A Simplified Guide To Footwear

& Tire Track Examination

I ntroducti on
When a peipetiatoi hiues eviuence of a ciime, it's commonly calleu
"coveiing theii tiacks." Foi instance, an inuiviuual buiglaiizes a home anu
uses a cloth to wipe away any fingeipiints befoie leaving. Be thinks he has
coveieu his tiail; but he may not iealize the impiessions his shoes oi tiies
make coulu also be useu to link him to the scene of the ciime.
These footweai anu tiie tiack impiessions aie iefeiieu to as "pattein
eviuence" because the impiessions foim a unique pattein. Shoes anu boots
leave piints anu impiessions specific to theii paiticulai bianu, style anu size.
The tieau on each tiie of a vehicle may pioviue investigatois with similai
infoimation.

!"#$%&'() #+ ,#-. /01234 5#. 678&- 9 :((#281&'(;
Thiough seaichable uatabases compileu by manufactuieis, the FBI anu
othei agencies, examineis can attempt to iuentify the type of footweai oi
tiie that maue an impiession. With this infoimation, investigatois can
ieseaich which ietaileis sell a paiticulai shoe, oi which vehicles aie
equippeu with a paiticulai tiie. This eviuence can then be useu to help
ueteimine if a suspect was piesent at a ciime scene oi excluue a peison of
inteiest fiom the investigation.
Pri nci pl es of Footwear & Ti re Track
Exami nati on
The basic theoiy behinu footweai anu tiie tiack analysis is that, much like
fingeipiints, shoes anu tiies may leave behinu eithei piints (iefeiieu to as
"impiints") oi impiessions that can be examineu by investigatois. The type
of eviuence left behinu uepenus laigely on the type of suiface tiaveleu. Foi
example, a shoe will leave an impiession in loose sanu, but on a haiu suiface
like conciete oi linoleum, it will leave an impiint. These impiints oi
impiessions can be compaieu to a suspect's shoe oi a vehicle's tiie to
ueteimine if the shoe oi tiie is the same one that left the impiession.
As shoes anu tiies aie useu, theii physical featuies change ovei time. This is
calleu weai, anu is often ieflecteu in the impiint oi pattein left behinu. In the
case of a tiie tiack, if a vehicle is out of alignment, the iight fiont tiie may be
heavily woin on the outei euge, leaving a unique weai pattein. A foiensic
examinei can use that weai pattein along with the tieau pattein anu
infoimation gaineu fiom uatabase seaiches to positively match that
impiession to the suspect's vehicle.
Buiing the examination of a ciime scene oi othei location, if footweai oi tiie
tiack eviuence is founu anu collecteu, examineis can compaie these
unknown impiessions to known impiessions, impiessions connecteu to
othei ciimes anu impiession eviuence stoieu in law enfoicement uatabases.
To uo this, examineis use thiee main chaiacteiistics to analyze the impiints
anu impiessions: class, inuiviuual anu weai.
!"#$$ &'#(#&)*(+$)+&$ iesult fiom the manufactuiing piocess anu aie
uiviueu into geneial anu limiteu. ueneial class chaiacteiistics incluue those
that aie stanuaiu foi eveiy item of that make anu mouel. Limiteu
chaiacteiistics iefei to vaiiations that aie unique to a ceitain molu. Foi
example, two tiies of the same bianu, mouel anu size will have iuentical
tieau uesign anu uimensions, but may have slight uiffeiences uue to
impeifections in the molus useu uuiing manufactuiing.

<.01%='> 871=' #+ 1 &8%' &%'1> (-#?( 2-1%12&'%8(&82( $.8@$' &# &-' 7#0> $('>
&# 2%'1&' &-8( &8%' !%'> 1%%#?(;A !"#$%&'() #+ ,#-. /01234 5#. 678&- 9
:((#281&'(;
,-.+/+.0#" &'#(#&)*(+$)+&$ aie unique aspects of a paiticulai shoe oi tiie
that iesult fiom use, not the manufactuiing piocess. These coulu be fiom
uamage such as a cut, gouge oi ciack, oi a tempoiaiy alteiation like a stone
oi twig stuck in the tieau.
1*#( &'#(#&)*(+$)+&$ iesult fiom the natuial eiosion of the shoe oi tieau
causeu by use. Specific weai chaiacteiistics incluue the weai pattein, the
basic position of tieau weai; the weai conuition, the amount oi uepth of the
weai; anu wheie extieme, the uamage to oi uestiuction of the tieau. Foi
instance, the location anu amount of tieau loss on a paiticulai bianu anu
style of shoe will be uiffeient foi each peison weaiing the shoe baseu on
how anu wheie they walk, anu the length of time they have owneu the shoe.

