CHAPTER 4 LINES WITH REFLECTIONS 4.1. Various Exponential Forms of the A-C Steady state Solution. In Sec. 2.

2 we solved the steady state differential equations for the uniform transmission line and showed that the voltage and current could be written as E = (4.1) and I =

(4.2) Where the As are constants with the dimension of voltage, and x is the distance measured from the sending end. The quantities and are, respectively, the characteristic impedance and the propagation constant of the line: =

= We saw that the real and imaginary parts of play entirely different roles in the propagation of the waves; the real part is the attenuation constant , and the imaginary part is the phase constant : = + j by 2 and take the real part of the result. Thus, the instantaneous voltage can be written as e = 2 Re To obtain the instantaneous values of voltage and current, we multiply Eqs. (4.1) and (4.2)

The first term within the brackets represent a wave that travels in the positive x direction with the phase velocity /, as we saw in Sec. 2.4. Similarly, the second term in brackets represents a wave that travels in the negative x direction with the same speed. The wave travelling to the right is attenuated by the factor , and the wave travelling to the left is similarly attenuated in its direction of travel. In the latter case, the attenuation factor must appear as because the wave travels in the direction of decreasing x. In Sec. 1.6 we studied the propagation and reflection of waves on a lossless line and calculated the transients caused by a d-c emf. As will be shown in the next section, the a-c steady state can also be calculated in a similar way: one determines the initial outgoing wave from the generator and then considers all the reflections and rereflections of this wave. The

We shall call the first term in Eq. (4.1) the incident voltage and denote it by the symbol . The second term we shall call the reflected voltage and denote it by the symbol . Then we can write E = + (4.3) If we similarly write the total current as the sum of incident and reflected components, designated, respectively, by , we have I = +

results found in this way are identical with the steady state solution (4.1) and (4.2). The term represent the net sum of all the individual waves that travel to the right, while the term represent the sum of all waves that travel to the left.

(4.4) Comparison with Eqs. (4.1) and (4.2) shows that =

(4.5) and =

(4.6) The characteristic impedance generally has only a small phase angle. Hence, is nearly in phase with , while is nearly 180 out of phase with . We first saw this relation when we were analyzing transients on lossless lines. Physically, the explanation for the minus sign in Eq. (4.6) is the same as was given in Sec. 1.5 and Fig. 1.7: the current caused by a charge moving to the right is opposite to the current produced by a similar charge moving to the left, although the voltages have the same sign. Next, we shall evaluate the constant and in the solutions (4.1) and (4.2). There are many equivalent forms of the solution, depending on the terminal quantities that are used. The more common forms use the following (see fig. 4.1): and ; or and the sending end impedance ; or , , and . Often it is convenient to measure distances from the receiving end instead of from the sending end (d = l x as shown in fig. 4.1). To express the constants in terms of the sending end quantities, set E = and I = at x = 0 in eqs. (4.1) and (4.2). then we have

Solving for a and , we obtain

and = =

E=

(4.7)

and I = (4.8) It is convenient for many purposes to express the constants in terms of the receiving end quantities and . For this, we go back to eqs. (4.1) and (4.2) and substitute E = and I = at x = l. then, solving for and , we have =

and

Substituting these relations into Eq. (4.1) and (4.2) and using d= l x for convenience, we obtain the solution in the form E=

(4.9)

And E=

(4.10)

The distance d id measured from the receiving end, as shown in fig. 4.1. The solution in terms of , , and can be derived in a similar way by using E = at x = 0 and = at x = l, but instead it will be found in a different way in the next section.

