds and sustain the Water Supply and Sanitation Authorities is also questioned. Institutional reform would help reverse the weak governance that is fueling socioeconomic discontent and eroding citizens confidence in their government and rule of law (Dannish at el, 2013). 7.2 Supply Driven Policy Approach
The policies and strategies to address various water challenges in Pakistan include (i) national climate change policy, (2011) (ii) drinking water and sanitation policy (2009) (iii) environmental policy (2005) (iv) draft National water policy (2004) (v) Pakistan water sector strategy (2002) and (vi) water sector plan (1990). The review of these policies and strategies revealed that the claims

16

of these policies and strategies were water resource management with focus on its mega project supply side interventions in the water sector of Pakistan. This implies that the overall philosophy of all these policies and strategies to favour engineering mega projects and the concentration on large scale infrastructure (dams) to balance water availability in the country. These policies ignored the socio economic realities in addition to minimizing the consequence of flooding, population displacement and lost of livelihoods (Daanish et al, 2013). The supply rather than demand driven policies and strategies veil not only inequitable distribution especially to tail end farmers but also inefficient water use (Nadeem, 2010).

Source: Daanish et. al., (2013) The storage capacity of IBIS is only 121 MAF per year, or a thirty-day supply which is extremely low as compared with India can store for 120 to 220 days, Egypt up to 700 days, and the United States for 900 days. The storage capacity of IBIS at 9 percent (live storage) of its average annual flow is low when compared with 40 percent world average, 33 percent in India, 347 percent of Nile river basin and 497 percent of Colorado river basin (Kahlown and Majeed, 2002 & GoP, 2010). 1/3rd of total amount of delivered water is lost within water courses and between canal heads and water courses and 25 percent water lost within farms which implies poor management and distribution of irrigated water translated to only 45 percent of cultivable land being farmed at any given time in the country or Pakistan uses 97 percent of is allocated water resources to support one of the lowest productivity in the world per unit of water (Daanish et al, 2013). They have further stated that by treating water as a raw material, technical solutions are deployed to harness the waters fullest capacity, which ignore the short-falls and constraints in water supply and funds for operation, maintenance, and investments and simply repairing and 17

maintaining Pakistans existing canal systems could free an estimated 76 MAF of water. Moreover, a comprehensive National Water Policy was drafted in 2005 but has yet to be adopted as debate has been intense over the policys approach in addressing water scarcity, demand, and population pressures and whether the policy should focus more on storage projects or conservation and efficiency strategies as well as the policy document is marred by provincial disputes over water rights and priorities, demonstrating yet another obstacle to effective water management (Daanish et al, 2013). 7.3 Inter-sectoral water competition

The literature on the forecasting water availability and requirement focuses on agricultural sector but water are also required to feed increasing population and industries spread across the country. This increase in population and industries means more waters for these two sectors which imply changes in water uses for urbanization, industrialization, agriculture diversification and environmental needs. This change of water uses will enhance inter-sector competition. The domestic and industrial demand is a very small proportion of overall water demand in the country as evident in the Figure-5 but given the number of peoples who depend on the domestic water sector and spatially concentrated effects of industrial and domestic water demand, the political consequences of present situation and future trend are likely to be out of proportion volume of water involved for each sector in Pakistan i.e. demand for domestic and industrial sector is likely to increase in the future. Daanish et. al., (2013) summarized few other points for inter-sectoral water competition which are as under: (i) water quality is becoming just as much of an issue as water quantity and the urban and industrial sectors face several development challenges (ii) these sectors need to raise the level of service quality and reliability in water supply in large metropolitan areas and industrial states (iii) access to a piped water supply in small towns and rural areas should be extended (iv) sources of sanitary and industrial effluents need to be blocked before entering fresh water ways (v) development should not come at the cost of contaminating already limited water sources (vi) as Pakistan develops, balancing shifts in supply and demand will become a major challenge, as a growing middle class demands more water-intensive convenience technologies and higher commodities, such as meat, dairy, and more diversified produce and (vii) supply-side water policies and the concentration on large-scale infrastructure projects to balance water availability notably dams often ignore these socioeconomic realities in addition to minimizing the consequences of flooding, population displacement, and lost livelihoods where this displacement often hits poorer communities, who may have no other safety nets and may be more vulnerable to violence. 7.4 Skills and Technologies

