Chapter 7: Channels

Anchor: #i1016972

Section 1: Introduction
Anchor: #i1016977

Open Channel Types

In this chapter, the term open channel includes the total conveyance facility (the floodplain and stream channel ! "his chapter addresses re#uired desi$n criteria, desi$n philosophy, and channel desi$n and analysis procedures! "he various types of open channels include stream channels, roadside channels or ditches, and artificial channels such as irri$ation channels or draina$e ditches! "he hydraulic desi$n process for open channels consists of esta%lishin$ criteria, developin$ and evaluatin$ alternatives, and selectin$ the alternative that %est satisfies the criteria! &lan for capital investment and pro%a%le future costs, includin$ maintenance and flood dama$e to property, traffic service re#uirements, and stream and floodplain environment! 'valuate ris(s )arranted %y flood ha*ard at the site, economics, and current en$ineerin$ practices! +se channel desi$n to determine the channel cross section re#uired to accommodate a $iven dischar$e! "his includes si*in$ outfall channels and various road)ay ditches! ,hannel desi$n involves selection of trial channel characteristics, application of channel analysis methods, and then iteration until the trial characteristics meet the desired criteria! Analy*e the channel to determine the depth and avera$e velocity at )hich the dischar$e flo)s in a channel )ith an esta%lished cross section! +se channel analysis most fre#uently to esta%lish a )ater surface elevation that influences the desi$n or analysis of a hydraulic structure or an ad-acent road)ay profile scheme! Assess the follo)in$ )hen desi$nin$ transportation draina$e systems:

Anchor: #.I/I'01' potential floodin$ caused %y chan$es in )ater surface profiles Anchor: #2+320435 distur%ance of the river system upstream or do)nstream of the hi$h)ay ri$ht6 of6)ay Anchor: #4413'324 chan$es in lateral flo) distri%utions Anchor: #5&5325'3 chan$es in velocity or direction of flo) Anchor: #527'34'. need for conveyance and disposal of e8cess runoff Anchor: #95.14324 need for channel linin$s to prevent erosion!

Anchor: #i10170:6

Methods Used for Depth of Flow Calculations

+se the ;lope ,onveyance 5ethod and ;tandard ;tep <ac()ater 5ethod , descri%ed in this chapter, for calculatin$ depth of flo) for analy*in$ an e8istin$ channel or for desi$nin$ a ne) or improved channel!

Section 2: Strea Channel !lannin" Considerations and Desi"n Criteria

Anchor: #i101706=

#ocation $lternati%e Considerations

"he plannin$ phase for a hi$h)ay section usually involves consideration of a num%er of alternate hi$h)ay locations, )hich often re#uire construction across or alon$ streams and floodplains! >urin$ the plannin$ phase, evaluate the effects that location alternatives )ould have on stream systems! (;ee the &ro-ect >evelopment &rocess 5anual for more details! Include a preliminary hydraulic study of the various alternatives %ecause the type and cost of draina$e facilities re#uired can determine location selection! As pro-ect development proceeds, you may find that locations selected )ithout ade#uate hydraulic consideration to floodplain encroachments and e8tensive channel modifications are unaccepta%le! ,onsider the environmental effects, ris(s, and costs of re#uired draina$e facilities in the final selection of an alternative! Analysis of alternative ali$nments may reveal possi%ilities for reducin$ construction costs, flood dama$e potential, maintenance pro%lems, and adverse environmental impacts! >etailed information and survey data are seldom availa%le for an in6depth hydraulic study durin$ the plannin$ phase? ho)ever, it is possi%le to ascertain %asic re#uirements and conse#uences of a particular location or ali$nment and the relative merits of alternatives! "opo$raphic maps, aerial photo$raphy, stream $a$e data, floodplain delineation maps, and a $eneral (no)led$e of the area often provide the %asis for preliminary evaluations of alternatives! Anchor: #i1017096

!hase !lannin" $ssess ents

,onsider the follo)in$ factors:

Anchor: #2&945'3I )ater #uality standards Anchor: #4.30.950 stream sta%ility Anchor: #.092'.04 heavy de%ris dischar$e Anchor: #9I935403 hi$hly erodi%le %an(s Anchor: #5//43993

fish and )ildlife resources!

Assessments may re#uire the cooperative efforts of Area /ffice desi$ners and >ivision personnel as )ell as others )ith e8perience on similar pro-ects or speciali*ed e8pertise in the particular area! >esi$n all pro-ects to comply )ith 9ederal and ;tate re$ulations! As such, it is necessary to consider the implications of the follo)in$:

Anchor: #31330953 9ederal 'mer$ency 5ana$ement A$ency .ational 9lood Insurance &ro$ram (9'5A .9I& Anchor: #3.252'02 +!;! ,orps of 'n$ineers (+;A,' :0: permit Anchor: #9I/43'92 +!;! 9ish and @ildlife re#uirements Anchor: #/.40119I 'nvironmental &rotection A$ency ('&A .ational &ollutant >ischar$e 'limination ;ystem (.&>'; 5unicipal ;eparate ;torm ;e)er ;ystem permit re#uirements Anchor: #4I2.I2'4 '&A .&>'; permit for industrial activity (construction Anchor: #5&1'.9.9 '&A 'ndan$ered ;pecies Act provisions

7efer to the &ro-ect >evelopment &rocess 5anual for more information on the a%ove re$ulations! Anchor: #i10171=0

&n%iron ental $ssess ents

,onsult the ,hapter A, 'nvironmental in Project Development Process Manual for environmental concerns! (;ee "e8as &ar(s and @ildlife >epartment ("&@> , ,lean @ater Act (,@A , in the 'nvironmental &rocedures in &ro-ect >evelopment &rocess 5anual! ,onsider stream channel modification only after e8aminin$ all other alternatives! 7e$ulatory re#uirements invo(ed %y stream channel modifications can %e su%stantial! ,onsider the +!;! 9ish and @ildlife ;ervice (+;9@; revie) re#uirements )here revie) may result in recommendations to avoid, minimi*e, or compensate for the adverse effects to )ildlife ha%itat! 7efer to ,hapter A, 'nvironmental for more information! It is prudent to plan measures to avoid, minimi*e, or compensate for stream modifications! 1ustify the selection of a stream modification alternative! ,onsult )ith resource a$encies early in desi$n plannin$, and include these consultations in the 'nvironmental Assessment ;tatement ('A; or 'nvironmental Impact ;tatement ('I; )ith supportin$ documentation! (;ee ,hapter A, 'nvironmental, in the Project Development Process Manual for more details! "he 'A should also contain compensation plans for replacin$ any removed ha%itats! Avoid or minimi*e adverse effects, or implement miti$ation plans to the %est of your a%ility )hen transportation pro-ects impact riparian corridors as descri%ed in the 9ish and @ildlife ,oordination Act (9@,A ! (;ee ,hapter A, 'nvironmental, in the Project Development Process Manual for more details! If the department cannot offer miti$ation for riparian

corridor impacts, offer an e8planation as -ustification in the environmental documentation! Anchor: #i101721B

Consultations with 'especti%e $"encies

>urin$ the plannin$ phase, contact 9ederal, ;tate, and local a$encies in re$ard to plans or land uses such as the follo)in$ that could affect the hi$h)ay draina$e desi$n:

Anchor: #.I'13I11 dams and reservoirs Anchor: #43I51990 irri$ation Anchor: #1I&35I45 flood control levees or channel modifications Anchor: #343'1'9I navi$ation Anchor: #044I4104 floodplain mana$ement Anchor: #23I0433' *onin$ Anchor: #.I'0I054 recreational use Anchor: #.3I5023. fish or )ildlife mana$ement!

,onsult the four a$encies havin$ re$ulatory authority over navi$ation and construction activities in )aters of the +nited ;tates and a$encies )ith special e8pertise, such as in the limits and classification of )etlands, for preliminary information that may affect location decisions! "he four a$encies are as follo)s:

Anchor: #0&5I235I +!;! ,oast 2uard (+;,2 , +!;! >epartment of "ransportation Anchor: #4I7'2419 +!;! Army ,orps of 'n$ineers (+;A,' , >epartment of Army Anchor: #35.I44I0 9ederal 3i$h)ay Administration (93@A Anchor: #41932'2I 'nvironmental &rotection A$ency ('&A !