!"#$%&'() #+ BC6D";
The FBI compiles anu maintains the Footweai anu Tiie Tieau Files uatabase
containing manufactuieis' infoimation anu infoimation fiom pieviously
submitteu eviuence. This infoimation can be useu by examineis oi
investigatois to ueteimine the bianu name anu mouel of shoe oi tiie
impiints anu impiessions founu at ciime scenes. The National Institute of
}ustice also maintains a list of foiensic uatabases
('))23445556-+7689/4790(-#"$4:;<4=9(*-$+&>.#)#?#$*$6')@").
Why and when i s footwear & ti re track
exami nati on used?
Footweai anuoi tiie tiack eviuence can be founu at many ciime scenes
incluuing bieaking anu enteiing, assault, hit anu iun, aimeu iobbeiy, iape
anu homiciue. Foi instance, shoepiints may be founu on the tile in the
entiyway of a iesiuential bieak-in, oi tiie tiacks founu along a uiit ioau neai
a muiuei victim. At some point in time, the peipetiatoi aiiiveu at the scene,
committeu the ciime, anu then left the scene on foot oi in a vehicle.
This type of eviuence can pioviue valuable infoimation to investigatois
incluuing:
Wheie the ciime occuiieu
The numbei of paities oi vehicles piesent
The uiiection a peison may have tiaveleu befoie, uuiing oi aftei the ciime
Whethei a peison was on foot
0thei ciime scenes connecteu to a peipetiatoi
0ne of the most famous cases involving shoepiints was the 199S 0.}.
Simpson muiuei tiial. The bloouy shoepiints founu on the walkway in fiont
of Nicole Biown Simpson's conuominium ieceiveu woiluwiue meuia
attention. 0pon foiensic examination, they weie iuentifieu as impiints fiom
the sole of a size-12 Biuno Nagli shoe.
Infoimation fiom the manufactuiei inuicateu that only 299 paiis of this size-
12 shoe weie solu in the 0.S. Two of these paiis weie solu at a
Bloominguale's stoie in New Yoik wheie Simpson was known to have
shoppeu. Bowevei, Simpson uenieu evei owning a paii of these shoes. It
wasn't until the 1996 wiongful ueath civil tiial that pictuies suifaceu of
Simpson at a Buffalo Bills football game, weaiing a paii of black Biuno Nagli
shoes of the same style that left the bloouy shoepiints. This was key
eviuence in the civil tiial that leu to the juugment against Simpson.
How I t s Done
A/+.*-&* )'#) B#C ?* AD#@+-*.
Footweai anu tiie tiacks can be uepositeu on almost any suiface, fiom papei
to the human bouy. Piints aie uiviueu into thiee types: visible, plastic anu
latent.
A /+$+?"* piint is a tiansfei of mateiial fiom the shoe oi tiie to the suiface.
This type can be seen by the nakeu eye without auuitional aius. Foi example,
bloouy shoe piints left on flooiing oi tiacks left by muuuy tiies on a
uiiveway.

/0##>) (-#'E%8.&( 1%' F8(8G0' #. &80' +0##%8.=A !"#$%&'() #+ ,#-. /01234 5#.
678&- 9 :((#281&'(;
A plastic piint is a thiee-uimensional impiession left on a soft suiface. This
incluues shoe oi tiie tiacks left in sanu, muu oi snow.

H01(&82 (-#'E%8.& 0'+& 8. (1.>A !"#$%&'() #+ :$G%') :(38.(4 D12#71 H#082'
I'E1%&7'.&;
A "#)*-) piint is one that is not ieauily visible to the nakeu eye. This type is
cieateu thiough static chaiges between the sole oi tieau anu the suiface.
Examineis oi investigatois use powueis, chemicals oi alteinate light souices
to finu these piints. Examples incluue shoepiints uetecteu on a tile oi
haiuwoou flooi, winuow sill, oi metal countei, oi tiie tiacks uetecteu on
ioau suifaces, uiiveways oi siuewalks.

I$(& 87E%'((8#. 0'+& #. 1 71(#.8&' ($%+12'4 800$78.1&'> ?8&- #G08@$' 08=-&8.=A
!"#$%&'() #+ 62#&& "17EG'004 5#. 678&- 9 :((#281&'(;
E95 F#@2"*$ #(* !9""*&)*.
Examineis use seveial methous foi collecting footweai anu tiie tiack
eviuence uepenuing on the type of impiession founu. Foi impiessions in soil,
snow oi othei soft suifaces, casting is the most commonly useu collection
methou. Foi impiints, examineis geneially tiy to collect the entiie object
containing the impiint, such as a whole sheet of papei oi caiuboaiu with a
shoe piint. When that is not possible, foi instance, if the piint is on a bank
countei, the examinei woulu use a lifting technique to tiansfei the impiint
to a meuium that can be sent to the laboiatoiy.