Daanish et. al., (2013) has proposed the introduction of four technologies to address the burning issues of water which is summarized as under: 7.4.1 Minimizing Mis-reporting Data Manual gauge readers are used at IBIS for inter-provincial water distribution where Sindh province frequently accuses Punjab province for mis-reporting the data from this 18

manual gauge and thus inter-provincial water dispute occurs. The introduction of technology of telemetry system is proposed for the distribution of water to provinces and flood warning. 7.4.2 Focusing groundwater storage Considerable attention has been given to dam construction for surface storage in the water which is one of the most inefficient types of storage solutions in a hot and dry country due to huge evaporation losses. Little attention has been paid to groundwater storage through injection wells or otherwise, which could be much more efficient. Energy generation benets are undeniable, but greater attention to groundwater storage in addition to surface storage could help water managers expand their range of options in the face of greater demand on water and un-certainity in the face of climate change. 7.4.3 Minimizing field application water losses The introduction of laser land leveling is an effective way of improving waters productive efficiency in order to minimize the water application losses of about 25 percent. The benefits of the technology, as might be expected, have largely been directed toward larger farmers. The technology has also been criticized for compromising the soil ecology by killing many beneficial soil organisms, which contribute to soil productivity. 7.4.4 Focusing on Water Conservation Techniques

Sprinkler and drip irrigation has also been proposed as a substitute for flood irrigation to conserve water. The capital expenditure combined with the operation and maintenance costs mean that only relatively prosperous farmers who can afford the expenses of the technology can benefit from them. The social implications of the technologies aside, farmers often prefer the silt-laden surface water for its soil rejuvenating qualities. A case can also be made for flood irrigation in the sense that it does recharge the aquifer, which is particularly useful near urban areas, being that most of urban water supply in Pakistan is from groundwater. 7.4.5 Addressing Silent Public Health Crisis There is poor urban (40 percent people have no access) and rural ( 90 percent of rural population have no access) water supply in Pakistan as the water supply and sanitation systems remain on the old networked water systems which can not avoid sewage contamination. Appropriate technologies promoting modular systems in urban and rural water supply and behavioral change in water usage are proposed to address silent, public health crises. 8. Filling the Gaps

In term of remedial, the most countries are managing water shortage problem rather than solving it. Water resources management and development in the country faces immense challenges for resolving many diverse problems. The most critical of these is a very high temporal and spatial variation of water availability. Nearly 81 percent of river flows and 65 percent of precipitation occurs during the three monsoon months, while quality of groundwater largely varies with depth and location. Ever expanding water needs for the growing economy and the population for meeting its food and fiber requirements, and the advent of frequent floods and droughts, add to the complexity of 19

water management. The water scarcity and groundwater quality threaten the livelihoods of Pakistani nation. Untitled water rights and institutional deficiencies create water disputes among provinces and farmers. Supply rather than demand driven system creates inequitable distribution and inefficient water use. Therefore, it becomes important to address the nuance of structural obstacle of distributional inequalities and managerial obstacle of inefficient water use in the country. Water disputes among farmer over water use pushes them to migrate to cities to strain urban water supply that compete with agricultural water use. The shortage of agriculture production lead to higher food prices which adversely affect urban poor who might have migrated from rural areas, the affecties of water disputes. Thus inter-sectoral water competition becomes an issue of inequality and imbalance. There is need to analyze the linkages between sectorals water pressure in the face of increasing urban population. An integrated approach to water supply and demand management is a solution for improving rural urban water supply and sanitation system in Pakistan. Lot of debates on building of dams has been going on for the last two three decades but there was no consensus among the provinces on the building of Kalabagh dam in spite of spending billion of rupees on preparation of its pre-feasibility and feasibility reports. The concentration on dams as the only solution to water and energy supply grossly ignores the need for resource behavioral change and the role of other energy sources, including renewable and alternative as well as understanding the life cycle of water use for major production processes and products can help explain the water efficiency problems and guide policy formation in Pakistan (Daanish et. al., 2013).

