1) Helps in Analysing Information: EIS are flexible tools which offer a wide and thorough access to information, as well

as different means for analysing this information in a wide range of managers decisions. The data provided by EIS are taken from many different sources, such as Transactional rocessing Systems !T S", financial reporting systems, commercial information sources, text files and manual data collection. 2) Improve Information Access : Executive Information Systems improve information access and provide data focused on indicators or dimensions of interest to the executive. #uch of this is traditionally available from a transaction processing system !T S" and typical management information systems !#IS", but not in the meaningful, focused, and customised fashion desired by an executive. 3) EIS Systems Improve Communication: They provide terminal$based access to electronic mail and computer conferences. The executive%s terminal is usually networked to others in the company. &ccess to sources outside the organisation !example the Internet, and so forth" may also be available. 'lassical (SS capabilities allowing the executive to perform random and unstructured analysis of data, or modeling is provided to help solve problems. The computer may be used to perform ad hoc )uerying of corporate databases to help in sophisticated mathematical modeling. The type of analysis differs from manager to manager. Some users merely compute new ratios or extrapolate current trends or learn to do actual programming. 4) Monitor erformance : EIS systems provide managers with access to a predetermined and pre$formatted set of electronic reports. The data used to generate these may be updated hourly, weekly or sometimes less often depending on the nature of the data. !) Empo"er Employees : Its Informational designed to help empower employees but delivering information to large groups. *ere the term EIS relates to the delivery of information to person generally

believed to be computer literate. This might include a +sales EIS,, a system designed to deliver critical information to the sales force. The thing that distinguishes the informational EIS from other types is not -ust that a large group of people access the information that can exist for many types.

The role of the #IS in an organi.ation can be compared to the role of heart in the body. The information is the blood and #IS is the heart. In the body the heart plays the role of supplying pure blood to all the elements of the body including the brain. The heart works faster and supplies more blood when needed. It regulates and controls the incoming impure blood, processes it and sends it to the destination in the )uantity needed. It fulfills the needs of blood supply to human body in normal course and also in crisis. 1) #or Appropriate $ata Collection an% Analysis: The #IS plays exactly the same role in the organi.ation. The system ensures that an appropriate data is collected from the various sources, processed, and sent further to all the needy destinations. The system is expected to fulfill the information needs of an individual, a group of individuals, the management functionaries/ the managers and the top management. 2) Satisfies t&e $iverse 'ee%s: The #IS satisfies the diverse needs through a variety of systems such as 0uery Systems, &nalysis Systems, #odeling Systems and (ecision Support Systems the #IS helps in Strategic lanning, #anagement 'ontrol, 1perational 'ontrol and Transaction rocessing. 3) Caters 'ee%s of all ersons : Every person in the organi.ation is a user of the #IS. The people in the organi.ation operate at all levels in the hierarchy. & typical user is a clerk, an assistant, an officer, an executive or a manager. Each of them has a specific task and a role to play in the management of business. The #IS caters to the needs of all persons a) Support Clerical ersonnel:

The #IS helps the clerical personnel in the transaction processing and answers their )ueries on the data pertaining to the transaction, the status of a particular record and references on a variety of documents. () Helps )unior Management ersonnel: The #IS helps the -unior management personnel by providing the operational data for planning, scheduling and control, and helps them further in decision making at the operations level to correct an out of product a lot easier to use and much preferable to control situation. c) Assist mi%%le management : The #IS helps the middle management in short them planning, target setting and controlling the business functions. It is supported by the use of the management tools of planning and control. The #IS helps the top management in goal setting, strategic planning and evolving the business plans and their implementation.