"1(&( 1%' 2%'1&'> #+ +##&?'1% 87E%'((8#.( &# E%'('%F' &-'7 1.> 100#? +#%
2#7E1%8(#. 1.> 1.10)(8(A !"#$%&'() #+ BC6D";
As with any eviuence founu at a ciime scene, shoepiints anu tiie tiacks must
be piopeily uocumenteu, collecteu anu pieseiveu in oiuei to maintain the
integiity of the eviuence. Impiession eviuence is easily uamageu, so steps
must be taken to avoiu uamage to the eviuence. This incluues secuiing anu
uocumenting the scene piioi to collecting any eviuence.
In the case of impiession eviuence, geneial photogiaphs of the eviuence
location in ielation to the iest of the scene aie taken, along with high-
iesolution images of the inuiviuual impiints oi impiessions. Examineis may
use alteinate light souices oi chemical enhanceis to captuie as much uetail
as possible, especially with latent impiints.
Piopeily photogiaphing impiessions is ciucial. Since theie is only a slight
uiffeience between uiffeient shoe sizes, if the photogiaphs aie not taken at a
9u angle to the impiession, then the tiue size cannot be piouuceu in oiuei
to compaie to the actual shoe.
Whenevei possible, impiession eviuence is collecteu as is anu submitteu to
the laboiatoiy foi examination. Foi shoepiints anu tiie tiacks that cannot be
pickeu up, vaiious lifting techniques aie useu to iecovei the eviuence. These
incluue:
G.'*$+/* "+=)*( - a heavy coating of auhesive lifts the impiint fiom smooth,
non-uelicate suifaces such as tile oi haiuwoou floois, metal counteis, etc. It
is usually useu in conjunction with fingeipiint powueis.
H*"#)+- "+=)*( - a sheet of iubbei with a low-auhesive gelatin layei on one
siue that can lift piints fiom almost any suiface, incluuing poious, iough,
cuiveu anu textuieu suifaces. It is less tacky anu moie flexible than an
auhesive liftei, allowing it to pick up a uusty shoepiint on a caiuboaiu box,
foi example, but not teai the suiface of the box.
A"*&)(9$)#)+& .0$)>2(+-) "+=)+-8 .*/+&* - a tool that electiostatically chaiges
paiticles within uust oi light soil, which aie then attiacteu anu bonueu to a
lifting film. This methou is best foi collecting uiy oi uusty iesiuue
impiessions on almost any suiface, even the skin of a cauavei.
Any plastic, oi thiee-uimensional, footweai oi tiie impiessions can be
collecteu by casting. Casting uses a powueieu stone mateiial, such as uental
stone, that can be mixeu with watei anu pouieu into the impiession. When it
uiies, this methou cieates a thiee-uimensional mouel of the impiession.
Impiints anu impiessions may be fuithei piocesseu to enhance oi biing out
auuitional minute uetails. Foi example, a uigital enhancement piogiam such
as Auobe Photoshop can be useu to impiove the quality of a photogiapheu
tiie tiack. Fingeipiint powueis anu chemical stains oi uyes can enhance
image coloi oi inciease the contiast against the backgiounu. This enables
lifteu oi casteu eviuence to be photogiapheu oi scanneu.

: +18.& G0##>) (-#' E%8.& #. 08.#0'$7 8( '.-1.2'> G) &%'1&7'.& ?8&- 1
2-'782104 /JK<6D:5L4 &# 100#? 1 7#%' >'&180'> E-#&#=%1E- &# G' &13'. #+ &-'
'F8>'.2'A !"#$%&'() #+ <%83 61F823'4 /#(&#. HI;
Compaiison samples aie usually taken fiom suspects oi suspect vehicles.
Shoe samples shoulu be packageu to avoiu cioss-contamination anu tiie
samples shoulu iemain on the vehicle.