;ee 7eferences for contact information! Anchor: #otherCa$encyCre#uirements

Other $"ency 'e(uire ents

An increasin$ num%er of federal and state permits are re#uired for construction activities that may involve navi$ation and )ater #uality! &ro$ram application for permits and approvals %y 9ederal and ;tate a$encies havin$ reulatory authority over streams early in the pro-ect development process! ;ee ,hapter 2, ;ection 2, 9ederal 4a)s, 7e$ulations, and A$encies 2overnin$ 3ydraulic >esi$n! Anchor: #i1017A0A

Strea

Channel Criteria

;tream channel criteria include the follo)in$:

Anchor: #0/&35902 'valuate the hydraulic effects of floodplain encroachments for the pea( dischar$es of the desi$n A'& and the 1D A'& on any ma-or hi$h)ay facility! Anchor: #+99..54' Avoid relocation or reali$nment of a stream channel )herever practica%le! Anchor: #5"325'49 5atch the cross6sectional shape, plan6vie), rou$hness, sediment transport, and slope to the ori$inal conditions insofar as practica%le! Anchor: #54190..9 Include some means of ener$y dissipation )hen velocities throu$h the structure are e8cessive or )hen the ori$inal conditions cannot %e duplicated! Anchor: #.5E0.031 &rovide stream %an( sta%ili*ation, )hen appropriate, to counteract any stream distur%ance such as encroachment! ;ta%ili*e %oth upstream and do)nstream %an(s, as )ell as the local site! 7efer to F;tream ;ta%ility at 3i$h)ay <rid$es,G 93@A6I&690601: for $uidance! Anchor: #45090155 &rovide a sufficient top )idth )ith access for maintenance e#uipment for features such as di(es and levees associated )ith natural channel modifications! &rovide turnaround points throu$hout and at the end of these features!

Section ): 'oadside Channel Desi"n

Anchor: #i1017:06

'oadside Draina"e Channels

Accordin$ to the AA;3"/ 7oadside >esi$n 2uide, roadside draina$e channel is an open channel usually parallelin$ the hi$h)ay em%an(ment and )ithin limis of the 7/@! "he primary function of a draina$e channel is to collect surface runoff from the road)ay and areas that drain to the 7/@ and to convey the accumulated runoff to accepta%le outlet points! >raina$e channels must desi$ned to carry the desi$n runoff and to accommodate e8ecessive storm )ater )ith minimal road)ay floodin$ or dama$e! 9or details of road)ay safety desi$n )hich $overns ditch shape desi$n, see the 7oad)ay >esi$n 5anual, ,hapter 2, ;ection 6, ;lopes and >itches, and 5edian >esi$n, and ,hapter 2, ;ection 7, ;ide >itches! @here the 7oad)ay >esi$n 5anual re#uirements canHt %e met, the channel )ill have to %e enclosed in a pipe or %o8! ;ee ,hapter 10, ;torm >rains! Anchor: #i1017:61

Channel #inin"s
,hannel linin$ may %e desira%le or necessary to minimi*e maintenance, resist the erosive forces of flo)in$ )ater, improve hydraulic efficiency, andIor limit the channel si*e for ri$ht6of6)ay or safety considerations! "he considerations of flo) volumes, topo$raphy, and soil conditions may dictate the channel linin$ material to %e used! @herever possi%le, hi$h)ay draina$e channel desi$n should ma(e use of native, natural materials such as $rass, crushed roc(, and earth! /ther types of materials for reasons of hydraulics, economics, safety, aesthetics, and environment may %e considered! "he follo)in$ section contains a short discussion on channel linin$s! 9or comprehensive descriptions, advanta$es, and disadvanta$es of different types of channel linin$s, refer to the 93@A 3ydraulic 'n$ineerin$ ,ircular .o! 1B ( 3',61B ! Anchor: #i1017:9A

'i"id %ersus Fle*i+le #inin"

'n$ineers may desi$n roadside channels )ith ri$id or fle8i%le linin$s! 9le8i%le linin$s in channels conform %etter to a chan$in$ channel shape than ri$id linin$s! 3o)ever, a ri$id linin$ may resist an erosive force of hi$h ma$nitude %etter than a fle8i%le one! "he follo)in$ types of ri$id linin$s are common:

Anchor: #0&9.3330 cast6in6place concrete Anchor: #0;.512'5 soil cement Anchor: #402I'.'' fa%ric form )or( systems for concrete Anchor: #399I5200 $routed riprap!

7i$id channel linin$s have the follo)in$ disadvanta$es )hen compared to natural or earth6lined channels:

Anchor: #'/0'13.1 Initial construction cost of ri$id linin$s is usually $reater than the cost of fle8i%le linin$s! Anchor: #351.3.3I 5aintenance costs may also %e hi$h %ecause ri$id linin$s are suscepti%le to dama$e %y undercuttin$, hydrostatic uplift, and erosion alon$ the lon$itudinal interface %et)een the linin$ and the unlined section! Anchor: #;2.29I03 Inhi%ition of natural infiltration in locations )here infiltration is desira%le or permissi%le! Anchor: #5'051.'3 ;mooth linin$s usually cause hi$h flo) velocities )ith scour occurrin$ at the terminus of the sections unless controlled )ith riprap or other ener$y dissipatin$ devices Anchor: #'.0I91'' ,ontaminants may %e transported to the receivin$ )aters in areas )here )ater #uality considerations are of ma-or concern! A ve$etative or fle8i%le type of

linin$ may filter the contaminants from the runoff! &ermanent fle8i%le linin$s include the follo)in$:

Anchor: #&I429112 roc( riprap Anchor: #/1.29I32 )ire enclosed riprap ($a%ions Anchor: #2.492939 ve$etative linin$ Anchor: #2553299. $eote8tile fa%rics!

9le8i%le linin$s $enerally have the follo)in$ advanta$es:

Anchor: #2IE15204 less costly to construct Anchor: #..1.'.93 have self6healin$ #ualities that reduce maintenance costs Anchor: #2E1''511 permit infiltration and e8filtration Anchor: #'7.'4'1I present a more natural appearance and safer roadsides!

Jarious species of $rass may %e used as permanent channel linin$ if flo) depths, velocities, and soil types are )ithin accepta%le tolerances for ve$etative linin$! "he turf may %e esta%lished %y soddin$ or seedin$! ;od is usually more e8pensive than seedin$, %ut it has the advanta$e of providin$ immediate protection! ;ome type of temporary protective coverin$ is often re#uired for seed and topsoil until ve$etation %ecomes esta%lished! "he follo)in$ are classified as temporary fle8i%le linin$s:

Anchor: #00.I4450 $eote8tile fa%rics Anchor: #I502.931 stra) )ith net Anchor: #..04295I curled )ood mat Anchor: #+050'193 -ute, paper, or synthetic net Anchor: #'03'''52 synthetic mat Anchor: #11.25029 fi%er$lass rovin$!

"emporary channel linin$ and protective coverin$ may consist of -ute mattin$, e8celsior mats, or fi%er$lass rovin$! ;tra) or )ood6chip mulch tac(ed )ith asphalt is usually not )ell suited for channel invert linin$ %ut may %e used for side slopes! 2eote8tile materials, (no)n as soil sta%ili*ation mats, may %e used for protective linin$s in ditches and on side slopes! "hese materials are not %iode$rada%le and serve as permanent soil reinforcement )hile enhancin$ the esta%lishment of ve$etation! Anchor: #i10176B0

Channel #inin" Desi"n !rocedure

+se the follo)in$ desi$n procedure for roadside channels! 'ven thou$h each pro-ect is uni#ue, these si8 %asic desi$n steps normally apply:

Anchor: #'1II592. 1! 'sta%lish a roadside plan! ,ollect availa%le site data: Anchor: #.9254.I3
o o o

/%tain or prepare e8istin$ and proposed planIprofile layouts includin$ hi$h)ay, culverts, %rid$es, etc! Anchor: #9/.'433' >etermine and plot on the plan the locations of natural %asin divides and roadside channel outlets! Anchor: #0+5.'95. 4ay out the proposed roadside channels to minimi*e diversion flo) len$ths!