There is stagnant abiana (water tax) which is not economically feasible because it does not cover even the operational and maintenance cost of water supply in the country. The greater experimentation with water pricing systems is needed in the form of devolution of water allocation mechanisms, whether through market pricing or other means, must take the highly unequal agrarian property relations in Pakistan as its starting point (Daanish et. al., 2013). More domestic resources allocation to repair and maintain infrastructure and more investment in innovative technologies and better understanding of declining water availability issue will allow for more effective programming that empowers and engages water stakeholders from the officials to the grassroots level in the country.

9.

Conclusions

This paper provides a review on challenges of declining water availability and way forward for sustainable water availability in the country. First water availability and requirements from all sources were reviewed and estimated water supply and water requirements for the year 2013. Then the water budgets for surface water, groundwater and rainfall water were made and water balance was prepared. Then water supply and demand gap were estimated. The challenges confronting this gap were also reviewed. Opportunities for filling the gaps were reviewed and proposed. The IBIS is designed to allocate the scarce water resource over a large geographic area on equitable basis, although equitable distribution is self-defeating as the delivery system is 20

positively linked to the landholdings. In terms of volume, Pakistan is well endowed with water resources but in terms of per capita availability, the water supply picture is worrying. The demand for water has increased tremendously over time due to expansion of agricultural cultivation on marginal land, increase in agricultural intensification, and fast population and industrial growth in the country. The major structural challenges include highly seasonally variable river flows, increasing water shortages during whole Rabi crop-season and sowing-time during Kharif cropseason, inadequate transfer capacity of link canals, and extremely long lead times from reservoirs to the farmers fields causes large conveyance losses. The major managerial obstacles include poor operation, maintenance and monitoring of the system causing large water leakages, untitled water rights creating tension among regions and farmers, supply rather than demand driven system which not only creates inequitable distribution (especially to tail-end farmers) but also inefficient water use. Because of overuse and misuse of water resource, the country is facing declining water availability, growing water pollution and overall environmental insecurity. By 2030, water experts expect Pakistan to decline from being water stressed country to a water scarce nation which will mainly be attributed to rapid population growth, inefficient water supply management supply driven system, distributional inequalities, the effects of climate change and a lack of substantive public participation in the formulation of national water policy and strategy. The concentration on dams as the only solution to water and energy supply grossly ignores the need for resource behavioral change and the role of other energy sources. Better understanding of the water shortage issues will allow for more effective programming that empowers and engages water stakeholders from the officials to the grassroots level. Doing nothing is not an option, yet country does not have the capacity to inject more water into its national grid and water stressed should not be the security tipping points but rather a path to social harmony, environmental sustainability and national unity. The priorities of water sector should address economic efficiency, environmental sustainability, and equity, in order to reorient water demand and improve water management in the country. There is need to regulate and alter water use behavior which could curtail water shortages. Urgent efforts are also required to initiate appropriate institutional reforms in the water sector and a healthy dose of democracy in the water resources decision-making structures in the country. 10. Way Forward

The broad goal of development of water resources sector is to uplift the agro-based economy on the national level by maximizing crop production, through progressively increasing surface water supplies and conserving them using the latest technologies available and protecting land and infrastructure from water-logging, salinity, floods and soil erosion in an integrated manner (GoP, 2005, 2007 & 2010). The goal also includes catering to the increasing demands for drinking water supplies and for industrial and commercial activities in a cost effective manner. In this context, the challenge will be the formulation and effective implementation of a comprehensive set of recommendations for the development and management of water resources in Pakistan which would include, 21

integrated resource use, the introduction of water efficient techniques, containment of environmental degradation, institutional strengthening and capacity building (Kahlown and Majeed, 2002). Participation of public private and civil sector in the development of a national water policy, a strategy for improved service provision and strengthen enforcement mechanism for water use, improved communication and data sharing mechanisms, promoting the adoption of innovative business models and methods of water conservation and strengthening disaster risk management strategy at local level are the recommendations for curtailing declining water availability in the country. The brief description of each recommendation is narrated here: 10.1 Demand Driven Policy Approach