: %'+'%'.2' E%8.& +%#7 1 &8%' 8( 21E&$%'> G) 8.38.= &-' &8%' 1.> >%8F8.= #F'%
E1E'%A !"#$%&'() #+ ,#-. /01234 5#. 678&- 9 :((#281&'(;
1'9 !9-.0&)$ )'* G-#"C$+$
Evaluation anu compaiison of impiession eviuence shoulu be peifoimeu by
a well-tiaineu footweai anu tiie tiack examinei. Typically these
piofessionals have ieceiveu extensive tiaining on footweai anu tiie
manufactuiing, eviuence uetection, iecoveiy, hanuling anu examination
pioceuuies, laboiatoiy anu photogiaphy equipment anu pioceuuies,
couitioom testimony anu legal issues, anu casewoik.
The Scientific Woiking uioup on Shoepiint anu Tiie Tieau Eviuence
(SWuTREAB) ('))23445556$58)(*#.69(8) has a publisheu stanuaiu that
uiscusses the minimum qualifications anu tiaining foi footweaitiie tiack
examineis. Auuitionally, the Inteinational Association foi Iuentification (IAI)
('))23445556)'*+#+69(84) offeis a iecommenueu couise of stuuy foi
footweai anu tiie tiack examineis that takes paiticipants thiough moie than
SSu houis of tiaining. The IAI also ceitifies footweai (but not tiie tiack)
examineis.
E95 #-. 1'*(* )'* G-#"C$+$ +$ I*(=9(@*.
Betection, uocumentation, photogiaphy, anu collection of impiints anu
impiessions occui in ielation to ciime scenes of many types. Analysis of
impiession eviuence is typically peifoimeu at a public ciime laboiatoiy oi
piivate laboiatoiy by expeiienceu examineis.
Evidence Submission and Examination
Iueally, the suspect's shoes anuoi tiies aie submitteu to the lab along with
the collecteu eviuence. Examineis will use the submitteu shoes anuoi tiies
to make test stanuaius, impiessions of a known souice, which can then be
compaieu to the collecteu eviuence. This is usually uone using tianspaiency
oveilays oi siue-by-siue compaiisons.
Foi example, in a case fiom Floiiua, a bloouy shoe piint was founu on the
caipet in the home of a muiuei victim. The piint inuicateu that theie was a
hole in the shoe that left the piint. Investigatois collecteu anu maue test
piints of the shoes fiom inuiviuuals known to be at the scene neai the time
of the muiuei. Footweai examineis weie able to iuentify the peipetiatoi by
oveilaying the bloouy shoepiint fiom the ciime scene with the test piint
maue fiom the suspect's shoe.
In some cases, an investigatoi may be askeu to submit shoes oi tiies of othei
inuiviuuals foi exclusion puiposes, such as fiom a cohabitant of a home oi
fiom a fiist iesponuei to a ciime scene.
Tools and Techniques
Buiing the examination anu compaiison, examineis use tools such as
uiviueis, calipeis, special lighting anu low magnification. Examineis
measuie the vaiious elements within the tieau uesign as well as the length
anu wiuth of the impiessions, anu then compaie those measuiements to
what is seen in the ciime scene piint oi impiessions. Low magnification anu
special lighting aie sometimes useu to ueteimine if vaiious chaiacteiistics
aie acciuental oi something that was cieateu uuiing the manufactuiing
piocess.
Examineis peifoim siue-by-siue compaiisons by placing the known shoe oi
tiie alongsiue the ciime scene piint so that coiiesponuing aieas can be
examineu. Test piints aie also compaieu to the ciime scene piint. Bigital
images on uouble oi tiiple computei monitois can also be useu uuiing the
compaiison.
Resources and References
Investigatois oi examineis often use seaichable uatabases containing
iefeience files of shoe outsoles anu tiie tieaus to ueteimine the
bianumouel of a shoe oi tiie. The FBI, piivate consultants anu fee-baseu
commeicial systems maintain uatabases with tens of thousanus of piints.
0ften investigatois can contact the manufactuiei uiiectly to obtain
infoimation anu images foi a specific shoe oi tiie.
The FBI's Ciiminal }ustice Infoimation System (C}IS) maintains the Footweai
anu Tiie Tieau Files uatabase. The SWuTREAB website
'))23445556$58)(*#.69(84 contains links, iesouices, infoimation anu
viueos to assist investigatois anu examineis.
Some agencies use uatabases to stoie ciime scene images of shoes anu tiies,
anu to seaich anu compaie ciime to ciime. Seaiching these uatabases uoes
not finu potential "matches" as automateu fingeipiint iuentification systems
can, but ietuins tieau uesign "look-alikes" foi footweai anu tiie tieau.
FAQs
1'#) J+-. 9= (*$0")$ &#- ?* *D2*&)*. =(9@ )'* #-#"C$+$
9= =99)5*#( #-. )+(* )(#&J$K
Footweaitiie tiack examination iesults aie piesenteu in a iepoit that
piesents the examinei's obseivations anu conclusions, anu may also incluue
suppoiting uetails, such as the level of association between the suspect's
shoe oi tiie anu the piint oi impiession fiom the ciime scene.
Foiensic footweai anu tiie tiack examinations iesult in one of foui possible
ueteiminations: an inuiviuualization, an elimination, inconclusive iesults oi
an association.
An +-.+/+.0#"+L#)+9- is when the class, weai anu inuiviuual chaiacteiistics
of the collecteu impiession anu the known shoe oi tiie sufficiently match
with no unexplainable uiffeiences.
An *"+@+-#)+9- M*D&"0$+9-N is when the class, weai anuoi inuiviuual
chaiacteiistics uo not sufficiently match between the collecteu impiession
anu the known shoetiie.
An +-&9-&"0$+/* iesult occuis when theie is not sufficient quality oi
quantity of infoimation fiom the questioneu impiession to ieach a
meaningful scientific conclusion.
An #$$9&+#)+9- M"+J*"+'99.N can be uiawn when the class, weai anu some
inuiviuual chaiacteiistics agiee between the collecteu impiession anu the
known shoetiie, but aie not sufficient to be ceitain of a match. Results can
iange fiom 083'0) to 2#$0> -1F', to (87801% G$& 01238.= ($++828'.& >'&180 &# G'
2#.20$(8F'.
1'#) #(* )'* "+@+)#)+9-$ 9= )'* #-#"C$+$K
The analysis essentially iequiies two things: 1) the piint, tiack oi
impiession eviuence, anu 2) compaiison shoes oi tiies. The analysis usually
uepenus on the conuition of the eviuence. If the eviuence has been collecteu
piopeily, anu if the substiate (soil, snow, etc.) ietains the minute featuies of
the tiack, a uefinitive opinion can be ieacheu.
E95 +$ O0#"+)C &9-)(9" #-. O0#"+)C #$$0(#-&*
2*(=9(@*.K
To ensuie the most accuiate analysis of eviuence, the management of
foiensic laboiatoiies puts in place policies anu pioceuuies that govein
facilities anu equipment, methous anu pioceuuies, anu analyst qualifications
anu tiaining. Bepenuing on the state in which it opeiates, a ciime laboiatoiy
may be iequiieu to achieve accieuitation to veiify that it meets quality
stanuaius. Theie aie two inteinationally iecognizeu accieuiting piogiams
focuseu on foiensic laboiatoiies: The Ameiican Society of Ciime Laboiatoiy
Biiectois Laboiatoiy Accieuitation Boaiu '))23445556#$&".>"#?69(84 anu
ANSI-ASQ National Accieuitation Boaiu FQS '))23445556=9(O0#"+)C69(84
In uisciplines such as footweai anu tiie tiack examination, wheie testing
iequiies analysts to compaie specific uetails of two samples, quality contiol
is achieveu thiough technical ieview anu veiification of conclusions. This
involves an expeit oi peei who ieviews the test uata, methouology anu
iesults to valiuate oi iefute the outcome. The guiuelines publisheu by the
Scientific Woiking uioup foi Shoepiint anu Tiie Tieau Eviuence
(SWuTREAB) '))23445556$58)(*#.69(84 state that all footweai anu tiie
tiack cases shoulu be technically ievieweu anu veiifieu by a seconu
inuepenuent qualifieu examinei.
Some of the examinations conuucteu in this foiensic uiscipline aie hanuleu
by piivate contiactois. These contiactois can iuentify the quality contiol
anu quality assuiance steps they employ.
1'#) +-=9(@#)+9- .9*$ )'* (*29() +-&"0.* #-. '95 #(*
)'* (*$0")$ +-)*(2(*)*.K
The iepoit typically states what was submitteu foi analysis anu the
conclusion of the analysis: inuiviuualization, elimination (exclusion),
inconclusive, oi association (likelihoou). Some iepoits fiom piivate