In each of the different forms of the solution, the firs term represents the steady state incident wave ( and ) , and the second term represents the steady state reflected wave ( and ) . Observe that the relations (4.5) and (4.6) apply to each. The ratio of the reflected voltage to the incident voltage we shall call the reflection coefficient, k. from eq. (4.9) this ratio at any distance from the receiving end is k= =

(4.11)

The reflection coefficient is, in general, a complex number. At the receiving end it is k=

=

(4.12) This is the same expression that we used in see. 1.6 for transients on the lossless line. The reflections coefficient at any point can be expressed in terms of by dividing (4.11) by (4.12): k = =

(4.13) Inspection of eq. (4.10) shows that the reflection coefficient for current is the negative of that for voltage, i.e., at any point,

= -k =

(4.14)

The impedance of a transmission line at any point is defined as the complex ratio of E and I at that point. Dividing eq. (4.9) by (4.10), we obtain Z =

(4.15) At d = 0 this impedance reduces, of course, to . the sending end impedance of the line, , is obtained by placing d = l. The transfer impedance if the line is defined as the ratio of the sending end voltage to the receiving end current. Using eq. (4.9) and setting E = at d = l, we have

1 2 4.16

The ratio of the sending end current to the receiving end current can be obtain from eq. (4.10) and is 2 (4.17) In using the foregoing exponential relations, the student should recall that When the a transmission line is terminated in its characteristic impedance ( = ), the general relations derived above reduce to those of sec. 2.3, as of course they should. First, the impedance (4.15) reduces to Z = at all points on the line, and hence = . The solutions (4.7) and (4.8) become E = . = , and the current ratio (4.17) reduces to As indicated in fig. 4.1, the generator works into impedance at its terminals. From the point of view of the generator, an equivalent sending end circuit is that shown in fig. 4.2. when is known, perhaps by use of eq. (4.15) with d = l, the equivalent sending end circuit can be solved for , , and the sending end power. The solutions (4.7) and (4.8) can then be used to find the current and voltage at any point on the line, or (4.16) or (4.17) can be used to find the receiving end current. Example. Given a telephone transmission line 100 miles long, with = 685 j92 ohms, = 0.00497 neper/mile, and = 0.0352 rad/mile at 1,000 cps. The line is terminated in = 2,000 + j0 ohms. The generator has an emf of 10 volts rms and an internal impedance of 700 ohms resistance. Find the sending end impedance, the sending end current, voltage, and power, and the receiving end voltage, current, and power. For this line, = 3.52 rad = 202 . Then,

sin

.. . /202 1.52 0.615

1.64 cos 202 sin 202

also . /202 = -0.566 + j0.229 Using eq. (4.15), the sending end impedance of the line is

 685 92

691 /7.65 ) ./. 919 /20.7 861 325

2,685 92 1,315 92 2,685 92 1,315 92

,/.

A considerable part of the complex arithmetic necessary in the above computation can be avoided by use transmission line chart describe in chap. 5, with, of course, some loss of potential accuracy. The sending end can be found by solving the equivalent sending end circuit of fig. 4.2. of only magnitudes are desired, we have 10 | | 700 861 325 10 6.26 10 1596

The magnitude of the sending end voltage is

The sending end power is | | , where is the resistive component of the sending end impedance. Then, 6.26 10 861 33.8 10 The variation of voltage and current along the line can be written from eq. (4.7) and (4.8). the receiving end current can be found from either (4.16) or (4.17). using the latter and taking absolute values of numerator and denominator, we have 6.26 10 3,810 | | 2 691 In which we have made use of previous numerical results. Then, | | 2.28 This flows through a 2000 ohm resistive load, and hence 4.2. Solution in terms of , , and . | | 4.56 , 10.4

| | | |. | | 6.26 10 919 5.75

The equations for E and I along the line can be expressed in terms of , , and by imposing the terminal relations = - and = on eq. (4.1) and (4.2). However, we shall instead derive tis form of the solution by a method analogous to that used in sec. 1.6 for transients on a lossless line. In this analysis we shall ignore the possibility of local transients in the generator and load. Such transients may affect the manner in which the steady state builds

up on the line, but they will not affect the final result or the general physical picture of the process. When the generator is first connected to the line, it sees an impedance equal to until the arrival of the first reflection from the load. Therefore, for the first few moments the sending end voltage of the line will be / . This wave, which we imagine to flow forevermore our of the generator, will be propagated down the line and at a distance x will have value