Demand driven water policy will help equitable water distribution and efficient water use. The participation of public, private and civil sector is proposed for a shared policy framework to address the challenges to water sector. In term of per capita, the declining water availability can be enhanced by focusing more on under ground water storage through injection wells or otherwise which would be much more efficient. Energy generation benets are undeniable, but greater attention to groundwater storage in addition to surface storage could help water managers expand their range of options in the face of greater demand on water and un-certainity in the face of climate change in a dry and hot country Pakistan. The moreover further emphasis is proposed for both demand management and conservation to ease competition over water between water users and sectors in Pakistan. 10.2 Strategy for improved service provision and strengthen enforcement mechanisms for water use.

The understanding of sector demands and the life cycle of water availability and use is pre-requisite for improved service provision and enforcement mechanism for water use in the country. Appropriate regulations should ensure reliable and affordable water delivery services. Stronger mechanisms of enforcement are needed to limit pollution, secure revenue collections, and ensure efficient and equitable use of surface and groundwater in the country. Adequate technologies promoting modular system in Urban and Rural Water Supply & Sanitation along with behavioral change in water usage are proposed to address silent public health crises. 10.3 Improve communication and data sharing mechanisms.

Efforts are required to ensure transparency and accountability at all levels of the water sector in order to remove the mistrust of stakeholders and decision makers. Donors and civil society can jointly work to ensure appropriate checks and balances of reported water data and of decisions made by water managers and irrigation officials. Adopting of up-todate technology and enacting stronger legislation that requires more oversight of water usage in order to check the transparency. 10.4 Promote water conservation techniques

Conservation strategies could include laser land leveling, sprinkler and drip irrigation, 22

rainwater harvesting and bioremediation for waste water as a water recycling. 10.5 Strengthen disaster risk management strategies at the local level

This is a bottom-up approach for addressing the impacts of environmental hazards, including dispossession and migration. By doing so, Pakistan can ensure effective and timely relief and recovery through local institutions and help increase the legitimacy of formal governance structures in the irrigation system of Pakistan.

23

11.

Reference
1. Ahmed A, Henna I., and Ghulam M.C., (2008), Water Resources and Conservation Strategy of Pakistan. Pakistan Institute of Development Economics, PIDE, Islamabad. 2. Briscoe J. and U Qamar (2005), Pakistans Water Economy: Running Dry (New York: World Bank, 2005); Imran Ali, The Punjab Under Imperialism, 18851947 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1988). 3. Christensen J. H. (2007) Regional Climate Projections, in Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis, eds. S. Solomon et al. (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007). 4. David R. A. N. Forsythe, H. J. Fowler, and S. M. Shah, (2010), Sustainability of Water Resources Management in the Indus Basin Under Changing Climatic and Socio Economic Conditions, Hydrology and Earth System Sciences 14, no. 8 (2010): 166980. 5. Daanish, M., Majeed A., and Natelie N., (2013). Understanding Pakistans WaterSecurity Nexus, United State Institute of Peace, USA. 6. FAO, AQUASTAT database, 2013, www.fao.org/nr/water/aquastat/data. 7. GoP (1990) Water Sector Investment Planning Study, 5 vols. (Lahore: Federal Planning Cell, 1990) Government of Pakistan, Water and Power Development Authority (WAPDA). 8. GoP (2002). Pakistan Water Sector Strategy (2002) Volume 1, Ministry of Water & Power, Government of Pakistan. 9. GoP (2002), Pakistan Water Sector strategy, National Water Sector Profile Volume 5, Ministry of Water and Power Office of the Chief Engineering Advisor/Chairman Federal Flood Commission, Government of Pakistan, Islamabad 10. GoP (2003). Pakistans Vision of Water Resource Management (2003) Presented at Pakistan Development Forum, Ministry of Water & Power, Government of Pakistan. 11. GoP (2004). National Water Policy (Draft, 2004) Ministry of Environment, Government of Pakistan. 12. GoP, (2004). National Water Policy, Planning Commission, Government of Pakistan, Islamabad.