4) #or Information *eneration: The #IS plays the role of information generation, communication, problem identification and helps in the process of decision making. The #IS, therefore, plays a vital role in the management, administration and operations of an organi.ation. !) +o rovi%es Action ,riente% Information: The #IS offers the methods and facilities to integrate the data and report the same in a proper format. &n executive plays the role of a decision maker. *e is in of responsibility and accountability a position of a planner and a decision maker. *e is responsible for achieving the target and goals of the organi.ation. The #IS provides facilities to analy.e the data and offers the decision support systems to perform the task of execution. The #IS provides an action oriented information. -) #or Systemisation of .usiness ,peration: The #IS calls for a systemi.ation of the business operation for an affective system design. & well designed system with a focus on the manger makes an impact on the managerial

efficiency. The fund of information motivates an enlightened manger to use a variety of tools of the management. It helps him to resort to such exercises as experimentation and modeling. The use of computers enables him to use the tools techni)ues which are impossible to use manually. The ready$made packages make this task simpler. The impact is on the managerial ability to perform. It improves the decision making ability considerably.

rototyping Mo%el

The rototyping Mo%el was developed on the assumption that it is often difficult to know all of your re)uirements at the beginning of a pro-ect. Typically, users know many of the ob-ectives that they wish to address with a system, but they do not know all the nuances of the data, nor do they know the details of the system features and capabilities. The rototyping Mo%el allows for these conditions, and offers a development approach that yields results without first re)uiring all information up$front . rototyping $evelopment Steps: 2hen using the rototyping #odel, the developer builds a simplified version of the proposed system and presents it to the customer for consideration as part of the development process. The customer in turn provides feedback to the developer, who goes back to refine the system re)uirements to incorporate the additional information. 1ften, the prototype code is thrown away and entirely new programs are developed once re)uirements are identified. There are a few different approaches that may be followed when using the rototyping #odel/
1) 'reation of the ma-or user interfaces without any substantive coding in the background in

order to give the users a 3feel3 for what the system will look like,
2) (evelopment of an abbreviated version of the system that performs a limited subset of

functions4

development

of a

paper

system !depicting

proposed

screens,

reports,

relationships etc.", or
3) 5se of an existing system or system components to demonstrate some functions that will be

included in the developed system. rototyping is comprised of the following steps/

a) /e0uirements $efinition1Collection:

The first step of prototyping model is similar to the 'onceptuali.ation phase of the 2aterfall #odel, but not as comprehensive. The information collected is usually limited to a subset of the complete system re)uirements.
() $esign:

1nce the initial layer of re)uirements information is collected, or new information is gathered, it is rapidly integrated into a new or existing design so that it may be folded into the prototype.
c)

rototype Creation1Mo%ification: The information from the design is rapidly rolled into a prototype. This may mean the creation6modification of paper information, new coding, or modifications to existing coding.

%) Assessment:

The prototype is presented to the customer for review. 'omments and suggestions are collected from the customer.
e)

rototype /efinement: Information collected from the customer is digested and the prototype is refined. The developer revises the prototype to make it more effective and efficient.

f)

System Implementation: In most cases, the system is rewritten once re)uirements are understood. Sometimes, the Iterative process eventually produces a working system that can be the cornerstone for the fully functional system.

1b-ectives of (7#S/

1) +o /e%uce $uplication : the ob-ective of (7#S is to reduce this duplicity. 8ecent (7#S will automatically check the duplicate record and give warning to for not recording. 7y solving this problem, we can work on less storage space. 2) +o S&are t&e $ata: To share the data to its users under the controlled environment is the ob-ective of (7#S. 9or example, we all use :oogle (rive. &ctually, it has been renamed of :oogle%s old :oogle (ocs. :oogle docs application is also (7#S. It has been written in ;ava can get power to see shared data. 3) +o .ring Integrity of $ata Integrity of data means to bring the accuracy and consistency. 9or this, (7#S gives power to its user that they can establish the validation controls. 4) +o Secure t&e $ata (ata of any organisation is the worthy asset. It should be protected. 9or security of the data is the responsibility of data administrator. (7#S should adopt advance security checks for re-ection of unauthori.ed access in database. !) +o .ring In%epen%ence in $ata (ata should be independent both physical and logical. In database fields any record should easily add or delete. rogramming language. 1ne can invite other users who have :oogle account. So, only authori.ed user

Three important characteristics of the database approach are !<" insulation of programs and data !program$data and program$operation independence"4 !=" support of multiple user views4 and !>" use of a catalog to store the database description !schema". In this section we specify architecture for database systems, called the three$schema architecture, which was proposed to

help achieve and visuali.e these characteristics. 2e then discuss the concept of data independence.