(4.18) As this wave reaches the load, it will be reflected with the reflection coefficient [see eq. (1.25) or (4.12)]:

(4.19) And thus will give rise to a second wave which will travel back toward the generator. To find an expression for the second wave, we take (4.18) and set x = l to find the value of the wave at the load end, then we multiply by to find the reflected voltage at that point, and finally we multiply by the propagation factor = to allow for its travel backward. The result is

(4.20) This wave reaches the generator with a magnitude obtained by setting x = 0 in the above expression and is reflected there with the coefficient

(4.21) The new reflection is propagated to the right as indicated by the propagation factor ; hence, combining these factors, we get an expression for the new reflection:

(4.22) Continuing in this way, we find an infinite series of reflections, each smaller than the last. The sum id convergent and represents the steady state which is finally established. The infinite series can be written as

 or

The part in the brackets is an infinite geometric series of the form 1 + a + + , which is known to converge to the value 1/(1 a) for |a| < 1. Therefore, we can write 1 (4.23) This expression should be compared with the previous forms of the solution, for all are identical in form and meaning. The equation we have just derived gives explicitly the values of the two integration constant and in terms of , , and . The result is again of the form + , where is the net incident wave composed of the sum of all the individual waves that travel toward the load, and is the net reflected wave composed of all the individual waves that travel toward the generator. The steady state ratio / was defined in eq. (4.11) as the reflection coefficient k, and is equal to . This ratio is determined only by the load and the line, not by generator. It is completely unaffected by the quantity = ( ) /( ), which is the reflection coefficient seen by an individual backward traveling wave as it reaches the generator terminals. As indicated by eq. (4.23), the latter affects the steady state solution only through its influence on the magnitude of the entire solution (also see prob. 14 of chap. 2). It can be seen from eq. (4.23) that the reflect wave in the vicinity of the sending end will be very small whenever is small, or regardless of , whenever the total attenuation is so great that << 1. Then, so far as the generator is concerned, the line is equivalent to one of infinite length. In deriving the foregoing equation, we have assumed that the generator could be represented accurately by an emf in series with an effective internal impedance. Is the line is deriven from a complicated network, Thevenins theorem can be used to find an equivalent series circuit. It should be realized, however, that not all sources can be represented accurately by an emf of constant amplitude in series with a fixed impedance. This is particularly true where the line is driven directly from an oscillator, for the loading effect of the line may affect both the intensity of the oscillator and the frequency. The simple series representation shown in fig. 4.1 and 4.2 should be regarded as the nearest linear equivalent of whatever generator is actually used. It is often convenient to express eq. (4.23) in terms of the distance d from the load. Substituting x = l d, we obtain

(4.24)

The expression for current corresponding with eq. (4.24) can be obtained by used of eq. (4.5) and (4.6): the voltage is divided by and the sidn of the reflected component is reversed. Then we have 1 (4.25) The reflection coefficient for current is again seen to be the negative of that for voltage. 4.3. Hyperbolic functions. In the next section we shall express the transmission line solutions on terms of hyperbolic functions, and so in this section we shall consider these functions briefly. Eulers formulas for the exponential with an imaginary exponent are cos sin and cos sin Adding and subtracting these equations, we obtain the familiar exponential expressions for the sine and cosine: cos z sin z

(4.26)

(4.27)

As is well known, the sine and cosine can be defined for real values of z by means of a circle, as indicated in fig. 4.3. for this reason these quantities are sometimes called circular functions. The angle z in radians is equal to the arc s divided by the radius a, or alternatively, is equal to 2A/ , where A is the area of the shaded circular sector shown in fig. 4.3. It is frequently convenient to define a somewhat different combination of exponentials named the hyperbolic cosine and the hyperbolic sine, abbreviated cosh and sinh:

cosh z sinh z

(4.28)