Anchor: #70033230 2! 'sta%lish cross section $eometry: Identify features that may restrict cross section desi$n includin$ ri$ht6of6)ay limits, trees or environmentally sensitive areas, utilities, and e8istin$ draina$e facilities! &rovide channel depth ade#uate to drain the su%%ase and minimi*e free*e6tha) effects! ,hoose channel side slopes %ased on the follo)in$ $eometric desi$n criteria: safety, economics, soil, aesthetics, and access! 'sta%lish the %ottom )idth of trape*oidal channel! Anchor: #.40'330I A! >etermine initial channel $rades! &lot initial $rades on plan6profile layout (slopes in roadside ditch in cuts are usually controlled %y hi$h)ay $rades %y esta%lishin$ a minimum $rade to minimi*e pondin$ and sediment accumulation, considerin$ the influence of type of linin$ on $rade, and )here possi%le, avoidin$ features that may influence or restrict $rade, such as utility locations! Anchor: #9329.'1' :! ,hec( flo) capacities, and ad-ust as necessary! ,ompute the desi$n dischar$e at the do)nstream end of a channel se$ment (see ,hapter B ! ;et preliminary values of channel si*e, rou$hness, and slope! >etermine the ma8imum allo)a%le depth of channel includin$ free%oard! ,hec( the flo) capacity usin$ 5annin$Hs '#uation for +niform 9lo) and sin$le6section analysis (see '#uation 761 and ,hapter 6 ! If the capacity is inade#uate, possi%le ad-ustments are as follo)s: Anchor: #/34..I'2
o o o o o o o

increase %ottom )idth Anchor: #/59113I0 ma(e channel side slopes flatter Anchor: #&21992.' ma(e channel slope steeper Anchor: #&050423I provide smoother channel linin$ Anchor: #.2922394 install drop inlets and a parallel storm drain pipe %eneath the channel to supplement channel capacity Anchor: #32114.92 provide smooth transitions at chan$es in channel cross sections Anchor: #0E..31'0 provide e8tra channel stora$e )here needed to replace floodplain stora$e or to reduce pea( dischar$e

Anchor: #.00I0.19 '#uation 761! )here: Anchor: #754900I9

o o o o

Q K dischar$e (cfs or mAIs Anchor: #39E49231 A K cross6sectional area of flo) (s#! ft! or m2 Anchor: #.0133'20 R K hydraulic radius (ft! or m Anchor: #I40.3'49 L K conversion factor? 1!:=6 for 'n$lish units, and 1!0 for metric

Anchor: #9.513419 B! >etermine channel linin$ or protection needed! ,alculate uniform flo) depth (ym in ft! or m at desi$n dischar$e usin$ the ;lope ,onveyance 5ethod! ,ompute ma8imum shear stress at normal depth (see '#uation 762 and '#uation 76A ! ;elect a linin$ and determine the permissi%le shear stress (in l%s!Is#!ft! or .Im2 usin$ the ta%les titled 7etardation ,lass for 4inin$ 5aterials and &ermissi%le ;hear ;tresses for Jarious 4inin$s! If d M p, then the linin$ is accepta%le! /ther)ise, consider the follo)in$ options: choose a more resistant linin$, use concrete or $a%ions or other more ri$id linin$ as full linin$ or composite, decrease channel slope, decrease slope in com%ination )ith drop structures, or increase channel )idth or flatten side slopes! Anchor: #.I20'1.9 6! Analy*e outlet points and do)nstream effects! Identify any adverse impacts to do)nstream properties that may result from one of the follo)in$ at the channel outlet: increase or decrease in dischar$e, increase in velocity of flo), confinement of sheet flo), chan$e in outlet )ater #uality, or diversion of flo) from another )atershed! 5iti$ate any adverse impacts identified in the previous step! &ossi%ilities include enlar$in$ the outlet channel or installin$ control structures to provide detention of increased runoff in channel, installin$ velocity control structures, increasin$ capacity or improvin$ the linin$ of the do)nstream channel, installin$ sedimentationIinfiltration %asins, installin$ sophisticated )eirs or other outlet devices to redistri%ute concentrated channel flo), and eliminatin$ diversions that result in do)nstream dama$e and that cannot %e miti$ated in a less e8pensive fashion!

Anchor: #I/495329 '#uation 762!('n$lish

)here:

Anchor: #'0553'33 Nd K ma8imum shear stress at normal depth (l%!Is#!ft! Anchor: #.5.3'144 7 K hydraulic radius (ft! at ym Anchor: #2172'910 ; K channel slope (ft!Ift!

Anchor: #/32555'' '#uation 76A!(5etric )here:

Anchor: #4;1I.24I td K ma8imum shear stress at normal depth (.Im2 Anchor: #091404.I R K hydraulic radius (m Anchor: #./+1921. S K channel slope (mIm Anchor: #i100610A7etardation ,lass for 4inin$ 5aterials

'etardance Class

Co%er

Condition '8cellent stand, tall (avera$e A0 in! or 760 mm '8cellent stand, tall (avera$e A6 in! or 91B mm Jery dense $ro)th, uncut 2ood stand, tall (avera$e 12 in! or A0B mm

@eepin$ 4ove$rass

Oello) <luestem Ischaemum

<

0ud*u

<ermuda $rass .ative $rass mi8ture

little %luestem, %luestem, %lue 2ood stand, unmo)ed $amma, other short and lon$ stem med)est $rasses @eepin$ love$rass 2ood ;tand, tall (avera$e 2: in! or 610

7etardance ,lass ' Je$etation (;ee the F7etardation ,lass for 4inin$ 5aterialsG 0!AB ta%le a%ove @oven &aper 1ute .et ;in$le 9i%er$lass >ou%le 9i%er$lass ;tra) @I.et ,urled @ood 5at ;ynthetic 5at 2ravel, >B0 K 1 in! or 2B mm 2ravel, >B0 K 2 in! or B0 mm 7oc(, >B0 K 6 in! or 1B0 mm 7oc(, >B0 K 12 in! or A00 mm 66in! or B06mm 2a%ions :6in! or 1006mm 2eo)e% ;oil ,ement (=D cement >ycel )Iout 2rass &etrafle8 )Iout 2rass 0!1B 0!:B 0!60 0!=B 1!:B 1!BB 2!00 0!:0 0!=0 2!B0 B!00 AB!00 10!00 P:B P7 PA2

17

7 22 29 :1 69 7: 96 19 A= 120 2A9 167B :79 P21B: PAAB P1BA2

Armorfle8 )Iout 2rass 'ri(amat )IA6in or 7B6mm Asphalt 'ri(amat )I16in! or 2B mm Asphalt Armorfle8 ,lass A0 )ith lon$itudinal and lateral ca%les, no $rass >ycel 100, lon$itudinal ca%les, cells filled )ith mortar ,oncrete construction %loc(s, $ranular filter underlayer @ed$e6shaped %loc(s )ith draina$e slot

12620 1A616 MB

B7:69B7 6226766 M2A9

PA:

P162=

M12

MB7:

P20

P9B7

P2B

P1197

Anchor: #i1017=::

Trial 'uns
"o optimi*e the roadside channel system desi$n, ma(e several trial runs %efore a final desi$n is achieved! 7efer to 3',61B for more information on channel desi$n techni#ues and considerations!

Section ,: Strea
Anchor: #i1017=B9

Sta+ility Issues

Strea

-eo orpholo"y

&lannin$ and location en$ineers should %e conscious of fluvial $eomorpholo$y and re#uest the services of hydraulics en$ineers to #uantify natural chan$es and chan$es that may occur as a result of stream encroachments, crossin$s, or channel modifications!

9luvial $eomorpholo$y and river mechanics are not ne) su%-ects? ho)ever, methods of #uantifyin$ the interrelation of varia%les are relatively recent developments! "he theories and (no)led$e availa%le today ma(e it possi%le to estimate and predict various reactions to chan$es and, more importantly, to esta%lish thresholds for tolerance to chan$e! ;treams have inherent dynamic #ualities %y )hich chan$es continually occur in the stream position and shape! ,han$es may %e slo) or rapid, %ut all streams are su%-ected to forces that cause chan$es to occur! In these streams, %an(s erode, sediments are deposited, and islands and side channels form and disappear in time! "he %an(s and ad-acent floodplains usually contain a lar$e proportion of sand, even thou$h the surface strata may consist of silt and clay? thus, the %an(s erode and cave )ith relative ease! 5ost alluvial channels e8hi%it a natural insta%ility that results in continuous shiftin$ of the stream throu$h erosion and deposition at %ends, formation and destruction of islands, development of o8%o) la(es, and formation of %raided channel sections! "he de$ree of channel insta%ility varies )ith hydrolo$ic events, %an( and %ed insta%ility, type and e8tent of ve$etation on the %an(s, and floodplain use! "he identification of these characteristics and understandin$ of the relationship of the actions and reactions of forces tendin$ to effect chan$e ena%les the desi$n en$ineer to estimate the rates of chan$e and evaluate potential upstream and do)nstream effects of natural chan$e and proposed local channel modifications! "he potential response of the stream to natural and proposed chan$es may %e #uantified )ith the %asic principles of river mechanics! "he desi$n en$ineer must understand and use these principles to minimi*e the potential effect of these dynamic systems on hi$h)ays and the adverse effects of hi$h)ays on stream systems! .on6alluvial channels have hi$hly developed meanders in solid roc( valleys and may %e de$radin$ their %eds! An e8ample of such a stream is the 2uadalupe 7iver as it passes throu$h the 'd)ards A#uifer rechar$e *one! 5any mountain streams are classified as non6alluvial, and in these cases the desi$n en$ineer may perform a hydraulic analysis utili*in$ ri$id %oundary theory! Anchor: #i101790:

Strea

Classification

9i$ure 761 illustrates the three main natural channel patterns: strai$ht, meanderin$, %raided, and their relationships to each other! 9or a more complete e8planation of this classification system, see 93@AI7>6=0I160 F5ethods for Assessment of ;tream 7elated 3a*ards to 3i$h)ays and <rid$esG, ;hen, et! al, 19=1!