+&e +&ree2Sc&ema Arc&itecture : The goal of the three$schema architecture, illustrated in 9igure <.<, is to separate the user applications and the physical database. In this architecture, schemas can be defined at the following three levels/

1) Internal Sc&ema : The internal level has an internal schema, which describes the physical storage structure of the database. The internal schema uses a physical data model and describes the complete details of data storage and access paths for the database. 2) Conceptual Sc&ema : The conceptual level has a conceptual schema, which describes the structure of the whole database for a community of users. The conceptual schema hides the details of physical

storage structures and concentrates on describing entities, data types, relationships, user operations, and constraints. & high$level data model or an implementation data model can be used at this level. 3) E3ternal Sc&emas : The external or view level includes a number of external schemas or user views. Each external schema describes the part of the database that a particular user group is interested in and hides the rest of the database from that user group. & high$level data model or an implementation data model can be used at these level external schemas are specified in the same data model that describes the conceptual$level information. Some (7#Ss allow different data models to be used at the conceptual and external levels. ?otice that the three schemas are only descriptions of data4 the only data that actually exists is at the physical level. In a (7#S based on the three$schema architecture, each user group refers only to its own external schema. *ence, the (7#S must transform a re)uest specified on an external schema into a re)uest against the conceptual schema, and then into a re)uest on the internal schema for processing over the stored database. If the re)uest is database retrieval, the data extracted from the stored database must be reformatted to match the users external view. The processes of transforming re)uests and results between levels are called mappings. These mappings may be time$ consuming, so some (7#Ss@especially those that are meant to support small databases@do not support external views. Even in such systems, however, certain amount of mapping is necessary to transform re)uests between the conceptual and internal levels.

/elational Mo%el The principles of the relational model were first outlined by (r. E. 9. 'odd in a ;une <ABC paper called 3& 8elational #odel of (ata for Darge Shared (ata 7anks/% In this paper. (r. 'odd proposed the relational model for database systems. The more popular models used at that time were hierarchical and network, or even simple flat file data structures. 8elational database management systems !8(7#S" soon became very popular, especially for their ease of use and flexibility in structure. In addition, a number of innovative vendors, such as 1racle,

supplemented the 8(7#S Ewith a suite of powerful application development and user products, providing a total solution. A) Concept of /elational Mo%el: The relational model is centered on this idea/ the organi.ation of data into collections of two$ dimensional tables called +relations., 2e can also think of the relational model as a generali.ation of the set data model. 1riginally, the relational data model was developed for databases @ that is, (atabase information stored over a long period of time in a computer system @ and for database management systems, the software that allows people to store, access, and modify this information. (atabases still provide us with important motivation for understanding the relational data model. They are found today not only in their original, large$scale applications such as airline reservation systems or banking system, but in desktop computers handling individual activities such as maintaining expense records, homework grades, and many other uses The relational model uses a collection of tables to represent both data and the relationships among those data. Each table has multiple columns, and each column has a uni)ue name. The data is arranged in a relation which is visually represented in a two dimensional table. The data is inserted into the table in the form of tuples !which are nothing but rows". & tuple is formed by one or more than one attributes, which are used as basic building blocks in the formation of various expressions that are used to derive a meaningful information. There can be any number of tuples in the table, but all the tuple contain fixed and same attributes with varying values. The relational model is implemented in database where a relation is represented by a table, a tuple is represented by a row, an attribute is represented by a column of the table, attribute name is the name of the column such as Fidentifier, Fname, Fcity etc., and attribute value contains the value for column in the row. 'onstraints are applied to the table and form the logical schema. In order to facilitate the selection of a particular row6tuple from the table, the attributes i.e. column names are used, and to expedite the selection of the rows some fields are defined uni)uely to use them as indexes, this helps in searching the re)uired data as fast as possible. &ll the relational algebra operations, such as Select, Intersection, roduct, 5nion, (ifference, ro-ect, ;oin, (ivision, #erge etc. can also be performed on the 8elational (atabase #odel. 1perations on the 8elational (atabase #odel are facilitated with the help of different conditional expressions, various key attributes, pre$defined constraints etc.