For real values of z, the exponent are real and the exponential expressions for the hyperbolic functions are simpler than those for the circular functions. If eq. (4.28) are added and subtracted, we obtain hyperbolic relations analogous to (4.26): cosh sinh (4.29) These functions have the name hyperbolic because, for real values of z, they can be represented geometrically on a rectangular hyperbola as shown in fig. 4.4. The argument, z, is equal to 2A/ , where A is the area of the shaded hyperbolic sector. Other hyperbolic functions are defined in a manner similar to the circular functios; for example, tanh cosh

(4.30)

The hyperbolic sine, cosine, and tangent, together with the exponentials and , are plotted in fig. 5.4 for real values of the argument1. The relationship of the hyperbolic functions

to the exponentials should be noted particularly. It can be shown from the exponential definitions that the following differentiation formulas apply:

Tables of hyperbolic functions are available in various handbooks. For example, see H.B. Dwight, Mathematical Tables, pp. 148-178, McGraw-Hill Book Company, inc., New York. 1941

10

 sinh

cosh

cosh

sinh

(4.31)

tanh

sech

Furthermore, identities similar tto those of the circular functions can be proved. For example, 1 sinh sinh cosh cosh sinh cosh cosh cosh sinh sinh (4.32) (4.33) (4.34)

Comparison of eq. (4.27) and (4.28) show that the hyperbolic functions of an imaginary argument bear a simple relation to the circular functions of a real argument, namely, cosh cos (4.35) sinh sin and, similarly cos cosh (4.36) sin sinh

11

For a complex argument z = a jb, we can either use the definitions (4.28) directly, or we can express the result in terms of functions of a real argument by placing x = a, y = jb in (4.33) and (4.34), and then use (4.35). the resulting formulas are sinh sinh cosh j cosh sinh (4.37) cosh cosh cosh j sinh sinh 4.4. Hyperbolic Form of the Solution. The form of the transmission line solutions is somewhat simplified by the use of hyperbolic functions. The result is compact and lends itself to algebraic manipulation. However, because the arguments are in general complex, the hyperbolic form is not necessarily easier to use for

numerical computations, except possibly when charts or tables of hyperbolic functions of complex arguments are available2. Equations (4.7) and (4.8) can be written in the form 2 2
See A.E. Kennelly. Tables of Complex Hyperbolic and Circular Functions, Harvard University Press, Cambrige, Mass., 1927; also, Chart Atlas of Complex Hyperbolic and Circular Functions, Harvard University Press, Cambrige, Mass, 1924.
2

12

and 2 2

The quantities in parentheses are seen to be the hyperbolic cosine and hyperbolic sine, respectively, with the complex argument x = x + jx. Hence, we can write cosh and I cosh
sinh sinh

(4.38)

(4.39)

where x is measured from the sending end. Similarly, eq. (4.9) and (4.10) can be expressed in the form cosh and I cosh
sinh sinh

(4.40)

(4.41)

where d is measured from the receiving end. The line impedance can be obtained by dividing E by I. the result can be expressed as tanh tanh

When d is placed equal to the line length, this expression yields the sending end impedance, . The transfer impedance can be written from (4.16) as cosh sinh (4.43) The ratio of the sending end current to receiving end current can be written from (4.17): cosh sinh

(4.44)

13

The foregoing expressions are complex, in general. The relations (4.37) are useful in making numerical computations. Example. Consider the line specified in the example of sec. 4.1, for which the following data apply: 1,000 100

685 92

2,000 0 700 0 10

0.00497 0.0352

Find the sending end impedance of the line, the sending end current, and the receiving end voltage, using the hyperbolic form of the line equations. First, we compute sinh and cosh . Making use of eq. (4.37), we have sinh = sinh (0.497 + j3.52) = sinh 0.497 cos 3.52 + j cosh 0.497 sin 3.52 and, since 3.52 radians are equivalent to 202 , we obtain sinh 0.518 0.927 1.126 0.375 0.480 0.422

Also, from (4.37) we have cosh cosh 0.497 cos 3.52 sinh 0.497 sin 3.52 1.126 0.927 0.518 0.375 1.042 0.194 tanh