13. GoP-MoW&P (2005), Report of Technical Committee on Water Resources, Ministry of 14. Water and Power, Government of Pakistan, Islamabad. 24

15. GoP (2005). Medium Term Development Framework 2005-10, Planning Commission, Government of Pakistan, May 2005. 16. GoP (2006). Pakistan Strategic Country Environment Assessment Report (2006), Rising to the Challenges, Ministry of Environment, Government of Pakistan. 17. GoP (2007): Pakistan in the 21st Century - Vision 2030, Planning Commission, Government of Pakistan. Islamabad. 18. GoP (2009). Planning Commission, Task Force on Food Security: Final Report (Islamabad: Government of Pakistan, 2009). 19. GoP (2010): Final Report of the Task Force on Climate Change, Planning Commission, Government of Pakistan, Islamabad. 20. GoP (2010). Planning Commission of Pakistan, Task Force on Climate Change: Final Report (Islamabad: Government of Pakistan, 2010); Briscoe and Qamar, Pakistans Water Economy. 21. GoP (2013) Agricultural statistics of Pakistan, 2011-2012, Ministry of National Food Security and Research, Economic Wing, Government of Pakistan, Islamabad. 22. GoP (2013). Pakistan Economic Survey 2012-13, Government of Pakistan, Finance Division, economic Advisers Wing, Islamabad 23. Hussain I., (2007). Water Demand Management and Economic Value of Water in the Indus Basin, Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Economics, University of Sargodha, Punjab, Pakistan. 24. Haq A.U., Khan, M.H. and Khan, M.A. (2008). Water Management Framework in Pakistans Indus River Basin: Historical Perspective and Emerging Challenges. Paper presented at ICID Congress held at WAPDA House, Lahore, Pakistan. 1318 October, 2008. 25. Hewitt K. (1983). Climactic Hazards and Agricultural Development: Some Aspects of the Problem in the Indo-Pakistan Subcontinent, in Interpretations of Calamity: From the Viewpoint of Human Ecology (Win-chester, MA: Allen & Unwin, 1983), pp. 181201. 26. IPOE (2005). Gonzalez, F. J., Basson, T. and Schultz, B. (2005), Final Report of IPOE for review of Studies on Water Escapage below Kotri Barrage, Delft, the Netherlands. 27. Kahlown and Majeed (2002), Water-Resources Situation in Pakistan: Challenges and Future Strategies, Vol.7, No.3-4.

28. Khan M.N., (2008). Draft Paper on Water Resources Availability in Pakistan, 25

F&A Section, Planning Commission, Government of Pakistan, Islamabad. 29. Kamal S. (2009), Pakistans Water Challenges: Entitlement, Access, Efficiency, and Equity, in Running on Empty: Pakistans Water Crisis (Washington, DC: Woodrow Wilson Center, 2009). 30. Nadeem A. (2010). Indus Water Management Challenges and Strategies, Lahore Journal of Economics, 15: Special Edition: Papers and Proceedings of the Sith Annual Conference of the Lahore School of Economics, April, 2010. 31. Suttinon P., A. M. Bhatti, and S. Nasu, (2009) Industrial and Household Water Demand Management: A Case Study of Pakistan (Kaohsiung, Taiwan: Society for Social Management Systems, 2009), ttp://management.kochitech.ac.jp/PDF/ssms2009/ sms09_171.pdf. 32. World Bank Statistics http://data.worldbank.org/country/pakistan Database, Pakistan,

33. WWF (2007). World Wildlife Fund, Pakistans Waters at Risk: Water and Health Related Issues in Pakistan and Key Recommendations (Lahore: WWF Pakistan, February 2007) 34. WSTF (2012). A Productive and Water-Secure Pakistan: Infrastructure, Institutions and Strategy, The Report of the Water Sector Taskforce of the Friends of Democratic of Pakistan.

26