$iagrammatic E3planation:

2e shall represent a relation as a table with columns and rows. Each column of the table has a name, or attribute. Each row is called a tuple. 1) $omain: a set of atomic values that an attribute can take 2) Attri(ute: name of a column in a particular table !all data is stored in tables". Each attribute &i must have a domain, dom !&i". 3) /elational Sc&ema: The design of one table, containing the name of the table !i.e. the name of the relation", and the names of all the columns, or attributes. ST5(E?T! ?ame, SI(, &ge, : &" 4) $egree of a /elation: the number of attributes in the relation%s schema. !) +uple, t, of 8! &<, &=, &>, G, &n"/ an 18(E8E( set of values, H v<, v=, v>, G,vnI, where each vi is a value from dom! &i". -) /elation Instance, r! 8"/ a set of tuples4 thus, r! 8" J K t<, t=, t>, G, tmL 'otes: 1) The tuples in an instance of a relation are not considered to be ordered putting the rows in a different se)uence does not change the table. 2) 1nce the schema, 8! &<, &=, &>, G, &n" is defined, the values, vi, in each tuple, t, must be ordered as t J Hv<, v=, v>, G, vnI Example/

3) .) roperties of /elations : roperties of database relations are/ 1) 8elation name is distinct from all other relations 2) Each cell of relation contains exactly one atomic !single" value 3) Each attribute has a distinct name 4) Malues of an attribute are all from the same domain !) 1rder of attributes has no significance -) Each tuple is distinct4 there are no duplicate tuples 4) 1rder of tuples has no significance, theoretically

C) /elational 5eys : There are two kinds of keys in relations. The first are identifying keys/ the primary key is the main concept, while two other keys N super key and candidate key N are related concepts. The second kind is the foreign key. 1) Super 5eys : & super key is a set of attributes whose values can be used to uni)uely identify a tuple within a relation. & relation may have more than one super key, but it always has at least one/ the set of all attributes that make up the relation. 2) Can%i%ate 5eys : & candidate key is a super key that is minimal4 that is, there is no proper subset that is itself a super key. & relation may have more than one candidate key, and the different candidate keys may have a different number of attributes. In other words, you should not interpret %minimal% to mean the super key with the fewest attributes. & candidate key has two properties/

6i) in each tuple of 8, the values of O uni)uely identify that tuple !uni)ueness" 6ii) no proper subset of O has the uni)ueness property !irreducibility". 3) rimary 5ey / The primary key of a relation is a candidate key especially selected to be the key for the relation. In other words, it is a choice, and there can be only one candidate key designated to be the primary key.

$) /elational Mo%el Integrity Constraints : Each relational schema must satisfy the following four types of constraints. 1) $omain Constraints : Each attribute &i must be an atomic value from dom! &i" for that attribute. The attribute, ?ame in the example is a 7&( (ESI:? !because sometimes we may want to search a person by only using their last name. 2) 5ey Constraints : Super key of 8/ & set of attributes, SO, of 8 such that no two tuples in any valid relational instance, r! 8", will have the same value for SO. Therefore, for any two distinct tuples, t < and t
=

in r! 8", t <P SOQ RJ t =PSOQ. Oey of 8/ & minimal super key. That is, a super key, O, of 8

such that the removal of &?S attribute from O will result in a set of attributes that are not a super key. 3) Entity Integrity Constraints : The primary key attribute, O, of any relational schema 8 in a database cannot have null

values in any tuple. In other words, for each table in a (7, there must be a key4 for each key, every row in the table must have non$null values. This is because O is used to identify the individual tuples. #athematically, tP OQ RJ ?5DD for any tuple t T r! 8". 4) /eferential Integrity Constraints : 8eferential integrity constraints are used to specify the relationships between two relations in a database.