We compute tanh to be

0.523 0.311

sinh 0.480 0.422 cosh 1.042 0.194

The sending end impedance can now be computed from eq. (4.42), using d = l. then, 2,000 685 920.523 0.311 685 92 685 92 2,0000.523 0.311 859 325

14

This checks quite well with the value computed by means of the exponential from of the equations (861 j325 ohms). The sending end current will be 10 | | 6.26 10 |700 859 325| The receiving end current can be found by use of eq. (4.44): 6.26 10 2,000 1.042 0.194 0.480 0.422 | | 685 92 from which | | 2.27 10 The receiving voltage as | | | |. | | 2.27 10 2,000 4.54 4.5. Interference and Standing wave Patterns. The preceding sections have been concerned with the equations for the steady state a-c current and voltage along a transmission line in the general case where a portion of the incident energy is reflected from the load. It was shown in chap. 2 that, when there is no reflection from the load, the rms current and voltage decrease exponentially from the generator toward the load. However, when the load reflects part of the incident energy, it is found that the rms voltage and current vary almost periodically along the line. This effect is caused by the interference between the incident and reflected waves, and the resultant variation is called a standing wave. The effect is shown in a qualitative way in fig. 4.6 to 4.8 for the extreme case of a low loss transmission line which is loaded in such a way that there is complete reflection; i.e., the reflected wave is equal in magnitude to the incident wave. This will occur whenever the load can dissipate no energy; i.e., when the termination is a short circuit, an open circuit, or a pure reactance. Figure 4.6 shows the travelling waves of current and voltage at two successive instants of time quarter cycle apart. Both of the component waves have a sinusoidal form; however, they travel on opposite directions, so that at one instant they reinforce each other, while a quarter of a cycle later they interface and cancel. The net instantaneous voltage or current is the sum of the incident and reflected components, as shown by the dashed curves. Observe that and are in phase, and that and are opposite in phase. Figure 4.7 shows the net voltage and current plotted against distance for successive instants of time. Observe that at any particular point the voltage and current vary sinusoidally with time, but that the amplitude of oscillation is different points on the line. Furthermore, there are points spaced a half wavelength apart at which, in this extreme case, the voltage is always zero

15

(neglecting losses). These are called the nodes of the standing wave. The points of maximum oscillation are called antinodes. The pattern between two nodes is called a loop. Adjacent loops in this extreme standing wave are 180 out of phase. At any particular pint on the line, comparison of the numbers on the diagrams shows that the current and voltage are in time quadrature. This corresponds with our expectation of a reactive impedance associated with zero average power flow.

value is equal to the amplitude at that point, as shown in fig. 4.7, divided by 2. With complete reflection, the rms standing wave pattern consist of a succession of sine loops, with the voltage nodes located at the current antinodes and the current nodes located at the voltage antinodes.

Figure 4.8 shows the rms voltage and current plotted against distance for the case of complete reflection. The voltage at any point oscillates sinusoidally with time, and hence the rms

The method of determining standing wave patterns by means of instantaneous values as shown in fig. 4.6 to 4.8 is inaccurate and clumsy. A more practical method is to use vectors to represent the incident and reflected current and voltage at any given point on the line. This

16

method is illustrated in fig. 4.9. an arbitrary length is laid off to represent the incident voltage at the receiving end, the reflection coefficient for the receiving end is the computed (see eq. 4.12):

Then the length and direction of are calculated fom the relation and is laid off to scale. The receiving end voltage is represented by the vector sum , usuakky to an unknown scale, of course. The construction is shown in fig. 4.9a for the particular case = 0.6 /-45 , corresponding to a load with resistance and capacitance: = 1.25 1.66 The incident and reflected components of the receiving end current can be drawn similarly. From eq. (4.5),

Therefore, the angel between and must be that of the characteristic impedance . In fig. 4.9 the angel is drawn at 10 , with the current leading. It is often convenient to choose the length of to be equal to that of The reflected component of current can be determined from the relation (4.6), which was

17

The vector sum + represents the receiving emd current, as shown in the illustration.