Anchor: #i9990=A$rtop 9i$ure 761! .atural ;tream &atterns Straight Streams. A stream is classified as strai$ht )hen the ratio of the len$th of the thal)e$ (path of deepest flo)? see 9i$ure 762 to the len$th of the valley is less than 1!0B! "his ratio is (no)n as the sinuosity of the stream! >e$rees of sinuosity are illustrated in 9i$ure 76A!

Anchor: #i999097$rtop 9i$ure 762! "hal)e$ 4ocation in &lan Jie) and ,ross ;ection

Anchor: #i99910:$rtop 9i$ure 76A! Jarious >e$rees of ;inuosity ;trai$ht channels are sinuous to the e8tent that the thal)e$ usually oscillates transversely )ithin the lo) flo) channel, and the current is deflected from one side to the other! "he current oscillation usually results in the formation of pools on the outside of %ends )hile lateral %ars, resultin$ from deposition, form on the inside of the %ends as sho)n in 9i$ure 761, dia$rams 2 and A%! ;trai$ht reaches of alluvial channels may %e only a temporary condition! Aerial photo$raphy and topo$raphic maps may reveal former locations of the channel and potential directions of further movement! Braided Streams. <raidin$ is caused %y %an( cavin$ and %y lar$e #uantities of sediment load that the stream is una%le to transport (see 9i$ure 76: ! >eposition occurs )hen the supply of sediment e8ceeds the streamHs transport capacity! As the stream%ed a$$rades from deposition, the do)nstream channel reach develops a steeper slope, resultin$ in increased velocities! 5ultiple channels develop on the milder upstream slope as additional sediment is deposited )ithin the main channel!

Anchor: #i999117$rtop 9i$ure 76:! &lan Jie) and ,ross ;ection of a <raided ;tream

"he interlaced channels cause the overall channel system to )iden, resultin$ in additional %an( erosion! "he eroded material may %e deposited )ithin the channel to form %ars that may %ecome sta%ili*ed islands! At flood sta$e, the flo) may inundate most of the %ars and islands, resultin$ in the complete destruction of some and chan$in$ the location of others! A %raided stream is $enerally unpredicta%le and difficult to sta%ili*e %ecause it chan$es ali$nment rapidly, is su%-ect to de$radation and a$$radation, and is very )ide and shallo) even at flood sta$e! Meandering Streams. A meanderin$ stream consists of alternatin$ ;6shaped %ends (see 9i$ure 76B ! In alluvial streams, the channel is su%-ect to %oth lateral and lon$itudinal movement throu$h the formation and destruction of %ends! <ends are formed %y the process of erosion and slou$hin$ of the %an(s on the outside of %ends and %y the correspondin$ deposition of %ed load on the inside of %ends to form point %ars! "he point %ar constricts the %end and causes erosion in the %end to continue, accountin$ for the lateral and lon$itudinal mi$ration of the meanderin$ stream (9i$ure 76B !

Anchor: #i9991AA$rtop 9i$ure 76B! &lan Jie) and ,ross ;ection of a 5eanderin$ ;tream As a meanderin$ stream moves alon$ the path of least resistance, the %ends move at une#ual rates %ecause of differences in the erodi%ilty of the %an(s and floodplain! <ends are ultimately cut off, resultin$ in o8%o) la(es (see %elo) !

Anchor: #i9991:1$rtop 9i$ure 766! 5i$ration 4eadin$ to 9ormation of /8%o) 4a(e After a cutoff is formed, the stream $radient is steeper, the stream tends to ad-ust itself upstream and do)nstream, and a ne) %end may develop! ,ompare aerial photo$raphs ta(en over a period of years to estimate the rate and direction of the meander movement! 4ocal history may also help to #uantify the rate of movement! Anchor: #i101=021

Modification to Meanderin"
5odification of an alluvial channel from its natural meanderin$ tendency into a strai$ht ali$nment usually re#uires confinement )ithin armored %an(s %ecause the channel may %e very unsta%le! ;trai$htenin$ meanderin$ channels can result in steeper $radients, de$radation, and %an( cavin$ upstream as the stream attempts to reesta%lish e#uili%rium! "he eroded material )ill %e deposited do)nstream, resultin$ in reduced stream slopes, reduced sediment transport capacity, and possi%le %raidin$! @hen a channel is strai$htened )ithout armor %an(s, the current )ill tend to oscillate transversely and initiate the formation of %ends! 'ventually, even protected strai$ht channel reaches may %e destroyed as a result of the natural mi$ration of meanders upstream of the modified channel! Anchor: #i101=0A1

-raded Strea

and !oised Strea

Modification

2raded streams and poised streams are dynamically %alanced, and any chan$e alterin$ that condition may lead to action %y the stream to reesta%lish the %alance! 9or e8ample, if the channel $radient is increased, as occurs )ith a cutoff, the sediment transport capacity of the flo) is increased and additional scourin$ results, there%y reducin$ the slope! "he transport capacity of the do)nstream reach has not %een altered? therefore, the additional sediment load carried do)nstream is deposited as a result of upstream scour! As the a$$radation pro$resses, the stream slope %elo) the deposition is increased, and the transport capacity is ad-usted to the e8tent re#uired to carry the additional material throu$h the entire reach! "his process continues until a

ne) %alance is achieved, and the effect could e8tend a considera%le distance upstream and do)nstream of the cutoff! Anchor: #i101=0:1

Modification -uidelines
It may %e necessary to modify a stream in order to ma(e it more compati%le )ith the hi$h)ay facility and the physical constraints imposed %y local terrain or land use! "he modifications may involve chan$es in ali$nment or conveyance! ,han$es may %e necessary to accommodate the hi$h)ay re#uirements, %ut they must %e evaluated to assess short6term and lon$6term effects on the stream system! <ac($round data on the e8istin$ stream should %e availa%le from previously completed plannin$ and location studies, and a preliminary hi$h)ay desi$n should %e availa%le in sufficient detail to indicate the e8tent of re#uired channel modifications! ,ertain types of streams may have a very )ide threshold of tolerance to chan$es in ali$nment, $rade, and cross6section! In contrast, small chan$es can cause si$nificant impacts on sensitive )ater)ays! An analysis of the tolerance to chan$e may reveal that necessary modifications )ill not have detrimental results! If you reco$ni*e detrimental effects, develop plans to miti$ate the effects to )ithin tolera%le limits! Oou can enhance certain aspects of an e8istin$ stream system, often to the economic %enefit of the hi$h)ay! "he follo)in$ are e8amples of )ays to enhance stream systems:

Anchor: #+5105123 ,ontrol active upstream headcuttin$ (de$radation due to a%rupt chan$es in %ed elevation )ith culverts or chec( dams so that many hectares of land alon$ the stream %an(s )ill not %e lost and the hi$h)ay facility )ill %e protected from the headcuttin$! Anchor: #542.2I.I ,oordinate and cooperate )ith fish and )ildlife a$ency personnel, adapt or modify sta%ili*ation measures necessary to protect the hi$h)ay )hile improvin$ a#uatic ha%itat!

Anchor: #i101=076

'eali"n ent &%aluation !rocedure

"he reali$nment of natural streams may disrupt the %alance of the natural system! @hen evaluatin$ stream modifications, use the follo)in$ procedure: Anchor: #5024549. 1! 'sta%lish slope, section, meander pattern and sta$e6dischar$e relationship for present re$ion! Anchor: #/03525.I 2! >etermine thresholds for chan$es in the various re$ime parameters! Anchor: #3'4I1'45 A! >uplicate the e8istin$ re$ime, )here possi%le, %ut (eep )ithin the esta%lished tolerances for chan$e, )here duplication is not practical or possi%le!