$.MS Mo%els: This section deals with the various (7#S models that are most widely used in the field of (atabase #anagement Systems !(7#S". The ma-or classification of the (#7S models is given as follows. 1) 8elational model 2) *ierarchical model 3) ?etwork model 4) 8(7#S model !) (istributed (7#S model -) 1b-ect 1riented (7#S model 6a) /elational Mo%el: & relational model is the oldest of all models in the (7#S. The other name for the relational model is a data model. It is only a theoretical model governing the design of a (7#S program. Mirtually, no (7#S has been constructed using this model though it finds many applications in (7#S techni)ues. In this model, tiles are represented as flat tables with records !rows" containing the same type and number of fields !columns". 8elational (7#S uses a keyword tuple for record. 8elational databases are based on this model and all use the standard )uery language !S0D". 6() Hierarc&ical Mo%el: & hierarchical data model is another type of (7#S in which data are arranged or structured into a hierarchy of one$to$many relationships. The hierarchical data model was the first database system to exist and is based on a hierarchical data storage model. ?ow this techni)ue is no longer practical. The hierarchical data model is essentially an upside$down

tree structured scheme. *igher order pieces of information are linked as shown in 9ig. U.<V, to lower order items in a parent$child relationship. & child can have only one parent. This works well if the reality being modeled is hierarchical, like a parent@child or department$ employee relationship.

6c) 'et"or7 Mo%el: In network database model, data is represented as entities interconnected by a direct link which enables the user to navigate through an information network. The network database model was developed to fill the gap and to overcome the shortcomings of a hierarchical model. & network data model is called by this name as many to many relationships are better expressed. & network database is more complicated to design than a hierarchical one, but it offers more flexibility. In the network and hierarchical data models, records are rigidly linked to each other by record pointers placed inside a record. These types of (7#S are noted for their inflexibility and high level of experience on the part of the programmer and on the database administrator are desired. 1ne disadvantage of the network model is that any user navigating through the data$ base has to use predefined links and thus must be familiar with them. The model must therefore be implementation oriented which makes it difficult to )uery variables.

6%) /elational $.MS 6/$.MS) Mo%el:

9uture database systems are likely to be massively populated, in the order of terabytes. It may be possible to integrate all local databases at once when they number in thousands. #assive databases also challenge the current techni)ues for evaluating, selecting and concatenating operations. The relational data model provides the greatest flexibility of all. Dinks between data are established at users command. ?o artificial pointers are imposed on records. The user is free to mix and match data in rows and columns to suit the needs of the environment. If a relational database is poorly designed, it will be very slow. 7y contrast, if a hierarchical or network database is poorly designed, some of the data may be totally inaccessible. The salient features of the 8(7#S are the following. W & firm theoretical foundation. W #ature technology that is partially standardi.ed. W &bility to work with a declarative language. 6e) $istri(ute% $ata(ase Mo%els: (istribution means that the data are not residents of the same site !processor site", which distinguished it from a single centrali.ed database. In recent years, distributed databases have become an important and emerging area of information processing and it is easy to foresee that its importance will rapidly grow. There are both organi.ational and technological reasons for this trend. (istributed databases eliminate many of the shortcomings of centrali.ed databases and fit more naturally in the centrali.ed structure of many organi.ations. #ain advantages of the distributed systems are as follows. W 1rgani.ation of the distributed databases are easy and economical. W Interconnection of existing databases are also )uite easy. W Incremental growth between centrali.ed and decentrali.ed databases. W 8educed communication overhead between databases. W erformance consideration is good. W #ore reliability and availability of the data. 6I) ,(8ect ,riente% $.MS:

1b-ect oriented databases are based on the ob-ect model. It supports both multi$inheritance and single inheritance, data encapsulation and data hiding on the data models of the ob-ect oriented (7#S. They are used to store complex data such as images, sound and so on. The main advantages of the 1b-ect oriented (7#S models are the following. W 0uick navigation of data structures. W Supports a greater number of data types !like audio and video". W The ability to clearly integrate with at least one language. % W It provides well structured )uery language and )uery processing. W 5ser interface is very easy. W It gives good transaction management and concurrency control on the data. W It helps the user to construct massive database. *owever 11(7#S are relatively new and as things stand today, it is somewhat un$suitable and hence many developers still find it worthwhile to create 8(#S applications and tools.