The relative voltage and current at any point on the line can now be found. As the distance from the receiving end increases, the reflected vectors and shift in the lagging direction through an angel equal to 360 for every wavelength. In addition, they are attenuated in magnitude by the factor conversely, the incident vector and shift in the leading direction as the distance from the receiving end increases, and their magnitudes grow by the factor at any oint, the vectors representing the actual line voltage and current are given by The construction is shown in fig. 4.9 for d =/8 and d = /4, assuming an attenuation of 0.4 neper per wavelength, or 3.47 db per wavelength. This might correspond to an open wire telephone line operating at a frequency if several thousand cycles per second. and

18

The magnitude and angel of the line impedance at any point can be found from the vector diagrams of fig. 4.9. Since E and I are shown in their correct phase relationships, the angel between them is that of the line impedance. If the lengths representing and were made equal at the start, then the magnitude of the line impedance can be found from the relation || | | (4.45) Which follows directly from the fact that = and = (see prob.10). Referring to fig. 4.9, the vector is seen in this case to be smaller than and to lead in phase; hence, is capacitive and is greater in magnitude than this, of course, corresponds with the assumed load impedance: = (1.25 j1.66) the diagrams for d = /S and /4 show

the impedance decreasing below | | and turning inductive. Further diagrams would show the impedance increasing again, becoming capacitive, and repeating cyclically. The variation is

19

typical of the interference effect on all transmission lines. Because of attenuation, the line impedance approaches at a sufficient distance from the load. 4.6 The Crank Diagram. In the case of a line with low losses, the standing wave patterns of voltage and current along the line can be determined most easily by means of the crank diagram shown in fig. 4.13. This diagram corresponds to the vector diagrams shown in fig. 4.9 except for two differences: (1) the crank diagram is most useful when d << 1, in which case the vectors do not change appreciably in size; and (2) in the crank diagram the incident vector is arbitrarily held stationary, so that to maintain the correct relative phase positions between and the reflected vector must be rotated through twice the angle . In constructing the diagram, a horizontal line of arbitrarily length is first laid off to represent the incident voltage vector . Next, the voltage reflection coefficient for the receiving end is calculated and the vector = is laid off from the tip of the vector sum represents the receiving end voltage, . To find the voltage at a distance d from the receiving end, the vector is rotated clockwise through the angel 2d. The new vector sum correctly represents the relative magnitude of the voltage at that point. The vector representing the sending end voltage is obtained by making d = l. if the magnitude of is a known quantity, this fixes the voltage scale of the entire diagram. For a low loss line, the characteristic impedance is very nearly a pure resistance; hence, is in phase with ,and is 180 out of phase with . This leads to the diagram of fig. 4.13b which represents current as well as voltage. The lengths of and are made equal to those of and , respectively, so that eq. (4.45) for the line impedance will apply. As the distance from the load increases, the crank revolves once for each half wavelength, and the vectors drawn from the origin to the opposite ends of the revolving diameter represent, respectively, the rms current and voltage on the line. The magnitude of the line impedance can be found by means of eq. (4.45), and its angle can, of course, be measured directly from the diagram by a protractor. The crank diagram shows clearly that at appoint where E is maximum on a low loss line, I is minimum; where E is minimum, I is at a maximum. The line impedance shows the same type of cyclic variation observed in the preceding section and is a pure resistance at the maximum and minimum points. When the line has appreciable losses, the inconvenience of changing the lengths of the vectors removes one of the principal charms of the crank diagram, namely, its simplicity.

20

The student may wonder whether the standing wave pattern of E (or I) can be represented as a simple function of d. in the limiting case of no reflection, we have 0 and the pattern reduces to a straight horizontal line (the flat line). In the other limiting case, that of complete reflection, we have | | = 1, and the standing wave pattern becomes a succession of loops of a sine wave. Between these two extremes, the pattern has a rather peculiar shape with the valleys sharper than the crests. It is not hard to prove by trigonometry of the crank diagram that the square of the voltage has a sinusoidal variation down the line: 1 2 cos2

where is the magnitude of the reflection coefficient at the load and is its angel. The proof of this will be left the student. 4.7 Measurement of the Characteristics of Lines.