;tream reali$nment may occasionally decrease channel slope? more often, the modification )ill increase the channel $radient! A locali*ed increase in channel slope may introduce channel responses that are reflected for considera%le distances upstream and do)nstream of the pro-ect! Anchor: #i101=10=

'esponse !ossi+ilities and Solutions

Increased Slope! "he follo)in$ are possi%le responses to increased slope:

Anchor: #4043I424 "he stream response may %e in the form of a re$ime chan$e from a meanderin$ to a %raided channel, or sediment transport throu$h the steepened reach may %e increased enou$h to cause de$radation upstream of the reali$nment and a$$radation do)nstream! Anchor: #42531412 <an(s may %ecome unsta%le and re#uire structural sta%ili*ation measures to prevent erosion! Anchor: #1I..5.9' "ri%utary channels enterin$ the steepened main channel may %e su%-ect to headcuttin$, )ith deposition occurrin$ at or do)nstream of the -unction!

"he follo)in$ are possi%le solutions to increased slope:

Anchor: #.&49.I52 Oou may use $rade control structures (such as chec( dams, )eirs, or chutes to minimi*e increases in $radient, provided there is some assurance that the normal meanderin$ tendency of the channel )ill not %ypass these structures in time! Anchor: #/'I.''35 If topo$raphy permits, use meanders to reduce the stream $radient to e8istin$ or threshold levels! "hese meanders may re#uire sta%ili*ation to assure continued effectiveness and sta%ility!

Encroachment. 3i$h)ay locations or modifications in certain terrain conditions may result in an encroachment such as that illustrated in 9i$ure 767!

Anchor: #i999196$rtop 9i$ure 767! 3i$h)ay 'ncroachment on .atural ;treams and ;tream 7elocation

"his type of channel reali$nment may re#uire providin$ a channel of sufficient section to convey %oth normal and flood flo) )ithin the %an(s formed %y the road)ay and the floodplain! "he lo) flo) channel may re#uire reali$nment, in )hich case a pilot channel could appro8imate the e8istin$ channel characteristics of )idth, depth, $radient, and %ottom rou$hness! @here no pilot channel is provided, the avera$e daily flo) is li(ely to spread over a much )ider section, and flo) depth )ill %e reduced in such a )ay that )ater temperature, pool formation, and sediment transport are adversely affected! "hese modifications may result in a %raided channel condition and hamper the re6esta%lishment of the natural a#uatic environment! ,learin$ of ve$etation alon$ stream %an(s may remove root systems that have contri%uted to %an( sta%ility! ,learin$ and $ru%%in$ reduces the %an( and floodplain rou$hness and contri%utes to hi$her velocities and increased erosion potential for those areas! 3o)ever, the limited clearin$ of ad-acent ri$ht6of6)ay involved )ith transverse encroachments or crossin$s does not normally affect the overall conveyance capacity of a channel to any si$nificance! A )ater surface profile analysis is necessary to esta%lish the sta$e6dischar$e relationship for channels )ith varyin$ rou$hness characteristics across the channel! "he ;lope ,onveyance 5ethod of estimatin$ sta$e6dischar$e relationships can %e su%-ect to si$nificant error if the typical section used does not represent the actual conditions upstream and do)nstream of the crossin$ site! "herefore, the ;tandard ;tep <ac()ater 5ethod is recommended! (;ee ;ection 6 for more details on these methods! ,hannel enlar$ement or cleanout throu$h a limited channel reach is sometimes proposed in an effort to provide additional stream capacity! If the sta$e of the stream at the proposed hi$h)ay site is controlled %y do)nstream conditions, there can %e limited or possi%ly no %enefits derived from locali*ed clearin$! Anchor: #i101=1==

&n%iron ental Miti"ation Measures

"he potential environmental impacts and the possi%le need for stream impact miti$ation measures should %e primary considerations! (;ee 'nvironmental Assessments in ;ection 2 for more information! 5iti$ation practices are not $enerally )arranted %ut may %e mandated %y the co$ni*ant re$ulatory a$ency! As such, you may need to coordinate )ith "e8as fish and )ildlife a$encies %efore determinin$ miti$ation! ,onsult the 'nvironmental Affairs >ivision and the >esi$n >ivision, 3ydraulic <ranch, to determine the need for miti$ation )hen you deem stream modifications necessary! ,hannel modifications may %e necessary and also can provide environmental enhancement (see the previous 5odification 2uidelines su%section ! Also, channel modifications that are compati%le )ith the e8istin$ a#uatic environment can sometimes %e constructed at little or no e8tra cost! "here )ill %e less a#uatic ha%itat )here a channel is shortened to accommodate hi$h)ay construction! "his not only decreases the a#uatic %iomass, %ut also reduces

the amount of surface )ater availa%le for recreation and sport fishin$! 'stimate the si$nificance of this effect %y comparin$ the amount of surface )ater area, riparian and upland )etland area, and stream len$th that )ill %e lost )ith the e8istin$ amount in the $eo$raphic area! If there )ill %e a loss, particularly of )etlands, resource and re$ulatory a$encies may raise o%-ections in li$ht of the national Fno net lossG policy currently prevailin$! In some instances, such ha%itat loss may %e accepta%le )hen com%ined )ith miti$ation measures, %ut such measures should prevent ha%itat dama$e %eyond the channel chan$e limits! 'nhancement of the channel may %e accomplished durin$ stream reconstruction at little additional cost, and perhaps at less cost )here reconstruction is essential to the needs of the hi$h)ay pro-ect! It may even %e possi%le to reconstruct the surface )ater resource in one of the follo)in$ manners that eliminates an e8istin$ environmental pro%lem:

Anchor: #"20I139. incorporatin$ sinuosity into a strai$ht stream reach Anchor: #4'915255 relocatin$ the channel to avoid contamination from minerals or other pollution sources Anchor: #54049210 ad-ustin$ flo) depth and )idth to %etter utili*e lo) flo)s Anchor: #/195I22I providin$ an irre$ular shaped channel section to encoura$e overhan$in$ %an( Anchor: #220.49.3 improvin$ the riparian ve$etation!

"he most common practices are usin$ a drop6type $rade control structure (chec( dam , maintainin$ the e8istin$ channel slope, and increasin$ the channel chan$e len$th %y constructin$ an artificial meander! ,ulverts can provide another alternative similar to usin$ drop structures! Oou can increase the culvert flo)line slope to accommodate the elevation difference caused %y shortenin$ a channel! "he increased erosion associated )ith steep culverts is locali*ed at the outlet that can %e protected! ;imulate the e8istin$ channel cross section if it is relatively sta%le, has lo) flo) depths and velocities, or has ade#uate minimum flo) re#uirements! >etermine the cross6sectional shape %y hydraulically analy*in$ simple and easy to construct shapes that appro8imate the preferred natural channel $eometry! "he analysis $enerally compares the sta$e6dischar$e, sta$e6velocity, and sta$e6sediment relationships of the natural channel )ith the modified channel! ;tream relocations may temporarily impair )ater #uality! "he pro%lem is primarily sediment6related, e8cept for those rare instances )here adverse minerals or chemicals are e8posed, diverted, or intercepted! @ith a channel relocation, the ne) channel should %e constructed in dry conditions )herever possi%le! 9ollo)in$ completion, the do)nstream end should %e opened first to allo) a portion of the ne) channel to fill as much as possi%le! .e8t, the upstream end should %e opened slo)ly to minimi*e erosion and dama$e to ha%itat miti$ation!

@here the channel relocation interferes )ith the e8istin$ channel, it may %e desira%le to construct roc( and $ravel di(es or to use other filterin$ devices or commercially availa%le di(es to isolate the construction site, there%y limitin$ the amount of sediment enterin$ the )ater! Anchor: #i101=272

Counter easures
5any streams have a stron$ propensity to meander! "he sinuosity of the main channel is a $eneral characteristic of a stream and can vary )ith the dischar$e and the type of soil that the stream passes throu$h! "he erosive force of the stream )ater forms meanders as it undercuts the main channel %an(! "he %an( support is lost and material caves into the )ater to %e deposited do)nstream! As the erosion on the outer %end of the meander mi$rates in a do)nstream direction, material from upstream deposits on the inside of the %end! "his pro$ression of stream meanderin$ can have serious effects on hi$h)ay crossin$s! "his mi$ration often threatens approach road)ay em%an(ment and %rid$e headers such as sho)n in 9i$ure 76=!