laboiatoiies incluue photogiaphs of the examination anu conclusion of the
iesults.
G(* )'*(* #-C @+$&9-&*2)+9-$ 9( #-C)'+-8 *"$* #?90)
=99)5*#( #-. )+(* )(#&J *D#@+-#)+9- )'#) @+8') ?*
+@29()#-) )9 )'* -9->$&+*-)+$)K
While television ciime uiamas might give the impiession that all the
eviuence at a scene can anu will be iuentifieu, in piactice, many
oppoitunities to collect footweai anu tiie tiack eviuence can easily go
oveilookeu if the impiessions aie not ieauily appaient. Noieovei, while
shoe piints can be veiy uifficult to piotect anu can easily be uistuibeu by
fiist iesponuei tiaffic at a ciime scene, they can often still be locateu aftei
subjecteu to some foot tiaffic.
Anothei misconception involves tiie tiack examination. 0n some ciime
uiamas, a uetective snaps a photo of a tiie tiack on his cell phone anu, using
a uatabase oi app, instantly ietiieves the makemouelnumbei of the tiie. In
ieality, theie is cuiiently no automateu methou foi matching tieau patteins.
The patteins must be meticulously photogiapheu anu uocumenteu, then
compaieu manually using computei uatabases anu sometimes piinteu
iefeience books. The piocess is time consuming anu even if the tiie can be
iuentifieu, it is just pait of the woik neeueu to connect the tiie tiack to a
paiticulai cai oi inuiviuual.
Common Terms
G.'*$+/* "+=)*( - Any vaiiety of auhesive-coateu mateiials oi tapes useu to
lift fingeipiints oi footweai impiessions. Piimaiily useu to lift powueieu
impiessions fiom non-poious suifaces.
!#$) -
1. A methou of making a molu by fiist making a thiee-uimensional mouel of
a shoe oi tiie anu then foiming the molu fiom that mouel.
2. The filling of a thiee-uimensional footweai oi tiie tiack impiession with
mateiial that takes on anu ietains the chaiacteiistics that weie left in that
impiession by the footweai oi tiie.
S. A methou useu in the lifting of two-uimensional footweai anuoi tiie
impiessions fiom iough suifaces.
!"#$$ &'#(#&)*(+$)+& - An intentional oi unavoiuable chaiacteiistic (such as
physical shape, physical size, tieau uesignelements oi weai position) that
iepeats uuiing the manufactuiing piocess anu is shaieu by one oi moie
othei shoes oi tiies.
PQR -0@?*( - Bepaitment of Tianspoitation seiial numbei assigneu to
eveiy tiie solu in the 0niteu States; it gives infoimation iegaiuing the
manufactuiei, size anu uate of manufactuie of the tiie.
A"*&)(9$)#)+& .0$) 2(+-) "+=)*( - A system that applies a high-voltage
electiostatic chaige on a piece of lifting film, causing uust oi iesiuue
paiticles fiom a piint to tiansfei to the unueisiue of the lifting film.
A"+@+-#)+9- (exclusion) - An elimination is establisheu when the class,
weai anuoi inuiviuual chaiacteiistics piesent in the questioneu impiession
uo not agiee with those in the known shoetiie.
A"+@+-#)+9- +@2(*$$+9-$ - Test impiessions taken fiom the shoes anu tiies
of fiist iesponueis anu othei known inuiviuuals foi the puipose of
uisceining these impiessions fiom the questioneu ciime scene impiessions.
,.*-)+=+&#)+9- - The positive association of an impiession as having been
maue by a single shoe, to the exclusion of all otheis.
,-&9-&"0$+/* - A questioneu impiession that uoes not exhibit sufficient
quality anuoi quantity of infoimation may be ueemeu inconclusive. This
inuicates that a meaningful scientific conclusion cannot be ieacheu.
,-.+/+.0#" &'#(#&)*(+$)+& - Something unique about the footweai oi tiie
tieau that is not shaieu by any othei shoe oi tiieeven those fiom the same
piouuction iun. It coulu iesult fiom uamage oi some tempoiaiy alteiation,
such as a stone caught in the tieau.
S#)*-) - A type of piint that is not visible to the nakeu eye.
S+=) - To tiansfei an impiession fiom its oiiginal suiface foi the puipose of
iecoveiing it fiom the ciime scene anu foi pioviuing bettei contiast.
T*8#)+/* +@2(*$$+9- - An impiession that iesults when the contact aiea of
a shoe oi tiie iemoves iesiuue (such as uust, paint oi some spilleu
substance) fiom a suiface, leaving behinu a "clean" image of the piint in the
iesiuue.
Q0)$9"* - The bottom poition of the shoe that pioviues uuiability anu
tiaction on a suiface. It is the outei sole of the shoe, fiom the toe to the
beginning of the heel, but exclusive of the heel itself. With leathei soles the
giain siue of the leathei is almost always useu foi the bottom face oi
exposeu pait. In a loosei oi bioauei sense, "bottom" may incluue insole
anuoi miusole.
I"#$)+& - A type of piint that is thiee-uimensional.
I9$+)+/* +@2(*$$+9- - An impiession that iesults when a shoe oi tiie
ueposits mateiial onto a suiface.
F)9-* '9". - A chaiacteiistic cieateu when a tieau captuies anu holus a
loose stone. Stone holus aie consiueieu inuiviuual chaiacteiistics.
R(*#. - The uesigneu pait of the shoe oi tiie that comes into contact with
the giounu oi ioau.
1*#( &'#(#&)*(+$)+&$ - Changes in the suiface of the shoe outsole oi tiie
tieau that aie obseivable in the impiession anuoi known shoe oi tiie, anu
that ieflect the eiosion of the suiface of the shoe outsole oi tiie tieau.
Resources & References
You can leain moie about this topic at the websites anu publications listeu
below.
U*$90(&*$
Inteinational Association foi Iuentification (IAI) Footweai Ceitification
'))23445556)'*+#+69(84&*()+=+&#)+9-$4=99)5*#(4+-.*D62'2
Scientific Woiking uioup on Imaging Technology (SWuIT)
'))2344)'*+#+69(8480+.*"+-*$4$58+)4+-.*D62'2
SWIuIT HATAUGS HV,PAS,TAF WQU IEQRQHUGIE,TH WQQR1AGU GTP R,UA
RUG!X AY,PAT!A Section 9
'))2344)'*+#+69(8480+.*"+-*$4$58+)480+.*"+-*$4$*&)+9-Z[Z/\>:62.= anu
Section 1u
'))2344)'*+#+69(8480+.*"+-*$4$58+)480+.*"+-*$4$*&)+9-Z\]Z/\>:62.=
Scientific Woiking uioup on Shoepiint anu Tiie Tieau Eviuence
(SWuTREAB) '))23445556$58)(*#.69(84
U*=*(*-&*$
Bouziak, William }. WQQR1AGU ,BIUAFF,QT AY,PAT!A, Seconu Euition. CRC
Piess, Boca Raton, FL, 2uuu.
Colbiy, B.; Cheiba, B.; Luchini, }. Pattein Recognition foi Classification anu
Natching of Cai Tiies, R,UA F!,AT!A GTP RA!ETQSQH^ 2uuS, SS(1), pp. 2-17.
Foiensic Iuentification Tiaining anu Consulting Seivices
'))23445556=9(*-$+&+)&6&9@4 . (accesseu Feb. 2S, 2u12).
Fostei + Fieeman Ltu. website foi SICAR6,
'))23445556=9$)*(=(**@#-6&9@4+-.*D62'2K92)+9-_&9@Z&9-)*-)`/+*5
_#()+&"*`+._;\3$+&#(`&#)+._:3$'9*>2(+-)>+.*-)+=+&#)+9-`,)*@+._ab
(accesseu Feb. 2S, 2u12).
Fostei + Fieeman Ltu. website foi SoleNate,
'))23445556=9$)*(=(**@#-6&9@4+-.*D62'2K92)+9-_&9@Z&9-)*-)`/+*5
_#()+&"*`+._c3#?90)>$9"*@#)*`&#)+._:3$'9*>2(+-)>
+.*-)+=+&#)+9-`,)*@+._:: (accesseu Feb. 2S, 2u12).
Fostei + Fieeman Ltu. website foi TieauNate,
'))23445556=9$)*(=(**@#-6&9@4+-.*D62'2K92)+9-_&9@Z&9-)*-)`/+*5
_#()+&"*`+._b]3)(*#.@#)*`&#)+._:3$'9*>2(+-)>
+.*-)+=+&#)+9-`,)*@+._ac (accesseu Feb. 2S, 2u12).
"uuiue foi Ninimum Qualifications anu Tiaining foi a Foiensic Footweai
anuoi Tiie Tieau Examinei," SWuTREAB Publisheu Stanuaiu, 2uu6.
'))23445556$58)(*#.69(84+@#8*$4.9&0@*-)$4$)#-.#(.$420?"+$'*.4]
dZO0#"+=+&#)+9-$Z=+-#"Z]b>:]]a62.= (accesseu Apiil 4, 2u12).
Bilueibianu, Bwane S. WQQR1AGUe REA B,FFAP AY,PAT!A, 2nu eu, Staggs
Publishing Company, Wiluomai, CA, 2uu7.
Laboiatoiy Physical Eviuence Bulletin #12: IUAFAUYGR,QT QW FEQA GTP
R,UA ,BIUAFF,QTF (online). Quality Bocuments Piogiam,
'))23445556-=$)&69(84.95-"9#.4a;4 (accesseu }uly 2u, 2u12).
Lyle, B.P. "Chaptei 14: Impiessions: Shoes, Tiies, Tools, anu Fabiics,"
WQUATF,!F3 G HV,PA WQU 1U,RAUF (Bowuunit). Wiitei's Bigest Books:
Cincinnati, 0B (2uu8), pp. SuS-S1S.
Tiie uuiues Inc. '))2344)+(*80+.*$6&9@4E9@* (accesseu Feb. 2S, 2u12).
G&J-95"*.8@*-)$
The authois wish to thank the following foi theii invaluable contiibutions to
this foiensic guiue:
P5#-* F6 E+".*(?(#-., C#%'.(82 "#.($0&1.&, Foiensic Iuentification Tiaining
anu Consulting Seivices
R#-C# !6 E+-*(, C#%'.(82 6E'28108(& MN, Latent Piint Section, Kansas City
Police Ciime Laboiatoiy