4.46

A common problem is the determination of the characteristic impedance and propagation constant of a given transmission line which is physically available for measurement and test. These quantities can be found by measurement of the input impedance of the line under two conditions: with the far end short circuited, and with the far end open circuited. The sending end impedance can be obtained from (4.42) by placing d = l. Then, with the far end shorted, we have tanh (4.47) and with the far end open, tanh (4.48) Inspection of the foregoing equations shows that can be computed from the short and open circuit measurement by the relation (4.49) The length of the line theoretical difference; however, it does make a practical difference in the individual measurements of and , particularly when the over all attenuation is small. To examine this, take the case of negligible attenuation, where 0. Then, using (4.37),

21

we have sin , cos , and therefore tan . The short and open circuit impedance are now reactances: tan (4.50) and tan (4.51) If the line is almost an odd number of quarter wavelengths long, the angle will be nearly an odd integer times /2 radians; then will approach an open circuit and will approach a short circuit. This makes accurate measurements difficult. On the other land, if the line is almost an even number of quarter wavelengths long, will be very large and will be small. It is convenient to have both impedances of the same order of magnitude, and when the length of line can be selected at will, we can arrange to have tan approximately equal to 1/ tan . This occurs when the line is an odd number of eighth wavelengths long. If the over all attenuation is high, the variation of impedance with length of line is not ao violent, and it is not so necessary to select the length with care. If we divided eq. (4.47) by eq. (4.48), we obtain an expression for the propagation constant: tanh (4.52) or (4.53) There are several equivalent methods for computing from (4.53). A simple method is to use the identity 1 1 log 2 1

(4.54)

and then use the following expression for the logarithm of a complex number: 2

(4.55)

22

It will be found that the foregoing method of determining will not yield accurate results when the over all losses are so great that both and are nearly to . The constants R, L, G, and C can be determined by making open and short circuit impedance measurements on a section of line which is much shorter than a quarter wavelengths. For 1 we have . Using (4.47) for the sending end impedance with the far end short circuited, we obtain for a small length of line, or (4.56) This result is what we expect for a loop of wire which is so short that the a small circuit theory applies. Similarly, using (4.48) for the open crcuit impedance, we obtain for a short section, 1 (4.57) Again, this is the result that would be anticipated from small circuit theory, for here we have two conductors much shorter than a quarter wavelengths, separated by a dielectric medium. The effect is that of a condenser which has, perhaps, some leakage. 4.8. Equivalent Four terminal Networks It is sometimes convenient to have a lumped constant equivalent circuit which will simulate the terminal characteristics of a transmission line at given frequency. When the line is

Where A is the magnitude of the complex number, is its angle, and n is any integer. Since the imaginary part of the last expression is infinitely many valued, we will be left in doubt as to which value to choose for . This matter can be settled only by having additional information; for example, if we can guess an approximate value for the velocity of propagation, we can estimate and thus select the proper value.

23

electrically long, the values of the elements in the equivalent circuit will change rapidly with frequency; therefore, such a circuit is of use mainly when one is considering the steady state at a single frequency. A transmission line is essentially four terminal networks. In most applications, it can be more accurately called a two terminal pair, for two of the terminals are designated as the input and the other two as the output without any outside interconnection between the two ends. We shall show that, for steady state conditions at a single frequency, the transmission line can be represented by either a T or a two terminal pair. Figure 4.14 shows T connected two terminal pair whose terminal characteristics are, if possible, to be made equivalent to those of a given transmission line. Since a uniform line can be turned end for end without affecting the results, we expect that the network will be symmetrical and that the two series arms will have equal impedances. We shall now set up equation for the two terminal pair and shall show that these can be made equivalent to the equations for the smooth transmission line. The phase shift through the network will be the same as the phase shift caused by the travelling waves on the actual line, and attenuation on the line will be simulated by the network. If we write a voltage equation around each of the two meshes in the equivalent circuit, we obtain (4.58) or (4.59) To obtain corresponding equations for the transmission line, use eq. (4.39) with x = l and eq. (4.41) with d = l. Then, we have cosh sinh