Anchor: #i9992A:$rtop 9i$ure 76=! 5eanderin$ ;tream "hreatenin$ <rid$e and Approach 7oad)ay In order to protect the road)ay from the threat of meanders, yet remain synchronous )ith nature, it is important to devise countermeasures that are environmentally sound, naturally actin$, economically via%le, and physically effective! &ossi%le countermeasures include the follo)in$:

Anchor: #99'00009 <rid$e len$thenin$ 66 @ith reference to the e8ample $iven in 9i$ure 76=, len$thenin$ the %rid$e may not al)ays %e cost6effective as a countermeasure to the dama$e potential from the meander! In this e8ample, the natural meanderin$ course of the river threatens %oth the %rid$e and the approach road)ay! Anchor: #+3I14''.

<rid$e relocation Q In e8treme situations, it may %e necessary to relocate the %rid$e! 2enerally, it is $ood practice to locate the %rid$e crossin$ on a relatively strai$ht reach of stream %et)een %ends! Anchor: #59195443 7iver trainin$ or some type of erosion control Q 7iver trainin$ or some type of erosion control may %e more effective and economical! >esi$ners have used several measures and devices successfully in "e8as to counter the effects of serious stream meanderin$! Anchor: #05221452 4inear structures 66 @hen it is not practical to locate the %rid$e on a relatively strai$ht reach of stream, countermeasures such as spur or -etty type control structures may %e needed (see 9i$ure 769 ! "hese are sometimes referred to as linear structures, permea%le or impermea%le, pro-ectin$ into the channel from the %an( to alter flo) direction, protect the channel %an(, induce deposition, and reduce flo) velocity alon$ the %an(!

Anchor: #i9992BA$rtop 9i$ure 769! &ermea%le 9ence ;purs as 5eander 5i$ration ,ountermeasures ,ontrol structures may or may not cause the typical cross section of flo) in a meanderin$ stream to %ecome more symmetrical! 9or many locations, countermeasures may not %e re#uired for several years %ecause of the time re#uired for the %end to move to a location )here it %e$ins to threaten the hi$h)ay facility! In other streams, ho)ever, %ends may mi$rate at such a rate that the hi$h)ay is threatened )ithin a fe) years or after a fe) flood events! In such cases, the countermeasure should %e installed durin$ initial construction!

Anchor: #i101=A:1

$ltered Strea

Sinuosity

In some instances, sta%ili*in$ channel %an(s at a hi$h)ay stream crossin$ can cause a chan$e in the channel cross section and may alter the stream sinuosity )indin$ upstream of the sta%ili*ed %an(s! 9i$ure 7610 illustrates meander mi$ration in a natural stream! If sinuosity increases due to artificial stream sta%ili*ation, then meander amplitude may increase! 5eander radii in other parts of the reach may %ecome smaller and deposition may occur %ecause of reduced slopes! "he channel )idth6depth ratio may increase as a result of %an( erosion and deposition! +ltimately, cutoffs can occur!

Anchor: #i999269$rtop 9i$ure 7610! 5eander 5i$ration in a .atural ;tream 7efer to Design of Spur !"pe Stream#an$ Sta#ili%ation Structures, 93@AI7>6 =:I101 and Stream Sta#ilit" at &igh'a" Structures, 3',620, for further desi$n considerations, $uidelines, and procedures for the various types of stream sta%ili*ation and meander countermeasures used and recommended %y the department! Anchor: #i101=A70

Sta+ili.ation and /an0 !rotection

3i$h)ay em%an(ments constructed )ithin a floodplain may re#uire sta%ili*ation to resist erosion durin$ flood events! Oou may desi$n and construct em%an(ment sta%ili*ation )ith the initial road)ay pro-ect )here the need is o%vious or the ris( of dama$e is hi$h! In other locations the follo)in$ factors may )arrant that installation of em%an(ment sta%ili*ation to %e delayed until a pro%lem actually develops as follo)s:

Anchor: #I0125241 economic considerations Anchor: #33E2915' availa%ility of materials Anchor: #9&.9I551 pro%a%ility of dama$e!

3i$h)ay channel sta%ili*ation measures are usually local in nature! 'n$ineers desi$n them primarily to protect the hi$h)ay facility from attac( %y a shiftin$ channel or )here the floodplain ad-acent to the facility is hi$hly erodi%le! If a hi$h)ay location ad-acent to a stream cannot %e avoided, you should evaluate protective measures to determine the measure %est suited to the situation! "hese alternatives may include channel chan$e, road)ay em%an(ment protection, stream %an( sta%ili*ation, and stream6trainin$ )or(s! ,hannel sta%ili*ation should %e considered only )hen it is economically -ustified and one or more of the follo)in$ %asic purposes )ill %e accomplished:

Anchor: #3.I20I11 prevent loss or dama$e of the hi$h)ay facility and associated improvement Anchor: #0224944' reduce maintenance re#uirements Anchor: #711'..55 achieve secondary %enefits such as %eautification, recreation, and the preservation or esta%lishment of fish and )ildlife ha%itat!

;ta%ili*ation measures at the hi$h)ay site may not %e successful if the section is located )ithin lon$ reaches of unsta%le channel! 4ocal sta%ili*ation often results in hi$h maintenance costs and repetitive reconstruction! A stream may respond to local sta%ili*ation %y chan$in$ flo) re$ime or attac(in$ the unprotected %ed or opposite %an(! "he potential for these occurrences should %e considered! 3o)ever, if %an( erosion occurs only at isolated locations, sta%ili*ation measures at these locations are pro%a%ly an economical solution even thou$h a period of repetitive maintenance may follo)! Anchor: #i101=:A0

'e%et ents
2enerally, revetments are located on the outside %an( of %ends )here %an( recession or erosion is most active as a result of impin$in$ flo) (see 9i$ure 7611 ! "hey may %e re#uired else)here to protect an em%an(ment from )ave )ash or flood attac(!

Anchor: #i999A0A$rtop 9i$ure 7611! 2a%ions +sed as 7evetment "he se$ment of revetment placed a%ove the annual flood elevation may differ in desi$n from the se$ment located %elo) that elevation due to the conditions affectin$ construction, the types of materials availa%le, and the differences in the duration and intensity of attac(! "he hi$her se$ment is termed upper %an( protection, and the lo)er se$ment is called su%a#ueous protection! <oth are re#uired to prevent %an( recession, and the upper %an( protection may %e e8tended to a sufficient hei$ht to protect a$ainst )ave action! 9or smaller streams and rivers, the upper and su%a#ueous protections are usually of the same desi$n and are placed in a sin$le operation! "he %an(s on )hich revetments )ill %e placed should %e $raded to slopes that )ill %e sta%le )hen saturated, and an ade#uate filter system should %e incorporated to prevent loss of %an( material throu$h the protective revetment! "he type of filter system used depends on slope sta%ility, %an( material, type of revetment, and availa%ility of filter materials! 9ilter materials may consist of sand, $ravel, or )oven or non6)oven synthetic filter cloth! .umerous materials have %een used for %an( protection, includin$ dumped roc(, &ortland cement concrete, sac(ed sand6cement, soil cement, $a%ions, and precast %loc(s!

Section 1: Channel $nalysis -uidelines

Anchor: #i101=:=1

Sta"e2Dischar"e 'elationship

A sta$e6dischar$e curve is a $raph of )ater surface elevation versus flo) rate in a channel! A sta$e6dischar$e curve is sho)n in 9i$ure 7612! Oou may compute various depths of the total dischar$e for the stream, normal flo) channel, and floodplain!

Anchor: #i999AB6$rtop 9i$ure 7612! "ypical ;ta$e >ischar$e ,urve (;ee 5annin$Hs '#uation for +niform 9lo) and ;ta$e6>ischar$e >etermination! "he data, plotted in $raphic form (sometimes termed a Fratin$ curveG , $ives you a visual display of the relationship %et)een )ater surface elevations and dischar$es! An accurate sta$e6dischar$e relationship is necessary for channel desi$n to evaluate the interrelationships of flo) characteristics and to esta%lish alternatives for )idth, depth of flo), free%oard, conveyance capacity and type, and re#uired de$ree of sta%ili*ation! "he sta$e6dischar$e relationship also ena%les you to evaluate a ran$e of conditions as opposed to a preselected desi$n flo) rate! '8amine the plot of sta$e6dischar$e carefully for evidence of the Fs)itch%ac(G characteristic descri%ed %elo)! Also, e8amine the plot to determine )hether or not it is realistic! 9or e8ample, a stream servin$ a small )atershed should reflect reasona%le dischar$e rates for apparent hi$h )ater elevations! Anchor: #i101=B2B

Switch+ac0
If you improperly su%divide the cross section, the mathematics of 5annin$Hs '#uation may cause a s)itch%ac(! A s)itch%ac( results )hen the calculated dischar$e decreases )ith an associated increase in elevation or depth (see 5annin$Hs '#uation

for +niform 9lo) in ,hapter 6, '#uation 66A and 9i$ure 761A ! A small increase in depth can result in a small increase in cross6sectional area and lar$e increase in )etted perimeter and a net decrease in the hydraulic radius! "he dischar$e computed usin$ the smaller hydraulic radius and the sli$htly lar$er cross6sectional area is lo)er than the previous dischar$e for )hich the )ater depth )as lo)er! +se more su%divisions )ithin such cross sections in order to avoid the s)itch%ac(!