Forensi c Evi dence Admi ssi bi l i ty and
Expert Wi tnesses
Bow oi why some scientific eviuence oi expeit witnesses aie alloweu to be
piesenteu in couit anu some aie not can be confusing to the casual obseivei
oi a laypeison ieauing about a case in the meuia. Bowevei, theie is
significant pieceuent that guiues the way these uecisions aie maue. 0ui
uiscussion heie will biiefly outline the thiee majoi souices that cuiiently
guiue eviuence anu testimony aumissibility.
R'* !"#$ F)#-.#(. f F&+*-)+=+& A/+.*-&* #-. )'*
I(+-&+2"* 9= H*-*(#" G&&*2)#-&*
In 192S, in C%)' FA K.8&'> 6&1&'(
|1j
, the Bistiict of Columbia Couit iejecteu the
scientific valiuity of the lie uetectoi (polygiaph) because the technology uiu
not have significant geneial acceptance at that time. The couit gave a
guiueline foi ueteimining the aumissibility of scientific examinations:
,$(& ?-'. 1 (28'.&8+82 E%8.28E0' #% >8(2#F'%) 2%#(('( &-' 08.' G'&?''. &-'
'OE'%87'.&10 1.> >'7#.(&%1G0' (&1='( 8( >8++82$0& &# >'+8.'A 6#7'?-'%' 8. &-8(
&?808=-& P#.' &-' 'F8>'.&810 +#%2' #+ &-' E%8.28E0' 7$(& G' %'2#=.8P'>4 1.>
?-80' &-' 2#$%&( ?800 =# 1 0#.= ?1) 8. 1>78&&8.= 'OE'%87'.&10 &'(&87#.)
>'>$2'> +%#7 1 ?'00Q%'2#=.8P'> (28'.&8+82 E%8.28E0' #% >8(2#F'%)4 &-' &-8.=
+%#7 ?-82- &-' >'>$2&8#. 8( 71>' 7$(& G' $0==+&+*-)"C *$)#?"+$'*. )9 '#/*
8#+-*. 8*-*(#" #&&*2)#-&* 8. &-' E1%&82$01% +8'0> 8. ?-82- 8& G'0#.=(A
Essentially, to apply the "C%)' Stanuaiu" a couit hau to ueciue if the
pioceuuie, technique oi piinciples in question weie geneially accepteu by a
meaningful piopoition of the ielevant scientific community. This stanuaiu
pievaileu in the feueial couits anu some states foi many yeais.
W*.*(#" U0"*$ 9= A/+.*-&*e U0"* d]:
In 197S, moie than a half-centuiy aftei C%)' was ueciueu, the Feueial Rules
of Eviuence weie auopteu foi litigation in feueial couits. They incluueu iules
on expeit testimony. Theii alteinative to the C%)' Stanuaiu came to be useu
moie bioauly because it uiu not stiictly iequiie geneial acceptance anu was
seen to be moie flexible.