(4.60) and cosh sinh (4.61) These equations can be rearranged into the form of (4.58) and (4.59) immediately. The result is
coth

(4.62)

24

and

coth

(4.63)

By comparison with eq. (4.58) and (4.59), we obtain and Eliminating between (4.64) and (4.65) and utilizing the identity cosh 1 / sinh tanh /2, we fffind for : tanh

(4.64)

coth

(4.65)

(4.66)

Referring to fig. 4.14 and using eq. (4.64) and (4.66), we obtain the equivalent circuit of fig. 4.15. It should be emphasized again that a given network is equivalent to the actual transmission line only at one frequency, for a change in frequency will alter the value of and may also change somewhat. The corresponding connected two terminal pair can be derived from the T connected network by means of the well known T , or wye-delta, transformation. The result is shown in fig. 4.16.

25

(4.67)

and

1 (4.68)

The corresponding equivalent circuit is shown in fig. 4.17. as we should except for a short line, this circuit corresponds with one section of the lumpy line with which we started in chap. 1 (compare fig. 1,3). A 60 cps power line which is very much shorter than a quarter wavelengths can be analyzed in this manner. A short section of high frequency line can be considered in the same way, and, in addition, the losses can often be neglected, leaving only the inductance and capacitance. In high impedance circuits the shunting effect of the capacitance is most important, and the inductance can be often be neglected. An example of this is the connection of a cathode ray oscilloscope to an amplifier through a section of coaxial cable, in which case the shunt capacitance of the cable may load the circuit at the higher frequencies. In very low impedance circuits the shunt capacitance may have a negligible effect, and the voltage drop in the inductance may become important.

4.9. Insert Ratio and Insertion Loss. Quantities called the insertion ratio and the insertion loss are used to describe the effect of inserting a four terminal network (perhaps a transmission line) between a generator and a load, as compared with a direct connection between the two. Consider fig. 4.18 a in which, with the four terminal network inserted, the receiving end voltage is . On the other hand, if a direct connection were used between generator and load as in fig. 4.18b, the receiving end voltage would be . We then define

(4.69) Since we are considering two voltages across the same impedance, the insertion ratio for current must be the same impedance, the insertion ratio for current must be the same as that for voltage. The insertion ratio for power, sometimes called the power loss ratio, will be equal to the square of the magnitude of (4.69).

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The term insertion loss is used to denote the magnitude of the insertion effect as expressed in nepers or decibels, i.e.,

or 20

(4.70)

Referring to fig. 4.18b, the load voltage with a direct connection is given simply by

4.71

The voltage at the receiving end of a uniform transmission line can be obtained from eq. (4.24) with d = 0. The result is 1 (4.72) where (4.73) 1

(4.74) Dividing (4.71) by (4.72), we obtain for the voltage insertion ratio of a uniform transmission line, 1 1 (4.75)

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The middle factor in this expression can be simplified by expressing and in terms of and , respectively. Solving eq. (4.73) for and eq. (4.74) for , we obtain 1 1 1 1

and

Upon substitution of these relations, the middle factor of eq. (4.75) simplifies into 1/1 , whereupon the insertion ratio can be written as 1 1 1 (4.76) The last factor will be nearly unity for a long lossy line. Furthermore, if either or , the last two factors both reduce to unity and the insertion ratio become simply The magnitude of (4.76) as Rumus The insertion loss is defined as the logarithm of (1.77), and so, in nepers, we have 1 1 (4.78) The corresponding expression in decibels is 8.686 20 1 20 1 (4.79) The last term is nearly zero for a long lossy line. If either or , only the firs term remains and the insertion loss becomes simply nepers or 8.686 db.

, i.e., it has a magnitude and a phase angle radians

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