System $esign : 2hile Systems &nalysis indicates what a system should do to meet information re)uirements, System (esign shows how the system will fulfill this goal. System (esign is re)uired to ensure that the system meets organisational ob-ectives, promotes integration of activities and facilitates control as the emphasis in System (esign is on %accomplishing% and Fdelivering the goods%. The ma-or activities involved in System (esign can be summarised as follows < 1) Specify (ata Element, 8ecords and 9iles 2) Specify Input roforma and (ata reparation. 9ormats. 3) Specify System 1utput.

4) (evelop System6(ata 9low 'hart. !) (evelop 9eedback and 'ontrol #echanism. -) (evelop rogramme Specification. 4) (evelop 1peration Specifications. 9) Identify personnel who will complete these activities. :) lan the 8esources.

1;) Schedule/ Switch$over to new system 5ser Training arallel 1peration System 8eview

it may, incidentally, be mentioned that a good System (esign should possess the six important characteristics of &cceptability, (ecision 9acilitating &bility. Economy, 9lexibility, 8eliability and simplicity.

System analysis describes what a system should do to meet the information needs of end$ users. System design specifies how the system will accomplish this ob-ective. System design consists of both logical design and physical design activities, which both produce system specifications satisfying the system re)uirements developed in the systems analysis stage. Exhibit X.U summari.es various activities undertaken during system design phase.

1) <ogical System $esign= it identities the records and relationships to be handled by the system. it focuses on the logic or the reasoning, behind the system by breaking down the system into sub$systems and each sub$system into smaller sub$systems, until the process cannot be repeated any further. It establishes the relationship among the various sub@systems and the inter$ relationships among variables and sub$systems. Thus, logical design defines the database as seen by end$users and programmers. 2) &ysical System $esign= it addresses the physical aspects of the system / Input and output devices, hardware configurations for the network, memory and storage, physical security, data structure, access methods, accounts organi.ation, indexes, blocking pointers and other attributes of the system. System specifications consists of the following specifications / a) >ser Interface Specifications: 'ontent, format and se)uence of user interface products and methods such as display screens, audio$responses, forms, documents etc. () $ata(ase Specifications: Structure, distribution, access, response maintenance of data etc c) Soft"are Specifications:

Software package, programming specifications of the proposed system, control specifications etc. %) Har%"are an% #acilities Specifications: hysical and performance characteristics of the e)uipment and facilities re)uired by the proposed system. e) erformance Specifications: ;ob descriptions of persons who operate the system f) System $ocumentation Specifications: Specifications for the documentation of system characteristics. operating procedures etc in generally systems design consists of following three activities as shown below /

1) >ser Interface $esign 6>I$): This focuses on designing the interactions between end$users and computer systems. It concentrates on input6output methods and the conversion of data and information between human$readable and machine$readable forms. Therefore 5I( produces detailed specifications for information products such as4 (isplay screens, interactive user6computer dialogues, audio responses, forms. documents and reports 2) $ata $esign:

It focuses on the design of the logical structure databases and files to be used by the proposed information system. (ata design produces detailed description of / a) The entities !people, places, things, events" about which the proposed information system need to maintain information. () The relationships these entities have to each other c) The specific data elements !databases, files, records etc" that need to be maintained for each entity tracked by the information system. %) The integrity rules that govern how each data element is specified and used in the information system. Y 3) rocess $esign: It focuses on the design of the software resources i.e., the programs and procedures needed by the proposed information system. It concentrates on developing detailed specifications for the programme modules that will have to be purchased as software packages or developed by customised programming.