|1j 29S Feu. 1u1S (192S)
The fiist veision of Feueial Rule of Eviuence 7u2 pioviueu that a witness
who is qualifieu as an expeit by knowleuge, skill, expeiience, tiaining, oi
euucation may testify in the foim of an opinion oi otheiwise if:
a. the expeit's scientific, technical, oi othei specializeu knowleuge will help the
tiiei of fact to unueistanu the eviuence oi to ueteimine a fact in issue;
b. the testimony is baseu on sufficient facts oi uata;
c. the testimony is the piouuct of ieliable piinciples anu methous; anu
u. the expeit has ieliably applieu the piinciples anu methous to the facts of the
case.

While the states aie alloweu to auopt theii own iules, most have auopteu oi
mouifieu the Feueial iules, incluuing those coveiing expeit testimony.
In a 199S case, I1$G'%& FA R'%%'00 I#? H-1%712'$&8210(4 M.2A4 the 0niteu
States Supieme Couit helu that the Feueial Rules of Eviuence, anu in
paiticulai Feu. R. Eviu. 7u2, supeiseueu C%)'S( "geneial acceptance" test.
R'* &'()$"* F)#-.#(. f !90() G&&*2)#-&* 9= AD2*()
R*$)+@9-C
In I1$G'%& anu latei cases
|2j
, the Couit explaineu that the feueial stanuaiu
incluues geneial acceptance, but also looks at the science anu its application.
Tiial juuges aie the final aibitei oi "gatekeepei" on aumissibility of eviuence
anu acceptance of a witness as an expeit within theii own couitiooms.
In ueciuing if the science anu the expeit in question shoulu be peimitteu, the
juuge shoulu consiuei:
What is the basic theoiy anu has it been testeu.
Aie theie stanuaius contiolling the technique.
Bas the theoiy oi technique been subjecteu to peei ieview anu publication.
What is the known oi potential eiioi iate.
Is theie geneial acceptance of the theoiy.
Bas the expeit auequately accounteu foi alteinative explanations.
Bas the expeit unjustifiably extiapolateu fiom an accepteu piemise to an
unfounueu conclusion.