Anchor: #i999A7=$rtop 9i$ure 761A! ;)itch%ac( in ;ta$e >ischar$e ,urve A s)itch%ac( can occur in any type of conveyance computation! ,omputer lo$ic can %e seriously confused if a s)itch%ac( occurs in any cross section %ein$ used in a pro$ram! 9or this reason, al)ays su%divide the cross section )ith respect to %oth rou$hness and $eometric chan$es! .ote that the actual n6value may %e the same in ad-acent su%sections! 3o)ever, too many su%divisions can result in pro%lems, too! (;ee ,hapter 6 for more information!

Section 3: Channel $nalysis Methods

Anchor: #i101=BB7

Introduction
"he depth and velocity of flo) are necessary for the desi$n and analysis of channel linin$s and hi$h)ay draina$e structures! "he depth and velocity at )hich a $iven dischar$e flo)s in a channel of (no)n $eometry, rou$hness, and slope can %e determined throu$h hydraulic analysis! "he follo)in$ t)o methods are commonly used in the hydraulic analysis of open channels:

Anchor: #4;503I2' ;lope ,onveyance 5ethod Anchor: #I4145350 ;tandard ;tep <ac()ater 5ethod!

2enerally, the ;lope ,onveyance 5ethod re#uires more -ud$ment and assumptions than the ;tandard ;tep 5ethod! In many situations, ho)ever, use of the ;lope ,onveyance 5ethod is -ustified, as in the follo)in$ conditions:

Anchor: #4293.'33 standard road)ay ditches Anchor: #.1'9525I culverts Anchor: #IE522000 storm drain outfalls!

Anchor: #i101=601

Slope Con%eyance Method

"he ;lope ,onveyance 5ethod, or ;lope Area 5ethod, has the advanta$es of %ein$ a relatively simple, usually ine8pensive and e8pedient procedure! 3o)ever, due to the assumptions necessary for its use, its relia%ility is often lo)! "he results are hi$hly sensitive to %oth the lon$itudinal slope and rou$hness coefficients that are su%-ectively assi$ned! "his method is often sufficient for determinin$ tail)ater ("@ depth at non6%rid$e class culvert outlets and storm drain outlets! "he procedure involves an iterative development of calculated dischar$es associated )ith assumed )ater surface elevations in a typical section! "he series of assumed )ater surface elevations and associated dischar$es comprise the sta$e6dischar$e relationship! @hen stream $au$e information e8ists, a measured relationship (usually termed a Fratin$ curveG may %e availa%le! Oou normally apply the ;lope ,onveyance 5ethod to relatively small stream crossin$s or those in )hich no unusual flo) characteristics are anticipated! "he relia%ility of the results depends on accuracy of the supportin$ data, appropriateness of the parameter assi$nments (n6values and lon$itudinal slopes , and your selection of the typical cross section! If the crossin$ is a more important one, or if there are unusual flo) characteristics, use some other procedure such as the ;tandard ;tep <ac()ater 5ethod! A channel cross section and associated rou$hness and slope data considered typical of the stream reach are re#uired for this analysis! A typical section is one that represents the avera$e characteristics of the stream near the point of interest! @hile not a%solutely necessary, this cross section should %e located do)nstream from the proposed draina$e facility site! "he closer to the proposed site a typical cross section is ta(en, the less error in the final )ater surface elevation! Oou should locate a typical cross section for the analysis! If you cannot find such a cross section, then you should use a FcontrolG cross section (also do)nstream ! (0no)n hydraulic conditions, such as sluice $ates or )eirs e8ist in a control cross section! "he depth of flo) in a control cross section is controlled %y a constriction of

the channel, a dammin$ effect across the channel, or possi%ly an area )ith e8treme rou$hness coefficients! "he cross section should %e normal to the direction of stream flo) under flood conditions! After identifyin$ the cross section, apply 5annin$Hs rou$hness coefficients (n6 values ! (;ee '#uation 66A and ,hapter 6 for more information! >ivide the cross section )ith vertical %oundaries at si$nificant chan$es in cross6section shape or at chan$es in ve$etation cover and rou$hness components! (;ee ,hapter 6 for su$$estions on su%dividin$ cross sections! 5annin$Hs '#uation for +niform 9lo) (see ,hapter 6 and '#uation 66A is %ased on the slope of the ener$y $rade line, )hich often corresponds to the avera$e slope of the channel %ed! 3o)ever, some reaches of stream may have an ener$y $radient #uite different from the %ed slope durin$ flood flo)! >etermine the avera$e %ed slope near the site! +sually, the least e8pensive and most e8pedient method of slope6determination is to survey and analy*e the %ed profile for some distance in a stream reach! Alternately, you may use topo$raphic maps, althou$h they are usually less accurate! Anchor: #i101=662

Slope Con%eyance !rocedure

"he calculation of the sta$e6dischar$e relationship should proceed as descri%ed in this section! "he @ater ;urface 'levation ta%les represent the pro$ression of these calculations %ased on the cross section sho)n in 9i$ure 761:! "he result of this procedure is a sta$e6dischar$e curve, as sho)n in 9i$ure 761B! Oou can then use the desi$n dischar$e or any other su%-ect dischar$e as an ar$ument to estimate (usually done %y interpolation an associated )ater surface elevation! Anchor: #42.51425 1! ;elect a trial startin$ depth and apply it to a plot of the cross section! Anchor: #33..5'30 2! ,ompute the area and )etted perimeter )ei$hted n6value (see ,hapter 6 for each su%mer$ed su%section! Anchor: #/10I.310 A! ,ompute the su%section dischar$es )ith 5annin$Hs '#uation! +se the su%section values for rou$hness, area, )etted perimeter, and slope! (;ee '#uation 761 ! "he sum of all of the incremental dischar$es represents the total dischar$e for each assumed )ater surface elevation! (ote. ,ompute the avera$e velocity for the section %y su%stitutin$ the total section area and total dischar$e into the continuity e#uation! Anchor: #0"49'31.

:! '#uation 76:!

Anchor: #92/.5.I'

Anchor: #EI'''9I' B! "a%ulate or plot the )ater surface elevation and resultin$ dischar$e (sta$e versus dischar$e ! Anchor: #01039'2' 6! 7epeat the a%ove steps )ith a ne) channel depth, or add a depth increment to the trial depth! "he choice of elevation increment is some)hat su%-ective! 3o)ever, if the increments are less than a%out 0!2B ft! (0!07B m , considera%le calculation is re#uired! /n the other hand, if the increments are $reater than 1!B ft! (0!B m , the resultin$ sta$e6dischar$e relationship may not %e detailed enou$h for use in desi$n! Anchor: #7.2.2I0' 7! >etermine the depth for a $iven dischar$e %y interpolation of the sta$e versus dischar$e ta%le or plot! "he follo)in$ 8 and y values apply to 9i$ure 761:: Anchor: #i1006A27R and O Jalues for 9i$ure 761: 4 0 2 1= 20 AA AB B= 60 79 7B 72 6B 6B 70 7B 79 5

Anchor: #i999BAA$rtop 9i$ure 761:! ;lope ,onveyance ,ross ;ection Anchor: #i10B=B0:@ater ;urface 'levation of 66 ft! Su+section # Area (ft2 @etted &erimeter (ft 3ydraulic 7adius (ft 0

Su+section C 1A!A:

Su+section ' Full Section 0 1A!A:

1B!12

0!==

n E (cfs Jelocity (fps

0!060

0!0AB 10!:A 0!7=

0!060 10!:A 0!7=

Anchor: #i1006910@ater ;urface 'levation of 79 ft! Su+section # Area (ft2 @etted &erimeter (ft 3ydraulic 7adius (ft n E (cfs Jelocity (fps 92!00 Su+section C 226!00 Su+section ' 1BA!B0 Full Section :71!B

20!7B

2B!67

2=!01

:!:A

=!=1

B!:=

0!060 122!9= 1!A:

0!0AB =1=!AA A!62

0!060 2A6!A: 1!B: 1177!66 2!B0

Anc hor: #i100072=$rtop 9i$ure 761B! ;ta$e >ischar$e ,urve for ;lope ,onveyance Anchor: #i101=7:0

Standard Step /ac0water Method

"he ;tep <ac()ater 5ethod, or ;tandard ;tep 5ethod, uses the ener$y e#uation to FstepG the stream )ater surface alon$ a profile (usually in an upstream direction %ecause most "e8as streams e8hi%it su%critical flo) ! "his method is typically more e8pensive to complete %ut more relia%le than the ;lope6,onveyance 5ethod! "he manual calculation process for the ;tandard ;tep 5ethod is cum%ersome and tedious! @ith accessi%ility to computers and the availa%ility of numerous al$orithms, you can accomplish the usual channel analysis %y ;tandard ;tep usin$ suita%le computer pro$rams! A sta$e6dischar$e relationship can %e derived from the )ater surface profiles for each of several dischar$e rates!

'nsure that the particular application complies )ith the limitations of the pro$ram used! +se the ;tandard ;tep 5ethod for analysis in the follo)in$ instances:

Anchor: #300915.3 results from the ;lope6,onveyance 5ethod may not %e accurate enou$h Anchor: #45I55... the draina$e facilityHs level of importance deserves a more sophisticated channel analysis Anchor: #;95421.4 the channel is hi$hly irre$ular )ith numerous or si$nificant variations of $eometry, rou$hness characteristics, or stream confluences Anchor: #'99II5'9 a controllin$ structure affects %ac()ater!

"his procedure applies to most open channel flo), includin$ streams havin$ an irre$ular channel )ith the cross section consistin$ of a main channel and separate over%an( areas )ith individual n6values! +se this method either for supercritical flo) or for su%critical flo)! Anchor: #i101==12

Standard Step Data 'e(uire ents

At least four cross sections are re#uired to complete this procedure, %ut you often need many more than three cross sections! "he num%er and fre#uency of cross sections re#uired is a direct function of the irre$ularity of the stream reach! 2enerally spea(in$, the more irre$ular the reach, the more cross sections you may re#uire! "he cross sections should represent the reach %et)een them! A system of measurement or stationin$ %et)een cross sections is also re#uired! 'valuate rou$hness characteristics (n6values and associated su%6section %oundaries for all of the cross sections! +nfortunately, the primary )ay to determine if you have sufficient cross sections is to evaluate the results of a first trial! "he selection of cross sections used in this method is critical! As the irre$ularities of a stream vary alon$ a natural stream reach, accommodate the influence of the varyin$ cross6sectional $eometry! Incorporate transitional cross sections into the series of cross sections ma(in$ up the stream reach! @hile there is considera%le fle8i%ility in the procedure concernin$ the computed )ater surface profile, you can use (no)led$e of any controllin$ )ater surface elevations! Anchor: #i101==27

Standard Step !rocedure

"he ;tandard ;tep 5ethod uses the 'ner$y <alance '#uation, '#uation 6611, )hich allo)s the )ater surface elevation at the upstream section (2 to %e found from a (no)n )ater surface elevation at the do)nstream section (1 ! "he follo)in$ procedure assumes that cross sections, stationin$, dischar$es, and n6values have already %een esta%lished! 2enerally, for "e8as, the assumption of su%critical flo) )ill

%e appropriate to start the process! ;u%se#uent calculations )ill chec( this assumption! Anchor: #4/02320I 1! ;elect the dischar$e to %e used! >etermine a startin$ )ater surface elevation! 9or su%critical flo), %e$in at the most do)nstream cross section! +se one of the follo)in$ methods to esta%lish a startin$ )ater surface elevation for the selected dischar$e: a measured elevation, the ;lope6,onveyance 5ethod to determine the sta$e for an appropriate dischar$e, or an e8istin$ (verified ratin$ curve! Anchor: #33&53403 2! 7eferrin$ to 9i$ure 661 and '#uation 6611, consider the do)nstream )ater surface to %e section 1 and calculate the follo)in$ varia%les: Anchor: #2I'.1344
o o o

*1 K flo)line elevation at section 1 Anchor: #471II295 y1 K tail)ater minus flo)line elevation Anchor: #01/'10II S K (inetic ener$y coefficient (9or simple cases or )here conveyance does not vary si$nificantly, it may %e possi%le to i$nore this coefficient!

Anchor: #1+22'4.4 A! 9rom cross section 1, calculate the area, A1! "hen use '#uation 661 to calculate the velocity, v1, for the velocity head at A1! "he ne8t station upstream is usually section 2! Assume a depth y2 at section 2, and use y2 to calculate *2 and A2! ,alculate, also, the velocity head at A2! Anchor: #4&51I011 :! ,alculate the friction slope (sf %et)een the t)o sections usin$ '#uation 76B and '#uation 766:

Anchor: #0&99'.23 '#uation 76B! )here:

Anchor: #9.5.124.

'#uation 766! Anchor: #.1302909 B! ,alculate the friction head losses (hf %et)een the t)o sections usin$

Anchor: #324I239I '#uation 767! )here: Anchor: #.4'9455I

o

4 K >istance in ft! (or m %et)een the t)o sections

Anchor: #'4"4I'I4 6! ,alculate the (inetic ener$y correction coefficients ( 1 and 2 usin$ '#uation 6610! Anchor: #1249I530 7! @here appropriate, calculate e8pansion losses (he usin$ '#uation 76= and contraction losses (hc usin$ '#uation 769 (/ther losses, such as %end losses, are often disre$arded as an unnecessary refinement!

Anchor: #53'54''I '#uation 76=! )here: Anchor: #3700'I09

o o

)e K 0!A for a $entle e8pansion Anchor: #.315021I )e K 0!B for a sudden e8pansion

Anchor: #+4I0.535 '#uation 769! )here: Anchor: #/&415I1'

o o

)c K 0!1 for a $entle contraction Anchor: #I2&30'3. )c K 0!A for a sudden contraction

Anchor: #19I1I1I' =! ,hec( the ener$y e#uation for %alance usin$ '#uation 7610 and '#uation 76 11!

Anchor: #5I4.1I29 '#uation 7610!

Anchor: #.J5I21I1 '#uation 7611! "he follo)in$ considerations apply: Anchor: #440'11.9
o

if 4K7 )ithin a reasona%le tolerance, then the assumed depth at ;ection 1 is o(ay! "his )ill %e the calculated )ater surface depth at ;ection 1? proceed to ;tep (9 Anchor: #.'403503 if 4T7, $o %ac( to ;tep (A usin$ a different assumed depth!

Anchor: #92I1.'.4 9! >etermine the critical depth (dc at the cross section and find the uniform depth (du %y iteration! If, )hen runnin$ a supercritical profile, the results indicate that critical depth is $reater than uniform depth, then it is possi%le the profile at that cross section is supercritical! 9or su%critical flo), the process is similar %ut the calculations must %e$in at the upstream section and proceed do)nstream! Anchor: #1509I.9' 10! Assi$n the calculated depth from ;tep (= as the do)nstream elevation (;ection 1 and the ne8t section upstream as ;ection 2, and repeat ;teps (2 throu$h (10 ! Anchor: #0.00'33' 11! 7epeat these steps until all of the sections alon$ the reach have %een addressed! Anchor: #i101902B

!rofile Con%er"ence

@hen you use the ;tandard ;tep <ac()ater 5ethod and the startin$ )ater surface elevation is un(no)n or indefinite, you can use a computer to calculate several %ac()ater profiles %ased on several ar%itrary startin$ elevations for the same dischar$e! If you plot these profiles ,as sho)n in 9i$ure 7616, they )ill tend to conver$e to a common curve at some point upstream %ecause each successive calculation %rin$s the )ater level nearer the uniform depth profile!

Anchor: #i1000901$rtop 9i$ure 7616! @ater ;urface &rofile ,onver$ence "he purpose of plottin$ the curves and findin$ the conver$ence point is to determine )here the proposed structure site is in reference to the conver$ence point! If the site is in the vicinity or upstream of the conver$ence point, you have started the calculations far enou$h do)nstream to define a proper tail)ater from an un(no)n startin$ elevation! /ther)ise, you may have to %e$in the calculations at a point further do)nstream %y usin$ additional cross sections!