The I1$G'%& Couit also obseiveu that conceins ovei shaky eviuence coulu
be hanuleu thiough vigoious cioss-examination, piesentation of contiaiy
eviuence anu caieful instiuction on the buiuen of pioof.



|2j The "Baubeit Tiilogy" of cases is: PGVgAUR Y6 BAUUASS PQ1 IEGUBG!AVR,!GSF, HATAUGS
ASA!RU,! !Q6 Y6 hQ,TAU anu XVBEQ R,UA !Q6 Y6 !GUB,!EGAS.
In many states, scientific expeit testimony is now subject to this I1$G'%&
stanuaiu. But some states still use a mouification of the C%)' stanuaiu.
1'9 &#- $*(/* #$ #- *D2*() =9(*-$+& $&+*-&* 5+)-*$$ #)
&90()K
0vei the yeais, eviuence piesenteu at tiial has giown incieasingly uifficult
foi the aveiage juioi to unueistanu. By calling on an expeit witness who can
uiscuss complex eviuence oi testing in an easy-to-unueistanu mannei, tiial
lawyeis can bettei piesent theii cases anu juiois can be bettei equippeu to
weigh the eviuence. But this biings up auuitional uifficult questions. Bow
uoes the couit uefine whethei a peison is an expeit. What qualifications
must they meet to pioviue theii opinion in a couit of law.
These questions, too, aie auuiesseu in W*.6 U6 A/+.6 d]:. It only allows
expeits "qualifieu . by knowleuge, skill, expeiience, tiaining, oi euucation."
To be consiueieu a tiue expeit in any fielu geneially iequiies a significant
level of tiaining anu expeiience. The vaiious foiensic uisciplines follow
uiffeient tiaining plans, but most incluue in-house tiaining, assessments anu
piactical exams, anu continuing euucation. 0ial piesentation piactice,
incluuing moot couit expeiience (simulateu couitioom pioceeuing), is veiy
helpful in piepaiing examineis foi questioning in a tiial.
Noimally, the inuiviuual that issueu the laboiatoiy iepoit woulu seive as the
expeit at couit. By issuing a iepoit, that inuiviuual takes iesponsibility foi
the analysis. This peison coulu be a supeivisoi oi technical leauei, but
uoesn't necessaiily neeu to be the one who uiu the analysis. The opposition
may also call in expeits to iefute this testimony, anu both witnesses aie
subject to the stanuaiu in use by that couit (C%)'4 I1$G'%&, Feu. R. Eviu 7u2)
iegaiuing theii expeitise.
Each couit can accept any peison as an expeit, anu theie have been
instances wheie inuiviuuals who lack piopei tiaining anu backgiounu have
been ueclaieu expeits. When necessaiy, the opponent can question potential
witnesses in an attempt to show that they uo not have applicable expeitise
anu aie not qualifieu to testify on the topic. The aumissibility uecision is left
to the juuge.
G..+)+9-#" U*$90(&*$
Publications:
Safeistein, Richaiu. !U,B,TGS,FR,!F3 GT ,TRUQPV!R,QT RQ WQUATF,!
F!,AT!A, Peaison Euucation, Inc., 0ppei Sauule Rivei, N} (2uu7).
NcCluie, Baviu. Repoit: Focus uioup on Scientific anu Foiensic Eviuence in
the Couitioom (online), 2uu7,
'))2$3445556-&7($689/42.==+"*$\4-+748(#-)$4::]a[:62.= (accesseu }uly
19, 2u12)
Acknowledgements
The authois wish to thank the following foi theii invaluable contiibutions to
this guiue:
U9?+- 1'+)"*C, "-8'+ I'E$&), Appellate Bivision, Benvei Bistiict Attoiney's
0ffice, Seconu }uuicial Bistiict
P*?(# W+8#(*""+, IB: D'2-.8210 R1.1='%, National Foiensic Science
Technology Centei, Inc.
About Thi s Proj ect
This pioject was uevelopeu anu uesigneu by the National Foiensic Science
Technology Centei (NFSTC) unuei a coopeiative agieement fiom the Buieau
of }ustice Assistance (B}A), awaiu #2uu9-B1-BX-Ku28. Neithei the 0.S.
Bepaitment of }ustice noi any of its components opeiate, contiol, aie
iesponsible foi, oi necessaiily enuoise, the contents heiein.
National Foiensic Science Technology Centei
NFSTC 628'.2' 6'%F8.= ,$(&82'
7881 114th Avenue Noith
Laigo, Floiiua SS77S
(727) S49-6u67
infonfstc.oig